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Harpers’  Popular  Cyclopedia 


of 

UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 

\ 

FROM  THE  ABORIGINAL  PERIOD 

CONTAINING  BRIEF  SKETCHES 

OF 

IMPORTANT  EVENTS  AND  CONSPICUOUS  ACTORS 

% 

,  BY 

BENSON  J.  LOSSING,  LL.D. 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  OVER  ONE  THOUSAND  ENGRAVINGS 

IN  TWO  VOLUMES 

VOL.  I. 

REVISED  AND  ENLARGED  EDITION 


NEW  YORK 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS 

FRANKLIN  SQUARE 

188  9 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1881,  by 
HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Copyright,  1887,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


PREFACE 


This  work  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  a  want  long  felt  by 
intelligent  Americans,  engaged  in  every  kind  of  avocation,  who  may  not  have 
leisure  or  opportunity  for  consulting  volumes  on  our  national  history  when  in 
quest  of  information  upon  any  subject  of  special  inquiry.  It  is  intended  to  be  a 
labor-saving  implement  for  busy  people.  Its  usefulness  as  such  may  be  more 
readily  secured  by  first  consulting  the  full  Analytical  Index  at  the  close  of  the 
work. 

It  has  been  said  that  a  cyclopaedia  should  be,  itself  and  alone,  a  sufficient  index. 
Experience  proves  that  an  analytical  index  appended  to  a  cyclopaedia  of  history 
of  human  events  vastly  increases  its  power  and  essential  value  as  a  labor-saving 
implement.  There  are  numerous  important  topics  treated  in  a  cyclopaedia  of  his¬ 
tory  that  may  not  be  considered  under  separate  titles,  and  which,  without  a  ref¬ 
erence  to  them  in  an  index,  might  be  overlooked.  In  treating  upon  any  topic 
under  a  special  title — for  example,  United  States  of  America — there  are  events 
which  deserve  more  notice  than  can  well  be  given  to  them  in  a  general  and  brief 
sketch.  In  this  work  events  have  been  introduced  under  separate  titles,  which 
are  referred  to,  in  alphabetical  order,  under  the  general  title  of  United  States  of 
America  (and  others),  thus : 

United  States  of  America,  1438,  (see  Amnesty  and  Pardon  in  the)  40,  (see 
Army  of  the)  67,  68,  (see  Coinage  in  the)  264,  (see  Colleges  in  the)  268,  (see  East¬ 
ern  Boundary  of  the)  421,  (see  Education  in  the)  424,  (see  Expenditures  of  the , 
for  the  War  for  Independence)  461,  (see  Farms  in  the)  468,  (see  Financial  Con¬ 
dition  of  in  1861,  and  Financial  Embarrassment  of ,  in  1815)  477,  (see  First 
French  Minister  to  the)  482,  (see  First  Import  Duties  in  the)  483,  (see  Foreign 
Governments  and  the)  501,  (see  Foreign  Intercourse  with  the)  502,  (see  Fruit- 
Culture  in  the)  551,  (see  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the)  1227,  (see  Slave-trade  in 
the ,  Abolished)  1303,  (see  Spain  Hostile  to  the)  1325,  (see  Ultimatum  of  the)  1426. 

The  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  our  Republic  from  the  Aboriginal 
period  to  the  present  time,  with  the  dates  of  their  occurrence,  and  their  connection 
with  other  events,  may  be  found  briefly  recorded  herein.  Each  record  is  gen¬ 
erally  preceded  by  a  reference  to  the  causes  of  the  occurrence  of  the  event,  so 
that  its  relations  to  the  general  history  of  the  Republic  may  be  clearly  seen. 
Brief  biographies  of  the  more  conspicuous  actors  in  the  scenes  recorded  may  also 
be  found,  for  men  and  women  constitute  an  essential  part  of  every  historical  in¬ 
cident. 

In  this  age  of  varied  and  intense  activity  of  mind  and  body,  none  but  persons 


iv 


PREFACE. 


of  leisure,  or  plodding  specialists,  can  afford  to  spend  time  in  the  perusal  of  the 
minute  details  of  history.  The  vast  multitude  of  men  and  women  who  are  the 
chief  constituents  of  society  ask  for  the  kernels  of  knowledge  as  sufficient  for 
their  daily  intellectual  food.  It  is  for  that  intelligent  multitude  this  work  has 
been  prepared — this  want  supplied — by  which,  without  expensive  research  and 
by  reference  only,  in  the  Index,  to  the  proper  initial  letter  of  the  title  of  any 
event  or  name  of  person  mentioned  in  our  history,  they  may  find  a  general  out¬ 
line  picture  of  that  event  or  character,  which  may  be  filled  in,  if  desirable,  by 
consulting  regular  histories  or  elaborate  biographies. 

Illustrations  have  been  given  whenever  practicable,  not  for  embellishment 
only,  but  for  usefulness;  and  great  care  has  been  taken  to  make  them  truthful 
delineations  of  the  objects  depicted.  Many  of  these  have  been  selected  from 
other  historical  works  by  the  author  of  this  cyclopaedia.  The  chief  object  in  the 
preparation  of  this  work  has  been  to  make  it  a  useful  aid  in  the  diffusion  of  a 
knowledge  of  our  national  history  among  our  people.  It  is  believed  that  it  will 
be  found  very  helpful  as  a  book  of  reference — 

1.  To  families,  as  an  ever-ready  response  to  questions  concerning  events  in  the 
history  of  the  United  States  which  may  arise  in  the  course  of  conversation  or  of 
home  instruction  ; 

2.  To  professional  men,  who  often  wish  to  find  some  recorded  facts  in  our  his¬ 
tory,  but  have  not  the  leisure  or  the  opportunity  to  search  through  volumes  for 
them ; 

3.  To  instructors  of  the  young,  especially  to  those  who  in  schools  teach  the 
elements  of  our  history  from  text-books,  for  teacher  and  pupils  often  wish  to  know 
more  of  subjects  which  are  sometimes  barely  alluded  to  in  the  manuals. 

4.  To  journalists,  publicists,  and  writers  of  every  class,  whose  vocation  compels 
them  to  obtain  information  upon  all  subjects  with  as  much  facility  as  possible; 
and  to  statesmen  and  public  speakers  for  the  same  reason. 

This  work  combines  the  qualities  of  an  illustrated  history  of  the  United  States, 
a  dictionary  of  American  biography,  and  an  American  portrait -gallery.  In  its 
preparation  every  available  source  of  information  has  been  sought.  In  its  scope 
it  is  confined  strictly  to  our  national  history,  including  persons  and  events  else¬ 
where,  having  a  relation  thereto. 

To  this  revised  edition  a  supplement  has  been  appended  and  necessary  ad¬ 
ditions. 


Benson  J.  Tossing. 


A. 

Abatis,  883. 

Acland,  Christina  Harriot,  5. 
Acland,  Major  John  Dyke,  5. 
Adams,  Charles  Francis,  6. 
Adams,  John,  7. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  8. 
Adams,  Samuel,  8. 

Agassiz,  Louis  John  Rudolph, 
13. 

Alabama,  State  Seal  of,  14. 
Alabama ,  The,  15. 

Albemarle,  Ram,  18. 

Algiers  in  1800,  389. 

Allatoona  Pass,  24. 

Allen,  William  Henry,  26. 
Allston,  Washington,  27. 
Americus  Vespucius,  38. 
Ames,  Fisher,  39. 

Amherst,  Sir  Jeffrey,  39. 
Ancient  Dutch  Church,  696. 
Anderson,  Alexander,  41. 
Anderson,  Robert,  44. 
Anderson,  R. ,  Gold  Medal  pre¬ 
sented  to,  455. 

Andre,  John,  46. 

AndrAs  Handwriting, Fac  sim¬ 
ile  of,  1410.  > 

Andrd’s  Monument  in  West¬ 
minster  Abbey,  46. 

Andrew,  John  A.,  587. 
Annapolis,  State  -  house  at, 
1488. 

Anne,  Queen,  49. 

Apollo  Rooms,  342. 

Arbuthnot,  Marriott,  56. 
Arkansas,  State  Seal  of,  60. 
Armistead,  George,  62. 
Armistead  Vase,  510. 

Armored  Lookout,  An,  406. 
Armstrong,  John,  63. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  Birthplace 
of,  68. 

Arnold’s  Disguised  Handwrit¬ 
ing,  Fac  simile  of,  1410. 
Arnold’s  Route  through  the 
Wilderness.  70. 

Arrest  of  Emily  Geiger,  462. 
Arsenal  at  St.  Louis,  71. 

Asgill,  Charles,  653. 

Atatarho,  694. 

Atlanta,  Fortifications  around, 
76. 

Attorney-general’s  Depart¬ 
ment  Seal,  459. 

Audubon,  John  James,  81. 
Averill,  William  W.,  83. 

B. 

Baciie,  Alexander  Dallas,  84. 
Badges,  87. 

Bailey,  Theodorus,  88. 
Bainbridgo,  William,  88. 
Bainbridge’s  Medal,  89. 
Bainbridge’s  Monument,  89. 
Baker,  Edward  Dickinson,  90. 
Balloon,  War,  90. 

Baltimore,  Cecil,  Lord,  95. 
Baltimore,  Meeting  -  place  of 
Congress  in,  92. 

Bancroft,  George,  97. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  99. 
Barker,  Jacob,  102. 

Barlow,  Joel,  103. 

Barney,  Joshua,  105. 

Barr6,  Isaac,  105. 

Barren  Hill,  Lutheran  Church 
at,  754. 

Barron,  James,  106. 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Barry,  John,  107. 

Barry’s  Monument,  107. 

Barton,  William,  108. 

Battle  Monument,  Baltimore, 
1014. 

Bayard,  James  Ashton,  111. 

Beauregard,  P.  G.  T. ,  113. 

Beekman  Mansion,  995. 

Bellows,  Henry  W.,  116. 

Bemis’s  Heights,  Neilson 
House  on.  117. 

Bemis's  Heights,  Plan  of  Bat¬ 
tle  on,  119. 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.,  120. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  121. 

Biddle,  James,  126. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  126. 

Biddle  Urn,  The,  1493. 

Biddle’s  Medal,  126. 

Big  Black  River,  Passage  of 
the,  128. 

Billop  House,  Staten  Island, 
1060. 

Bills  of  Credit,  First,  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  129. 

Birmingham  Meeting  -  house, 
155. 

Bisshopp’s  Monument,  132. 

Black  Partridge  Medal,  240. 

Bladensburg,  Bridge  at,  1861, 
134. 

Blakeley,  Johnston,  135. 

Blakeley’s  Medal,  1495. 

Blennerhassett's  Island  Resi¬ 
dence,  136. 

Blockade- runner.  A,  137. 

Board  of  War,  Seal  of,  139. 

Boggs,  Captain,  1449. 

Boone,  Daniel,  142. 

Boone's  Fort,  143. 

Boston,  from  Dorchester 
Heights.  453. 

Boston  Neck,  View  of  L’nes 
on,  146. 

Boston  Tea-party,  147. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  149. 

Boyd,  John  Parker,  150. 

Brandywine,  View  at  Chad’s 
Ford  on  the,  155. 

Brandywine,  Washington’s 
Headquarters  at  the,  154. 

Brant,  John,  156. 

Brant,  Joseph,  156. 

Brant  Monument,  The,  157. 

Breckinridge,  John  C.,  157. 

Brewster’s  (Elder)  Chest,  158. 

Bri  dge  over  G  unpowder  Creek, 
Destruction  of,  700. 

British  Standards,  Surrender 
of,  at  Yorktown,  333. 

Brock,  Medal  in  Memory  of, 
163. 

Brock’s  Monument.  163. 

Broke,  Captain,  Silver  Plate 
presented  to,  237. 

Broke,  Sir  P.  B.  V.,163. 

Brooks,  John,  164. 

Brower’s  Mill,  Gowanus,  807. 

Brown,  Jacob,  165. 

Brown,  Jacob,  Gold  Box  of,  537. 

Brown,  Jacob,  Medal  awarded 
to,  1317. 

Brownlow,  W.  G.,  167. 

Brown’s  Monument,  166. 

Bryant,  W.  C.,  168. 

Buchanan,  James,  169. 

Buckingham,  W.  A.,  171. 

Bunker’s  Hill,  Plan  of  Battle 
of,  and  Monument,  177. 

Burgoyne  Addressing  the  In¬ 
dians,  178. 


Burgoyne,  Place  of  Surrender 
of,  1365. 

Burgoyne,  Sir  John,  178. 
Burke,  Edmund,  179. 

Burnside,  A.  E.,  181. 

Burnside  Bridge,  Antietam 
Creek,  53. 

Burr,  Aaron,  182. 

Burrow’s  Medal,  186. 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  187. 
Butts’s  Hill,  View  from,  1165. 

C. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  189. 
Cadwalader.  John,  190. 
Calhoun,  John  C.,  191. 
California,  State  Seal  of,  192. 
Canby,  E.  R.  S.,  201. 

Capitol,  Remains  of,  after  the 
Fire,  1479. 

Captors’  Medal,  The,  203. 
Caravel,  A  Spanish,  277. 
Carleton,  Guy,  205. 

Carondelet,  The,  699. 
Carpenters’  Hall.  317. 
Carpenters’  Hall,  Room  in 
which  Congress  met,  318. 
Carroll,  Charles,  207. 

Carroll,  John,  208. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  209. 

Carver’s  (Governor)  Chair,  210. 
Cascade  Creek,  Mouth  of,  34. 
Cass,  Lewis,  210. 

Castine,  Fort,  Remains  of,  211. 
Castle  Thunder,  212. 

Cavalry  Obstructions,  213. 

Cave  Life  in  Vicksburg,  213. 
Cedar  Creek  Battle  -  ground, 
214. 

Centennial  Buildings,  216. 
Chalmette’s  Plantation,  Battle¬ 
ground  at,  New  Orleans,  984. 
Chambly,  Fort  at,  218. 
Champlain,  Samuel  de,  219. 
Chancellorsville,  Ruins  of,  222. 
Chanuing,  William  Ellery,  223. 
Charles  II.,  225. 

Charter  Oak,  229. 

Chase,  Salmon  P. ,  230. 
Chatterton’s  Hill,  1516. 
Chesapeake  and  Shannon,  236. 
Chicago,  Block-house  at,  239. 
Chicago,  Kinzie  Mansion  at, 
239. 

Chippewa,  Street’s  Creek 
Bridge  at,  244. 

Chrysler’s  in  1855,  247. 
Cincinnati,  Certificate  of  Mem¬ 
bership  of  the,  251. 

Cincinnati  in  1812,  249. 
Cincinnati,  Order  of  the.  250. 
Claiborne,  William  C.  C.,  253. 
Clarke,  G.  R.,  254. 

Clay,  Green,  255. 

Clay,  Henry,  256. 

Clay’s  Monument,  256. 

Clem,  John,  257. 

Clinton,  De  Witt,  258. 

Clinton,  George,  259. 

Clinton,  James,  259. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  260. 
Clinton’s  Despatch  and  Bullet, 
260. 

Clinton’s  Monument,  259. 
Clipper-built  Privateer,  1149. 
Cobb,  Howell,  262. 

Coch  rane,  Cathari  ne  V.  R.,  1257. 
Coddington,  Governor  of  R.  I., 
Residence  of,  1209. 

Coffee,  John,  263. 


Coin,  First,  in  the  U.  S.,  265. 
Colden,  Cadwallader,  266. 
Colfax,  Schuyler,  267. 

Coligni,  Jasper  de,  267. 
Colorado,  State  Seal  of,  272. 
Columbus,  Banner  of  the  Expe¬ 
dition  of,  276. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  274. 
Columbus,  Landing  of,  276. 
Columbus,  Ships  of,  275. 
Colyer,  Vincent,  1437. 

Combs,  Leslie,  279. 

Concord,  Battle-ground  at,  786. 
Confederate  Naval  Commis¬ 
sion,  288. 

ConfederateRosette  andBadge, 
289. 

Confederate  State  Department 
Seal,  291. 

ConfederateTreasury  N  ote,286. 
Connecticut  State  Seal,  301. 
Constitution  House,  the,  at 
Kingston,  998. 

Constitution,  National,  Signa¬ 
tures  to  the,  472. 
Constitution,  The  Frigate,  312. 
Continental  Bill,  Counterfeit, 
321. 

Continental  Bills  of  Credit,  320. 
Continental  Draft,  315. 
Continental  Lottery  Ticket,  319. 
Contrast,  The,  382. 

Convention  Troops,  Encamp¬ 
ment  of,  324. 

Cook,  Lemuel,  321. 

Cooper,  J.  Fenimore,  326. 
Cooper,  Peter,  326. 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  330. 

Cow  Chace,  Fac -s. miles  of, 
338,  340. 

Craney  Island,  Block-house  on, 
343. 

Crawford,  S.  W. ,  344. 
Crittenden,  J.  J.,  348. 

Croghan,  Col.  George,  Medal 
awarded  to,  520. 

Croghan,  George,  519. 
Crosswicks,  Friends’  Meeting¬ 
house  at,  979. 

Crown  Point,  350. 

Curtin,  A.  G.,  354. 

Curtis,  S.  R.,  354. 

Cushing,  Caleb,  354. 

D. 

Dacres,  J.  R.,  366. 

Dahlgren,  J.  A.,  357. 

Dale,  Richard,  358. 

Dale’s  Monument,  358. 
Dartmoor  Prison,  362. 

Davie,  W.  R.,  364. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  364. 

Davis,  Jefferson  C. ,  365. 

Deane,  Silas,  368. 

Dearborn,  Henry,  368. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  369. 
Decatur,  Stephen,  Medal 
awarded  to,  1435. 

Decatur’s  Monument,  370. 
Declaration  of  Independence, 
Fac  simile  of  Portion  of,  372. 
Defences  of  Washington,  Map 
of,  377. 

De  Grasse,  Count,  376. 
Delaware,  State  Seal  of,  378. 
Delft  Haven,  1096. 

Democratic  Society  Seal,  382. 
De  Monts,  Siour,  383. 

Dennison,  William,  384. 

Do  Soto,  Fernando,  386. 


VI 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Dickinson,  John,  390. 

Dix,  Famous  Order  of,  399. 
Dix,  John  A.,  398. 

Dix  Medal,  The,  400. 

Dorothea ,  Destruction  of,  553. 
Doubleday,  Abner,  402. 
Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  402. 
Douglass,  Frederick,  402. 
Draper,  John  W.,  405. 

Drayton,  W.  H. ,  405. 

Duche,  Jacob,  407. 

Dunmore’s  Seal,  409. 

Dupont,  S.  F.,  411. 

E. 

Early,  Jubal  A.,  417. 

Earth  -  work  near  Newark, 
Ohio,  935. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  424. 
Electric  Telegraph,  Morse  Ap¬ 
paratus,  426. 

Electric  Telegraph,  Morse  Key, 
426. 

Electric  Telegraph,  Morse  Reg¬ 
ister,  426. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  428. 

Ellet,  Charles,  429. 

Ellet’s  Stern- wheel  Ram,  869. 
Elliott,  J.  D.,429. 

Elliott  Medal,  The,  430. 
Ellsworth,  E.  E.,  431. 
Ellsworth,  Oliver,  431. 
Emancipation  Pen,  437. 
Emancipation  Proclamation, 
Fac  simile  of,  433. 

Embargo  (Caricatures),  438, 439. 
Embargo,  Emblematic  Repre¬ 
sentation  of  the,  1383. 

Essex  and  her  Prizes  at  Nooa- 
heevah,  450. 

Estaing,  Count  d’,  451. 

Eutaw  Springs,  452. 

Evans,  Sir  de  Lacy,  45G. 
Everett,  Edward,  456. 

Ewell,  R.  S. ,  457. 

F. 

Faneuil  Hall,  342. 

Fanning,  Edmund,  468. 
Farragut,  D.  G. ,  469. 

Federal  Hall,  471. 

Fersen,  Axel,  475. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  476. 
Firemen’s  Ambulance,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  478. 

First  Fight  in  Congress,  375. 
Flag,  Confederate,  491. 

Flag,  New  England,  492. 

Flag,  Pine-tree,  492. 

Fleury  Medal,  494. 

Floating  Battery.  American. 

494. 

Floating  Battery  at  Charleston, 
496. 

Floating  Battery,  Section  of, 

495. 

Florida,  State  Seal  of,  498. 
Foote,  A.  H.,  501. 

Foote’s  Flotilla,  602. 

Fort  Barrancas,  509. 

Fort  Defiance,  Site  of,  621. 

Fort  Erie,  Ruins  of,  1289. 

Fort  George,  at  New  York,  994. 
Fort  George  (Castine), Remains 
of,  661. 

Fort  Harmar,  1024. 

Fort  Harrison,  509. 

Fort  Motte,  514. 

Fort  Niagara,  515. 

Fort  Pickens,  516. 

Fort  Pulaski,  518. 

Fort  Stephenson,  Site  of,  520. 
Fort  Sumter  in  1860, 42. 

Fort  Sumter  in  1864, 43. 

Fort  Sumter,  Interior  of,  after 
the  Bombardment,  465. 

Fort  Sumter  Medal,  455. 

Fort  Ticonde'roga,  Ruins  of,  522. 
Fort  Washington,  on  the  Site 
of  Cincinnati,  614. 

Fort  Wayne  in  1812,  624. 
Fortress  Monroe,  525. 

Fox,  George,  528. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  532, 


Franklin  Medallion,  532. 
Franklin  Stove,  533. 

Franklin, William  B.,534. 
Fraunce’s  Tavern,  1485. 
Frederick,  Fort,  at  Pemma- 
quid,  746. 

Fredericksburg,  Scene  in,  536. 
Fremont,  J.  C.,  540. 

French  Creek,  Mouth  of,  543. 
Frobisher,  Martin,  549. 

Fulton,  Robert,  552. 

Fulton  the  First,  495. 

Fulton’s  Birthplace,  553. 

G. 

Gaij»es,  E.  P. ,  657. 

Gaines’s  Medal,  557. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  558. 
Gansevoort,  Peter,  560. 
Garrison,  W.  L.,  560. 

Gaspee  Point,  562. 

Gates,  Horatio,  562. 

Gates,  Horatio,  Medal  awarded 
to,  1365. 

Genet,  E.  C. ,  564. 

George  III.,  566. 

George  III.  in  1776,  567. 

George  IV.,  842. 

Georgia,  State  Seal  of,  571. 
Gerard,  M.,  482. 

Germain,  Lord  George,  572. 
Germantown,  Chew’s  House  at, 
573. 

Gerry  mander,  The,  574. 
Gettysburg,  Little  Round  Top 
near,  576. 

Ghent,  577. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  578. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  579. 
Gillmore,  Q.  A.,  579. 

Gist,  Mordecai,  580. 
Goldsborough,  L.  M. ,  584. 
Goshen,  Monument  at,  884. 
Government  Bakeries  at  the 
Capitol,  947. 

Government  Toll-gate  on  the 
Cumberland  Road.  687. 
Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  587. 

Grant,  U.S.,  Medal  awarded  to, 
582. 

Graves  of  Burrows,  Blyth,  and 
Waters,  445. 

Great  Bridge,  View  at,  589. 
Great  Chain  and  Mortars,  590. 
Greeley,  Horace,  591. 

Greene  and  Pulaski  Monument, 
1160. 

Greene,  Gold  Medal  awarded  to, 
453. 

Greene,  Nathaniel,  593. 
Greenough,  H.,  595. 

Greenway  Court,  463. 

Gregory,  F.  H.,  596. 

Grenville,  George,  696. 
Gunboats,  601. 

H. 

Habersham,  Joseph,  603. 
Halleck,  H.W.,  606. 

Hamilton,  A.,  606. 

Hampden,  Meeting-house  at, 
610. 

Hampton,  St.  John’s  Church 
at,  611. 

Hancock,  John,  611. 

Hancock’s  House,  Boston,  611. 
Hanging  Rock,  612. 

Hanover  Court-house,  634. 
Harnett’s  House,  615. 

Harper’s  Ferry,  617. 
Harper’sPublishingHouse,616. 
Harrington,  Jonathan,  785. 
Harrison, William  H.,  619. 
Harrison’s  Grave,  619. 
Hartford  Convention  Candi¬ 
date,  625. 

Hartford  Convention,  Signa¬ 
tures  of  Members  of  the,  624. 
Hartford,  The,  953. 

Havre  de  Grace,  Pringle  House 
at,  628. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  629. 
Heckewelder,  Maria,  631. 
Heintzelman,  S.  P.,  632. 


Hendrick,  King,  632. 
Hendrick’s  Signature,  095. 
Henry,  Patrick,  634. 
Herkimer’s  Residence,  1036. 
Hicks,  Thomas  H.,  636. 
Hobkirk’s  Hill,  Spring  on,  639. 
Hoe,  Richard  M.,  640. 

Holt,  Joseph,  642. 

Hood,  J.  B.,  643. 

Hooker,  Joseph,  644. 

Hopkins,  Esek,  644. 

Hornet  and  Peacock ,  646. 
Horse  Island,  Light  house  on, 
1237. 

Houdon’s  Mask  of  Washing¬ 
ton’s  Face,  648. 

Houdon’s  Statue  of  Washing¬ 
ton,  648. 

Houston,  Samuel,  649. 

Howard,  John  Eager,  649. 
Howard,  J.  E.,  Medal  awarded 
to,  649. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis,  650. 
Howe,  Richard,  651. 

Howe,  Robert,  651. 

Hudson,  Henry,  653. 

Hughes,  Christopher,  1065. 
Hull,  Isaac,  656. 

Hull. William,  657. 

Hull’s  Albany  Gold  Box,  309. 
Hull’s  Medal,  308. 

Hull’s  Monument,  658. 

Hull’s  New  York  Gold  Box,  309. 
Humphreys,  David,  659. 
Hutchings,  William,  661. 
Hutchinson,  Thomas,  663. 

I. 

Illinois,  State  Seal  of,  665. 
Independence  Hall,  674. 
Indian,  North  American,  682. 
Indiana,  State  Seal  of,  681. 
Interior  Department  Seal,  459. 
Iowa,  State  Seal  of,  693. 
Iron-clad  Vessel  in  1814,  495. 
Irving,  Washington.  696. 
Isabella  of  Castile,  697. 

Island  Number  Ten,  698. 

Izard,  George,  701. 

J. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  702. 
Jackson,  James,  706. 

Jackson,  T.  J.,  706. 

Jackson,  T.  J. ,  Despatch  of,  827. 
Jackson,  William,  707. 
Jackson’s  Statue  at  New  Or¬ 
leans,  705. 

Jackson’s  Tomb,  703. 
Jamestown  iu  1876,  709. 
Jamison,  David  F.,  1322. 

Jay,  John,  711. 

Jefferson  Caricatured,  715. 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  716. 
Jefferson’s  Seal,  717. 

Jersey  Prison-ship,  1148. 
Johnson,  Andrew,  723. 
Johnson,  Sir  William,  724. 
Johnson’s  Monument,  1378. 
Johnston,  Joseph  E.,  726. 
Johnston,  William,  1101. 
Johnston’s  Commission,  1101. 
Johnston’s  Surrender,  Place 
of,  726. 

Jones,  Jacob,  727. 

Jones,  Jacob,  GoldMedalaward- 
ed  to,  1493. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  728. 

Jones,  Paul,  Gold  Medal  award 
ed  to,  142. 

K. 

Kalb,  Baron  de,  730. 

Kalb's  (De)  Monument,  731. 
Kalorama,  370 
Kane,  E.  K.,731. 

Kane’s  Vessel,  Cutting-out  of, 
732. 

Kansas,  State  Seal  of,  732. 
Kearney,  Philip,  735. 

Kent,  James,  736. 

Kenton,  Simon,  737. 

Kentucky,  State  Seal  of,  738. 


Kilpatrick,  Judson,  741. 

King  Philip,  744. 

King,  Rufus,  745. 

King’s  Ferry, Sign-board  at, 747. 
King’s  Mountain  Battle¬ 
ground,  748. 

King’s  Mountain,  Monument 
on,  748. 

Kinnison,  David,  749. 

Kip’s  House  at  New  York,  994. 
Kirkland,  Samuel,  749. 

Knapp.  Uzel,  791. 

Knox,  Henry,  750. 

Kosciuszko,  Thaddeus,  751. 

L. 

La  Colle  Mill,  753. 

Lafayette,  Fort,  895. 

Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  755. 
Lafayette’s  Tomb,  756. 

Lake  Champlain,  Scene  of  Na¬ 
val  Battle  on  (1776),  955. 
Lamb,  John,  761. 

Laurens,  Henry,  769. 

Lauzun,  Duke  de.  770. 
Lawrence  and  Ludlow’s  Monu¬ 
ment,  772. 

Lawrence,  James,  771. 
Lawrence,  James,  Medalaward- 
ed  to,  646. 

Lee,  Charles,  774. 

Lee,  Henry,  776. 

Lee,  Henry,  Medal  awarded  to, 
1059. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  777. 

Lee,  Robert  E.,  777. 

Libby  Prison,  787. 

Liberty  Bell,  788. 

Liberty  Cap  Cent,  265. 
Lifeguard.  Banner  of  Washing¬ 
ton’s,  791. 

Lifeguard,  Fac-simile  of  Signa¬ 
tures  of,  792. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  794. 
Lincoln,  Benjamin.  794. 
Lincoln.  Medal  awarded  to,  795. 
Lincoln’s  Inauguration,  797. 
Livingston.  Robert  R.,  b02. 
Livingston, William,  802. 
Logan,  John  A..  804; 
Longfellow,  H.W.,  807. 
Longstreet,  James,  808. 
Lookout  Mountain,  Slope  of, 
809. 

Louis  XVI.,  811. 

Louis  XVI.,  Memorial  Medal 
of,  811. 

Louisiana,  State  Seal  of,  815. 
Louisiana,  The,  602. 

Lundy’s  Lane,  Site  of  British 
Battery  at,  818. 

Lutheran  Church,  Philadel¬ 
phia,  1555. 

Luzerne,  De  la,  819. 

Lynn  Haven  Bay,  1556. 

Lyon,  Nathaniel,  821. 

M. 

Macarte’s— Jackson’s  Head¬ 
quarters,  985. 

McArthur,  Duncan,  821. 

McCall  Medal,  The,  446. 
McClellan,  G.  B.,  823. 
McConkey’s  Ferry,  1417. 
McCook,  A.  McDowell,  823. 
McCrea,  Jane,  Grave  of,  824. 
Macdonough,  Thomas,  825. 
Macdonough’s  Medal,  1108. 
McDougall,  Sir  Duncan,  826. 
McDowell,  Irvin,  827. 

McIntosh,  Lachlan,  828. 
Mackinack,  from  Round  Isl¬ 
and,  829. 

Mackinaw,  Fort,  466. 

McLean’s  House,  55. 

Macomb,  Alexander,  831. 
Macomb’s  Medal,  1108. 
Macomb’s  Monument,  832. 
McPherson  Blue,  A,  832. 
McPherson,  J.  B.,  833. 

Madison,  Dolly  P.,  834. 

Madison,  James,  833. 

Maguaga  Battle-ground,  835. 
Maine,  State  Seal  of,  838. 


Malden,  View  of,  838. 

Mallory,  S.  R.,  839. 

Manassas ,  The  Ram,  954. 
Marion,  Fort,  St.  Augustine, 
1181. 

Marion,  Francis,  845. 

Marion’s  Residence,  845. 
Marshall,  John,  847. 

Maryland,  State  Seal  of,  852. 
Mason,  George,  1462. 

Mason,  James  M. ,  854. 
Massachusetts  Bay  (Map),  856. 
Massachusetts  Song  of  Liber¬ 
ty,  Music  of,  859. 
Massachusetts,  State  Seal  of, 
860. 

Mather,  Cotton,  861. 

Maumee  Ford,  614. 

Maumee  Valley,  from  Fort 
Meigs,  511. 

Mayflower ,  1097. 

Meade,  G.  G. ,  865. 

Meagher,  T.  F. ,  866. 
Mecklenburg  Convention,  Sig¬ 
natures  of  Members  of  the, 
867. 

Mercer,  Hugh,  Jr.,  870. 
Michigan,  State  Seal  of,  877. 
Mifflin,  Thomas,  878. 

Millen,  Prison-pen  at,  78. 
Miller,  James,  881. 

Miller,  James,  Medal  awarded 
to,  819. 

Minnesota,  State  Seal  of,  884. 
Mischianza  Ticket,  896. 
Mississippi,  State  Seal  of.  898. 
Missouri,  State  Seal  of,  899. 
Mitchel,  0.  M.,903. 

Mohawk  Church,  909. 

Mohawk  Church,  Communion 
Plate  of  the,  909. 

Monhegan  Island,  837. 

Monitor  and  Merrimac,  Battle 
between  the,  911. 

Monitor  and  New  Ironsides , 
911. 

Monitor ,  Interior  of  Turret  of, 
910. 

Monmouth  Battle-ground,  913. 
Monmouth  Court-house,  912. 
Monroe,  from  the  Battle¬ 
ground.  548. 

Monroe.  James,  914. 

Montcalm  and  Wolfe’s  Monu¬ 
ment,  916. 

Mon  teal  m’s  Hea  dquarters,  1168. 
Montgomery,  Richard,  917. 
Montgomery’s  Monument,  917. 
Monticello,  692. 

Montmorency  Falls,  1169. 
Montreal  in  1760,  918. 

Moore's  House  at  Yorktown, 
332. 

Morgan,  Daniel,  920. 

Morgan,  Dr.  John,  922. 

Morgan,  E.  D.,  921. 

Morgan’s  Gold  Medal,  341. 
Morris,  Charles,  926. 

Morris,  Gouverneur,  927. 

Morris,  Robert,  928. 

Morris’s  House,  Harlem 
Heights,  1515. 

Morris’s  Monument,  927. 
Morristown,  Washington’s 
Headquarters  at,  929. 

Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  930. 

Mortar- boat,  A,  698. 

Morton,  O.  P.,  932. 

Motte,  Rebecca,  934. 

Moultrie,  William,  934. 

Mount  Desert  Island,  936. 
Mount  Hope,  744. 

Mount  Vernon,  Mansion  at, 
1482. 

MOhlenberg,  J.  P.  G.,  937. 
Munson,  zEnoas,  938. 

Murray,  Lindley,  940. 

N. 

Naval  Pitchier,  1422. 

Navy  Department  Seal,  459. 
Navy-yard  at  Gosport.  Destruc¬ 
tion  of,  960. 

Nebraska,  State  Seal  of,  961.  i 
Nelson  Mansion,  The,  964. 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTKATIONS. 


Nelson  Monuments,  965. 
Nevada,  State  Seal  of,  966. 
New  Amsterdam,  House  in,  967. 
Newburgh,  Washington’s  Head¬ 
quarters  at,  969. 

New  Era,  The,  602. 

New  Hampshire,  First  Seal  of, 
975. 

New  Hampshire,  State  Seal  of, 
977. 

New  Jersey,  State  Seal  of,  980. 
New  London  in  1813,  981. 

New  London,  Old  Court-house 
in,  981. 

New  Netherland,  Seal  of,  984. 
New  Orleans,  Levee  at,  989. 
New  York  in  1664,  997. 

New  York,  State  House  in, 1000. 
New  York,  State  Seal  of,  1001. 
Norfolk,  St.  Paul’s  Church  at, 
1008. 

North  Carolina,  State  Seal  of, 
1011. 

North,  Lord,  1009. 

Nourse,  Rebecca,  House  of, 
1538. 

O. 

Ogden,  Aaron,  1021. 
Ogdensburg,  Fort  Presentation 
at,  1022. 

Oglethorpe,  J.  E.,  1022. 

Ohio  Battery  Men,  Graves  of, 
701. 

Ohio,  State  Seal  of,  1023. 

Old  Church  at  Jamestown,  86. 
Old  Colony  Seal,  990. 

Old  Court-house,  New  Orleans, 
704. 

Old  Magazine  at  Williamsburg. 
409. 

Old  South  Meeting-house,  10. 
Ord,  Edward  O.  C. ,  1033. 
Oregon,  State  Seal  of,  1034. 
Osceola’s  Grave,  1038. 
Oshawahnah,  1389. 
Oswegatchie,  Fort,  1039. 
Oswego,  Attack  on,  1040. 
Oswego  in  1755,  1040. 

P. 

Paine,  Thomas,  1045. 

Paine’s  Monument,  1046. 
Palmetto  Cockade,  1047. 

Paoli  Monument,  1048. 

Parker,  Admiral  Sir  Peter,  1049. 
Parker,  Sir  Peter,  1050. 

Parrott  Gun,  1367. 

Patterson,  Robert,  1057. 
Paulding,  Hiram,  1057. 
Paulding,  John,  1058. 
Paulding’s  Monument,  1058. 
Peace,  Medal  in  Commemora¬ 
tion  of,  1063. 

Peace,  Medal  of  Gratitude  for, 
1063. 

Peale,  C.  W.,  1068. 

Pecan-tree,  New  Orleans,  1046. 
Penn,  William,  1071. 

Penn’s  House,  Philadelphia, 
1072. 

Penn’s  Seal,  1073. 

Peun’sTreaty  Monument.  1073. 
Pennsylvania,  State  Seal  of, 
1076. 

Pepperell,  Sir  William,  1079. 
Percy,  Hugh,  1081. 

Perry,  Oliver  H.,  1081. 

Perry,  O.  H. ,  Medal  awarded  to, 
758. 

Perry’s  Battle  flag,  1082. 

Perry’s  Despatch,  1083. 

Perry’s  Monument,  1081. 
Perry’s  Quarters  at  Erie,  1186. 
Perry’s  Statue,  1082. 

Pickens,  Andrew,  1093. 

Pickens,  F.  W.,  1093. 

Pickering,  Timothy,  1093. 
Pierce,  Franklin,  1094. 

Piko,  Z.  M.,  1095. 

Pilgrims,  Signatures  of,  1096. 
Pinckney,  C.  C.,  1098. 

Pinckney,  Thomas,  1098. 
Pino-troe  Shilling,  484. 

Pinkney,  William,  1099. 


Pitt,  William,  1103. 

Pitt’s  Statue,  1104. 

Plattsburg  Bay,  Place  of  Naval 
Engagement  in,  1107. 
Plattsburg,  Old  Stone  Mill  at, 
1106. 

Pocahontas,  1113. 

Pohick  Church,  1503. 

Point  Levi,  from  Quebec,  1171. 
Polk,  James  K.,  1115. 

Polk,  Leonidas,  1115. 

Porter,  David,  1123. 

Porter,  David  D. ,  1123. 

Porter,  Fitz-Jolin,  1124. 

Porter,  Peter  B.,  1124. 

Porter,  Peter  B. ,  Medal  award¬ 
ed  to.  1317. 

Post-office  Department  Seal, 
459. 

Powder-ship,  506. 

Preble,  Edward,  1129. 

Preble’s  Medal,  1130. 

Prescott’s  Headquarters,  1133. 
Presi  dent’s  House,  Remains  of, 
after  the  Fire,  1479. 

Price,  Sterling,  1142. 

Prophet,  The,  1392. 

Province  House,  663. 

Provost  Jail,  1147. 

Pulaski,  Count,  1159. 

Put-in  Bay,  758. 

Putnam,  General  Israel,  1162. 
Putnam,  Major  Israel,  1162. 
Putnam’s  Signboard,  1163. 

Q. 

Quaker  Hill,  R.  I.,  1164. 
Quebec,  Foot  of  Cape  Diamond, 

1172. 

Quebec,  Place  where  Arnold 
was  Wounded,  1172. 

Queen  Charlotte  and  John  Bull 
(Caricature),  1083. 
Queenstown  in  1812, 1174. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  1175. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  Caricature  of, 
1176. 

R. 

Raleigh  Enjoying  his  Pipe, 
1179. 

Raleigh  Tavern,  1180. 

Raleigh’s  Ships,  Form  of,  1178. 
Rail’s  Headquarters,  1417. 
Ramsay,  David,  1180. 

Ramsey,  Alexander,  1180. 
Randolph,  Edmund,  1181. 
Randolph,  John,  1182. 
Randolph,  Peyton,  1183. 
Rawdon,  Francis,  1184. 
Red-Jacket,  1188. 

Red-Jacket’s  Medal,  1188. 

Reed,  Joseph,  1189. 

Reid,  Samuel  C. .  1192. 

Reverse  of  a  Massachusetts 
Troasury  Note,  130. 

Rhode  Island,  State  Seal  of, 
1210. 

Richmond,  Fortifications 
around,  1213. 

Ripley,  Eleazar  W.,  Medal 
awarded  to,  1317. 
Rittenhouse,  David,  1219. 
Rivington,  James,  1220. 
Robertson,  James,  1222. 
Robinson,  Beverly,  1222. 
Robinson’s  House,  1223. 
Rochambeau,  Count,  1224. 
Rocky  Mount,  View  at,  1224. 
Rodgers,  John,  1225. 
Rodriguez’s  Canal,  near  New 
Orleans,  986. 

Rosecraus,W.  S.,  1227. 

Ross,  John,  1228. 

Rousseau,  L.  H.,  1228. 

Royal  Savage,  The,  954. 

Ruffin,  Edmund,  521. 

Rumford,  Count,  1233. 

Rutledge,  John,  1235. 

S. 

Sackett’s  Harbor  in  1812, 
1236. 

St.  Clair,  Arthur,  1240. 


St.  John’s  Church,  Richmond, 
1461. 

St.  John’s,  Military  Establish¬ 
ment  at,  1241. 

St.  Simon.  Claude  Anne,  1243. 

Salmon  River,  Landing-place 
of  Troops  at,  545. 

Sanders’s  Creek,  View  at,  1245. 

Sandwich,  Barracks  at.  197. 

Sandy  Creek,  Place  of  Battle 
at,  1247. 

Sanitary  Commission  Seal, 
1439. 

Scene  of  Battle  on  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and,  1165. 

Schofield,  J.  M.,  1254. 

School-ship  Sabine ,  1406. 

Schuyler,  Philip,  1259. 

Schuyler’s  House  at  Albany, 
1256. 

Schuyler’s  House  at  Saratoga, 
1259. 

Scott,  Winfield,  1261. 

Scott’s  Medal,  1262. 

Seabury,  Bishop,  Monument  of, 
1263. 

Seal  of  the  President  of  Con¬ 
gress,  1264. 

Seal  of  the  United  States,  1264. 

Semmes,  Raphael,  1270. 

Seward,  William  H.,  1276. 

Shelby,  Isaac,  1280. 

Shelby’s  Medal,  1280. 

Sherbrooke,  Sir  John  Cope,  689. 

Sheridan,  Philip  H.,  1281. 

Sherman,  W.  T.,  1282. 

Shirley,  William,  1285. 

Shubrick.W.  B.,  1286. 

Sickles,  Daniel  E.,  1287. 

Sigel,  Franz,  1289. 

Signal-book,  1290. 

Signal-tower,  1291. 

Signals  by  Flags,  1290. 

Signals.  Naval,  1290. 

Signatures  of  the  Gaspee  Com¬ 
mittee,  561. 

Signatures  to  Treaty  of  Peace, 
Fac-simile  of,  1066. 

Signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  Fac-simile  of 
Signatures  of,  1293. 

Signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  Portraits  of 
the,  1292. 

Skirmish  on  the  Green  at  Lex¬ 
ington,  784. 

Slater,  Samuel,  1298. 

Slave-chain,  last  in  Maryland, 
1298. 

Slidell,  John,  1304. 

Smallwood,  William,  1305. 

Smith,  Captain  John,  1307. 

Smith,  Samuel,  1310. 

Smith’s  (John)  Coat-of-arms, 
1307. 

Smith’s  House,  1411; 

Smith’s  (Melancthon)  Monu¬ 
ment,  1309. 

Sodus  Bay,  Destruction  at,  843. 

South  Carolina  Flag,  1319. 

South  Carolina  Institute,  381. 

South  Carolina  Medal,  1319. 

South  Carolina,  Secession  Ban- 
ner  of,  1320. 

South  Carolina,  State  Seal  of, 
1318. 

Stamp,  A,  1334. 

Stamp,  Back  of  a,  1334. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  1336. 

Star  of  the  West,  1337. 

Star  -  spangled  Banner,  Fac¬ 
simile  of  Portion  of  tho  Orig¬ 
inal  Song,  1339. 

Stark,  John,  1338. 

State  Department  Seal,  458. 

State-house,  Philadelphia,  Wal¬ 
nut-street  Front,  1219. 

Steamboat,  Old  Hudson  River, 
1345. 

Stoolo,  Frederic,  1346. 

Stephens,  Alexander  H. ,  1347. 

Steuben,  Baron,  1348. 

Steuben’s  Log  House,  1348. 

Steuben’s  Monuments,  1348. 

Stevens’s  Floating  Battery, 
1349. 


viii 

Stewart,  Charles,  1350. 
Stewart’s  Medals,  3i0, 1355. 
Stirling,  Lord,  20. 

Stockton’s  House  “  Morven,” 
1351. 

Stone  Idol  at  Copan,  32. 

Stone  Tower  at  Newport, 
1027. 

Stonington  Flag,  1353. 

Stony  Creek,  Battle- ground  of, 
1354. 

Stony  Point,  View  of,  1355. 
Story,  Joseph,  1356. 

Strieker,  John,  1013. 
Stringham,  S.  H.,  1357. 
Sturgis,  S.  D.,  1358. 
Stuyvesant,  Peter,  1358. 
Sugar-house  in  Liberty  Street, 
1147. 

Sullivan,  John,  1361. 

Sumter,  Privateer,  289. 
Sumter,  Thomas,  1363. 
Swamp-angel  Battery,  1367. 
Swift,  Joseph  G.,  1368. 
Symmes’s  Monument,  1368. 

T. 

Talbot.  Silas,  1369. 
Tallmadge,  Benjamin,  1370. 
Tammany  Hall,  1370. 

Tarleton,  Sir  Banastre,  1371. 

Ta  -  ron  -  tee,  or  Rividre  aux 
Canards,  1372. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  1375. 

Taylor’s  Residence,  1375. 
Tecumtha,  1377. 

Tecumtha,  Birthplace  of,  1392. 
Temple,  The,  near  Newburgh, 
969. 

Tennessee,  State  Seal  of,  1380. 
Texas,  State  Seal  of,  1384. 
Thames,  Battle-ground  of  the, 
1389. 

Thomas,  George  H. ,  1395. 
Thomson,  Charles,  1396. 
Tippecanoe  Battle-ground, 
1399. 

Todd,  Charles  S.,  1401. 

Toombs,  Robert,  1403. 

Toronto,  Old  Fort  at,  1555. 
Toronto,  Powder-magazine  at, 
1554. 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTKATIONS. 


Toronto,  Remains  of  Western 
Battery  near,  1554. 

Torpedo  Net,  1558. 

Torpedoes,  554, 1405. 

Totems,  694. 

Towson’s  Grave,  1407. 

Trad  ug  Ford  on  the  Catawba, 
594. 

Treasury  Department  Seal, 458. 
Trumbull,  Jonathan,  1421. 
Trumbull’s  House,  1421. 
Trumbull’s  War-office,  1421. 
Truxtun,  Thomas,  Medal  pre¬ 
sented  to,  1422. 

Truxtun’s  Grave,  1422. 

Tryon’s  Seal  and  Signature, 
1423. 

Turkey-foot’s  Rock,  466. 

Tyler,  John,  1425. 

U. 

Uncas,  Monument  of,  1427. 
Union  Devices,  1431, 1432. 

V. 

Valladolid  Cathedral,  697. 
Vallandigham,  C.  L.,  1442. 
Valley  Forge,  Washington’s 
Headquarters  at,  1442. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  1443. 

Van  Cortlandt’s  Sugar-house, 
1147. 

Van  Horne,  Thomas  B.,  1446. 
Van  Rensselaer,  Solomon, 
1447. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen, 
1447. 

Van  Wart’s  Monument,  204. 
Verazzani,  John,  1451. 
Vergennes,  Charles  G. ,  1452. 
Vermont,  State  Seal  of,  1452. 
View  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Ken- 
duskeag,  690. 

Villere’s  Mansion  near  New 
Orleans,  987. 

Virginia, Colonial  Seal  of,  1458. 
Virginia,  State  Seal  of,  1464. 

W. 

Warrex,  Gouverneur  Kem- 
I  BLE,  1475. 


Warren,  Joseph,  1475. 

Warren,  Mercy,  1476. 

Warren’s  Monument,  1475. 

Warrington,  Lewis,  1476. 

Warrington  Medal,  1067. 

Washington  Elm,  The,  1489. 

Washington  Family,  Arms  of 
the,  1483. 

Washington  Family,  Residence 
of  the,  1482. 

Washington,  Fort,  21. 

Wash  i  ngton,  Gold  M  edal  award¬ 
ed  to,  583. 

Washington,  Houdon’s  Bust  of, 
1481. 

Washington,  Lawrence,  1483. 

Washington,  Martha,  1484. 

AVashington  Medal,  1486. 

Washington  Monument  at  Bal¬ 
timore,  1486. 

Washington  Resigning  his 
Commission,  1488. 

Washington,  Sarcophagus  of, 
1486. 

Washington, William  A.,  1489. 

AVashington, William  A.,  Medal 
awarded  to,  1490. 

Washington’s  Birthplace,  Site 
of,  1481. 

Washington’s  Headquarters  at 
Cambridge,  1485. 

Washington’s  Headquarters  at 
Tappan,  47. 

Washington’s  Mother,  Tomb  of, 
1483. 

AVashington’s  New  Family 
Vault,  1486. 

Washington’s  Old  Family 
Vault,  1480. 

AVashington’s  Order  against 
Profanity,  1492. 

AVasp  on  a  Frolic  (Caricature), 
1494. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  1497. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  Gold  Medal 
awarded  to,  1498. 

Wayne’s  Monument,  1498. 

Wayne’s  Residence,  1497. 

AVebb  House,  The,  1478. 

Webster.  Daniel,  1501. 

AVebster,  Noah,  1502. 

Webster’s  Spelling  book,  Fron¬ 
tispiece  to,  1543. 


Weems,  Mason  L.,  1503. 
AFelles,  Gideon,  1504. 
Wentworth,  Benning,  976. 
AVentworth  Mansion,  1504. 
AATesley,  John,  1505. 

West,  Benjamin,  1506. 

West  Virginia,  State  Seal  of, 
1508. 

AVhipple.  Abraham.  1513. 
AVhite,  William,  1516. 

AVigwam,  An  Indian,  1519. 
Wilkes,  John,  1521. 

AVilkinson.  James,  1521. 
AVillett,  Marinus,  i522. 
Williams,  FJeazar,  1524. 
AVilliams,  Otho  H.,  1525. 
Williams, Roger,  Landing-place 
of,  1526. 

Wilson,  Henry,  1529. 

Winder,  AA’iHiam  H.,  1533. 
Winslow,  Edward,  1533. 
Winslow,  John  A.,  1534. 
Wintermoot’s.  1648. 

AArinthrop,  John,  1535. 
Wisconsin,  State  Seal  of,  1536. 
Wise,  Henry  A.,  1536. 

Witches’  Hill,  1539. 

Wolfe,  James,  1540. 

Wolfe’s  Monument,  1170. 
Wolfe’s  Ravine,  1169. 
Woodhull,  General,  House  in 
which  he  Died,  1544. 

Wood’s  Monument  at  West 
Point,  1542. 

Wool,  John  E.,  1544. 

Wooster,  David,  1545. 

Worden,  J.  L.,  1546. 

Wright,  H.G.,  1547. 

Wyoming  Monument,  1549. 

Y. 

Yates,  Richard,  1551. 

Yeo,  Sir  J.  Lucas,  1553. 

York  in  1813,  1553. 

Yorktown,  Remains  of  British 
Works  at,  1556. 

Z. 

Zinzendorf,  Nicolaus  Lud¬ 
wig,  1560. 

Zouave,  Ellsworth,  1561. 


Harpers’  Popular  Cyclopedia 

OF  THE 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


A. 


Abbadie,  M.  de,  Governor  of  Louisiana  1763- 
65.  The  King  of  France  had  a  factory  at  New 
Orleans,  and,  in  1763,  Abbadie  arrived  and  as¬ 
sumed  the  functions  of  its  director-general  with 
the  powers-  of  a  military  commandant.  In  1764, 
lie  was  ordered  to  surrender  the  country  to 
Spain,  which  he  did  at  the  close  of  the  year. 
Grief  at  this  change  in  his  fortunes  caused  his 
death,  Feb.  4,  1765.  Abbadie  was  a  man  of 
noble  impulses ;  he  protected  the  Indians, 
caused  the  masters  to  treat  their  slaves  more 
kindly,  and  in  many  ways  endeared  himself  to 
the  Louisianians. 

Abbott,  Jacob,  an  eminent  writer  for  youth, 
was  born  at  Hallowell,  Maine,  Nov.  14,  1803  ; 
died  at  Farmington,  Maine,  Oct.  31,  1879.  He 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1820,  and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1825. 
From  1825  to  1829  he  was  professor  of  mathe¬ 
matics  and  natural  philosophy  in  Amherst  Col¬ 
lege.  He  chose  the  pursuit  of  literature  in  the 
attractive  and  useful  held  of  affording  instruc¬ 
tion  to  the  young.  One  of  the  earliest  of  his 
almost  200  volumes  printed  was  The  Young 
Christian,  issued  the  year  of  his  graduation  at 
Andover.  His  books  are  remarkable  for  their 
wealth  of  informatiou,  their  absolute  purity  of 
tone  and  expression,  and  for  their  wonderful  at¬ 
tractiveness  for  the  young  of  both  sexes.  Few 
men  have  done  so  much  for  the  intellectual  and 
moral  training  of  the  young  for  lives  of  useful¬ 
ness  as  Jacob  Abbott.  His  interest  in  young 
people  never  abated  through  a  long  and  labori¬ 
ous  life.  His  later  years  were  spent  upon  tbe 
old  homestead  at  Farmington,  significantly 
called  “Few  Acres,”  for  its  area  of  land  was 
small  and  it  was  cultivated  and  adorned  by  the 
hands  of  its  owner.  His  personal  character  was 
as  lovely  as  his  most  ardent  admirer,  among  his 
millions  of  readers,  could  imagine. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot  (brother  of 
Jacob),  historian,  was  born  at  Brunswick,  Maine, 
Sept.  18,  1805.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  Col¬ 
lege  in  1825,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Sem¬ 
inary  in  1829.  Ordained  minister  in  1830,  and 
first  settled  at  Worcester.  His  first  work, 
Mother  at  Home,  has  been  translated  into  several 
foreign  languages.  His  literary  labors  have 

L— 1 


been  chiefly  in  the  field  of  history.  He  was 
settled  over  a  congregation  in  Fair  Haven, 
Conn.,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  June  17,  1877. 

Abenakes,  or  Abnakis  (men  of  the  Eastern 
Land),  a  group  of  Algonquiu  tribes  originally 
occupying  the  State  of  Maine.  They  adhered 
to  the  French,  whose  missionaries  converted 
most  of  them  to  Christianity.  (See  Algon- 
quins.) 

Abercrombie,  James,  was  born  at  Glassangh, 
Scotland,  in  1706 ;  died  April  28,  1781,  while 
governor  of  Stirling  Castle.  In  1746  he  became 
a  colonel  in  the  British  army;  was  made  major- 
general  in  1756,  lieutenant-general  in  1759,  and 
general  in  1772.  He  came  to  America  in  1756, 
where  he  held  the  chief  military  command  until 
the  arrival  of  Lord  Loudon.  After  the  depart¬ 
ure  of  that  officer,  Abercrombie  resumed  the 
command.  In  July,  1758,  he  attacked  Ticonde- 
roga  with  a  large  force,  but  was  repulsed  (see 
Ticonderoga)  with  a  loss  of  about  2000  men. 
He  was  succeeded  by  General  Amherst  in  Sep¬ 
tember  following,  returned  to  England  in  1759, 
and  became  a  member  of  Parliament,  wherein 
he  advocated  the  obnoxious  measures  that  led 
to  the  war  of  the  Revolution  in  1775. 

Abercrombie,  James  W.,  died  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  June  24,  1775.  Son  of  General  James 
Abercrombie.  He  had  served  on  the  staff  of 
General  Amherst,  in  America,  and  w  as  commis¬ 
sioned  a  lieutenant  in  the  British  army  in  March, 
1770.  While  leading  the  British  Grenadiers  in 
the  battle  of  Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill,  June  17, 
1775,  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

Abercrombie,  John  Joseph,  graduated  at  the 
West  Point  Military  Academy  in  1822.  Enter¬ 
ing  the  1st  Infantry,  he  was  its  adjutant  from 
1825  to  1833.  Serving  in  Florida  and  Mexico,  he 
was  promoted  to  brevet-lieutenant-colonel  for 
gallantry  in  the  battle  of  Monterey  (which  see), 
where  he  was  severely  wounded.  He  was  com¬ 
missioned  lieutenant-colonel  in  May,  1852,  col¬ 
onel  in  Feb.  1861,  and  was  breveted  brigadier- 
general  U.  S.  Army  March  13,  1865.  Iu  June 
following  he  retired.  He  was  a  brigadier-gen¬ 
eral  of  volunteers  iu  the  Civil  War,  and  com¬ 
manded  a  brigade  in  Patterson’s  division  on  the 


ABOLITION  CONVENTION 


2 


ACADIANS 


Upper  Potomac  in  1861.  He  was  transferred  to 
Banks’s  division  in  July.  Early  in  1862  he 
joined  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  was  slightly 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks. 

Abolition  Convention  (1794).  Societies  and 
individuals  had,  from  time  to  time,  called  the  at¬ 
tention  of  Congress  to  the  subject  of  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  slavery  and  the  slave-trade.  There  were 
several  abolition  societies  formed  in  various 
parts  of  the  free-labor  states,  and  these  sent  del¬ 
egates  to  a  convention  at  Philadelphia,  which 
opened  Jan.  1,  1794.  The  Convention  presented 
a  carefully  worded  petition  to  Congress,  praying 
that  body  to  do  what  it  might, constitutionally, 
for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade,  to  which 
the  Constitution  gave  a  lease  of  life  for  sixteen 
years  longer.  This  memorial,  with  several  pe¬ 
titions  from  Friends,  or  Quakers,  was  referred 
to  a  select  committee.  A  bill  which  the  com¬ 
mittee  reported  wras  passed  without  opposition. 
It  prohibited  the  fitting-out  of  ships  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  for  supplying  any  foreign  country  with 
slaves,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  the  vessel 
and  a  tine  of  $2000.  This  was  the  first  act  of  Con¬ 
gress  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave- traffic. 

Abolition  of  the  Slave-trade  in  Virginia. 

While  Jefferson  was  on  his  way  to  attend  a 
meeting  of  the  Convention  of  Virginia  (August, 
1774),  he  was  detained  by  sickness.  He.  sent  for¬ 
ward  a  paper  for  the  consideration  of  that  body, 
in  which  his  convictions  concerning  slavery  and 
the  slave-trade  were  freely  uttered,  and  foreshad¬ 
owed  his  draft  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen¬ 
dence.  He  made  special  complaints  of  the 
wrongs  to  Virginia  by  forcing  slavery  upon 
her,  by  the  king’s  repeated  veto  of  laws  for  its 
banishment.  The  paper  was  approved  every¬ 
where,  and  the  following  resolution,  afterwards 
offered  by  Peyton  Randolph,  was  passed  by  the 
Virginia  Assembly :  “  After  the  first  day  of 
November  next,  we  will  neither  ourselves  im¬ 
port,  nor  purchase  any  slave  or  slaves  imported 
by  any  other  person,  either  from  Africa,  the  West 
Indies,  or  any  other  place.”  Nearly  all  Virginia 
agreed  to  it,  and  the  traffic  ceased  for  a  time. 

Acadia,  or  Acadie,  the  ancient  name  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  adjacent  regions.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  visited  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1498, 
but  the  first  attempt  to  plant  a  settlement  there 
was  by  De  Monts,  in  1604,  who  obtained  a  char¬ 
ter  from  the  King  of  France  for  making  settle¬ 
ments  and  carrying  on  trade.  In  that  charter 
it  is  called  Cadi6,  and  by  the  early  settlers  it 
was  known  as  L’AcadiA  A  settlement  was  made 
at  a  place  named  Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis), by 
Poutrincourt,  a  bosom  friend  of  De  Monts,  but  it 
was  broken  up  in  1613,  by  Argali,  from  Virginia 
(see  De  Monts).  In  1621,  the  peninsula  was 
granted  to  Sir  William  Alexander  (see  Alex¬ 
ander).  It  was  finally  settled  by  the  French, 
and  was  known  as  Acadia  until  it  was  ceded  to 
the  English  in  1713.  The  Acadians  quietly  re¬ 
mained  after  the  cession,  and,  having  taken  an 
oath  of  fidelity  to  the  British  king,  they  were 
known  in  the  English  -  American  colonies  as 
the  Neutral  French  (see  Acadians).  After  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713),  the  question  arose, 


“  What  is  meant  by  the  ‘  ancient  limits  of  Aca¬ 
dia?’ ”  The  English  claimed,  under  that  appel¬ 
lation,  both  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy — in  fact, 
the  whole  region  eastward  of  the  Penobscot. 
The  French  limited  it  to  the  peninsula  now 
known  as  Nova  Scotia,  claiming  the  north  shore 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  as  a  part  of  Canada.  After 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  these  opposing 
claims  were  pressed  with  vigor.  De  la  Galis- 
8onniere,  governor  of  Canada,  one  of  the  boun¬ 
dary  commissioners,  proceeded  (1749)  to  Paris, 
with  a  vast  number  of  documents,  to  settle  the 
question  ;  and  troops  from  Canada  established 
the  military  posts  of  Gaspereau  and  Beau  S£jour 
at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  isthmus  which  con¬ 
nects  Nova  Scotia  with  the  main  and  sepa¬ 
rates  the  Bay  of  Fundy  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law¬ 
rence.  In  that  vicinity  was  planted  a  consider¬ 
able  body  of  French  colonists,  warmly  attached 
to  their  ancient  government.  Colonel  Cornwal¬ 
lis,  English  governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  not  having 
sufficient  force  to  expel  the  intruders,  caused 
two  opposing  forts  to  be  built  at  Beau  Bassin 
and  Menas.  Meanwhile  the  French  had  estab¬ 
lished  a  fort  near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John. 

Acadia,  English  Settlers  in.  Nova  Scotia 
having  been  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (which  see),  Parliament  vot¬ 
ed  $200,000  to  pay  the  expenses  of  settling  an 
English  colony  there.  Nearly  3800  adventurers 
were  sent  over  in  1749,  and  settled  on  the  bor¬ 
ders  of  the  Bay  of  Chebucto,  where  they  founded 
the  town  of  Halifax,  and  fortified  it  as  the  seat 
of  the  English  government  there.  These  colo¬ 
nists  were  accompanied  by  Colonel  Edward 
Cornwallis  as  their  governor.  The  Acadians,  or 
former  French  settlers,  were  allowed  peaceably 
to  remain  there,  and,  having  sworn  never  to  take 
up  arms  against  their  countrymen,  submitted 
to  the  English  government,  and  were  called 
“  French  Neutrals.” 

Acadians.  A  colony  of  Bretons,  from  France, 
settled  at  Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis),  in  Nova 
Scotia  in  1604-5  (see  De  Monts)-,  and  the  terri¬ 
tory  now  included  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns¬ 
wick,  and  the  adjacent  islands  was  called  Aca¬ 
dia.  These  French  emigrants  built  cottages 
sixteen  years  before  the  Pilgrims  landed  on  the 
shores  of  New  England.  When  English  people 
came,  antagonisms  arising  from  difference  of  re¬ 
ligion  and  nationality  appeared,  and,  after  re¬ 
peated  struggles  between  the  English  and 
French  for  the  possession  of  Acadia,  it  was  ced¬ 
ed  to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in 
1713.  But  for  many  years  not  a  dozen  English 
families  were  seen  there.  The  descendants  of 
the  early  French  settlers  occupied  the  land,  and 
were  a  peaceable,  pastoral  people,  who  never  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  forays  of  the  French  and  Indians 
along  the  New  England  frontiers.  They  were 
attached  to  their  fatherland  and  their  religion, 
and  they  refused  to  fight  against  the  former  or 
abjure  the  latter.  This  attitude  was  accorded 
to  them  by  solemn  agreements,  and  they  were 
known  as  “  French  Neutrals.”  They  were  happy 
in  their  neutrality,  and  in  their  isolation  they 
formed  one  great  and  loving  family.  Pure  in 


ACADIANS 


3 


ACADIANS 


morals,  pious  without  bigotry,  honest,  industri¬ 
ous  ami  frugal,  they  presented  an  outline  pict¬ 
ure  of  Utopia.  When  New-Euglanders  began  to 
colonize  Nova  Scotia  vigorously,  their  priests, 
fired  with  zeal  for  the  Church,  disturbed  their 
repose  by  dread  of  “  heretics”  and  warnings  not 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great  Britain. 
“  Better,”  said  the  Jesuits,  “  surrender  your 
meadows  to  the  sea,  and  your  treasures  to  the 
flames,  than,  at  the  peril  of  your  souls,  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  British  govern¬ 
ment.”  So  the  priests,  with  which  Canada  fur¬ 
nished  them,  and  on  whom  they  implicitly  re¬ 
lied,  disturbed  the  peace  and  led  them  on  to 
their  ruinous  troubles.  At  one  time  they  would 
resolve  to  flee  to  Canada ;  at  another  the  love  of 
their  homes  would  make  them  resolve  to  remain. 
The  haughtiness  of  British  officers  aided  the 
priests  in  fomenting  disaffection.  The  English 
despised  the  Acadians  because  they  were  help¬ 
less  in  their  lack  of  knowledge  of  English  laws, 
and  they  were  continually  robbed  of  their  rights 
and  property  by  English  officials.  Was  any  of 
their  property  demanded  for  the  public  service, 
they  were  “not  to  be  bargained  with  for  pay¬ 
ment;”  so  the  orders  ran.  Under  various  pre¬ 
tences  they  were  continually  shorn,  yet  they 
meekly  submitted  to  the  tyranny  of  their  masters. 
The  English  officers  were  authorized  to  punish 
Acadians  for  what  they  might  deem  misbehavior, 
at  their  discretion,  and  if  British  troops  should 
be  annoyed  by  them,  they  might  inflict  vengeance 
on  the  nearest  Acadians  “  whether  guilty  or  not.” 
Finally,  persuaded  by  the  French  government 
aud  their  priests,  the  Acadians  abandoned  near¬ 
ly  all  of  the  peninsula,  and  settled  themselves 
in  a  fertile  region  on  the  isthmus  between  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and 
Northumberland  Strait.  The  object  of  the 
movement  was  to  make  them  form  a  barrier 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  English. 
There  the  French  built  two  forts,  the  principal 
of  which  was  Beau  S6jour,  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
where  the  isthmus  is  only  fifteen  miles  wide.  In 
June,  1755,  a  land  and  naval  armament  came 
from  Boston,  landed  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  captured  the  forts,  and  took  military 
possession  of  the  country  of  the  French  Neu¬ 
trals.  The  French  soldiers  were  sent  to  Louis- 
burg,  and  the  Acadians  who  had  been  forced 
into  the  French  service  were  granted  an  amnes¬ 
ty.  They  readily  took  an  oath  of  allegiance,  ex¬ 
pected  forbearance,  and  went  on  quietly  culti¬ 
vating  their  land.  But  the  exasperation  of  the 
people  of  New  England,  because  of  the  horrible 
forays  of  the  French  and  Indians  on  their  fron¬ 
tiers,  had  to  be  appeased,  aud  vengeance  was 
inflicted  upon  these  innocent  people.  It  was  re¬ 
solved  to  banish  the  French  Neutrals  from  their 
country.  Governor  Shirley  had  proposed  it  years 
before,  in  order  to  supply  their  place  with  Prot¬ 
estants;  and  the  British  government  had  pro¬ 
moted  emigration  thither,  that  a  strong  admixt¬ 
ure  of  Protestants  might  neutralize  the  efforts 
of  the  priests  to  make  the  Acadians  disloyal. 
Now  Shirley’s  scheme  was  adopted,  aud  Gener¬ 
al  Winslow,  who  commanded  the  invaders,  was 
made  the  executor  of  it.  The  Acadians  were 


driven  from  their  country,  and  scattered  among 
the  English  colonies.  (See  Acadians,  Expulsion 
of  the.)  Even  in  this  sad  and  bitter  exile  they 
were  subjected  to  the  hatred  and  cruelty  of 
English  officials.  When  Lord  Loudoun  was  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  America,  some  of  the  Aca¬ 
dians  settled  in  Pennsylvania  ventured  to  ad¬ 
dress  a  respectful  petition  to  him.  Offended 
because  the  document  was  in  the  French  lan¬ 
guage,  the  earl  seized  five  of  the  leading  men 
who  sigued  the  petition,  and  who  had  been  per¬ 
sons  of  wealth  and  distinction  in  Acadia,  and 
sent  them  to  England,  with  a  request  that,  to 
prevent  their  being  troublesome  in  the  future, 
they  should  be  consigned  to  hard  service  as 
common  sailors  in  the  Royal  navy.  The  king 
seems  to  have  approved  the  measure ;  and  the 
Lords  of  Trade,  when  the  desolation  of  Acadia 
was  made  complete,  congratulated  the  profli¬ 
gate  monarch  that  the  zeal  of  the  Governor  of 
Nova  Scotia,  who  had  driven  them  away,  had 
been  “  crowned  with  entire  success.”  Exqui¬ 
sitely  cruel  was  the  treatment  these  poor  people 
received  at  the  hands  of  their  conquerors.  The 
method  employed  to  legally  dispossess  the  Aca¬ 
dians  of  their  coveted  lauds  was  most  disgrace¬ 
ful.  They  had  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance,  but 
refused  to  take  an  oath  that  they  would  bear 
arms  against  the  French  if  required,  and  prac¬ 
tically  abjure  their  religion.  Exemption  from 
this  had  been  solemnly  promised  them.  The 
Governor  of  Nova  Scotia  referred  the  matter  to 
the  chief-justice  of  the  province,  as  a  technical 
question  in  law,  whether  one  who  refuses  to 
take  all  required  oaths  could  hold  lands  in  the 
British  dominions.  The  chief -justice  decided 
against  the  Acadians,  and  it  was  determined  to 
take  their  lands  away  from  them,  and  distribute 
them  .among  the  English  colonists.  The  French 
government  asked  leave  for  the  Acadians  to  take 
with  them  their  effects  and  to  settle  where  they 
chose.  “  No,”  replied  their  masters,  “  they  are 
too  useful  subjects  to  be  lost;  we  must  enrich 
our  colonies  with  them.”  Unfortunately  for 
the  poor  people,  some  of  their  best  men  present¬ 
ed  a  petition  to  the  governor  at  Halifax.  He 
would  not  receive  it,  and  demanded  that  they 
should  immediately  take  the  oaths  required  be¬ 
fore  the  Council.  “  We  will  do  as  our  people 
may  determine,”  they  meekly  replied,  and  asked 
permission  to  return  home  and  consult  them. 
The  next  day,  perceiving  the  perilous  position  of 
their  people,  they  offered  to  take  the  oaths.  “  By 
a  law  of  the  realm,”  said  the  governor,  “  Roman 
Catholics,  who  have  once  refused  to  take  the 
oaths,  cannot  be  permitted  to  do  so  afterwards, 
aud  are  considered  Popish  recusants.”  They 
were  cast  into  prison,  and  the  chief-justice  de¬ 
cided  that  all  the  French  inhabitants — hundreds 
of  innocent  families  who  were  ignorant  of  all 
these  proceedings — were  “  rebels  and  Popish  re¬ 
cusants,”  and  stood  in  the  way  of  “English  in¬ 
terests  ”  in  the  country,  and  that  they  had  for¬ 
feited  all  their  possessions  to  the  crown.  So 
their  doom  was  sealed. 

Acadians,  Expulsion  of  the.  The  English 
conquerors  of  Nova  Scotia,  or  Acadia,  were  made 
uneasy  by  the  presence,  in  that  country,  of  1*J,000 


ACADIANS 


4 


ACCIDENTAL  DISCOVERERS 


or  15,000  French  Roman  Catholics  attached  to 
their  fatherland  and  their  Church,  and  in  close 
friendship  with  the  surrounding  Indian  tribes. 
The  English  also  coveted  the  rich  lauds  in  pos¬ 
session  of  this  simple,  pastoral  people  (see  Aca- 
dians),  and  it  was  determined  at  a  council  of  the 
local  government  at  Halifax  to  carry  out  the 
atrocious  proposal  of  Governor  Shirley,  namely, 
to  remove  them  in  a  body  from  the  peninsula, 
and  distribute  them  among  the  several  English 
colonies.  If  they  were  permitted  to  go  to  Can¬ 
ada  or  Cape  Breton,  they  would  thus  strengthen 
the  enemies  of  the  English;  to  distribute  them 
would  destroy  their  strength  and  prevent  at¬ 
tempts  to  return.  To  accomplish  this,  a  dis¬ 
graceful  artifice  was  employed.  The  English  au¬ 
thorities  issued  a  proclamation,  ordering  “  both 
old  and  young  men,  as  well  as  all  the  lads  of  ten 
years  of  age,”  to  assemble  on  Sept.  5,  1755,  at 
designated  places.  They  obeyed.  The  proceed¬ 
ings  at  one  place  afford  a  fair  picture  of  those 
at  all  others.  At  Grand-Pit;,  418  unarmed  men 
and  youths  were  assembled,  and  marched  into 
the  church.  There  General  Winslow  told  them 
they  had  been  called  together  to  hear  the  de¬ 
cision  of  the  King  of  England  in  regard  to  the 
French  inhabitants  of  the  proviuce.  “  Your 
lauds  and  tenements,”  he  said,  “  cattle  of  all 
kinds,  and  live  stock  of  all  sorts,  are  forfeited 
to  the  crown,  and  you,  yourselves,  are  to  he 
removed  from  this  his  province.  I  am,  through 
his  majesty’s  goodness,  directed  to  allow  you 
liberty  to  carry  off  your  money  and  household 
goods,  as  many  as  you  can,  without  discom¬ 
moding  the  vessels  yon  go  in.  You  are  vow 
the  king' 8 prisoners."  Every  household  in  Graud- 
Pr6  was  filled  with  consternation.  At  Grand- 
Pr6  alone  1923  men,  women,  and  children 
were  driven  on  board  British  vessels  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet.  Fully  2000  were  thus 
expelled  from  their  homes  in  Acadia.  The 
men  and  boys  assembled  at  the  church  went 
first ;  the  sisters,  wives,  aud  daughters  had  to 
wait  for  other  transports.  They  marched  from 
the  chui'ch  to  the  water’s  edge,  some  in  sullen 
despair,  others  with  hands  clasped  and  eyes  up¬ 
lifted,  praying  and  weeping,  and  others  singing 
hymns,  while  on  each  side  of  the  sad  procession 
was  a  row  of  women  and  children  on  their  knees, 
imploring  blessings  upon  the  heads  of  dear  ones. 
They  were  all  finally  distributed  in  the  various 
English  colonies.  Many  families,  separated  at 
the  outset  by  the  cruel  arrangements  for  their 
transportation,  were  never  reunited  ;  and  for  a 
long  time  the  colonial  newspapers  contained  ad¬ 
vertisements  seeking  information  about  frag¬ 
ments  of  dismembered  families.  They  were 
dropped  along  the  shores  of  the  English  colonies, 
from  the  Penobscot  to  the  Savannah,  without 
resources,  and  ignorant  of  the  language  of  the 
people  among  whom  they  were  thrust,  except¬ 
ing  in  South  Carolina,  where  the  Huguenot  fam¬ 
ilies  treated  them  with  great  kindness.  They 
abhorred  the  alms-house  and  dreaded  service  in 
English  families.  They  yearned  intensely  for 
their  native  land  and  kindred  in  language  aud 
religion.  Many  wandered  through  the  forests 
to  Canada  and  Louisiana  —  men,  women,  aud 


children— sheltered  in  bush-camps  and  kindly 
cared  for  by  the  Indians,  that  they  might  rest 
under  French  dominion.  Some  families  went  to 
sea  in  open  boats,  to  find  their  way  hack  to  Aca¬ 
dia  ;  and,  coasting  along  the  shores  of  New  Eng¬ 
land,  were  there  met  by  orders  from  Nova  Scotia 
to  stop  all  returning  fugitives.  Many  touching 
stories  of  parents  seeking  their  children,  hus¬ 
bands  their  wives,  aud  lovers  their  affianced 
have  been  related.  It  is  a  sad,  sad  story  of 
man’s  inhumanity  to  man. 

Accession  of  Rhode  Island  to  the  Union. 

Rhode  Island  at  first  refused  to  consider  the 
National  Constitution  ;  hut  when  the  new  Na¬ 
tional  Government  went  into  operation  under 
it,  the  people  of  that  little  state  (who  had  been 
generously  offered  by  the  new  Constitution  an 
equal  representation  in  the  National  Senate  with 
the  largest  state),  began  to  feel  their  isolation 
keenly,  and  early  in  1790  the  Legislature,  by  the 
casting  vote  of  the  governor,  authorized  the  call¬ 
ing  of  a  State  Convention  to  take  that  funda¬ 
mental  law  of  the  land  into  consideration.  In 
that  convention  there  was  a  majority  of  oppo¬ 
nents  of  the  Constitution.  They  dared  not  reject 
the  instrument  outright,  and  postponed  action  by 
carrying  a  motion  for  adjournment.  The  seces¬ 
sion  of  the  two  commercial  towns  of  Providence 
aud  Newport  was  openly  talked  of,  as  was  also 
a  partition  of  the  whole  state  between  Massa¬ 
chusetts  and  Connecticut.  At  length  (May  18, 
1790)  the  National  Senate  passed  a  bill,  and  sent 
it  down  to  the  House,  for  prohibiting  commer¬ 
cial  intercourse  with  the  recusant  state,  aud  au¬ 
thorizing  a  demand  upon  it  for  her  quota  towards 
the  Continental  debt.  On  the  reassembling  of 
the  Rhode  Island  Convention,  the  Constitution 
was  ratified  by  a  majority  of  two  votes.  The 
convention  proposed  twenty-one  amendments  to 
the  Constitution,  and  adopted  a  Bill  of  Rights. 
On  the  1st  of  June,  1790,  the  President,  in  a  mes¬ 
sage  to  both  Houses,  announced  the  accession  of 
Rhode  Island.  Thus  the  thirteen  states  were 
again  united. 

Accidental  Discoverers.  About  the  year 
860,  Noddodr,  an  illustrious  sea-rover,  driven  by 
a  storm,  discovered  Iceland,  and  named  it  Snow- 
land.  Not  many  years  afterwards,  Earl  Ingolf, 
of  Norway,  sought  Iceland  as  a  refuge  from  tyr¬ 
anny,  and  planted  a  colony  there.  Greenland 
was  discovered  by  accident.  One  of  the  early 
settlers  in  Iceland  was  driven  westward  on  the 
sea  by  a  storm,  aud  discovered  Greenland.  To 
that  retreat  Eric  the  Red  was  compelled  to 
fly  from  Iceland,  and  finding  it  more  fertile 
than  the  latter,  named  it  Greenland,  made  it 
his  place  of  abode,  and  attracted  other  North¬ 
men  thither.  Among  Eric’s  followers  was  a 
Norwegian,  whose  son  Bjarni,  or  Biarne,  a 
promising  young  man,  trading  between  Nor¬ 
way  and  Iceland,  and  finding  his  father  gone 
with  Eric,  proposed  to  his  crew  to  go  to 
his  parent  in  Greenland.  They  were  driven 
westward,  aud,  it  is  believed,  they  saw  the 
American  continent  in  the  year  986.  The 
sons  of  Eric  heard  the  stories  of  Bjarni,  and 
one  of  them,  Lief,  sailed  in  search  of  the  new- 


ACUERA’S  REBUKE 


ACLAND  5 

]y  discovered,  land,  and  found  it.  -(See  North¬ 
men .) 

Acland,  Christina  Harriet  Caroline  Fox, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ilehester,  was  horn  in 
1750 ;  died  at  Tetteu,  near  Taunton,  England, 
July  21, 1815.  She  married,  in  1770,  Major  John 
Dyke  Acland,  of  the  British  army,  who  was 
with  Burgoyne  in  his  campaign  in  Northern 
New  York,  which  ended  with  the  capture  of 
himself  and  army  at  Saratoga  in  the  autumn 
of  1777.  In  the  battle  of  October  7,  her  hus¬ 
band  was  severely  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 
She  obtained  permission  to  join  him  within  the 
American  lines,  where  she  tenderly  nursed  him. 
She  had  accompanied  her  husband  during  the 
whole  campaign,  and  had  won  the  admiration 
of  all  by  her  gentle  spirit,  her  wifely  devotion, 
and  her  fortitude.  After  Major  Acland’s  re¬ 
covery  they  went  to  New  York  and  thence  to 
England.  She  is  familiarly  known  as  “Lady 
Harriet  Acland.”  The  popular  story  that,  af¬ 
ter  her  husband’s  death  in  a  duel,  she  became 
insane  for  a  time,  and  finally  married  Mr. 
Brudenell,  a  chaplain  in  Burgoyne’s  army 
(who  accompanied  her  through  the  lines  to 
her  wounded  husband),  is  untrue.  She  died  the 
widow  of  Major  Acland,  as  the  burial  register 
attests,  according  to  a  letter  received  by  Will¬ 
iam  L.  Stone  from  Sir  Thomas  Dyke  Acland,  a 
grand-nephew  of  Major  Acland.  In  that  letter 


it  is  asserted  that  the  story  that  Major  Acland 
was  “shot  through  the  head  and  killed”  in  a 
duel  is  equally  untrue.  (See  Acland ,  Major.) 

Acland,  Major  John  Dyke,  was  an  officer 
in  the  British  array,  and  a  commander  of  gren¬ 
adiers.  He  was  with  Burgoyne  in  his  invasion 
of  Northern  New  York  in  1777,  and  at  the  same 
time  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament.  In  the 
battle  at  Saratoga  (Oct.  7,  1777)  he  was  severe¬ 
ly  wounded  — shot  through  the  legs — and  made 
a  prisoner.  Taken  to  the  American  headquar¬ 
ters  on  Bemis’s  Heights,  his  devoted  wife,  Lady 


Harriet,  was  permitted  to  pass  through  the 
lines  and  attend  him.  She  was  kindly  re¬ 
ceived  and  treated  by  the  American  officers, 


and  their  bearing  towards  their  wounded  pris¬ 
oners  excited  the. Major’s  gratitude  and  warm 
esteem.  After  his  return  to  England  he  was 
provoked  to  give  the  lie  direct  to  Lieutenant 
Lloyd,  at  a  dinner-party,  because  the  latter 
cast  aspersions  upon  the  Americans.  A  duel 
ensued  on  Bampton  Down.  The  Major  was  un¬ 
hurt,  but  a  severe  cold,  which  he  contracted  at 
the  time  of  the  duel,  culminated  in  a  fever, 
which  caused  his  death  at  his  seat  at  Pixton, 
Somersetshire  (now  the  residence  of  the  Earl 
of  Carnarvon,  a  great-grandson  of  Lady  Ac- 
laud),  on  the  31st  of  October,  1778.  His  wid¬ 
ow  survived  him  thirty-seven  years. — Sketch  of 
Lady  Acland  by  W.  L.  Stone.  (See  Acland,  Chris¬ 
tina  Harriet  Caroline  Fox.) 

Acuera’s  Rebuke.  The  cruelties  of  Nar¬ 
vaez  and  De  Soto  in  Florida  aroused  among  the 
native  tribes  feelings  of  the  bitterest  hatred. 
Narvaez  caused  a  captive  cacique,  or  chief,  to 
be  mutilated  after  the  first  engagement  with 
the  hostile  Indians.  His  nose  was  cut  off,  and 
he  was  otherwise  disfigured ;  and  the  invader 
caused  fierce  blood-hounds  to  tear  the  chief’s 
mother  in  pieces  in  the  presence  of  her  chil¬ 
dren.  Narvaez  supposed  this  would  strike  ter¬ 
ror,  and  make  conquest  easy;  but  he  was  mis¬ 
taken.  (See  Narvaez.)  De  Soto  had  blood¬ 
hounds,  iron  neck  -  collars,  hand -cuffs,  ehains, 
and  instruments  of  torture,  wherewith  to  sub¬ 
due  the  barbariaus,  who  were  really  less  bar¬ 
barous  than  he.  He  loaded  his  captives  with 
chains,  and  made  beasts  of  burden  of  them  re¬ 
gardless  of  age  or  sex.  After  some  acts  of  this 
kind,  he  sought  to  conciliate  Acuera,  a  Creek 
cacique,  or  ruler,  whose  territory  he  had  in¬ 
vaded,  for  he  was  powerful,  and  commanded 
many  warriors.  De  Soto  invited  the  dusky 
sovereign  to  a  friendly  interview,  when  he  re¬ 
ceived  from  Acuera  this  haughty  reply:  “Oth- 


ADAIR 


6 


ADAMS 


ers  of  your  accursed  race  [Narvaez  and  his 
men]  have,  in  years  past,  disturbed  onr  peace¬ 
ful  shores.  They  have  taught  me  what  you 
are.  What  is  your  employment?  To  wander 
about  like  vagabonds  from  laud  to  land ;  to 
rob  the  poor  and  weak ;  to  betray  the  confid¬ 
ing  [see  Maiden  Indian  Queen'] ;  to  murder  the 
defenceless  in  cold  blood.  No!  with  such  a 
people  I  want  neither  peace  nor  friendship. 
War — never-ending,  exterminating  war — is  all 
1  ask.  You  boast  yourselves  to  be  valiant — 
and  so  you  may  be;  but  my  faithful  war¬ 
riors  are  not  less  brave,  and  of  this  you  shall 
one  day  have  proof,  for  I  have  sworn  to  main¬ 
tain  an  unsparing  conflict  while  one  white  man 
remains  in  my  borders;  not  openly  in  the  bat¬ 
tle-field,  though  even  thus  we  fear  not  to  meet 
you,  but  by  stratagem,  ambush,  and  midnight 
surprisal.”  De  Soto  then  demanded  that  Acu- 
era  should  yield  obedience  to  the  Spanish  mon¬ 
arch.  “I  am  a  king  in  my  own  laud,”  said  the 
cacique,  “and  will  never  become  the  vassal  of  a 
mortal  like  myself.  Vile  and  pusillanimous  is 
he  who  submits  to  the  yoke  of  another  when 
he  may  be  free!  As  for  me  and  my  people,  we 
prefer  death  to  the  loss  of  liberty  and  the  sub¬ 
jugation  of  our  country.”  De  Soto  could  nev¬ 
er  pacify  Acuera,  and  during  the  twenty  days 
that  be  remained  in  the  cacique’s  dominions 
his  command  suffered  dreadfully.  A  Spaniard 
could  not  go  a  hundred  paces  from  his  camp 
without  being  slain,  and  his  severed  head  be¬ 
ing  carried  in  triumph  to  Acuera.  Fourteen 
Castilians  so  perished,  and  many  were  severely 
wounded.  “Keep  on!  robbers  and  traitors!” 
said  the  cacique.  “  In  my  province  and  in  Apa- 
laclia  you  \}ill  be  treated  as  you  deserve.  We 
will  quarter  and  hang  every  captive  on  the 
highest  tree.”  And  they  did  so.  (See  De 
Soto  and  Narvaez. 

Adair,  John,  born  in  Chester  Co.,  S.  C.,  in 
1757  ;  died  at  Harrodsburg,  Ky.,  May  19,  1840. 
He  served  in  the  Continental  army  during  the 
Revolution,  and  in  the  wars  against  the  frontier 
Indians,  1791-93.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator  in  Con¬ 
gress  in  1805-6 ;  and  as  volunteer  aid  to  Gen¬ 
eral  Shelby  at,  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  in  1813, 
he  showed  much  bravery  and  skill.  He  distin¬ 
guished  himself  as  commander  of  the  Kentucky 
t  roops  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  January ,  1815. 
From  1820  to  1824  he  was  Governor  of  Kentucky, 
having  served  in  the  Legislature  of  that  state  ; 
and  from  1831  to  1833  was  a  representative  in 
Congress. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  LL.D.,  son  of 
John  Quincy  Adams,  was  born  in  Boston,  Aug. 
18,  1807,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  University 
in  1825.  He  accompanied  his  father  to  St.  Pe¬ 
tersburg  and  England,  where  he  passed  much 
of  bis  childhood  until  the  return  of  his  family 
to  America  in  1817.  Mr.  Adams  studied  law  in 
the  office  of  Daniel  Webster,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1828,  but  never  practised  it  as  a 
vocation.  In  1829  he  married  a  daughter  of 
Peter  C.  Brooks,  of  Boston.  For  five  years  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Legislature  of  Massachu¬ 
setts.  Having  left  the  Whig  Party,  he  was  a 


candidate  of  the  Free-soil  Party  (which  see) 
in  1848  for  the  Vice -Presidency  of  the  United 
States,  Mr.  Van  Buren  being  the  candidate  for 
the  Presidency.  They  were  defeated.  In  1850- 
56  Mr.  Adams  published  the  Life  and  Works  of 
John  Adams  (bis  grandfather),  in  ten  volumes. 
In  1859  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  Congress 
from  the  district  which  his  father  long  repre¬ 
sented.  He  was  then  a  Republican  in  politics. 
In  March,  1861,  he  was  appointed  Minister  to 
Great  Britain,  where  he  managed  his  diplomat¬ 
ic  duties  with  much  skill  during  one  of  the 
most  trying  times  in  our  history — that  of  the 
Civil  War.  He  remained  as  American  Minister 
in  Loudon  until  1868,  when,  in  February,  he  re- 


CHAKLES  FRANCIS  ADAMS. 


signed.  In  1876  Mr.  Adams  was  first  a  Liber¬ 
al  Republican,  and  then  a  Democrat,  in  poli¬ 
tics.  His  labors  in  the  field  of  literature  have 
been  various.  From  1845  to  1848  he  edited  a 
daily  newspaper  in  Boston,  and  has  long  been 
either  a  regular  or  an  occasional  contributor  to 
the  North  American  Review.  His  principal  task 
has  been  the  preparation  of  the  Life  and  Works 
of  John  Adams,  and  a  Life  of  John  Adams,  in  two 
volumes.  He  has  also  issued  the  Life  and  Works 
of  John  Quincy  Adams ,  in  12  vol  umes.  (See  Adams’s 
Resolution,  1860.)  He  died  Nov.  21, 1886. 

Adams,  Hannah,  historian,  was  born  in 
Medfield,  Mass.,  in  1755 ;  died  at  Brookline, 
Mass.,  Nov.  15,  1831.  By  an  early  fondness  for 
study,  which  was  promoted  by  her  father,  a 
man  of  literary  tastes,  she  obtained  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  Latin  and  Greek  from  some  divinity 
students  boarding  at  her  father’s  house  before 
she  had  arrived  at  full  womanhood.  Her  fa¬ 
ther,  a  shop  -  keeper,  failed  in  business  when 
she  was  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  his  chil¬ 
dren  were  compelled  to  help  themselves.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  war  for  independence,  she  supported 
herself  by  teaching  and  lace -making.  Miss 
Adams  wrote  a  History  of  the  Jews,  in  which 
she  was  assisted  by  the  Abb6  Grdgoird,  with 
whom  she  corresponded.  She  also  wrote  a 
History  of  New  England,  published  in  1799. 
She  also  wrote  books  on  religious  subjects ; 
and,  in  1814,  she  published  a  Controversy  with 
Dr.  Morse  (Rev.  Jedidiali).  Her  autobiography, 
continued  by  Mrs.  G.  G.  Lee,  was  published  in 
|  1832.  Miss  Adams  was  small  in  stature,  very 


ADAMS 


7 


ADAMS 


deaf  in  her  old  age,  fond  of  strong  tea,  and  an 
inveterate  snuff-taker.  Slie  derived  very  little 
pecuniary  gains  from  her  writings ;  but  her 
friends  established  a  comfortable  annuity  for 
her.  She  was  one  of  the  pioneer  literary 
women  of  our  country,  possessing  rare  modes¬ 
ty  and  great  purity  of  character.  Her  re¬ 
mains  were  the  first  interred  in  Mount  Au¬ 
burn  Cemetery. 

Adams,  John,  second  President  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  ;  born  at  Braintree  ( near  Quincy ), 
Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1735;  died  there  July  4,  1826. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1755, 
and  immediately  afterwards  taught  school  at 
Worcester,  where  he  began  the  study  of  law. 
His  father  was  in  moderate  circumstances — a 
selectman  and  a  farmer.  Beginning  the  pro¬ 
fession  of  law  in  Braintree  in  1758,  he  soon 
acquired  a  good  practice ;  and,  when  he  was 
twenty-nine  years  of  age,  he  married  Abigail 
Smith,  an  accomplished  woman  possessed  of 
great  common-sense.  His  first  appearance  in 
the  political  arena  was  as  author  of  “  Instruc¬ 
tions  of  the  Town  of  Braintree  to  its  Represent- 
atives  on  the  Subject  of  the  Stamp  Act,”  which 
was  adopted  by  over  forty  towns.  Associated 
with  Gridley  and  Otis  in  supporting  a  memori- 


JOIIN  ADAMS. 


al  addressed  to  the  Governor  and  Council, pray¬ 
ing  that  the  courts  might  proceed  without  the 
use  of  stamps,  Adams  opened  the  case  by  de¬ 
claring  that  the  Stamp  Act  was  void,  as  Par¬ 
liament  had  no  right  to  make  such  a  law. 
He  began  early  to  write  political  essays  for  the 
newspapers ;  and,  in  1768,  he  went  to  Boston, 
when  the  town  was  greatly  excited  by  politi¬ 
cal  disturbances.  There  he  was  counsel  for 
Captain  Preston  in  the  case  of  the  “  Boston 
Massacre”  (which  see);  and  in  the  same  year 
(1770)  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  General 
Court.  From  that  time  John  Adams  was  a 
leader  among  the  patriots  in  Massachusetts. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Con¬ 
gress  (1774),  where  ho  took  a  leading  part.  Re¬ 


turning,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Pro¬ 
vincial  Congress.  He  was  an  efficient  speaker 
and  most  useful  committee-man  in  the  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress  until  he  was  appointed  com¬ 
missioner  to  France,  late  in  1777,  to  supersede 
Deane.  He  advocated,  helped  to  frame,  voted 
for,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Indepen¬ 
dence,  and  he  was  a  most  efficient  member  of 
the  Board  of  War  from  June,  1776,  until  De¬ 
cember,  1777.  He  reached  Paris  April  8,  1778, 
where  he  found  a  feud  between  Franklin  and 
Lee,  two  other  commissioners.  He  advised  in¬ 
trusting  that  mission  to  one  commissioner,  and 
Franklin  was  made  sole  ambassador.  He  was 
appointed  minister  (1779)  to  treat  with  Great 
Britain  for  peace,  and  sailed  for  France  in  No¬ 
vember.  He  did  not  serve  as  commissioner 
there,  but,  in  July,  1780,  he  went  to  Holland 
to  negotiate  a  loan.  He  was  also  received 
by  the  States  -  General  as  United  States  Minis¬ 
ter,  April  19,  1782.  He  obtained  a  loan  for 
Congress  of  two  million  dollars,  and  made  a 
treaty  of  amity  and  commerce.  He  returned 
to  Paris  in  October,  and  assisted  in  negotiating 
the  preliminary  treaty  of  peace.  With  Frank¬ 
lin  and  Jay,  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  com¬ 
merce  with  Great  Britain ;  and,  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  winter,  he  negotiated  for  another  Dutch 
loan.  In  1785  Adams  went  as  Minister  to  the 
English  court,  and  there  he  prepared  his  De¬ 
fence  of  the  American  Constitution.  Being  coldly 
received,  he  returned  home,  and,  in  1788,  was 
elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  un¬ 
der  the  National  Constitution.  He  sustained 
the  policy  of  Washington  through  the  eight 
years  of  his  administration,  opposed  the  French 
Revolution,  and  was  a  strong  advocate  for  the 
neutrality  of  the  United  States  (see  Washing¬ 
ton’s  Proclamation  of  Neutrality).  In  1796  he 
was  chosen  President  by  a  small  majority  over 
Jefferson,  and  his  administration  was  vehe¬ 
mently  opposed  by  the  new  party  known  as 
Republicans,  led  by  the  latter,  its  real  founder. 
He  had  much  trouble  with  the  French  Direc¬ 
tory  (which  see)  throughout  his  entire  admin¬ 
istration,  and  drew  upon  himself  great  blame 
for  favoring  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Law  (which 
see).  In  his  eagerness  for  re-election  Adams 
offended  a  powerful  faction  of  his  party,  and 
was  beaten  by  Jefferson  at  the  election  for 
President  in  1800.  Then  he  retired  to  private 
life,  where  he  watched  the  course  of  eveuts 
with  great  interest  for  twenty-five  years  long¬ 
er.  His  death  occurred  on  the  same  day,  and  at 
almost  the  same  hour,  as  that  of  Jefferson,  his 
colleague  on  the  drafting  -  committee  and  in 
signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  fif¬ 
ty  years  before.  His  biography,  diary,  essays, 
and  correspondence  were  edited  and  published, 
in  ten  octavo  volumes,  by  his  grandson,  Charles 
Francis  Adams.  Though  courteous  in  his  man¬ 
ner  usually,  he  was,  at  times,  irritable  and  im¬ 
perious.  (See  Adams’s  Scheme  of  Government.) 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  sixth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Braintree,  Mass., 
July  11,  1767  ;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb. 
23,  1848.  He  was  a  son  of  President  John 
Adams,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  University 


ADAMS 


8 


ADAMS 


in  1787.  In  February,  1778,  he  accompanied 
his  father  to  Frauce,  where  he  studied  the 
French  and  Latin  languages  for  nearly  two 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS. 


years.  After  an  interval,  he  returned  to  Frauce, 
and  resumed  his  studies,  which  were  subse¬ 
quently  pursued  at  Amsterdam  and  at  the 
University  of  Leyden.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
years,  he  accompanied  Mr.  Dana  to  Russia  as 
liis  private  secretary.  The  next  year  he  spent 
some  time  at  Stockholm,  Copenhagen,  and  Ham¬ 
burg.  He  afterwards  accompanied  his  father 
(who  was  American  Minister)  to  England  aud 
France,  and  returned  home  with  him  early  in 
1785.  After  his  graduation  at  Harvard,  he 
studied  law  with  the  eminent  Theophilus  Par¬ 
sons,  practised  at  Boston,  and  soon  became  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  a  political  writer.  In  1791  he 
published  a  series  of  articles  in  favor  of  neu¬ 
trality  with  France  over  the  signature  of  “Pub¬ 
lius.”  He  was  engaged  in  the  diplomatic  ser¬ 
vice  of  his  country  as  Minister,  successively,  to 
Holland,  England,  and  Prussia  from  1794  to 
1801.  He  received  a  commission,  in  1798,  to  ne¬ 
gotiate  a  treaty  with  Sweden.  At  Berlin  he 
wrrote  a  series  of  Letters  from  Silesia.  Mr. 
Adams  married  Louisa,  daughter  of  Joshua 
Johnson,  American  Consul  at  London,  in  1797. 
He  took  a  seat  in  the  Senate  of  Massachusetts 
in  1802,  and  he  occupied  one  in  that  of  the 
United  States  from  1803  until  1808,  when,  dis¬ 
agreeing  with  the  Legislature  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  on  the  embargo  question,  he  resigned. 
From  1806  to  1809  he  was  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  Harvard  University.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Madison  Minister 
to  Russia  ;  and  in  1814,  while  serving  iu  that 
office,  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  United  States 
commissioners  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  at 
Ghent.  After  that,  he  and  Henry  Clay  and  Al¬ 
bert  Gallatin  negotiated  a  commercial  treaty 
with  Great  Britain,  which  was  signed  July  13, 


1815.  Mr.  Adams  remained  in  London  as  resi¬ 
dent  Minister  until  1817,  when  he  was  called  to 
the  cabiuet.  of  President  Monroe  as  Secretary 
of  State.  In  1824  he  was  elected  President  of 
the  United  States  (see  Adams,  J.  Q.,  Election  of), 
serving  one  term  from  March  4,  1825.  In  1831 
he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  Congress,  and  was 
continued  iu  it  by  successive  elections  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  suddenly  in  the  Capitol. 
His  last  words  were,  “  This  is  the  last  of  earth  ; 
I  am  content.”  Mr.  Adams  was  a  ripe  scholar, 
an  able  diplomatist,  a  life-long  opponent  of  hu¬ 
man  slavery,  a  bold  and  unflinching  advocate 
for  its  abolition  from  our  land,  and  an  elo¬ 
quent  orator.  When  he  was  eighty  years  of 
age  he  was  called  “  The  old  man  eloquent.” 
He  wrote  prose  and  poetry  with  almost  equal 
facility  and  purity  of  diction. 

Adams,  Samuel,  was  born  in  Boston,  Sept. 
27,  1722;  died  there,  Oct.  2,  1803.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Harvard  University  in  1742,  and  was 
honored  with  the  degree  of  LL.D.  by  it  iu  1792. 
The  tendency  of  his  mind  was  shown  when,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  receiving  the  degree  of 
A.M.,  he  proposed,  and  took  the  affirmative  on, 
the  question,  “Whether  it  be  lawful  to  resist 
the  Supreme  Magistrate  if  the  Commonwealth 
cannot  otherwise  be  preserved  ?”  He  published 
a  pamphlet  at  about  the  same  time  entitled 
Englishmen's  Rights.  He  became'  an  unsuccess¬ 
ful  merchant,  but  a  successful  writer ;  and 
gained  great  popularity  by  his  political  essays 
against  the  administration  of  Governor  Shirley. 
Stern  in  morals,  a  boru  republican,  and  with 
courage  equal  to  his  convictions,  Samuel  Adams 
was  a  natural  leader  of  the  opposers  of  the 
Stamp  Act  and  kindred  measures  of  Parlia¬ 
ment,  and  from  that  period  (1765)  until  the  in¬ 
dependence  of  the  colonies  was  achieved  he 


SAMUEL  ADAMS. 


was  a  foremost  leader  of  the  patriot  host.  He 
suggested  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  and  was  a 
continual  object  of  dread  and  hatred  to  the  co¬ 
lonial  governors.  He  proposed  the  first  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Correspondence  iu  Massachusetts  in 


ADAMS  AND  HANCOCK 


9 


ADAMS  AND  LIBERTY 


1772 ;  and,  when  General  Gage  besought  him 
to  make  his  peace  with  the  king,  he  replied, 
“  I  trust  I  have  made  my  peace  with  the  King 
of  kings.  No  personal  considerations  shall  in¬ 
duce  me  to  abandon  the  righteous  cause  of  my 
country.”  In  1774  he  was  the  chief  in  matur¬ 
ing  the  plan  for  a  Continental  Congress  ;  was  a 
member  of  it;  and  served  in  that  body  most  ef¬ 
ficiently  from  that  time  until  1781.  So  early 
as  1769  Mr.  Adams  advocated  the  independence 
of  the  colonies,  and  was  one  of  the  warmest 
supporters  of  it  in  the  Congress.  When  de¬ 
bating  on  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
Adams  said,  “  I  should  advise  persisting  in  our 
struggle  for  liberty  though  it  were  revealed 
from  heaven  that  nine  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  were  to  perish,  and  one  of  a  thousand 
were  to  survive  and  retain  his  liberty.  Oue 
such  freeman  must  possess  more  virtue,  and  en¬ 
joy  more  happiness,  than  a  thousand  slaves ; 
and  let  him  propagate  his  like,  and  transmit  to 
them  what  he  has  so  nobly  preserved.”  Mr. 
Adams  assisted  in  drafting  the  State  Consti¬ 
tution  of  Massachusetts  (1779),  was  President 
of  his  State  Senate  (1781),  member  of  his 
State  Convention  that  ratified  the  National  Con¬ 
stitution,  lieutenant-governor  (1789-94),  and 
governor  (1794-97).  He  sympathized  with  the 
French  Revolutionists,  and  was  a  Jeffersonian 
Democrat  in  politics  in  his  latter  days.  The 
purity  of  his  life,  and  his  inflexible  integrity, 
were  attested  by  friends  and  foes.  Hutchin¬ 
son,  in  a  letter  to  his  government,  said  he  was 
of  “  such  an  obstinate  and  inflexible  disposi¬ 
tion  that  no  gift  nor  office  would  ever  concili¬ 
ate  him.”  His  piety  was  sincere,  and  he  was 
a  thoroughbred  Puritan.  Without  fortune, 
without  a  profession,  he  depended  on  moderate 
salaries  and  emoluments  of  office;  and  for  al¬ 
most  fifty  years  a  daily  maintenance,  frugal  in 
the  extreme,  was  eked  out  by  the  industry  and 
prudence  of  his  second  wife,  whom  he  married 
in  1757.  Samuel  Adams  appears  as  one  of  the 
grandest  figures  among  representative  Ameri¬ 
cans. 

Adams  and  Hancock.  Samuel  Adams  and 
John  Hancock  were  regarded  as  arch-rebels  by 
General  Gage,  and  he  resolved  to  arrest  them 
and  send  them  to  England  to  be  tried  for 
treason.  A  capital  part  of  his  scheme,  in  send¬ 
ing  out  the  expedition  to  Lexington  and  Con¬ 
cord  (April  18-19, 1775),  was  the  seizure  of  these 
patriots,  who,  members  of  the  Provincial  Con¬ 
gress,  had  tarried  at  Lexington  on  being  in¬ 
formed  of  Gage’s  intention  to  arrest  them  on 
their  return  to  Boston.  They  were  at  the  house 
of  Rev.  Jonas  Clarke,  and  Gage  thought  to  sur¬ 
prise  and  capture  them  at  midnight.  The  vigi¬ 
lant  Warren ,  learn  i  n  g  th  e  secret  of  the  expediti  o  n , 
sent  Paul  Revere  to  warn  the  patriots  of  their 
danger.  Revere  waited  at  Charlestown  for  a  sig¬ 
nal-light  from  the  sexton  of  the  North  Church, 
to  warn  him  of  the  forward  movement  of  the 
troops.  It  was  given,  and  on  Deacon  Larkin’s 
swift  horse  Revere  sped  to  Lexington.  At  a 
little  past  midnight  he  rode  up  to  Clarke’s 
house,  which  he  found  guarded  by  Sergeant 
Monroe  and  his  men.  In  hurried  words  he 


asked  for  Hancock.  “The  family  have  retired,” 
said  the  Sergeant,  “  and  I  am  directed  not  to 
allow  them  to  be  disturbed  by  any  noise.” 
“  Noise !”  exclaimed  Revere ;  “  you’ll  have  noise 
enough  before  long ;  the  regulars  are  coming 
out!”  He  was  then  allowed  to  knock  at  the 
door.  Mr.  Clarke  appeared  at  a  window,  when 
Revere  said,  “  I  wish  to  see  Mr.  Hancock.”  “  I 
do  not  like  to  admit  strangers  into  my  house  so 
late  at  night,”  answered  Mr.  Clarke.  Hancock, 
who  was  not  asleep,  recognized  Revere’s  voice, 
and  called  out,  “Come  iu,  Revere,  we  are  not 
afraid  of  you.”  The  warning  was  given;  the 
whole  household  was  soon  astir,  and  the  two 
patriots  awaited  the  coming  of  the  enemy. 
When  they  approached, the  “arch-rebels”  were 
persuaded  to  retire  to  a  more  secure  retreat,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Dorothy  Quincy,  to  whom  Hancock 
was  affiauced  (and  whom  he  married  in  Septem¬ 
ber  following),  who  was  on  a  visit  at  Mr. 
Clarke’s.  When  Adams,  from  a  wooded  hill 
near  Clarke’s  house,  saw  the  beginning  of  the 
skirmish  at  Lexington,  he  exclaimed,  with  pro¬ 
phetic  prescience,  “  What  a  glorious  morning 
for  America  is  this!”  In  a  proclamation  (Juue 
12)  in  which  he  denounced  those  in  arms  and 
their  abettors  to  be  “  rebels  and  parricides  of 
the  Constitution,”  aud  offered  a  free  pardon  to 
all  who  should  forthwith  return  to  their  alle¬ 
giance,  General  Gagfe  excepted  Adams  and  Han¬ 
cock,  who  were  outlawed,  and  for  whom  he  of¬ 
fered  a  reward  as  “  arch-traitors.” 

“Adams  and  Liberty.”  In  the  spring  and 
early  summer  of  1798,  a  war-spirit  of  great  inten¬ 
sity  excited  the  American  people.  The  conduct  of 
France  towards  the  United  States  and  its  minis¬ 
ters  had  caused  the  American  government  to 
make  preparations  for  war  upon  the  French. 
In  June,  Robert  Treat  Paine,  a  poet  of  consider¬ 
able  merit,  and  a  native  of  Massachusetts,  was 
engaged  to  write  a  patriotic  song  to  be  sung  at 
the  anniversary  of  the  “  Massachusetts  Charita¬ 
ble  Fire  Society.”  He  composed  one  which  he 
entitled  “Adams  and  Liberty.”  It  was  adapted 
to  the  spirit  of  the  time,  and  had  a  wonderful 
effect  upon  the  people.  It  was  really  a  war- 
song,  in  nine  stanzas.  The  following  verses  ex¬ 
pressed  the  temper  of  the  people  then : 

“While  France  her  huge  limbs  bathes  recumbent  in  blood, 
And  Society’s  base  threats  with  wide  dissolution. 

May  Peace,  like  the  dove,  who  returned  from  the  flood, 

Find  an  ark  of  abode  in  our  mild  Const. tution. 

But  though  Peace  is  our  aim, 

Yet  the  boon  we  disclaim, 

If  bought  by  our  Sov’reignty,  Justice,  or  Fame, 

“  ’Tis  the  fire  of  the  flint,  each  American  warms; 

Let  Rome’s  haughty  victors  beware  of  collision, 

Let  them  bring  all  the  vassals  of  Europe  in  arms — 

We’re  a  world  by  ourselves,  and  disclaim  a  division. 

While  with  patriot  pride 
To  our  laws  we’re  allied. 

No  foe  can  subdue  us,  no  faction  divide. 

“Our  mountains  are  crowned  with  imperial  oak. 

Whose  roots,  like  our  liberties,  ages  have  nourished; 

But  long  ere  our  nation  submits  to  the  yoke. 

Not  a  tree  shall  bo  loft  on  tho  Hold  whore  it  flourished. 
Should  invasion  impend. 

Every  grove  would  descend 
From  tho  hill  tops  thoy  shadod,  our  shores  to  defend. 

“  Let  our  patriots  destroy  Anarch’s  pestilent  worm, 

Lest  our  Liberty’s  growth  should  be  checked  by  corrosion; 
Then  let  clouds  thicken  round  us,  wo  heed  not  the  storm. 
Our  realm  fears  no  shock  but  tho  earth’s  own  explosion. 


ADAMS,  ELECTION  OF 


10 


ADAMS’S  PROPHECY 


Foes  assail  us  in  vain. 

Though  their  fleets  bridge  the  main, 

For  our  altars  and  laws  with  our  lives  we’ll  maintain. 

For  ne’er  shall  the  sons  of  Columbia  be  slaves 

While  the  earth  bears  a  plant  or  the  sea  rolls  its  waves.” 

At  the  home  of  Mojor  Russell,  editor  of  the 
Boston  Centinel,  the  author  offered  it  to  that  gen¬ 
tleman.  “  It  is  imperfect,” said  Russell,  “  without 
the  name  of  Washington  in  it.”  Mr.  Paine  was 
about  to  take  some  wine,  when  Russell  politely 
and  good-naturedly  interfered,  saying,  “  You  can 
have  none  of  my  port,  Mr.  Paine,  until  you  have 
written  another  stanza  with  Washington’s  name 
in  it.”  Paine  walked  hack  and  forth  a  few 
minutes,  called  for  a  pen,  and  wrote  the  fifth 
verse  in  the  poem  as  follows  : 

“Should  the  tempest  of  war  overshadow  our  land, 

Its  bolts  could  ne’er  rend  Freedom’s  temple  asunder; 

For,  unmoved,  at  its  portal,  would  Washington  stand, 

And  repulse  with  his  breast  the  assaults  of  the  thunder! 
His  sword  from  the  sleep 
Of  its  scabbard  would  leap. 

And  conduct  with  its  point  ev’ry  flash  to  the  deep! 

For  ne’er  shall  the  sons  of  Columbia  be  slaves 

While  the  earth  bears  a  plant  or  the  sea  rolls  its  waves.” 

This  song  became  immensely  popular,  and 
was  sung  all  over  the  country — in  theatres  and 
other  public  places,  in  drawing-rooms  and  work¬ 
shops,  and  by  the  boys  in  the  streets.  The  sale 
of  it,  printed  on  a  “  broadside,”  yielded  the  au¬ 
thor  a  profit  of  $750. 

Adams  (John  Quincy),  Election  of,  as  Pres¬ 
ident.  When  Monroe’s  administration  was 
drawing  to  a  close,  several  prominent  men  were 
spoken  of  as  candidates  for  the  Presidency — 
William  H.  Crawford,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Henry 
Clay,  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  Andrew  Jackson. 
The  votes  in  the  autumn  of  1824  showed  that 
the  people  had  not  elected  either  of  the  candi¬ 
dates  ;  and  when  the  votes  of  the  Electoral  Col¬ 
lege  were  counted,  it  was  found  that  the  choice 
of  President  devolved  upon  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives.  In  February,  1825,  that  body  chose 
John  Quincy  Adams  President,  and  John  C.  Cal¬ 
houn  Vice-President.  Mr.  Adams  received  the 
votes  of  thirteen  states  on  the  first  ballot, 
General  Jackson  seven  states,  and  Mr. Crawford 
four  states.  Mr.  Calhoun  received  the  votes  of 
182  of  the  electors,  against  78  for  all  others.  The 
Electoral  College  had  given  Jackson  the  largest 
vote  of  any  candidate — 99 — and  Adams  84. 

Adams  (  Samuel  )  overawes  Hutchinson. 
Immediately  after  the  “Boston  Massacre”(whicli 
see),  a  monster  meeting  of  citizens  of  Boston 
was  held  in  the  Old  South  Meeting-house,  and 
appointed  a  committee,  consisting  of  Samuel 
Adams,  John  Hancock,  William  Molineux,  Will¬ 
iam  Phillips,  Joseph  Warren,  Joshua  Henshaw, 
and  Samuel  Pemberton,  to  call  on  Lieutenant- 
governor  Hutchinson,  and  demand  the  removal 
of  the  British  troops  from  Boston,  by  present¬ 
ing  resolutions  to  that  effect  adopted  by  the 
meeting.  Adams  submitted  the  resolutions. 
The  Lieutenant-governor  and  Colonel  Dalrymple 
were  disposed  to  temporize.  Hutchinson  said 
he  had  no  power  to  remove  all  the  troops. 
Adams  proved  that  he  had,  by  the  terms  of  the 
charter.  Still  the  crown  officers  hesitated. 
Adams  resolved  that  there  should  be  no  more 
trilling  with  the  will  of  the  people.  Stretching 


forth  his  hand  towards  Hutchinson, 
and  in  a  voice  not  loud  but  clear,  he 
said :  “  If  you  have  power  to  remove 
one  regiment.,  you  have  power  to  re¬ 
move  both.  It  is  at  your  peril  if  you 
do  not.  The  meeting  is  com¬ 
posed  of  3000  people.  They  are 
become  very  impatient.  A  thou¬ 
sand  men  are  already  arrived 
from  the  neighborhood,  and 
the  country  is  in  geueral  mo¬ 
tion.  Night  is  approaching ; 

an  immediate 
answer  is  ex¬ 
pected.”  This 
was  the  voice 
of  the  province 
— of  the  conti¬ 
nent.  Hutchin¬ 
son  grew  pale; 
his  knees 
trembled ;  and 
Adams  after¬ 
wards  said,  “  I 
enjoyed  the 
sight.”  After  conferring  together  in  a  whisper, 
Hutchinson  and  Dalrymple  promised  to  send 
all  the  troops  to  Castle  William,  in  Boston  Har¬ 
bor. 


OLD  SOUTH  MEETINli-HOUSE. 


Adams’s  (John)  Cabinet  Ministers  (1797). 
Timothy  Pickering,  Secretary  of  State;  Oliver 
Wolcott,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury ;  James 
M'Henry,  Secretary  of  War  ;  Charles  Lee,  At¬ 
torney-general.  This  was  the  cabinet  council 
left  by  Washington,  which  Mr.  Adams  adopted. 
Washington’s  first  cabinet  had  all  resigned  dur¬ 
ing  the  early  part  of  his  second  term  of  office, 
and  the  above-named  gentlemen  were  appointed 
during  1795  and  1796. 

Adams’s  (John  Q.)  Cabinet  Ministers  (1825). 
President  Adams  nominated  for  his  cabinet  Hen¬ 
ry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  Secretary  of  State  ;  Rich¬ 
ard  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury;  James  Barbour,  of  Virginia,  Secretary 
of  War.  These  nominations  were  all  immedi¬ 
ately  confirmed  by  unanimous  votes  excepting 
that  of  Mr.  Clay,  against  whom  fourteen  votes 
were  cast.  Samuel  L.  Southard,  whom  Monroe 
had  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Dec.  9, 
1823,  was  continued  in  office;  so  also  was  Will¬ 
iam  Wirt,  appointed  Attorney-general  by  Monroe, 
Dec.  15, 1817.  John  M'Lean,  of  Ohio,  appointed 
Postmaster-general  by  Monroe,  Dec.  9, 1823,  was 
also  continued  in  office. 

Adams’s  (John)  Prophecy.  While  Jolrn 
Adams  was  teaching  school  at  Worcester,  in 
1755,  at  the  age  of  twenty  years,  he  wrote  a  let¬ 
ter  to  Nathan  Webb,  in  which  he  remarked : 
“Mighty  states  and  kingdoms  are  not  exempted 
from  change.  .  .  .  Soon  after  the  Reformation,  a 
few  people  came  over  into  this  new  world  for 
conscience’  sake.  This  apparently  trivial  inci¬ 
dent  may  transfer  the  great  seat  of  empire  to 
America.  ...  If  we  can  remove  the  turbulent 
Gallics,  our  people,  according  to  the  exactest  cal¬ 
culations,  will,  in  another  century,  become  more 
numerous  than  in  England  itself.  The  united 


ADAMS’S  RESOLUTION 


11 


ADDRESSES  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


force  of  Europe  will  not  be  able  to  snbclue  us. 
The  only  way  to  keep  us  from  setting  up  for 
ourselves  is  to  disunite  us.”  Less  than  thirty 
years  afterwards  the  prophet  stood  before  the 
monarch  of  England  as  the  representative  of  an 
American  republic,  where,  only  ten  years  be¬ 
fore,  were  flourishing  English  colonies.  And  just 
a  century  after  that  prophecy  was  uttered  the 
number  and  strength  of  the  people  here  exceed¬ 
ed  the  calculation  of  young  Adams.  The  pop¬ 
ulation  then  was  more  than  double  that  of  Eng¬ 
land;  and,  while  his  country  was  fiercely  torn 
by  civil  war,  its  government  defied  the  power 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  the  Papal 
States,  whose  rulers  were  enemies  of  republican 
government.  Lord  Karnes  uttered  a  similar 
prophecy  in  1765. 

Adams’s  (C.  F.)  Resolution  (1860).  When 
the  spirit  of  secession  was  rampant  in  Congress 
late  in  December,  1860,  Charles  Francis  Adams, 
of  Massachusetts,  tried  to  soothe  the  passions  of 
the  Southern  politicians  by  offering,  in  the  House 
Committee  of  Thirty-three  (see  Thirty  -  eighth 
Congress ),  a  resolution,  “That  it  is  expedient  to 
propose  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  to 
the  effect  that  no  future  amendments  of  it  in 
regard  to  slavery  shall  be  made  uuless  proposed 
by  a  slave  state  and  ratified  by  all  the  states.” 
It  was  passed  by  only  three  dissenting  voices  in 
the  committee. 

Adams’s  Scheme  of  Government.  John 
Adams  saw  with  alarm  the  contagion  of  revo¬ 
lution  that  went  out  from  Paris,  in  1789,  affect¬ 
ing  England,  and,  in  a  degree,  his  own  country. 
It  was  different,  in  form  and  substance,  from 
that  which  had  made  his  own  people  free. 
With  a  view  to  avert  its  evil  tendencies,  he 
wrote  a  series  of  articles  for  a  newspaper,  en¬ 
titled  “  Discourses  on  Davila.”  These  contained 
an  analysis  of  Davila's  History  of  the  Civil  War  in 
France,  in  the  16th  century.  In  those  essays  he 
maintained  that,  as  self-esteem  was  the  great 
spring  of  human  activity,  it  was  important  in  a 
popular  government  to  provide  for  the  moderate 
gratification  of  a  desire  for  distinction,  applause, 
and  admiration.  He  therefore  advocated  a  lib¬ 
eral  use  of  titles  and  ceremonial  honors  for 
those  in  office,  and  an  aristocratic  Senate.  He 
proposed  a  popular  Assembly  on  the  broadest 
democratic  basis  to  counteract  any  undue  influ¬ 
ence;  and  to  keep  in  check  encroachments  upon 
each  other  he  recommended  a  powerful  execu¬ 
tive.  The  publication  of  these  essays  at  that 
time  was  unfortunate,  when  jealousy  was  rife 
in  the  public  mind  concerning  the  National 
Constitution.  His  ideas  were  so  cloudily  ex¬ 
pressed  that  his  meaning  was  misunderstood  by 
many  and  misinterpreted  by  a  few.  He  was 
charged  with  advocating  a  monarchy  and  a 
hereditary  Senate.  The  essays  disgusted  Jeffer¬ 
son,  who  for  a  time  cherished  the  idea  that 
Hamilton,  Adams,  Jay,  and  others  were  at  the 
head  of  a  conspiracy  to  overthrow  the  republi¬ 
can  institutions  of  the  United  States. 

Addressers.  There  was  far  from  unanimity 
of  sentiment  in  opposition  to  British  authority 
even  in  Boston.  With  the  Boston  Port  Bill 


(which  see)  came  Governor  Hutchinson’s  recall. 
He  had  been  waiting,  in  seclusion,  for  fear  of  the 
indignant  populace,  to  find  an  opportunity  to 
leave  the  province  for  England ;  and  before  he 
departed  (June  1, 1774)  120  merchants,  and  many 
lawyers,  magistrates,  and  principal  men  of  Bos¬ 
ton,  with  others  at  Salem  and  Marblehead,  sign¬ 
ed  an  address  to  him,  in  which  they  expressed 
entire  approbation  of  bis  public  conduct,  and 
affectionate  wishes  for  his  prosperity.  These 
“addressers”  were  afterwards  required  to  re¬ 
cant,  and  those  who  refused  to  do  so  became 
refugee  loyalists,  who  fled  from  Boston  in  1776. 

Addresses  and  Remonstrances  were  sent 
to  King  George  in  1768  agaiust  the  taxation 
schemes  of  Parliament,  by  the  assemblies  of 
Massachusetts,  Virginia,  Delaware,  and  Georgia. 
These  were  all  couched  in  respectful  language, 
but  ever  firm  and  keenly  argumentative,  having 
for  their  premises  the  chartered  rights  of  the 
various  colonies.  But  these  voices  of  free-born 
Englishmen  were  not  only  utterly  disregarded, 
but  treated  with  scorn.  The  pride  and  the  sense 
of  justice  and  self-respect  of  the  Americans  were 
thereby  outraged.  It  was  an  offence  not  easily 
forgiven  or  forgotten. 

Addresses  of  the  People  of  New  Nether- 
land.  The  first  address  of  the  people  of  New 
Netherlandto  tlie^authorities  in  Holland  was  in 
October  and  November,  1649.  The  savage  con¬ 
duct  of  Governor  Kieft  (which  see)  towards  the 
surrounding  Indians  had  brought  the  Dutch  col¬ 
ony  into  great  distress  because  of  the  hostili¬ 
ties  of  the  barbarians.  Kieft,  in  the  extremity 
of  perplexity,  had  called  the  people  together  to 
consult  upon  the  crisis,  and  begged  them  to 
choose  a  new  popular  council.  They  chose  eight 
energetic  citizens,  who  seized  the  reins  of  gov¬ 
ernment  and  prepared  for  defence.  On  Oct.  24, 
they  addressed  to  the  College  of  XIX.  at  Amster¬ 
dam,  and  on  Nov.  3,  to  the  States-Geueral,  state¬ 
ments  of  the  sad  condition  of  the  colony  caused 
by  Kieft’s  bad  conduct.  Two  letters  were  also 
sent  directly  by  citizens  of  New  Amsterdam, 
written  in  simple  but  eloquent  language.  In 
these  letters  the  eight  men  drew  a  pitiable  pict¬ 
ure  of  their  sufferings  — women  aud  children 
starving;  their  homes  destroyed;  the  people 
skulking  around  the  fort  at  Manhattan,  where 
they  were  “  not  one  hour  safe.”  They  prayed 
for  assistance,  to  save  them  from  “  the  cruel 
heathens.”  The  winter  that  followed  was  a  ter¬ 
rible  one  in  New  Netherland.  A  second  appeal 
from  the  Council  of  Eight  Men  at  Manhattan  to 
the  College  of  XIX.,  in  October,  1644,  reached 
that  body  while  it  was  considering  the  first  ad¬ 
dress.  The  second  gave  a  bolder  and  more  defi¬ 
nite  statement  of  the  grievances  of  the  colonists, 
and  more  specific  charges  against  the  governor, 
to  whose  acts  all  their  troubles  were  attributed. 
They  asked  for  his  recall.  The  States-Geueral 
had  already  peremptorily  ordered  the  West  In¬ 
dian  Company  to  take  measures  to  relieve  the 
people,  but  the  corporation  was  bankrupt  and 
powerless.  The  immediate  purpose  of  the  eight 
men  was  gained,  for  Kieft  was  ordered  to  Hol¬ 
land,  and  Lubbertus  van  Dincklagen,  the  former 


ADET 


12 


AGAMENTICUS 


sheriff,  was  appointed  provisional  governor,  un¬ 
til  the  commission  of  Peter  Stuyvesaut  was  is¬ 
sued  in  May,  1645. 

Adet,  Pierre  Augustus,  was  born  in  Nevers, 
France,  in  1763  ;  died  about  1832.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  for  the  artillery  service ;  but  leaving  it, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  sciences, 
aud  became  a  skilful  chemist.  Engaging  in 
politics,  he  was  successively  chief  of  the  admin¬ 
istration  of  the  colonies ;  member  of  the  Council 
of  Mines ;  colleague  of  the  Minister  of  Marine  in 
1793 ;  resident  at  Geneva  iu  1794 ;  and  ambassa¬ 
dor  to  the  United  States  in  1795-97.  Here  he, 
too,  interfered  too  much  in  local  politics,  and  be¬ 
came  unpopular  with  the  government  party.  He 
issued  an  inflammatory  address  to  the  American 
people,  in  which  he  accused  the  administration 
of  Washington  with  violations  of  the  friendship 
which  once  existed  between  the  United  States 
and  France.  On  his  return  to  France,  Adet  was 
called  to  the  tribunate,  and  in  1803  was  made 
Prefect  of  Nevers.  In  1807  he  was  chosen  to  the 
French  Senate,  and  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
in  1814,  as  a  Constitutionalist.  M.  Adet  pub¬ 
lished  some  works  on  chemistry.  While  in  the 
United  States  he  was  a  busy  partisan  of  the  Re¬ 
publicans.  In  1796  he  presented  to  Congress, 
iu  behalf  of  the  French  nation,  the  tri-colored 
flag  of  France  ;  and  just  before  he  left,  in  1797, 
he  sent  to  the  Secretary  of  State  the  famous  note 
iu  which  the  Directory,  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
the  treaty  of  1778,  declared  that  the  flag  of  the 
republic  would  treat  all  neutral  flags  as  they 
permitted  themselves  to  be  treated  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish.  Soon  afterwards  Adet  suspended  his  dip¬ 
lomatic  functions,  and  returned  to  France. 

Adet’s  Final  Appeal.  Ten  days  after  the 
issuance  of  his  “  Cockade  Proclamation”  (which 
see),  the  French  minister,  Adet,  sent  a  note  si¬ 
multaneously  to  the  State  Department  and  to 
the  Aurora  —  the  opposition  newspaper  —  de¬ 
manding,  “in  the  name  of  the  faith  of  treaties 
and  of  American  honor,  the  execution  of  that 
contract  [treaty  of  1778]  which  assured  to  the 
United  States  their  existence,  and  which  France 
regarded  as  a  pledge  of  the  most  sacred  union 
between  two  people,  the  freest  upon  earth.”  He 
announced,  at  the  same  time,  “  the  resolution  of 
a  government  terrible  to  its  enemies,  but  gener¬ 
ous  to  its  allies.”  With  grandiloquent  sentences 
he  portrayed  the  disappointment  of  the  French 
nation  in  not  finding  a  warm  friend  in  the  Amer¬ 
ican  government.  “  So  far  from  offering  the 
French  the  succor  which  friendship  might  have 
given,”  he  said,  “  without  compromitting  itself, 
the  American  government,  in  this  respect,  vio¬ 
lated  the  obligations  of  treaties.”  This  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  summary  of  these  alleged  violations, 
including  the  circular  of  1793,  restraining  the 
fitting-out,  of  privateers  in  American  waters; 
the  law  of  1794,  prohibiting  hostile  enterprises 
or  preparations  against  nations  with  whom  the 
United  States  were  at  peace;  the  cognizance  of 
these  matters  taken  by  the  American  courts  of 
law ;  and  the  admission  of  armed  British  vessels 
into  American  waters.  He  complained  of  the 
“British  treaty”  as  inimical  to  the  interests  of 


France.  This  paper,  published  in  the  Aurora, 
was  intended  more  for  the  American  people  than 
for  the  American  government. 

Admiral  of  New  England.  Francis  West 
was  commissioned  Admiral  of  New  England 
in  1623,  with  power  to  restrain  such  ships  as 
came  upon  that  coast  to  fish  without  the  con¬ 
sent  of  the  Council  of  Plymouth  ;  but  finding 
the  fishermen  too  stubborn  and  numerous  to  be 
controlled,  on  his  arrival  in  June,  1623,  he  sail¬ 
ed  to  Virginia.  This  interference  with  the  New 
England  fisheries  called  forth  a  petition  to  Par¬ 
liament  from  the  owners  of  the  fishing-vessels, 
and  an  order  was  issued  that  the  business  should 
be  free.  Iu  the  spring  of  1624  about  fifty  Eng¬ 
lish  fishing-ships  appeared  on  the  New  England 
coasts. 

Advertising  in  the  United  States.  The 

advertisement  of  business  of  every  kind  iu  the 
United  States  is  now  almost  universally  prac¬ 
tised.  Agencies  have  been  established  as  me¬ 
diums  between  the  advertiser  and  the  vehicle 
for  advertising.  The  first  agency  iu  America 
was  established  by  Orlando  Bourne,  in  1828,  aud 
was  followed,  in  1840,  by  V.  B.  Palmer,  who  es¬ 
tablished  agencies  in  Philadelphia,  New  York, 
and  Boston.  The  business  was  fully  systema¬ 
tized  in  1860,  when  complete  lists  of  all  the 
American  newspapers  were  kept  at  the  agen¬ 
cies.  A  New  York  advertising  agency  now 
(1876)  publishes  an  American  Newspaper  Direc¬ 
tory,  and  employs  about  forty  persons  perma¬ 
nently.  The  amount  paid  for  advertising  is 
enormous.  Harper’s  Weekly  receives  from  $2.00 
to  $4.00  a  line  for  advertising,  according  to 
position  ;  the  New  York  Weekly  Tribune,  $2.00  to 
$5.00  a  line,  the  latter  price  being  for  advertise¬ 
ments  inserted  among  the  news  items.  Some 
mercantile  firms  spend  $100,000  and  $150, 0C0  a 
year  in  advertising.  A  patent-medicine  dealer 
paid,  in  one  year,  $250,000  for  advertisements. 
The  Pacific  Railway  companies  paid  between 
$400,000  and  $500,000  for  advertisements  in  a 
year;  and  in  1867  the  United  States  government 
collected  a  tax  on  nearly  $10,000,000  worth  of 
advertisements.  The  use  of  pictures  in  adver¬ 
tising  is  coming  more  and  more  in  fashion. 

African  Labor -supply  Association.  (See 
Slave-trade  Reopened.) 

African  Slave-trade.  In  New  England  this 
trade  was  begun  in  Massachusetts,  almost  si¬ 
multaneously  with  its  ship-building  and  com¬ 
merce.  Indeed,  it  soon  formed  an  important 
part  of  the  latter.  The  ships  that  took  cargoes 
of  stores  to  the  Canaries  were  in  the  habit  of 
touching  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  where  they 
traded  for  negroes,  who  were  generally,  at  first, 
carried  to  Barbadoes  or  other  English  islands 
of  the  West  Indies.  Afterwards  the  demand 
for  negroes  in  New  England  caused  many  to  be 
orougut  directly  there  from  Africa.  (8ee  Slave- 
trade  in  America.) 

Agamenticus.  There  were  a  few  English  set¬ 
tlers  in  the  region  now  known  as  York  County, 
Maine,  between  the  mountain  and  the  sea,  in 
1636,  and  the  territory  was  named  Agamenticus. 


AGASSIZ 


13 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES 


It  was  within  the  grant  given  to  Gorges  and 
Mason.  There  a  city  was  formed,  and  incorpo¬ 
rated  in  1641,  in  imitation  of  English  munici¬ 
palities,  with  a  mayor  and  aldermen.  The  city 
was  called  Gorgeana.  The  occupants  of  the 
laud  in  Agamenticus  were  tenants  at  will  of 
the  proprietor.  There  English  apple-seeds  were 
planted  and  thrived,  and  one  of  the  trees  that 
sprang  up  lived  and  bore  fruit  annually  so  late 
as  1875,  when  it  was  cut  down. 

Agassiz,  Louis  John  Rudolph,  naturalist, 
was  born  in  Mottier  parish,  near  Neufchatel, 
Switzerland,  May  28,  1807 ;  died  Dec.  11,  1873. 

He  was  of  Hugue¬ 
not  descent,  was 
thoroughly  edu¬ 
cated  at  Heidel¬ 
berg  and  Munich, 
and  received  the 
honorary  degree 
of  Ph.D.  He  pros¬ 
ecuted  his  studies 
in  natural  history 
in  Pari  s, where  C  u- 
vier  offered  him 
his  collection  for 
the  purpose.  The 
liberality  of  Hu  m- 
boldt  enabled  him 
to  publish  his 
great  work  ( 1834- 
44)  on  Fossil  Fishes, 
in  five  volumes,  with  an  atlas.  He  arrived  in 
Boston  in  184o,  and  lectured  there  on  the  Ani¬ 
mal  Kingdom  and  on  Glaciers.  In  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1847  the  Superintendent  of  the  Coast 
Survey  (which  see)  tendered  him  the  facilities 
of  that  service  for  a  continuance  of  his  scien¬ 
tific  investigations.  Professor  Agassiz  settled 
in  Cambridge,  and  was  made  Professor  of  Zo¬ 
ology  and  Geology  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  at  its  foundation  in  1848.  That  year  he 
made,  with  some  of  his  pupils,  a  scientific  ex¬ 
ploration  of  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  He 
afterwards  explored  the  southern  coasts  of  the 
United  States,  of  Brazil,  and  the  waters  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  An  accouut  of  his  explorations 
on  the  Brazilian  coast  was  given  in  A  Journey  to 
Brazil,  by  Mrs.  Agassiz,  in  1867.  He  received  the 
Copley  Medal  from  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon¬ 
don  ;  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris, 
the  Monthyou  Prize  and  the  Cuvier  Prize  ;  the 
Wollaston  Medal  from  the  Geological  Society  of 
London  ;  and  the  Medal  of  Merit  from  the  King 
of  Prussia.  He  was  a  member  of  many  scien¬ 
tific  societies,  and  the  universities  of  Dublin 
and  Edinburgh  conferred  on  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  LL.D.  Professor  Agassiz  published 
valuable  scientific  works  in  Europe  and  in  this 
country. 

Agnew,  James,  a  British  general,  who  came 
to  Boston  late  in  1775;  participated  in  the  mil¬ 
itary  movements  there ;  and  was  engaged  in  the 
battle  of  Long  Island,  where,  and  in  subsequent 
campaigns,  lie  commanded  the  fourth  brigade 
of  the  Royal  army.  He  accompanied  ex-Gover- 
nor  Tryon  in  his  marauding  expedition  to  Dan¬ 


bury,  Conn.,  April  26,  1779.  He  was  slightly 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  Brandywine  (Sept. 
11),  and  in  the  battle  of  Germantown  (Oct.  4, 
1777)  he  was  slain.  His  remains  were  interred, 
with  those  of  Lieutenant  Bird,  in  the  South 
Bui'ying  -  ground  at  Germantown;  and  over 
them  John  F.  Watson,  the  annalist,  placed  a 
neat  white-marble  slab. 

Agricultural  Colleges.  In  1857,  J.  S.  Morrill, 
M.C..  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Agricult¬ 
ure  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  introduced 
a  bill  appropriating  to  the  several  states  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  public  lands  for  the  purpose  of  en¬ 
couraging  institutions  for  the  advancement  of 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  The  bill 
lingered  in  Congress  (having  been  vetoed  by 
President  Buchanan)  until  July,  1862,  when  it 
became  a  law.  The  act  provided  that  each 
state  should  receive  a  quantity  of  land  equal 
in  value  to  thirty  thousand  dollars  for  each  of 
its  senators  and  representatives  in  Congress  un¬ 
der  the  census  of  1860,  to  establish  at  least  one 
college  in  each  state  where  “  all  the  needful 
sciences  for  the  practical  avocations  of  life” 
should  be  taught,  and  11  where  agriculture,  the 
foundation  of  all  present  and  future  prosperity, 
may  look  for  troops  of  earnest  friends  studying 
its  familiar  and  recondite  economies.”  It  pro¬ 
vided  that  all  expenses  of  location,  manage¬ 
ment,  taxation,  etc.,  should  be  paid  by  the  re¬ 
spective  state  treasurers,  that  the  entire  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  the  sales  of  the  land  may  forever  re¬ 
main  undiminished,  and  that  every  state  re¬ 
ceiving  the  grant  must  provide  an  institution 
within  five  years  from  the  date  of  filing  its  ac¬ 
ceptance  of  the  grant.  Every  state  in  the 
Union  has  established  one  or  more  of  these 
industrial  colleges,  with  ample  equipments,  in 
which  persons  of  both  sexes  may  equally  enjoy 
the  benefits  of  the  institution.  Each  student  is 
paid  a  stipulated  sum  of  money  for  every  hour 
of  labor  given  to  the  institution  ;  and  by  this 
means  students  are  materially  aided  in  defray¬ 
ing  the  expenses  of  their  education.  In  these 
colleges  the  mechanic  arts  and  certain  branch¬ 
es  of  the  fine  arts  are  studied.  The  movement 
in  Congress  was  undoubtedly  suggested  by  the 
success  of  the  “  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Col¬ 
lege,”  established  in  1854  by  the  late  Dr.  Evan 
Pugh.  It  was  the  first  institution  of  the  kind 
established  in  this  country. 

Agricultural  Implements.  The  manufact¬ 
ure  of  agricultural  implements  in  the  United 
States  is  a  very  extensive  and  profitable  indus¬ 
try.  In  1880  there  were  nearly  2000  establish¬ 
ments  devoted  to  this  manufacture,  of  every 
kind,  from  the  hand-rake  to  the  reaper,  employ¬ 
ing  more  than  39,000  persons,  who  received 
annually  over  $15,000,000  in  wages,  and  pro¬ 
duced  yearly  wares  valued  at  about  $69,000,000. 
Scarcely  a  single  agricultural  implement  re¬ 
mains  in  its  old  form  of  structure,  having  been 
improved  so  as  to  economize  material,  time,  and 
form. 

Agricultural  Societies.  The  first  society  in 
the  United  States  was  formed  by  planters  of 
South  Carolina  in  1784,  and  it  is  yet  in  exist- 


LOUIS  AGASSIZ. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  MANUFACTURES  14 


ALABAMA 


ence.  The  next  year  the  “  Philadelphia  Society 
for  Promoting  Agriculture”  was  formed,  and  in 
1791  citizens  of  New  York  organized  a  similar 
society.  In  1792  the  “  Massachusetts  Society  for 
Promoting  Agriculture”  was  organized.  These 
were  city  institutions,  and  not  composed  of  prac¬ 
tical  farmers.  They  dealt  with  facts  and  theo¬ 
ries.  The  majority  of  husbandmen  then  did  not 
hear  nor  heed  their  appeals  for  improvement. 
But  finally  the  more  intelligent  of  that  class  of 
citizens  became  interested,  and  a  convention  of 
practical  farmers  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
held  in  1809,  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the 
“Columbian  Agricultural  Society  for  the  Promo¬ 
tion  of  Rural  and  Domestic  Economy.”  They 
offered  premiums;  and  their  fair,  held  in  May, 
1810,  is  believed  to  be  the  first  exhibition  of  its 
kind  in  this  country.  Elkanali  Watson  (which 
see)  founded  the  “Berkshire  (Mass.)  Agricultu¬ 
ral  Society”  in  1810,  and  there  was  a  grand  “Ag¬ 
ricultural  Fair  and  Cattle  Show”  at  Pittsfield  in 
September,  1811.  It  was  the  first  of  the  county 
fairs  held  in  this  country.  From  that  time  un¬ 
til  now  there  has  been,  at  first  a  gradual,  and 
then  a  rapid,  increase  in  such  institutions;  and 
in  1883  they  existed  in  every  state  and  terri¬ 
tory  of  the  Union.  There  were  more  than  two 
thousand  of  them  in  the  Republic,  the  greatest 
number  of  them  in  one  state  being  in  Iowa. 
There  were  one  huudred  and  ninety-six  in  that 
commonwealth. 

Agriculture  and  Manufactures,  Value  of 
in  the  United  States.  The  entire  value  of 
the  annual  agricultural  products  of  the  United 
States  and  Territories  in  1880,  including  crops 
and  betterments,  animals  slaughtered  and  sold 
for  slaughter,  home  manufactures,  and  forest, 
market  -  garden,  and  orchard  products,  was 
estimated  in  value  at  about  $3,650,000,000. 
The  total  product  of  our  manufactures  the 
same  year  was  valued  at  $5)369,579,191,  or 
$1,719,179,191  more  than  the  total  value  of 
the  agricultural  products  of  the  country.  The 
rapid  increase  in  our  manufactured  products 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  amount  pro¬ 
duced  in  1880  was  $1,137,254,191  more  than  in 
1870. 

Aid  from  France.  In  the  spring  of  1777 
arms  and  ammunition  for  the  American  patri¬ 
ots  were  sent  from  France  (see  Beaumarchais). 
These  arrived  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  a  French 
vessel  of  twenty-four  guns.  There  were  more 
than  eleven  thousand  muskets  and  one  thou¬ 
sand  barrels  of  gunpowder.  At  about  the  same 
time  ten  thousand  stand  of  arms  arrived  from 
the  same  country  at  another  American  port. 
These  were  intended  as  gifts  to  the  Americans, 
to  enable  them  to  carry  on  the  war  against  Eng¬ 
land;  but  circumstances  frustrated  this  inten¬ 
tion,  and  paymeut,  in  part,  was  made  for  them. 

Aitken,  Robert,  publisher  of  the  first  Amer¬ 
ican  edition  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  He  was 
born  in  Scotland  in  1734,  and  died  in  Philadel¬ 
phia.  in  July,  1802.  Mr.  Aitken  arrived  in  Phila¬ 
delphia  from  Scotland  in  1769.  He  was  a  practi¬ 
cal  printer,  and  published  the  Pennsylvania  Mag¬ 
azine,  or  American  Monthly  Museum,  from  Janu¬ 


ary,  1775,  to  June,  1776.  He  was  a  warm  Whig, 
and  was  thrown  into  prison  after  the  British 
took  possession  of  Philadelphia,  late  in  1777. 
He  very  narrowly  escaped  the  horrors  of  a 
British  prison-ship  in  New  York.  (See  Prison- 
ships.)  He  issued  the  first  American  edition  of 
the  Bible  in  1782,  by  which  he  lost  considerable 
money.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  au¬ 
thor  of  a  paper  entitled  An  Inquiry  Concerning  the 
Principles  of  a  Commercial  System  for  the  United 
States. 

Aix  -  la  -  Chapelle,  Treaty  of  (1748).  This 
treaty,  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Holland, 
German}',  Spain,  and  Greece,  was  a  famous  one, 
and  was  sigued  by  the  representatives  of  these 
respective  powers  on  the  18th  of  October  (N.  S.), 
1748.  By  it  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  (1648), 
of  Nimeguen  (1678-79),  of  Ryswick  (1697),  of 
Utrecht  (1713),  of  Baden  (1714),  of  the  Triple 
Alliance  (1717),  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance  (1718), 
and  of  Vienna  (1738),  were  renewed  and  con¬ 
firmed.  It  was  fondly  hoped  this  treaty  would 
insure  a  permanent  peace  for  Europe. 

Alabama.  The  soil  of  this  state  was  first 
trodden  by  Europeans  in  1540.  These  were  the 
folio wei's  of  De  Soto  (which  see).  In  1702,  Bien¬ 
ville,  the  French 
Governor  of  Louisi¬ 
ana,  entered  Mobile 
Bay,  and  built  a  fort 
and  trading-house  at 
the  month  of  Dog 
River.  In  1711  the 
French  founded  Mo¬ 
bile,  and  there  a  col¬ 
ony  prospered  for  a 
while.  Negro  slaves 
■were  first  brought 
into  this  colony  by 
three  French  ships 
of  war  in  1721.  By  the  treaty  of  1763  this  region 
was  transferred  by  France  to  Great  Britain.  Ala¬ 
bama  formed  a  portion  of  the  State  of  Georgia, 
but  in  1798  the  country  now  included  in  the 
states  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  was  organ¬ 
ized  as  a  territory  called  Mississippi.  After  the 
Creeks  disappeared  (see  Creek  War)  the  region 
of  Alabama  was  rapidly  settled  by  white  peo¬ 
ple,  and  in  1819  it  entered  the  Union  as  a  state. 
The  slave  population  increased  more  rapidly 
than  the  white.  In  the  Democratic  National 
Convention  at  Charleston  in  1860  the  delegates 
of  Alabama  took  the  lead  in  seceding  from  the 
convention  (see  Charleston  Convention).  A  con¬ 
vention  assembled  at  Montgomery  early  in  Jan¬ 
uary,  1861,  and  on  the  11th  passed  an  ordinance 
of  secession.  (See  Alabama  Ordinance  of  Secession.) 
The  Alabama  senators  and  representatives  with¬ 


STATE  SEAL  OF  ALABAMA. 


drew  from  Congress  Jan. 


21,  1861. 


On  March 


13  a  State  Convention  ratified  the  constitution 
adopted  by  the  Confederate  Congress.  The  au¬ 
thorities  of  the  state  seized  the  national  prop¬ 
erty  within  its  borders,  and  sent  troops  to  Flori¬ 
da  to  assist  in  capturing  Fort  Pickens  and  other 
public  works  there.  Alabama  sent  a  commis¬ 
sioner  to  Washington  as  an  ambassador,  but  he 
was  not  received.  During  the  civil  war  that 


ALABAMA,  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE 

ensued,  Alabama  bore  her  share  of  the  burden 
and  her  cities  and  plantations  suffered  from  the 
ravages  of  the  conflict.  Wilson’s  cavalry  raid 
through  the  state  caused  great  destruction  of 
property.  (See  Wilson’s  Raid.)  During  the  war 
Alabama  furnished  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
two  thousand  troops  to  the  Confederate  army, 
of  whom  thirty -five  thousand  were  killed  or 
wounded.  Montgomery,  in  the  interior  of  the 
state,  was  the  Confederate  capital  until  July, 
1861,  when  the  seat  of  government  was  removed 
to  Richmond.  At  the  close  of  the  war  a  provis¬ 
ional  governor  for  Alabama  was  appointed  (June 
21, 1865),  and  in  September  a  convention  reor¬ 
dained  the  civil  and  criminal  lawTs,  excepting 
such  as  related  to  slavery;  declared  the  ordi¬ 
nance  of  secession  and  the  state  war-debt  null ; 
passed  an  ordinance  against  slavery;  and  pro¬ 
vided  for  an  election  of  state  officers,  who  were 
chosen  in  November.  The  government  thus 
constituted  remained  in  force  until  superseded 
by  military  rule  in  1867.  In  November  of  that 
year  a  convention  formed  a  new  constitution 
for  the  state,  which  was  ratified  Feb.  4,  1868. 
State  officers  and  members  of  Congress  having 
been  duly  chosen,  and  all  requirements  com¬ 
plied  with,  Alabama  became  entitled  to  repre¬ 
sentation  in  Congress;  and  on  July  14,  1868, 
the  military  relinquished  to  the  civil  authori¬ 
ties  all  legal  control.  The  Fourteenth  and  Fif¬ 
teenth  Amendments  to  the  National  Constitu¬ 
tion  were  ratified  by  Alabama,  the  latter  Nov. 
16,  1870.  Population  in  1880, 1,262,505. 

Alabama,  Destruction  of  the.  The  Ala- 
lama  was  a  Confederate  privateer ;  a  British  ves¬ 
sel,  manned  chiefly  by  British  subjects  at  a  Brit¬ 
ish  port;  armed  with  British  cannon,  and  pro- 


THE  ALABAMA. 


vided  with  coal  and  other  supplies  from  British 
soil.  She  had  no  acknowledged  flag,  nor  rec¬ 
ognized  nationality,  nor  any  accessible  port  to 
which  she  might  send  her  prizes,  nor  any  legal 
tribunal  to  adjudge  her  captures.  She  was  com¬ 
manded  by  Raphael  Seinmes,  a  native  of  Mary¬ 
land,  and  roamed  the  seas,  plundering  and  de¬ 
stroying  vessels  belonging  to  American  citizens. 
Her  commander  avoided  contact  with  American 
armed  vessels,  but  finally  encountered  the  Kear¬ 
sarge,  Captain  John  A.  Winslow,  off  Cherbourg, 
France,  in  the  summer  of  1864.  On  June  19 
Seinmes  went  out  of  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg  to 
fight  the  Kearsarge,  which  was  watching  her  out- 


15  ALABAMA  ORDINANCE  OF  SECESSION 

side.  She  was  followed  by  the  yacht  Deerhound 
(belonging  to  Mr.  Lancaster,  one  of  the  English 
gentry),  a  sort  of  tender  to  the  Alabama ,  to  take 
care  that  Seinmes,  if  defeated,  should  not  fall 
into  the  hands  of  Winslow.  The  Alabama  was 
accompanied  by  a  French  frigate  to  a  point 
beyond  the  territorial  waters  of  France.  At 
a  distance  of  seven  miles  from  the  Cherbourg 
breakwater,  the  Kearsarge  turned  and  made  for 
the  Confederate  cruiser,  when,  within  1200  yards 
of  her,  the  latter  opened  fire.  After  receiving 
two  or  three  broadsides,  the  Kearsarge  respond¬ 
ed  with  telling  effect.  They  fought  for  an  hour, 
the  steamers  moving  in  a  circle.  At  the  end  of 
the  hour  the  Alabama  was  at  the  mercy  of  her 
antagonist,  and  a  white  flag  was  displayed  over 
her  stern.  Respecting  this,  Winslow  ceased  fir¬ 
ing.  Two  minutes  afterwards  tlie  Alabama 
treacherously  fired  two  guns  at  the  Kearsarge, 
and  attempted  to  run  to  the  protection  of  French 
neutral  waters,  not  more  than  three  miles  dis¬ 
tant.  Winslow  opened  fire  again,  and  very  soon 
a  boat  came  to  his  vessel  from  the  Alabama,  say¬ 
ing  she  had  surrendered  and  was  fast  sinking. 
Just  then  the  Deerhound  passed  by,  when  Wins¬ 
low  humanely  asked  her  owner  to  assist  him  in 
saving  the  unfortunate  crew  of  the  Alabama, 
which,  in  twenty  minutes,  went  to  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  The  Kearsarge  rescued  sixty-five  of 
the  crew  ;  the  Deerhound  picked  up  Semmes,  his 
officers,  and  a  few  mariners,  and  carried  them 
away  from  the  lawful  custody  of  Winslow,  to 
England.  There  Semmes  was  received  with 
great  honor.  The  Kearsarge  had  three  men 
badly  wounded  —  one  of  them  mortally.  The 
Alabama  had  nine  men  killed  and  twenty-one 
wounded.  (See  Tribunal  of  Arbitration.) 

Alabama  Ordinance  of  Secession  (1861). 
Elections  for  members  of  a  State  Convention  in 
Alabama  were  held  Dec.  24, 1860,  and,  as  in  some 
of  the  other  states,  the  politicians  were  divided 
into  “Secessionists”  and  “  Co-operationists.” 
(See  Mississi Ippi  Ordinance  of  Secession.)  The  latter 
were  also  divided;  one  party  wishing  the  co-op- 
eraiion  of  all  the  slave-labor  states,  and  the  oth¬ 
er  caring  only  for  the  co-operation  of  the  cotton- 
producing  states.  The  vote  for  all  but  ten  coun¬ 
ties  was,  for  secession,  24,445 ;  and  for  co-opera¬ 
tion,  33,685.  In  the  ten  counties,  some  were  for 
secession  and  some  for  co-operation.  In  the  con¬ 
vention  assembled  at  Montgomery,  Jail.  7,  1861, 
every  county  in  the  state  was  represented.  Will¬ 
iam  Brooks  was  chosen  president.  There  was 
a  powerful  infusion  of  Union  sentiment  in  the 
convention,  which  endeavored  to  postpone  a  de¬ 
cision,  under  the  plea  of  the  desirableness  of  co¬ 
operation.  A  committee  of  thirteen  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  report  an  Ordinance  of  Secession.  It 
was  submitted  on  the  10th.  It  was  longer 
than  any  other  already  adopted,  but  similar  in 
tenor.  They  assumed  that  the  commonwealth, 
which  had  been  created  by  the  national  govern¬ 
ment  first  a  territory  and  then  a  state  (1819), 
had  “ delegated  sovereign  powers”  to  that  gov¬ 
ernment,  which  were  now  “resumed  and  vested 
in  the  people  of  the  State  of  Alabama.”  The 
convention  favored  the  formation  of  a  confeder¬ 
acy  of  slave-labor  states,  and  formally  invited 


ALABAMA  PREPARING  FOR  REVOLT  18 


ALASKA 


the  others  to  send  delegates  to  meet  those  of 
Alabama,  in  general  convention,  on  the  4th  of 
February,  at  Montgomery,  for  consultation  on  the 
subject.  The  convention  was  uot  harmonious. 
Union  men  were  not  to  be  put  down  without  a 
struggle.  There  was  a  minority  report  on  Se¬ 
cession ;  and  some  were  for  postponing  the  act 
until  the  4th  of  March,  with  a  hope  of  preserving 
the  Uniou.  Nicholas  Davis,  from  Northern  Al¬ 
abama,  declared  his  belief  that  the  people  of  his 
section  would  not  submit  to  any  disunion  scheme, 
when  Yancey  (which  see)  denounced  him  and  his 
fellow-citizens  of  that  region  as  “  tories,  traitors, 
and  rebels,”  and  said  they  “  ought  to  be  coerced 
into  submission.”  Davis  was  not  moved  by 
these  menaces,  but  assured  the  secessionists  that 
the  people  of  his  sect  ion  would  be  ready  to  meet 
their  enemies  on  the  line  and  decide  the  issue 
at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The  final  vote  on 
the  Ordinance  of  Secession  wras  taken  at  two 
o’clock  P.M.  ou  Jan.  11,  and  resulted  in  sixty-one 
ayes  to  thirty- nine  nays.  An  immense  mass- 
meeting  was  immediately  held  in  front  of  the 
State-house,  and  timid  “ co-operationists ”  as¬ 
sured  the  multitude  that  their  constituents 
would  support  the  ordinance.  A  Secession  flag, 
which  the  women  of  Montgomery  had  presented 
to  the  convention,  was  raised  over  the  capital. 
In  Mobile,  when  the  news  reached  that  city,  one 
hundred  and  oue  guns  were  fired  in  honor  of 
Alabama,  and  fifteen  for  Florida.  At  night  the 
city  blazed  with  fireworks,  the  favorite  pieces  be¬ 
ing  the  “  Southern  Cross”  and  the  “  Lone  Star.” 
The  convention  had  voted  against  the  re-open¬ 
ing  of  the  slave-trade,  and  adjourned  ou  Jan.  30, 
1861. 

Alabama  preparing  for  revolt  (1860).  Her- 
schell  V.  Johnson,  the  candidate  for  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent  ou  the  Douglas  ticket,  declared,  in  a  speech 
at  the  Cooper  Institute,  New  York,  so  early  as 
Oct.  24, 1860,  that  Alabama  was  ripe  for  revolt 
in  case  Mr.  Liucoln  should  be  elected ;  that  it 
was  pledged  to  withdraw  from  the  Union,  and 
had  appropriated  $200,000  for  military  contingen¬ 
cies.  The  governor  suggested  secession  at  the 
beginning  of  November;  and  in  December,  1860, 
the  conference  of  the  “Methodist  Church  South,” 
sitting  at  Montgomery,  declared  “African  slav¬ 
ery,  as  it  existed  in  the  Southern  States  of  the 
Republic,  a  wise,  beneficent,  humane,  and  right¬ 
eous  institution,  approved  of  God,  and  calculat¬ 
ed,  to  promote,  to  the  highest  possible  degree, 
the  welfare  of  the  slave ;  that  the  election  of  a 
sectional  President  of  the  United  States  was 
evidence  of  the  hostility  of  the  majority  to  the 
people  of  the  South,  and  which  in  fact,  if  not  in 
form,  dissolves  the  compact  of  union  between 
the  states.”  Northern  Alabama  was  opposed  to 
the  movement. 

Alarcon,  Francisco.  (See  Coronado.) 

Alarm  at  New  York.  When  Sir  Henry  Clin¬ 
ton,  at  New  York,  heard  of  the  arrival  of  D’Es- 
taing’s  fleet  off  the  Southern  coasts,  in  the  fall  of 
1779,  he  feared  that  city  might  be  attacked;  so 
he  ordered  the  evacuation  of  Rhode  Island  and 
the  forts  on  the  Hudson,  and  the  concentration 
of  the  forces  arouud  the  headquarters  of  the 


army.  He  had  held  Rhode  Island  about  three 
years.  An  expedition  about  to  sail  for  the  West 
Indies  was  also  detained  for  the  defence  of  New 
York.  As  soon  as  Clinton  was  assured  of  the  de¬ 
parture  of  D’Estaiug  for  France  (see  Siege  of  Sa¬ 
vannah),  Clinton  embarked  for  Georgia  (Dec.  24, 
1779)  with  7000  troops.  About  that  time  there 
were  embodied  about  5000  American  loyalists. 
Of  these,  1000  were  already  at  Savannah,  2000 
more  sailed  with  Clinton,  and  the  remainder 
were  left  at  New  York,  with  Knyphausen,  who 
held  that  city  with  a  strong  garrison. 

Alarm  in  New  England.  Early  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1774,  a  rumor  spread  over  New  Englaud  that 
British  ships  were  cannonading  Boston.  Wher¬ 
ever  the  rumor  reached  there  was  a  cry  to  arms. 
Men  of  all  ages  immediately  responded ;  aud 
within  two  days  full  30,000  minute-men  were 
under  arms  and  hastening  towards  the  suffering 
town.  The  rumor  was  false,  and  they  returned 
to  their  homes;  but  this  demonstration  of  the 
patriotism  of  the  people,  of  their  determination 
to  sustain  Boston  in  its  defiaut  attitude,  aud  of 
their  amazing  moral  and  physical  strength, 
alarmed  Gage  and  made  him  more  circumspect 
and  conciliating.  It  induced  him  to  call  a  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  Massachusetts  Assembly.  (See  Pro¬ 
vincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts).  This  great 
uprising  of  the  people  was  the  beginning  of 
mighty  movements  towards  the  grand  end,  in¬ 
dependence. 

Alarming  Order  from  the  War  Department 

(1814).  At  the  beginning  of  August,  1814,  Arm¬ 
strong,  the  Secretary  of  War,  ordered  General 
Izard,  in  command  of  a  large  body  of  troops  at 
Plattsburg,  to  march  a  larger  portion  of  them  to 
co-operate  with  the  army  on  the  Niagara  fron¬ 
tier.  This  order  produced  amazement  and  in¬ 
dignation  in  the  mind  of  Izard  and  his  officers, 
for  they  knew  the  imminent  peril  of  immediate 
invasion,  from  the  region  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
of  a  large  body  of  Wellington’s  veterans,  who  had 
lately  arrived  in  Canada.  (See  Downfall  of  Napo¬ 
leon.)  Both  the  army  and  people  were  expect¬ 
ing  an  occasion  for  a  great  battle  near  the  foot 
of  Lake  Champlain  very  soon,  and  this  order 
produced  consternation  among  the  inhabitants. 
Izard  wrote  to  the  War  Department  in  a  tone  of 
remonstrance,  Aug.  11,  “  I  will  make  the  move¬ 
ment  you  direct,  if  possible;  but  I  shall  do  it 
with  the  apprehension  of  risking  the  force  under 
my  command,  and  with  the  certainty  that  ev¬ 
erything  in  this  vicinity  but  the  lately  erected 
works  at  Plattsburg  aud  Cumberland  Head  will, 
in  less  than  three  days  after  my  departure, 
be  in  the  possession  of  the  enemy.”  Niue  days 
afterwards  Izard  wrote  to  the  Secretary :  “  I 
must  not  be  responsible  for  the  consequences  of 
abandoning  my  present  strong  position.  I  will 
obey  orders,  aud  execute  them  as  well  as  I  know 
how.”  The  removal  of  this  force  invited  the  in¬ 
vasion  of  Prevost  immediately  afterwards,  which 
was  checked  by  the  American  army  and  navy 
at  Plattsburg,  where,  with  great  diligence,  Gen¬ 
eral  Macomb  concentrated  troops  for  defence 
immediately  after  Izard  left. 

Alaska,  formerly  known  as  “  Russian  Amer- 


ALBANY  CONVENTION 


17 


ALBANY  CONVENTIONS 


ica,”  is  a  region  in  the  extreme  northwestern 
portion  of  North  America,  lying  north  of  the 
parallel  of  50°  40'  N.  latitude,  and  west  of  the 
meridian  of  140°  W.  longitude,  including  many 
islauds  lying  otf  the  coast.  The  Russians  ac¬ 
quired  possession  of  this  territory  by  right  of 
discovery  by  Vitus  Behring  (which  see),  in  1741. 
He  discovered  the  crowning  peak  of  the  Alaska 
mountains,  Mount  St.  Elias,  on  July  18.  That 
mountain  rises  to  a  height  of  between  16,000 
and  17,000  feet  above  the  sea.  In  the  same  chain 
is  Mount  Fairweather,  14,000  feet  in  height.  The 
mountain  country  has  now  ten  volcanoes  that  are 
active.  The  entire  coast-line  of  Alaska  meas¬ 
ures  about  4000  miles,  taking  into  account  the 
smaller  indentations.  The  climate  iu  some  parts 
is  most  agreeable.  In  the  interior  are  said  to 
be  numerous  lakes.  Its  valleys  are  fertile ;  its 
streams  abound  wTitli  fish  and  its  forests  with 
game ;  and  its  islauds  afford  the  most  extensive 
and  i-ichest  fur-seal  fishing  in  the  world.  (See 
Fur-trade .)  Sitka,  or  New  Archangel,  the  cap¬ 
ital  of  Alaska,  is  the  oldest  settlement.  It  was 
founded  by  Russian  fur-traders,  in  the  last  cen¬ 
tury.  The  country  was  a  sort  of  independent 
province,  under  the  rule  of  the  Russian-Ameri- 
cau  Fur  Company,  to  whom  it  was  granted  by 
the  Emperor  Paul  iu  1799.  It  was  invested  with 
the  exclusive  right  of  hunting  and  fishing  in  the 
American  waters  of  the  Czar.  The  charter  of 
the  company  expired  in  1867,  wdieu  the  govern¬ 
ment  decliued  to  renew  it.  In  1865-67,  the 
country  wms  explored  by  a  scientific  corps  sent 
out  by  the  United  States  to  select  a  route  for 
the  Russo -American  telegraph  line,  a  project 
which  was  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the 
successful  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable  (which 
see).  Early  in  1867,  negotiations  were  begun 
for  the  purchase  of  the  territory  by  the  United 
States,  and  a  treaty  to  that  effect  was  ratified 
by  the  U.  S.  Senate  May  20th,  the  same  year. 
The  price  paid  was  $7,200,000.  In  October  Gen¬ 
eral  Lovell  H.  Rousseau  (which  see),  a  commis¬ 
sioner  for  the  purpose,  formally  took  possession 
of  the  region.  Alaska  promises  to  be  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  the  territories  of  the  Re¬ 
public.  It  is  a  military  and  collection  district, 
with  headquarters  at  Sitka.  A  district  gov¬ 
ernment  for  Alaska  was  established  on  May  17, 
1884. 

Albany,  FIRST  COLONIAL  CONVENTION  AT 
(1689).  Thoroughly  alarmed  by  the  opening 
hostilities  of  the  French  and  Indians  on  the 
frontiers,  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Plym¬ 
outh,  and  Connecticut  sent  commissioners  to 
Albany  to  hold  a  conference  with  the  chiefs  of 
the  Five  Nations,  all  of  whom,  excepting  the 
Mohawks,  had  renewed  their  covenant  of  friend¬ 
ship  with  the  English.  This  covenant  was  re¬ 
newed  June  27, 1689,  previous  to  the  arrival  of 
Count  Froutenac  in  Canada.  The  commission¬ 
ers  held  the  conference  in  September  following. 
They  tried  to  persuade  the  Five  Nations  to  en¬ 
gage  in  the  war  against  the  Eastern  Indians. 
They  would  not  agree  to  do  so,  but  ratified  the 
existing  friendship  with  the  English  colonies. 
“  We  promise,”  they  said,  “  to  preserve  the  chain 
inviolably,  and  wish  that  the  sun  may  always 
I.— 2 


shine  in  peace  over  all  our  heads  that  are  com¬ 
prehended  iu  the  chain.” 

Albany,  Second  Colonial  Convention  at 
(1748).  In  the  summer  of  1748,  when  news  of  the 
preliminary  treaty  of  peace  reached  the  col¬ 
onies,  a  convention  or  congress  of  colonial  gov¬ 
ernors  wms  called  at  Albauy  for  a  twofold  pur¬ 
pose:  (1)  to  secure  a  colonial  revenue,  and  (2)  to 
strengthen  the  bond  of  friendship  between  the 
Six  Nations  and  their  neighbors  in  the  West, 
and  the  English.  Only  Governors  Clinton  and 
Shirley,  two  able  commissioners  from  Massachu¬ 
setts,  and  one  (William  Bull)  from  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  were  present.  With  the  latter  came  the 
Grand  Sachem  and  some  chiefs  of  the  Catawbas, 
a  nation  which  had  long  waged  war  with  the 
Iroquois.  (See  Catawbas.)  There  was  an  im¬ 
mense  number  of  the  Six  Nations  present.  The 
royal  governors  failed  to  gain  anything  for  them¬ 
selves  iu  the  way  of  a  revenue,  but  satisfactory 
arrangements  with  the  Indians,  including  the 
tribes  along  the  southern  borders  of  Lake  Erie, 
were  made.  At  that  conference  the  commis¬ 
sioners  from  Massachusetts  (Andrew  Oliver  and 
Thomas  Hutchinson)  presented  a  memorial  for 
adoption,  praying  the  king  so  far  to  interpose  as 
that,  w'hile  the  French  remained  in  Canada,  the 
more  southern  colonies,  which  were  not  imme¬ 
diately  exposed  to  hostilities,  might  be  obliged 
to  contribute  in  a  just  proportion  towards  the 
expense  of  protecting  the  inland  portions  of 
New  York  and  New  Englaud.  Clinton  and 
Shirley  signed  and  approved  of  the  memorial, 
which  was  sent  w  ith  it  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  Plantations  (which  see). 

Albany,  Third  Colonial  Convention  at 
(1751).  The  kindly  attitude  manifested  towards 
the  French  by  the  Six  Nations  excited  the  jeal¬ 
ousy  and  alarm  of  the  English,  especially  of 
Governor  Clintou,  of  New  York.  As  yet,  the 
Iroquois  had  never  recognized  the  claim  of  the 
English  to  dominion  over  their  land,  and  they 
were  free  to  act  as  they  pleased.  Clinton  called 
a  convention  of  representatives  of  the  several 
English -American  colonies,  at  Albany,  and  in¬ 
vited  the  Six  Nations  to  send  representatives 
to  meet  with  them.  Only  Massachusetts,  Con¬ 
necticut,  and  South  Carolina  chose  to  incur  the 
expense.  Delegates  from  these  colonies  met  the 
chiefs  of  the  Six  Nations  (July  5, 1751)  and  made 
a  treaty  of  friendship.  The  “King”  of  the  Ca¬ 
tawbas  and  several  chiefs  accompanied  the 
South  Carolina  delegate  (William  Bull),  and  a 
peace  between  that  Southern  nation  and  the 
Iroquois  was  settled  at  the  same  time.  (See  Ca¬ 
tawbas  and  Iroquois.) 

Albany,  Fourth  Colonial  Convention  at 
(1754).  There  were  indications  that  the  Six  Na¬ 
tions,  influenced  by  French  emissaries,  were  be¬ 
coming  alienated  from  the  English.  The  col¬ 
onists  were  uneasy,  and  the  British  government, 
acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  royal  governors 
in  America,  sent  a  circular  letter  to  all  the  colo¬ 
nial  assemblies,  proposing  the  holding  of  a  con¬ 
vention  at  Albany,  to  be  composed  of  commit¬ 
tees  from  the  several  legislatures  and  represent¬ 
atives  of  the  Six  Nations.  Seven  of  the  assern- 


ALBANY  REGENCY 


18 


ALBEMARLE  SOUND 


blies  responded,  and  on  June  19,  1754,  twenty- 
five  delegates  assembled  in  the  old  City  Hall  at 
Albany.  James  DeLancey,  acting  Governor  of 
New  York,  presided,  and  he  was  authorized  by 
the  Virginia  Legislature  to  represent  that  col¬ 
ony  in  the  convention.  The  chiefs  of  the  Six 
Nations  were  there  in  great  numbers,  of  whom 
“King  Hendrick,”  of  the  Mohawks,  was  leader. 
To  the  Indians  De  Lancey  first  spoke,  and  Hen¬ 
drick  responded  in  words  of  bitter  reproof  of 
the  English  for  their  neglect  of  preparations  for 
danger.  “  Look  at  the  French,”  he  said ;  “  they 
are  men ;  they  are  fortifying  every¬ 
where  ;  but,  we  are  ashamed  to  say 
it,  you  are  like  women,  bare  and  open, 
without  any  fortifications.  It  is  but 
one  step  from  Canada  hither,  and  the 
French  may  easily  come  and  turn  you 
out  of  doors.”  But  the  business  with 
the  Six  Nations  was  closed  amicably 
and  satisfactorily  by  a  treaty  of  friend¬ 
ship.  The  Massachusetts  delegation 
was  authorized  to  propose  a  measure 
quite  as  important  as  a  treaty  with 
the  Indians.  It  was  an  invitation 
for  the  convention  to  consider  the  question 
whether  a  union  of  the  colonies  for  mutual 
defence  was  not  desirable  ;  and  they  were 
empowered  to  agree  to  articles  of  union  or 
confederation.  The  proposition  was  favorably 
received,  and  a  committee,  composed  of  one  dele¬ 
gate  from  each  colony,  was  appointed  to  draw 
up  a  plan.  The  fertile  brain  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Franklin,  a  delegate  from  Pennsylvania,  had 
conceived  a  plan  before  he  went  to  the  conven¬ 
tion.  It  was  reported  by  the  committee  and 
adopted  by  the  convention,  the  Connecticut  del¬ 
egates  alone  dissenting.  It  proposed  a  grand 
council  of  forty-eight  members,  to  be  chosen  by 
the  several  assemblies,  the  representatives  of 
each  colony  to  be,  in  number,  in  proportion  to 
the  contribution  of  each  to  the  general  treasury. 
No  colony  was  to  have  more  than  seven  nor  less 
than  two  members.  This  congress  was  to  choose 
its  own  speaker  and  have  the  general  manage¬ 
ment  of  all  civil  and  military  affairs,  and  to  en¬ 
act  general  laws  in  conformity  to  the  British 
Constitution.  It  proposed  to  have  a  president- 
general,  appointed  and  paid  by  the  crown,  who 
should  have  a  negative  or  veto  power  on  all 
acts  of  the  congress,  and  to  have,  with  the  ad¬ 
vice  and  consent  of  the  congress,  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  all  military  officers,  and  the  entire  man¬ 
agement  of  Indian  affairs ;  the  civil  officers  to 
be  appointed  by  the  congress  with  the  approval 
of  the  president-general.  This  plan  of  govern¬ 
ment  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  our  national 
constitution,  which  Franklin  assisted  in  framing 
more  than  thirty  years  afterwards.  (See  Na¬ 
tional  Constitution).  This  plan  was  submitted  to 
the  Lords  of  Trade  and  Plantations  (which  see). 
They  did  not  approve  of  it,  nor  recommend  it  to 
the  king  for  consideration.  They  thought  there 
was  too  much  democracy  in  it.  The  assemblies 
did  not  favor  it,  because  they  thought  there  was 
too  much  prerogative  in  it.  So  it  was  rejected. 

Albany  Regency.  A  name  popularly  given 
to  a  few  active  and  able  men  of  the  Democratic 


Party  more  than  fifty  years  ago,  of  whom  Martin 
Van  Buren  was  a  leader,  having  their  head¬ 
quarters  at  Albany,  the  political  capital  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  who,  in  a  great  degree, 
controlled  the  action  of  their  party  throughout 
the  Union.  Their  first  great  trial  of  strength 
was  seen  in  an  effort  to  elect  William  H.  Craw¬ 
ford  President  of  the  United  States  in  1824,  in¬ 
stead  of  John  Quincy  Adams. 

Albemarle,  Destruction  of  the  (1864).  The 
Albemarle  was  a  powerful  Confederate  “ram” 
that  patrolled  the  waters  off’  the  coast  of 


RAM  ALBEMARLE. 


North  Carolina.  It  was  a  frightful  bugbear  to 
the  national  blockading  vessels.  Late  in  Oc¬ 
tober,  1864,  Lieutenant  W.  B.  Cushing,  a  daring 
young  officer  of  the  United  States  Navy,  under¬ 
took  to  destroy  it.  It  was  lying  at  Plymouth, 
behind  a  barricade  of  logs  thirty  feet  in  width. 
With  a  small  steam-launch  equipped  as  a  tor¬ 
pedo-boat,  Cushing  moved  in  towards  Plymouth 
on  a  dark  night  (Oct.  27, 1864)  with  a  crew  of 
thirteen  officers  and  men,  part  of  whom  had  vol¬ 
unteered  for  this  service.  The  launch  had  a  cut¬ 
ter  in  tow.  They  were  within  twenty  yards  of 
the  “  ram  ”  before  they  were  discovered,  when 
its  pickets  began  firing.  In  the  face  of  a  severe 
discharge  of  musketry,  Cushing  pressed  to  the 
attack.  He  drove  his  launch  far  into  the  log 
barricade,  lowered  his  torpedo  boom,  and  drove 
it  directly  under  the  overhang  of  the  “ram.” 
The  mine  was  exploded,  and  at  the  same  mo¬ 
ment  one  of  the  guns  of  the  Albemarle  hurled 
a  heavy  bolt  that  went  crashing  through  and 
destroying  the  launch.-  Cushing  and  his  com¬ 
panions  leaped  into  the  water,  but  only  one  be¬ 
sides  the  commander  escaped  drowning  or  capt¬ 
ure.  Cushing  swam  ashore,  crept  into  a  swamp, 
and  was  found  and  cared  for  by  some  negroes. 
The  torpedo  had  destroyed  the  Albemarle,  and 
she  settled  down  in  the  mud  in  Plymouth  har¬ 
bor.  Plymouth  was  recaptured  (Oct.  31)  by  a 
squadron  under  Commodore  Macomb,  with  some 
prisoners  and  valuable  stores. 

Albemarle  Sound,  Naval  Battle  in.  The 
Confederate  general  Hoke,  after  capturing  Plym¬ 
outh  (which  see),  proceeded  to  Newbern  and 
demanded  its  surrender.  The  commander  of 
the  Albemarle,  a  powerful  “ram,”  started  out 
on  Albemarle  Sound  to  assist  Hoke,  when  his 
vessel  encountered  (May  5,  1864)  the  Sassacus, 
Lieutenant-commander  F.  A.  Rose,  one  of  Cap¬ 
tain  Melancthon  Smith’s  blockading  squadron 
in  the  Sound.  The  Albemarle  was  heavily  armed 
with  Brooks  and  Whitworth  guns.  After  a  brief 
cannonade  the  Sassacus  struck  the  monster  a 


ALCOTT 


19 


ALEXANDER 


blow  which  pushed  it  partly  under  water  and 
nearly  sunk  it.  When  the  “  ram  ”  recovered,  the 
two  vessels  hurled  100-pound  shot  at  each  other 
at  a  distance  of  a  few  paces.  Most  of  those  from 
the  Sassacus  glanced  off  from  the  Albemarle  like 
hail  from  granite.  Three  of  the  shots  from  the 
Sassacus  entered  a  part  of  the  “  ram  ”  with  de¬ 
structive  effect,  and  at  the  same  moment  the 
Albemarle  sent  a  100-pouud  Brooks  bolt  through 
one  of  the  boilers  of  the  Sassacus,  killing  three 
men  and  wounding  six.  The  vessel  was  filled 
with  scalding  steam  and  was  unmanageable  for 
a  few  minutes.  When  the  smoke  and  vapor 
passed  away,  the  Albemarle  was  seen  moving 
towards  Plymouth,  firing  as  she  fled.  The  Sas¬ 
sacus  slowly  followed,  but  finally  desisted  for 
want  of  steam.  The  victorious  Sassacus  had 
captured  another  Confederate  vessel  with  valu¬ 
able  gnus.  Hoke  fell  back  from  Newbern. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson,  an  American  edu¬ 
cator  ;  was  born  at  Wolcott,  Conn.,  Nov.  27, 1799. 
He  became  a  successful  teacher  of  an  infant 
school  in  his  native  state.  Removing  to  Bos¬ 
ton,  he  soon  became  conspicuous  as  a  teacher  of 
the  very  youug.  He  finally  settled  in  Concord, 
Mass.,  where  he  studied  natural  theology  and 
the  best  methods  for  producing  reforms  in  diet, 
education,  and  civil  and  social  institutions.  By 
invitation,  he  went  to  England  in  1842,  to  teach 
at  “Alcott  House,”  a  name  given  to  a  school  at 
Ham,  near  London.  Returning  to  America,  with 
two  English  friends,  he  attempted  the  founding 
of  a  new  community,  calling  the  farm  “  Fruit 
Lauds.”  It  was  a  failure,  and  he  again  went  to 
Concord,  where  he  has  since  resided,  living  the 
life  of  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  conversing  in 
cities  and  in  villages,  wherever  invited,  on  divin¬ 
ity,  human  nature,  ethics,  as  well  as  on  a  great 
variety  of  practical  questions.  His  daughter, 
Louisa  May,  is  a  pleasing  writer  of  fiction. 

Alden,  James,  Rear-admiral  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  was  born  in  Portland,  Maine,  March 
31, 1810 ;  died  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Feb.  6, 1877. 
He  became  a  midshipman  in  1828 ;  lieutenant  in 
1841 ;  commander  in  1855 ;  captain,  Jan.  2, 1863 ; 
and  commodore,  July  25, 1866.  He  was  a  par¬ 
ticipant  iu  the  South  Sea  Exploring  Expedition 
(which  see)  under  Lieutenant  Wilkes,  and  served 
under  Commodore  Conner  on  the  Gulf  coast  of 
Mexico  during  the  war  with  that  country.  He 
was  active  iu  the  reinforcement  of  Fort  Pickens ; 
in  the  expedition  against  Galveston  ;  as  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Richmond  in  the  passage  of  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip;  in  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans  ;  and  at  Vicksburg,  Port  Hudson,  Mobile 
Bay,  and  Fort  Fisher.  Admiral  Alden  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  and 
Detail  in  1869. 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  was  born  iu  Ports¬ 
mouth,  N.  H.,  iu  1836.  He  entered  upon  mer¬ 
cantile  life  at  an  early  age,  aud  at  the  same  time 
engaged  in  writing  verses  for  the  New  York 
journals.  The  first  collection  of  his  poems  was 
published,  under  the  name  of  “  The  Bells.”  in 
1855,  when  he  was  nineteen  years  of  age.  His 
most  successful  poem,  “Babie  Bell,”  was  pub¬ 
lished  iu  1856,  aud  soon  afterwards  he  abandoned 


mercantile  for  literary  pursuits.  Iu  1856  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  Home  Journal,  published 
by  Morris  and  Willis.  Mr.  Aldrich  is  also  a 
pleasing  writer  of  fiction  in  prose.  He  edited 
Evei'y  Saturday  from  its  foundation,  and  has  con¬ 
tributed  largely  to  periodical  publications.  Now 
(18871  he  is  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

Alexander  and  Philip,  Indian  kings.  Mas- 
sasoit  (which  see)  died  in  1660.  Three  or  four 
years  before  his  death  he  took  his  two  sons, 
Wamsutta  and  Metacomet,  to  Plymouth,  and 
asked  that  both  should  receive  English  names. 
The  first  (and  the  oldest)  was  named  Alexander, 
and  the  second  Philip.  Alexander  succeeded  his 
father  as  chief  sachem  of  the  Wampanoags.  In 
1661  he  was  compelled  to  go  to  Plymouth  a  pris¬ 
oner,  on  suspicion  of  being  leagued  with  the 
Narragansets  in  hostile  designs  against  the  Eng¬ 
lish.  The  suspicion  was  not  sustained  by  evi¬ 
dence.  On  his  way  to  Plymouth  the  chief  was 
taken  suddenly  ill,  and  in  a  few  hours  died,  it 
was  said  of  a  fever  brought  on  by  rage  and  mor¬ 
tification.  His  young  wife,  who  became  the 
squaw  sachem  Witamo  (which  see),  believed  he 
had  beeu  poisoned  by  the  English.  This  event 
soured  the  miuds  of  Philip  aud  his  followers 
towards  the  English,  and  was  one  of  the  indirect 
causes  which  led  to  King  Philip’s  War  (which 
see). 

Alexander,  Archibald,  D.D.,  was  born  in 
Augusta  (now  Rockbridge)  County,  Va.,  April 
17,  1772;  died  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Oct.  22,  1851. 
He  was  of  Scotch  descent,  and  became  teacher  iu 
a  Virginian  family  at  the  age  of  seventeen  years. 
In  1791  he  entered  the  ministry  as  an  itinerant 
missionary  in  his  native  state.  In  1789  he  be¬ 
came  President  of  Hampdeu-Sidney  College ;  left 
it  in  1801 ;  married  a  daughter  of  Rev.  Mr.  Wad¬ 
dell,  the  celebrated  “blind preacher”  in  Virginia, 
and  afterwards  (1807)  became  pastor  of  a  Pres¬ 
byterian  church  in  Philadelphia.  In  1810  he  was 
elected  President  of  Union  College,  Georgia,  but 
did  not  accept  it.  On  the  establishment  of  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Princeton,  in  1811,  Dr. 
Alexander  was  chosen  its  first  professor,  which 
position  he  held  until  his  death,  a  period  of  forty 
years.  Among  his  numerous  writings  his  Out¬ 
lines  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,  used  as  a 
text-book  in  several  colleges,  is  most  extensive¬ 
ly  known.  It  has  passed  through  many  editions 
in  various  languages. 

Alexander,  Barton  Stone,  a  brevet  Briga¬ 
dier-General  U.  S.  Army,  was  born  in  Kentucky 
in  1819,  and  graduated  at  the  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  was  made  Second 
Lieutenant  of  Engineers  in  1843,  and  captain  in 
1856.  For  services  at  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run, 
July,  1861,  he  was  breveted  major,  and  in  March, 
1863,  was  commissioned  Major  of  the  Engineer 
Corps.  For  meritorious  services  during  the 
Civil  War,  he  was  breveted  brigadier  -  general 
in  March,  1865.  Active  during  the  war,  he  was 
consulting  engineer  in  Sheridan's  army  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  and  was  at  the  battle  of 
Cedar  Creek,  Oct.  19, 1864. 

Alexander,  James,  an  active  public  man  in 
the  province  of  New  York,  to  which  he  emigrated 


ALEXANDER 


20 


ALEXANDER 


from  Scotland  in  1715,  where  he  was  horn.  He 
died  in  New  York  City,  April  2, 1756.  He  had 
fled  from  Scotland  because  of  his  peril  there  as 
an  adherent  of  the  “Young  Pretender.”  He 
was  accompanied  by  William  Smith,  afterwards 
chief-justice  of  the  province  and  its  historian. 
He  was  made  Surveyor-general  of  New  Jersey 
and  New  York,  was  secretary  of  the  latter  col¬ 
ony,  and  attained  eminence  in  the  profession  of 
the  law.  As  attorney-general  of  the  province 
and  occupant  of  other  important  positions,  he 
became  distinguished.  He  was  one  of  the  able 
counsel  who  defended  the  freedom  of  the  press 
in  the  person  of  John  Peter  Zenger  in  1735.  (See 
Zenger,  J.  P .)  Because  of  the  part  which  he 
took  in  that  famous  trial  he  was  arbitrarily  ex¬ 
cluded  from  the  bar,  but  was  reinstated  in  1737. 
Mr.  Alexander  was  associated  with  Franklin  and 
others  in  founding  the  American  Philosophical 
Society.  He  was  the  father  of  William  Alex¬ 
ander,  kuowu  as  Lord  Stirling,  a  general  in  the 
Continental  army. 

Alexander,  Sir  William,  patentee  of  Nova 
Scotia,  was  a  poet  and  court  favorite,  to  whom 
James  I.  aud  Charles  I.  were  much  attached. 
He  was  born  at  Menstrie,  Scotland,  in  1580 ; 
died  in  1640.  He  became  the  author  of  verses 
when  he  was  fourteen  years  old,  and  was  cher¬ 
ished  by  Scotchmen  as  a  descendant  of  the  Mac¬ 
donalds.  His  Aurora  contained  more  than  one 
hundred  sonnets,  songs,  aud  elegies  which  dis¬ 
played  the  effects  of  ill-requited  love.  When 
the  Council  for  New  England  (see  Plymouth 
Company)  perceived  the  intention  of  the  French 
beyond  the  St.  Croix  to  push  their  settlements 
westward,  they  granted  to  Sir  William  (who  had 
been  knighted  in  1614)  all  of  the  territory  now 
known  as  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  ex¬ 
cepting  a  pait  of  Acadia  proper;  aud  the  king 
confirmed  it,  and  issued  a  patent  Sept.  10,  1621. 
The  territory  granted  was  called  Nova  Scotia — 
New  Scotland— and  it  was  given  to  Sir  William 
and  his  heirs  in  fee  without  conditions.  It  was 
erected  into  a  royal  palatinate,  the  proprietor 
being  invested  with  the  rights  and  powers  of  a 
count-palatine.  It  was  designed  to  settle  the 
territory  with  Scotch  emigrants,  who  should 
form  a  barrier  against  French  encroachments. 
A  colony  was  accordingly  planted,  and  Sir  Will¬ 
iam  held  possession  ten  years  before  he  was  dis¬ 
placed  by  the  French.  In  1625,  Charles  I.  (who 
had  just  succeeded  his  deceased  father),  in  order 
to  help  Sir  William  plant  a  successful  colony  or 
sell  the  domain  in  parcels,  created  the  order  of 
“  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia,”  the  title  to  be  con¬ 
ferred  upon  purchasers  of  large  tracts  of  land 
there.  He  also  gave  the  proprietor  the  privi¬ 
lege  of  coining  base  copper  money.  In  1626  Sir 
William  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  for 
Scotland,  Keeper  of  the  Signet  in  1627,  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  the  Exchequer  in  1628,  also  Lord  of 
Canada.  In  1630  he  was  created  Viscount.  Stir¬ 
ling,  and  in  1633  Earl  of  Stirling  and  Viscount 
of  Canada.  In  1628  the  Council  for  New  Eng¬ 
land  gave  him  a  grant  of  territory,  which  in¬ 
cluded  a  part  of  Long  Island,  opposite  Connec¬ 
ticut;  but  ho  was  not  able  to  manage  his  colo¬ 
nization  schemes  in  Nova  Scotia,  aud  he  sold  his 


) 

LORD  STIRLING. 


domain  to  the  French.  Lord  Stirling’s  title  ex¬ 
pired  with  the  fifth  earl  (1739),  but  other  claim¬ 
ants  appeared  afterwards.  (See  Alexander,  H  ik- 
ium,  Lord.  Stirling.) 

Alexander,  William  (Lord  Stirling),  was 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1726;  he  died  Janu¬ 
ary  15, 1783.  He  was  a  sou  of  Secretary  Alexan¬ 
der  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey.  His  mother 
was  the  widow 
of  David  Pro- 
voost,  a  wealthy 
merchant  of  the 
city  of  New 
York.  Attach¬ 
ed  to  the  com¬ 
missariat  of  the 
army, he  attract¬ 
ed  the  notice  of 
General  Shirley, 
and  was  for  three 
years  his  aid-de- 
camp  and  private  secretary.  He  went  to  Eng¬ 
land  aud  Scotland  in  1755,  and  before  his  re¬ 
turn  he  prosecuted  his  claim  to  the  earldom  of 
Stirling,  but  was  unsuccessful.  He  spent  much 
of  his  fortune  in  the  matter.  It  was  generally 
believed  that  he  was  the  rightful  heir  to  the 
title  and  estates,  aud  he  assumed  the  title  of 
Lord  Stirling,  by  which  he  was  ever  afterwards 
known  in  America.  When  the  quarrel  with 
Great  Britain  began  in  the  colonies  Lord  Stir¬ 
ling  espoused  the  cause  of  the  patriots.  In 
1775  he  was  appointed  a  colonel,  and  in  March, 
1776,  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  Continental  army.  When  General  Lee  went 
south,  Lord  Stirling  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  troops  in  and  around  the  city  of  New  York. 
After  conspicuous  service  in  the  battle  of  Long 
Island  (Aug.  27, 1776)  he  was  made  a  prisoner, 
but  was  soon  exchanged  ;  and  in  1777  he  was 
commissioned  by  Congress  a  major-general.  He 
fought  with  Washington  on  the  Brandywine  on 
Sept.  11,  1777,  and  was  specially  distinguished 
at  Germantown  and  Monmouth,  commauding 
the  left  wing  of  the  American  army  in  the  last- 
named  engagement.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
faithful  of  Washington’s  soldiers  during  the 
war.  William  Alexander  (Lord  Stirling)  mar¬ 
ried  a  daughter  of  William  Livingston,  of  New 
Jersey,  aud  had  been,  like  his  father,  surveyor- 
general.  He  was  an  excellent  mathematician 
and  astronomer.  Lord  Stirling  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  “New  York  Society  Library,” 
and  also  of  King’s  (now  Columbia)  College.  Al¬ 
exander  Humphreys,  born  in  Birmingham,  Eng¬ 
land,  in  1783,  claimed  the  earldom  of  Stirling. 
In  1824  he  obtained  the  royal  license  to  assume 
the  name  of  Alexander,  because  he  had  a  mater¬ 
nal  grandfather  of  that  name,  and  his  deceased 
mother  was  a  great- great -granddaughter  of 
John  Alexander,  fourth  son  of  William  Alexan¬ 
der,  the  last  earl  of  Stirling,  aud  all  interme¬ 
diate  heirs  had  become  extinct.  For  a  short 
time  he  exercised  the  privileges  of  an  earl,  and 
he  even  claimed  vast  possessions  in  Nova  Sco¬ 
tia.  (See  Sir  William  Alexander.)  But  after  a 
legal  investigation  he  was  stripped  of  his  titles 


ALGIERS 


ALEXANDRIA  PLUNDERED  21 


ami  pretensions,  and  in  1839  be  sank  into  ob¬ 
livion. 

Alexander  VI.,  Pope.  Rodrigo  Lenznolo, 
a  native  of  Valencia,  Spain,  was  elected  Pope, 
and  assumed  tbe  name  of  Alexander  VI.  He 
was  born  in  1431;  made  Pope  Aug.  11,  1492; 
and  died  Aug.  8, 1503.  His  mother  was  a  Bor¬ 
gia,  and  Caesar  and  Lucretia  Borgia  were  two 
of  bis  five  illegitimate  children  by  bis  mistress, 
Rosa  Vanozza.  His  death,  some  historians  say, 
was  caused  by  bis  accidentally  taking  a  poison¬ 
ed  draught  intended  for  a  large  party  of  cardi¬ 
nals  whom  be  bad  invited  to  a  banquet.  (See 
Pope’s  Gift.) 

Alexandria  plundered.  While  the  British 
forces  were  making  their  way  across  Maryland 
towards  Washington  (August,  1814),  a  portion 
of  the  British  fleet,  consisting  of  two  frigates 
of  36  and  38  guns,  two  rocket-ships  of  18  guns, 
two  bomb-vessels  of  8  guns,  and  one  schooner 
of  2  guns,  sailed  up  the  Potomac  under  the 
charge  of  Commodore  Gordon  of  the  Sea  Horse 
(see  Rodgers's  Long  Cruise),  and  easily  passed  the 
guns  of  Fort  Washington,  the  defences  of  which 


invader  contented  himself  with  burning  one  ves¬ 
sel  and  loading  several  others  with  plunder,  for 
he  became  in  too  great  a  hurry  to  depart  to  wait 
for  the  hidden  merchandise  and  the  raising  of 
the  scuttled  vessels.  The  squadron  sailed  down 
the  Potomac,  annoyed  all  the  way  by  batteries 
and  the  militia  on  the  shore,  the  former  quick¬ 
ly  constructed  and  armed  with  heavy  guns  from 
vessels  sent  by  Commodore  Rodgers  from  Balti¬ 
more,  and  also  others  sent  down  from  Washing¬ 
ton.  The  British  squadron,  having  an  aggre¬ 
gate  of  173  guns,  passed  out  safely  into  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay  on  Sept.  5. 

Algiers,  Tkibute  to.  Stretching  along  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  from 
the  western  frontier  of  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  are  four  provinces — Tunis,  Tripoli,  Alge¬ 
ria,  and  Morocco — called  Barbary  States,  from  the 
Berbers,  the  ancient  inhabitants.  From  their 
ports,  especially  from  Algiers,  went  out  pirati- 
cal  vessels  to  depredate  upon  the  commerce  of 
other  peoples.  So  early  as  1785  two  American 
vessels  had  been  captured  by  these  corsairs,  and 
their  crews  (twenty-one  persons)  had  beeu  held 


FORT  WASHINGTON. 


the  government  had  neglected.  The  British 
squadron  appeared  before  the  fort  (Aug.  27), 
when  the  commander  blew  up  the  magazine 
and  fled.  The  squadron  passed  and  anchored 
in  front  of  Alexandria,  nine  miles  below  Wash¬ 
ington,  on  the  28th,  prepared  to  lay  the  city  in 
ashes  with  bombs  and  rockets  if  demands  were 
not  complied  with.  There  was  no  effective 
force  at  Alexandria  to  oppose  the  invaders,  for 
the  able-bodied  men  and  heavy  guns  had  been 
called  to  the  defence  of  Washington.  The  citi¬ 
zens  sent  a  deputation  to  ask  Commodore  Gor¬ 
don  upon  what  terms  he  would  consent  to  spare 
the  town.  He  replied  that  all  naval  stores  and 
ordnance,  all  the  shipping  and  its  furniture, 
merchandise  of  every  description  in  the  city  or 
which  had  been  carried  out  of  it  to  a  place  of 
safety,  and  refreshments  of  every  kind,  must  be 
immediately  given  up  to  him.  Also,  the  vessels 
which  had  been  scuttled  to  save  them  from  capt¬ 
ure  must  be  raised  and  delivered  to  him.  “  Do 
all  this,”  he  said,  “and  the  town  of  Alexandria, 
with  the  exception  of  the  public  works,  shall  be 
spared  and  the  inhabitants  shall  be  unmolest 
ed.”  The  inhabitants  were  allowed  only  one 
hour  to  consider  these  harsh  terms.  They  were 
powerless,  and  were  compelled  to  submit.  The 


in  slavery  for  ransom.  The  Dey,  or  ruler,  of 
Algiers  demanded  sixty  thousaud  dollars  for 
their  redemption.  As  this  sum  would  be  a  pre¬ 
cedent,  other  means  were  sought  to  obtain  the 
release  ‘of  the  captives.  In  a  message,  in  1790, 
President  Washington  called  the  attention  of 
Congress  to  the  matter,  but  the  Uuited  States 
were  without  a  navy  to  protect  their  commerce. 
For  what  protection  American  vessels  enjoyed 
they  were  indebted  to  Portugal,  then  at  war 
with  Algiers.  In  1793  the  British  government 
made  a  secret  arrangement  with  that  of  Portu¬ 
gal,  whereby  peace  with  Algiers  was  obtained. 
In  that  arrangement  it  was  stipulated  that  for 
the  space  of  a  year  Portugal  should  not  afford 
protection  to  the  vessels  of  any  nation  against 
Algerine  corsairs.  This  was  for  the  purpose  of 
injuring  France.  The  pirates  were  immediate¬ 
ly  let  loose  upon  commerce.  David  Humphreys, 
who  had  been  sent  to  Algiers  by  the  government 
of  the  United  States  to  make  arrangements  for 
the  release  of  American  commerce  there  from 
danger,  was  insulted  by  the  Dey.  Humphreys 
wrote,  “If  we  mean  to  have  commerce,  wo  must 
have  a  navy.”  Meanwhile  the  United  States 
were  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Dey  to 
keep  his  corsairs  from  American  commerce. 


ALGONQUINS 


22 


ALGONQUINS 


From  1785  until  the  autumn  of  1793,  when 
Washington  called  the  attention  of  Congress 
to  the  necessity  of  a  navy,  the  Algerine  pirates 
had  captured  fifteen  American  vessels  and 
made  one  hundred  and  eighty  officers  and  sea¬ 
men  slaves  of  the  most  revolting  kind.  To 
redeem  the  survivors  of  these  captives,  and 
others  taken  more  recently,  the  United  States 
government  paid  about  one  million  dollars  in 
ransom-monev.  In  the  autumn  of  1795  the  gov- 
eminent  was  compelled  to  agree,  by  treaty,  to 
pay  to  the  Dey  of  Algiers  an  annual  tribute  for 
the  relief  of  captured  seamen,  according  to  long 
usage  among  European  nations.  It  was  humil¬ 
iating,  but  nothing  better  could  then  be  done, 
and  humanity  demanded  it.  In  1812,  the  Dey, 
offended  because  he  had  not  received  from  the 
American  government  the  annual  tribute  in 
precisely  such  articles  as  he  wanted,  dismissed 
the  American  consul,  declared  war,  and  his  cor¬ 
sairs  captured  American  vessels  and  reduced 
the  crews  to  slavery.  The  American  consul — 
Mr.  Lear — was  compelled  to  pay  the  Dey  twenty- 
seven  thousand  dollars  for  the  security  of  him¬ 
self  and  family  and  a  few  other  Americans  there 
from  horrid  slavery.  Determined  to  pay  trib¬ 
ute  no  longer  to  the  insolent  semi -barbarian, 
the  American  government  accepted  the  Dey’s 
challenge  for  war,  and  in  May,  1815,  sent  Com¬ 
modore  Decatur  to  the  Mediterranean  with  a 
squadron  to  humble  the  Dey.  Decatur  found 
the  Algerine  pirate-fleet  cruising  for  American 
vessels.  He  played  havoe  with  the  corsairs,  en¬ 
tered  the  Bay  of  Algiers  (June  28),  demanded 
the  instant  surrender  of  all  American  prisoners, 
full  indemnification  for  all  property  destroyed, 
and  absolute  relinquishment  of  all  claims  to. 
tribute  from  the  United  States  thereafter.  The 
terrified  Dey  complied  with  the  demand.  (See 
Barbary  Powers,  Humbling  of  the.) 

Algonquins.  The  most  powerful  of  the  eight 
distinct  Indian  nations  found  iu  North  America 
by  the  Eurojieans  in  the  17th  century  was  the 
Algonquin.  (See  Indians.)  It  was  composed  of 
several  powerful  tribes,  the  most  important  of 
which  were  the  Ottawas,  Chippewas,  Sacs  and 
Foxes,  Menomonees,  Miamis,  Pottawattomies, 
Kickapoos,  Illinois,  Shawnoese,  Powhataus,  Co- 
rees,  Nauticokes,  Lenui-Lenapes  or  Delawai’es, 
Mohegans,  the  New  England  Indians,  the  Abe- 
nakes,  and  Micmacs.  There  were  smaller  inde¬ 
pendent  tribes,  the  principal  of  Avliich  were  the 
Susquehannas  in  Pennsylvania ;  the  Mannaho- 
acs  in  the  hill-country  between  the  York  and  Po¬ 
tomac  rivers ;  and  the  Monacans,  on  the  head¬ 
waters  of  the  James  River,  Virginia.  All  of 
these  tribes  were  divided  into  cantons  or  clans, 
sometimes  so  small  as  to  afford  a  war-party  of 
only  forty  men.  The  domain  of  the  Algonquins 
covered  a  vast  region,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
northeast  by  the  Esquimaux ;  on  the  northwest 
by  the  Kuistenaux  and  Athabascas ;  on  the 
west  by  the  Dakotas ;  on  the  south  by  the  Ca- 
tawbas,  Cherokees,  Mobilians,  and  Natchez  ;  and 
on  the  east  by  Nova  Scotia.  West  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  the  Blackfeet  and  Cheyennes  are  regard¬ 
ed  as  a  family  of  the  Algonquins.  The  original 
land  of  the  Ottawas  was  on  the  west  side  of  Lake 


Huron  ;  but  they  were  seated  upon  the  Ottawa 
River,  in  Canada,  when  the  French  discovered 
them,  and  claimed  sovereignty  over  that  regiou. 
(See  Ottawas.)  The  Chippewas  and  Pottawatto¬ 
mies  were  closely  allied  by  language  and  friend¬ 
ship.  The  former  were  on  the  southern  shores 
of  Lake  Superior ;  the  latter  occupied  the  isl¬ 
ands  and  mainland  on  the  western  shores  of 
Green  Bay  when  first  discovered  by  the  French. 
In  1701  they  seated  themselves  on  the  south¬ 
ern  shores  of  Lake  Michigan.  (See  Chippe¬ 
was  and  Pottawattomies.)  The  Sacs  and  Foxes 
are  really  one  tribe.  They  were  found  by  the 
French,  in  1680,  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
Green  Bay.  (See  Sacs  and  Foxes.)  The  Menom¬ 
onees  are  among  the  few  Indian  tribes  who  oc¬ 
cupy  the  same  domain  as  when  they  were  dis¬ 
covered  by  Europeans  in  1699.  That  domain  is 
upon  the  shores  of  Green  Bay,  and  there  the  tribe 
remains.  (See  Menomonees.)  The  Miamis  and 
Piankeshaws  inhabited  that  portion  of  Ohio  ly¬ 
ing  betweeu  the  Miami  or  Maumee,  on  Lake  Erie, 
and  the  watershed  betweeu  the  Wabash  and 
Kaskia  rivers.  The  English  and  the  Five  Na¬ 
tions  called  them  the  Twightwees.  (See  Mia¬ 
mis,  Piankeshaws,  and  Twightwees.)  The  Kicka¬ 
poos  were  on  the  Wisconsin  River  when  discov¬ 
ered  by  the  French.  (See  Kickapoos.)  The  Il¬ 
linois  formed  a  numerous  tribe,  twelve  thousand 
strong,  when  discovered  by  the  French.  They 
were  seated  on  the  Illinois  River,  and  composed  a 
confederation  of  five  families,  namely,  Kaskas- 
kias,  Cahokias,  Tamaronas,  Micliigamies,  and 
Peorias.  (See  Illinois  and  Kickapoos.)  The 
Shaivnoese  occupied  a  vast  regiou  west  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  and  their  great  council- 
house  was  in  the  basin  of  the  Cumberland  River. 
(See  Shawnoese.)  The  Powhataus  constituted  a 
confederacy  of  more  than  twenty  tribes,  includ¬ 
ing  the  Accohannocks  and  Accomacs,  on  the  east¬ 
ern  shore  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  confederacy 
occupied  the  regiou  in  Virginia  consisting  of  the 
navigable  portion  of  the  James  and  York  rivers, 
with  their  tributaries.  (See  Powhatans.)  The 
Corees  were  south  of  the  Powhatans,  on  the  At¬ 
lantic  coast,  in  Northern  North  Carolina.  The 
Cheraws  aud  other  small  tribes  occupied  the 
land  of  the  once  powerful  Hatteras  family,  be¬ 
low  the  Corees.  (See  Corees,  Cheraws,  and  Hai- 
teras.)  The  Nauticokes  were  upon  the  peninsula 
between  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays. 
(See  Nauticokes.)  The  Lenui-Lenapes,  or  Dela¬ 
wares,  comprised  powerful  families — namely,  the 
Minsis  and  Delawares  proper.  The  former  oc¬ 
cupied  the  northern  part  of  New  Jersey  aud  a  por¬ 
tion  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  latter  inhabited 
lower  New  Jersey,  the  banks  of  the  Delaware 
River  below  Trenton,  and  the  whole  valley  of 
the  Schuylkill.  (See  Lenui-Lenapes  or  Dela¬ 
wares.)  The  Mohegans  were  a  distinct  tribe  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Hudson  River,  and  under 
that  name  were  included  several  independent 
families  on  Long  Island  and  the  country  be¬ 
tweeu  the  Lenui-Lenapes  and  the  New  England 
Indians.  (See  Mohegans.)  The  New  England 
Indians  inhabited  the  country  from  the  Con¬ 
necticut  River  eastward  to  the  Saco,  iu  Maine. 
The  principal  tribes  were  the  Narragausets  on 


ALIEN  AND  SEDITION  LAWS 


23 


ALLATOONA  PASS 


Rhode  Island ;  the  Pokanokets  ami  Wampano- 
ags  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Narraganset  Bay 
and  in  a  portion  of  Massachusetts ;  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  and  the  shores 
southward  ;  and  the  Pawtnckets  in  the  north¬ 
eastern  part  of  Massachusetts,  embracing  the 
Pennacooks  of  New  Hampshire.  (See  Narragan- 
sets,  Pokanokets,  TVampanoags,  Massachusetts,  Paw- 
tuckets,  and  Pennacooks.)  The  Abenakes  were  east¬ 
ward  of  the  Saco.  Their  chief  tribes  were  the 
Penobscots,  Norridgewocks,  Androscoggins,  and 
Passamaquoddies.  (See  Penobscots,  Norridge¬ 
wocks,  Androscoggins,  and  Passamaquoddies.) 

Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  ( 1798).  The  greater 
part  of  the  emigrants  to  the  United  States  since 
the  adoption  of  the  National  Constitution  had 
been  either  Frenchmen,  driven  into  exile  by  polit¬ 
ical  troubles  at  home,  or  Englishmen,  Scotchmen, 
and  Irishmen,  who  had  espoused  ultra -repub¬ 
lican  principles,  and  who,  flying  from  the  severe 
measures  of  repression  adopted  against  them  at 
home,  brought  to  America  a  fierce  hatred  of  the 
government  of  Great  Britain  and  warm  admira¬ 
tion  of  republican  France.  Among  these  were 
some  men  of  pure  lives  and  noble  aims,  hut 
many  were  desperate  political  intriguers,  ready 
to  engage  in  any  scheme  of  mischief.  It  was 
estimated  that  at  the  beginning  of  1798  there 
were  30,000  Frenchmen  in  the  United  States  or¬ 
ganized  in  clubs,  and  at  least  50,000  who  had 
been  subjects  of  Great  Britain.  These  were  re¬ 
garded  as  dangerous  to  the  Commonwealth,  and 
in  1798,  when  war  with  France  seemed  inevita¬ 
ble,  Congress  passed  acts  for  the  security  of  the 
government  against  internal  foes.  By  an  act 
(June  18,  1798),  the  naturalization  laws  were 
made  more  stringent,  aud  alien  enemies  could 
not  become  citizens  at  all.  By  a  second  act 
(June  25),  which  was  limited  to  two  years,  the 
President  was  authorized  to  order  out  of  the 
country  all  aliens  whom  he  might  judge  to  be 
dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  United 
States.  By  a  third  act  (July  6),  in  case  of  war 
declared  against  the  United  States,  or  an  actual 
invasion,  all  resident  aliens,  natives  or  citizens 
of  the  hostile  nation,  might,  upon  proclamation 
of  the  President,  issued  according  to  his  discre¬ 
tion,  he  apprehended  and  secured  or  removed. 
These  were  known  as  Alien  Laws.  The  Presi¬ 
dent  never  had  occasion  to  put  them  in  force, 
but  several  prominent  Frenchmen,  who  felt  that 
the  laws  were  aimed  at  them,  speedily  left  the 
United  States.  Among  these  was  M.  Volney, 
who,  in  the  preface  to  his  work  A  View  of  the 
Soil  and  Climate  of  the  United  States,  complained 
bitterly  of  “  the  public  and  violent  attacks  made 
upon  his  character,  with  the  connivance  or  in¬ 
stigation  of  a  certain  eminent  personage,”  mean¬ 
ing  President  Adams.  On  July  14,  1798,  an  act 
was  passed  for  the  punishment  of  sedition.  It 
made  it  a  high  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  a 
fine  not  to  exceed  $5000,  imprisonment  from  six 
months  to  five  years,  and  binding  to  good  be¬ 
havior  at  the  discretion  of  the  court,  for  any 
person  unlawfully  to  combine  in  opposing  meas¬ 
ures  of  the  government  properly  directed  by  au¬ 
thority,  or  attempting  to  prevent  government 
officers  executing  their  trusts,  or  inciting  to  riot 


and  insurrection.  It  also  provided  for  the  fining 
and  imprisoning  of  any  person  guilty  of  printing 
or  publishing  “  any  false,  scandalous,  and  mali¬ 
cious  writings  against  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  or  either  House  of  Congress,  or 
the  President,  with  intent  to  defame  them,  or  to 
bring  them  into  contempt  or  disrepute.”  This 
was  called  the  Sedition  Law.  These  laws  were 
assailed  with  great  vigor  by  the  Opposition,  aud 
were  deplored  by  some  of  the  best  friends  of 
the  administration.  Hamilton  deprecated  them. 
He  wrote  a  hurried  note  of  warning  against  the 
Sedition  Act  (June  29,  1798)  to  Wolcott,  while 
the  bill  was  pending,  saying,  “  Let  us  not  estab¬ 
lish  a  tyranny.  Energy  is  a  very  different  thing 
from  violence.  If  we  take  no  false  step,  we 
shall  be  essentially  united;  but  if  we  push 
things  to  the  extreme,  we  shall  then  give  to 
parties  body  and  solidity.'1'  Nothing  contributed 
more  powerfully  to  the  defeat  of  the  Federal 
party  two  years  later  than  these  extreme  meas¬ 
ures. 

Alison,  Francis,  D.D.,  was  horn  in  Donegal 
County,  Ireland,  in  1705 ;  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Nov.  28, 1779.  He  came  to  America  in  1735,  and 
iu  1752  he  took  charge  of  an  academy  in  Phila¬ 
delphia.  From  1755  until  his  death  he  was 
Vice-provost  and  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy 
of  the  College  of  Pennsylvania.  His  chief  claim 
to  honor  among  men  is  that  he  was  the  tutor  of 
a  large  number  of  Americans  who  were  conspic¬ 
uous  actors  in  the  events  of  the  revolution  that 
accomplished  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  of  America. 

Allatoona  Pass  and  Marietta,  Events  be¬ 
tween  (1864.)  The  Confederates,  retreating 
from  Resaca,  took  a  position  at  Allatoona  Pass. 
Sherman,  after  resting  his  army,  proceeded  to 
flank  them  out  of  their  new  position.  J.  C. 
Davis’s  division  of  Thomas’s  army  had  moved 
down  the  Oostenaula  to  Rome,  where  he  de¬ 
stroyed  important  mills  and  fouuderies,  and  capt¬ 
ured  nearly  a  dozen  guns.  He  left  a  garrison 
there.  Meanwhile  Sherman  had  destroyed  the 
Georgia  State  Arsenal,  near  Adairsville.  The 
Nationals  proceeded  to  gather  in  force  at  and 
near  Dallas.  Johnston  was  on  the  alert,  and 
tried  to  prevent  this  formidable  flank  movement. 
Hooker’s  corps  met  Confederate  cavalry  near 
Pumpkiuvine  Creek,  whom  he  pushed  across 
that  stream  and  saved  a  bridge  they  had  fired. 
Following  them  eastward  two  miles,  he  (Hooker) 
found  the  Confederates  in  strong  force  and  in 
battle  order.  A  sharp  conflict  ensued,  and  at 
4  o’clock  P.M.  he  made  a  bold  push,  by  Sher¬ 
man’s  order,  to  secure  possession  of  a  point  near 
New  Hope  Church,  where  roads  from  Ackworth, 
Marietta,  and  Dallas  met.  A  stormy  night  en¬ 
sued,  and  Hooker  could  not  drive  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  from  their  position.  On  the  following  morn¬ 
ing  Sherman  found  the  Confederates  strongly 
intrenched,  with  lines  extending  from  Dallas  to 
Marietta.  The  approach  to  their  intrenchments 
must  be  made  over  rough,  wooded,  and  broken 
ground.  For  several  days,  constantly  skirmish¬ 
ing,  Sherman  tried  to  break  through  their 
lines  to  the  railway  east  of  the  Allatooua 


ALLATOONA  PASS 


24 


ALLEN 


Pass.  McPherson’s  troops  moved  to  Dallas,  and 
Thomas’s  deployed  against  New  Hope*  Church, 
in  the  vicinity  of  which  there  were  many  severe 
encounters,  while  Schofield  was  directed  to  turn 
and  strike  Johnston’s  right.  On  May  28  the 
Confederates  struck  McPherson  a  severe  blow 
at  Dallas  ;  but  the  assailants  were  repulsed  with 
heavy  loss.  At  the  same  time,  Howard,  nearer 
the  centre,  was  repulsed.  Sherman,  by  skilful 
movements,  compelled  Johnston  to  evacuate  his 
strong  position  at  Allatoona  Pass  (June  1, 1864). 
The  National  cavalry,  under  Garrard  and  Stone- 
man,  were  pushed  on  to  occupy  it,  and  there 
Sherman,  planting  a  garrison,  made  a  secondary 
base  of  supplies  for  his  army.  Johnston  made 
a  stand  at  the  Kenesaw  Mountains,  near  Mari¬ 
etta;  but  Sherman,  who  had  been  reinforced  by 
two  divisions  under  General  Frank  P.  Blair  (June 
8),  very  soon  caused  him  to  abandon  that  posi¬ 
tion,  cross  the  Chattahoochee  River,  and  finally 
to  rest  at,  Atlanta.  (See  Kenesaw.) 

Allatoona  Pass,  Battle  at.  After  the  evac¬ 
uation  of  Atlanta  (Sept.  2,  1864),  Sherman  and 
Hood  reorganized  their  armies  in  preparation 
for  a  vigorous  fall  campaign.  Satisfied  that 
Hood  intended  to  assume  the  offensive  and  prob¬ 
ably  attempt  the  seizure  of  Tennessee,  Sherman 
sent  Thomas,  his  second  in  command,  to  Nash¬ 
ville,  to  organize  the  new  troops  expected  to 
gather  there,  and  to  make  arrangements  to  meet 
such  an  emergency.  Thomas  arrived  there  Oct. 
3.  Meanwhile  the  Confederates  had  crossed  the 
Chattahoochee,  and  by  a  rapid  movement  had 
struck  the  railway  at  Big  Shanty,  north  of  Ma¬ 
rietta,  and  destroyed  it  for  several  miles.  A  di- 


forcements,  and  in  command.  The  Confederates 
were  vastly  superior  in  numbers,  and  invested 
the  place.  After  cannonading  the  fort  two 
hours,  their  leader  (General  French)  demanded 
its  surrender.  Then  he  assailed  it  furiously, 
but  his  columns  were  continually  driven  back. 
The  coutlict  raged  with  great  fierceness;  and 
Sherman,  from  the  top  of  Kenesaw,  heard  the 
roar  of  cannon  and  saw  the  smoke  of  battle, 
though  eighteen  miles  distant.  He  had  pushed 
forward  a  corps  (Twenty-third)  to  menace  the 
Confederate  rear,  and  by  signal-flags  on  Kene¬ 
saw  he  said  to  the  commander  at  Allatoona, 
“  Hold  out,  for  relief  is  approaching.”  Aud 
when  Sherman  was  assured  that  Corse  was  there, 
he  said,  “He  will  hold  out;  I  know  the  man.” 
And  so  he  did.  He  repulsed  the  Confederates 
several  times ;  and  when  they  heard  of  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  the  Twenty-third  corps,  they  hastily 
withdrew,  leaving  behiud  them  two  hundred 
and  thirty  dead  and  four  hundred  prisoners, 
with  about  eight  hundred  small  arms.  The 
Nationals  lost  seven  hundred  and  seven  men. 

Allen,  Ethan,  bom  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Jan. 
10,  1737 ;  died  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  Feb.  12,  1789. 
In  1762  he  was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the 
iron -works  at  Salisbury,  Conn.  In  1766  he 
went  to  the  then  almost  unsettled  domain 
between  the  Green  Mountains  and  Lake  Cham¬ 
plain,  where  he  was  a  bold  leader  of  the  set¬ 
tlers  on  the  New  Hampshire  Grants  (which 
see)  in  their  bitter  controversy  with  the  author¬ 
ities  of  New  York.  During  the  controversy  sev¬ 
eral  pamphlets  were  written  by  Allen,  in  his  pe¬ 
culiar  style,  which  forcibly  illustrated  the  injns- 


ALLATOO-VA  PASS. 


vision  of  infantry  pushed  northward  and  appear¬ 
ed  before  Allatoona,  where  Colonel  Tourtellotte 
was  guarding  one  million  National  rations  with 
only  three  thin  regiments.  Sherman  made  efforts 
at  once  for  the  defence  of  these  and  his  com¬ 
munications.  Leaving  Slocum  to  hold  Atlanta 
and  the  railway  bridge  across  the  Chattahoochee, 
he  started  on  a  swift  pursuit  of  Hood  with  five 
army  corps  and  two  divisions  of  cavalry.  He 
established  a  signal  station  on  the  summit  of 
Great  Kenesaw  Mountain,  and  telegraphed  to 
General  Corse,  at  Rome,  to  hasten  to  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  Tourtellotte.  Corse  instantly  obeyed; 
and  when  the  Confederates  appeared  before  Al¬ 
latoona,  at  dawn  (Oct.  5),  he  was  there  with  reiu- 


tice  of  the  action  of  the  New  York  authorities. 
The  latter  declared  Allen  an  outlaw,  and  offered 
a  reward  of  £150  for  his  arrest.  He  defied  his 
enemies,  and  persisted  in  his  course.  Early  in 
May,  1775,  he  led  a  few  men  and  took  the  for¬ 
tress  of  Ticonderoga  by  surprise.  His  followers 
were  called  “  Green  Mountain  Boys.”  His  suc¬ 
cess  as  a  partisan  caused  him  to  be  sent  twice 
into  Canada,  during  the  latter  half  of  1775,  to 
win  the  people  over  to  the  republican  cause. 
In  the  last  of  these  expeditions  he  attempted, 
with  Colonel  Brown,  to  capture  Montreal  (Sept. 
25,  1775),  but  was  made  a  prisoner  himself  and 
sent  to  England  in  irons,  whence,  after  a  confine¬ 
ment  of  some  weeks,  he  was  sent  to  Halifax. 


ALLEN 


25 


ALLEN 


Five  months  later  he  was  removed  to.  New  York. 
On  the  6th  of  May,  1778,  he  was  exchanged,  after 
a  captivity  of  about  two  years,  for  Colonel  Camp¬ 
bell,  and  returned  home,  where  he  was  received 
with  joy  and  honors.  He  "was  invested  with 
the  chief  command  of  the  state  militia.  Con¬ 
gress  immediately  gave  him  the  commission  of 
lieutenant  -  colonel  in  the  Continental  army. 
When,  in  the  course  of  the  war,  Vermont  (see 
New  Hampshire  Grants )  assumed  and  maintained 
an  independent  position,  a  fruitless  attempt 
was  made  by  Beverly  Robinson  to  bribe  Allen 
to  lend  his  support  to  a  union  of  that  province 
with  Canada.  He  was  supposed  to  be  disaffected 
towards  the  revolted  colonies,  and  he  fostered 
that  impression  in  order  to  secure  the  neutrality 
of  the  British  towards  his  mountain  state  until 
the  close  of  the  war.  As  a  member  of  the  legis¬ 
lature  of  Vermont,  and  as  a  delegate  in  Congress, 
he  secured  the  great  object  of  his  efforts — name¬ 
ly,  the  ultimate  recognition  of  Vermont  as  an 
independent  state.  He  removed  to  Bennington 
before  the  close  of  the  war,  thence  to  Arlington, 
and  finally  died  in  Burlington. 

Allen,  Ethan,  Capture  of  (1775).  With  less 
than  one  hundred  recruits,  mostly  Canadians, 
Colonel  Allen  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence  (Sept.  25, 
1775)  to  attack  Montreal.  This  was  done  at  the 
suggestion  of  Colonel  John  Brown,  who  was  also 
recruiting  in  the  vicinity,  and  who  agreed  to 
cross  the  river  at  the  same  time  a  little  above 
the  city,  the  attack  to  be  made  simultaneously 
by  both  parties.  For  causes  never  satisfactorily 
explained,  Brown  did  not  cross,  and  disaster  en¬ 
sued.  General  Robert  Prescott  was  in  command 
in  the  city.  He  sallied  out  with  a  considerable 
force  of  regulars,  Canadians  and  Indians,  and 
after  a  short  skirmish  made  Allen  and  his  fol¬ 
lowers  prisoners.  When  Prescott  learned  that 
Allen  was  the  man  who  captured  Ticonderoga, 
he  treated  him  very  harshly.  He  was  bound 
hand  and  foot  with  irons,  and  these  shackles 
w'ere  fastened  to  a  bar  of  iron  eight  feet  in 
length.  In  this  plight  he  was  thrust  into  the 
hold  of  a  vessel  to  be  sent  to  England,  and  in  that 
condition  he  was  kept  five  weeks  ;  but  when  she 
sailed  from  Quebec  the  humane  captain  struck 
off  his  irons.  He  was  confined  seven  weeks  in 
Pendennis  Castle  in  England,  when  he  was  sent 
to  Halifax,  and  thence  to  New  York,  where  he 
was  exchanged  in  the  spring  of  1778. 

Allen,  Henry  Watkins,  was  born  in  Prince 
Edward  County,  Va.,  April  29,  1820 ;  died  in 
the  city  of  Mexico,  April  22,  1866.  He  became 
a  lawyer  in  Mississippi ;  and  in  1842  raised  a 
company  to  fight  in  Texas.  He  settled  at  West 
Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana,  in  1850;  served  in  the 
State  Legislature ;  was  in  the  Law  School  at 
Cambridge  in  1854;  and  visited  Europe  in  1859. 
He  took  an  active  part  with  the  Confederates 
in  the  Civil  War,  and  was  at  one  time  military 
governor  of  Jackson,  Mississippi.  In  the  bat¬ 
tles  of  Shiloh  and  at  Baton  Rouge  he  was  wound¬ 
ed.  He  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general  in 
1864,  but  was  almost  immediately  elected  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Louisiana,  the  duties  of  which  lie  per¬ 
formed  with  great  ability  and  wisdom.  At  the 


close  of  the  war  he  made  his  residence  in  Mexico, 
where  he  established  the  Mexican  Times,  which 
he  edited  until  his  death. 

Allen,  Ira,  a  younger  brother  of  Ethan,  was 
born  in  Cornwall,  Conn.,  April  21, 1751 ;  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Jan.  7,  1814.  He  was  an  active 
patriot,  and  took  a  distinguished  part  in  public 
affairs  in  Vermont,  his  adopted  state,  where  he 
served  in  the  Legislature,  and  was  Secretary  of 
State,  Surveyor-General,  and  Member  of  the 
Council.  He  was  a  military  leader  in  the  war 
for  independence,  and  was  one  of  the  commis¬ 
sioners  sent  to  Congress  to  oppose  the  claims  of 
neighboring  provinces  to  jurisdiction  in  Ver¬ 
mont.  He  effected  an  armistice  with  the  Brit¬ 
ish  in  Canada  in  1781,  and  by  so  doing  brought 
about  a  settlement  iff  the  controversy  with  New 
York.  (See  New  Hampshire  Grants.)  A  senior 
major-general  of  the  state  militia  in  1795,  he 
went  to  Europe  to  purchase  arms  for  his  com¬ 
monwealth,  and  on  his  way  homeward  with 
muskets  and  cannon  he  was  captured,  taken  to 
England,  and  charged  with  being  an  emissary 
of  the  French,  and  intending  to  supply  the  Irish 
malcontents  with  arms.  After  long  litigation 
the  matter  was  settled  in  Allen’s  favor.  He 
wrote  a  National  and  Political  History  of  Vermont, 
published  in  London  in  1798. 

Allen,  Robert,  a  native  of  Ohio,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1836,  and  served  with  distinc¬ 
tion  in  the  war  with  Mexico.  He  was  a  very 
useful  officer  in  the  Civil  War,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  brigadier  -  general  of  volunteers,  and 
brevet  major-general.  He  was  stationed  at  St. 
Louis,  where  his  services  were  of  great  value 
during  the  war.  At  its  close  he  was  made  as¬ 
sistant  quartermaster-general  (1866),  and  after¬ 
wards  chief- quartermaster  of  the  division  of 
the  Pacific. 

Allen,  William,  Chief-justice  of  Pennsylva¬ 
nia,  died  in  England  in  September,  1780.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  Andrew  Hamilton,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  lawyer  of  Pennsylvania,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  Recorder  of  Philadelphia  in  1741. 
He  assisted  Benjamin  West,  the  painter,  in  his 
early  struggles,  and  co-operated  with  Benjamin 
Franklin  in  establishing  the  College  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania.  Mr.  Allen  was  chief-justice  of  that 
state  from  1750  to  1774.  A  strong  loyalist,  he 
withdrew  to  England  in  1774.  In  London  he 
published  a  pamphlet  entitled,  The  American 
Crisis,  containing  a  plan  for  restoring  Ameri¬ 
can  dependence  upon  Great  Britain. 

Allen,  William  Henry,  was  born  at  Prov¬ 
idence,  R.  I.,  Oct.  21,  1784  ;  died  at  Plymouth, 
England,  Aug.  15,  1813.  He  entered  the  navy  as 
a  midshipman  iu  April,  1800,  and  sailed  in  the 
frigate  Georye  Washington  to  Algiers.  He  after¬ 
wards  went  to  the  Mediterranean  in  the  Phila¬ 
delphia,  under  Barron  ;  then  in  the  John  Adams, 
under  Rodgers  ;  and  in  1804  as  sailing-master  to 
the  Congre88.  He  was  in  the  Constitution  frigate 
in  1805;  and  in  1807  he  was  third  lieutenant  of 
the  Chesapeake  when  she  was  attacked  by  the 
Leopard.  It  was  Lieutenant  Allen  who  drew  up 
the  memorial  of  the  officers  of  the  Chesapeake  to 
the  Secretary  of  ihe  Navy,  urging  the  arrest  and 


ALLIBONE 


26 


ALLIED  ARMIES 


trial  of  Barron  for  neglect  of  duty.  (See  Chesapeake 
and  Leopard.)  In  1809  be  was  made  first  lieuten¬ 
ant  of  the  frigate  United  States,  under  Decatur. 
He  behaved  bravely  in  the  conflict  with  the  Mac¬ 
edonian  ;  and  after  her  capture  took  her  safely 


WILLIAM  HENRY  ALLEN. 


into  New  York  harbor,  Jan.  1, 1813.  In  July,  1813, 
he  was  promoted  to  master  commandant  while 
he  was  on  his  voyage  in  the  brig  Argus  that  took 
W.  H.  Crawford,  American  minister,  to  France. 
That  voyage  ended  in  a  remarkable  and  success¬ 
ful  cruise  among  the  British  shipping  in  British 
waters.  After  capturing  and  destroying  more 
than  twenty  British  merchantmen  (see  Argus), 
his  own  vessel  was  captured ;  and  he  was  mor¬ 
tally  wounded  by  a  round  shot  (Aug.  14),  and 
died  the  next  day  at  Plymouth,  England,  whith¬ 
er  he  was  conveyed  a  prisoner. 

Allibone,  Samuel  Austin,  LL.D.,  bibliogra¬ 
pher  and  author,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  April 
17,  1816.  He  is  the  author  of  A  Critical  Dic¬ 
tionary  of  English.  Literature  and  British  and 
American  Authors,  Living  and  Deceased,  from  the 
Earliest  Accounts  to  the  Latter  Half  of  the  Nine¬ 
teenth  Century.  This  work  is  in  three  volumes 
royal  octavo,  aud  exhibits  evidence  of  great 
care,  industry,  good  judgment,  most  extensive 
research,  aud  immense  labor  iu  its  preparation. 
Dr.  Allibone  spent  many  years  iu  gathering  and 
arranging  his  materials.  The  volumes  were  pub¬ 
lished  in  1858,  1870,  aud  1871.  The  work  con¬ 
tains  notices  of  47,000  authors,  with  forty  classi¬ 
fied  iudexes  of  subjects.  Dr.  Allibone  has  con¬ 
tributed  articles  to  the  North  American  Review, 
the  Evangelical  Review,  and  other  periodicals,  and 
is  the  author  of  some  religious  controversial  es¬ 
says.  He  lias  also  privately  printed  and  circu¬ 
lated  a  number  of  tracts.  He  is  now  (lb8i)  Li¬ 
brarian  of  the  Leuox  Library,  New  York. 

Allied  Armies,  The,  in  Virginia.  Iu  Au¬ 
gust,  1781,  a  French  frigate,  from  the  fleet  of  De 
Grasse  iu  the  West  Indies,  brought  word  that  he 


would  sail  directly  for  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  Al¬ 
ready  Washington  had  had  his  thoughts  turned 
towards  a  campaign  of  the  allies  against  Corn¬ 
wallis  in  Virginia  by  a  letter  from  Lafayette, 
who  had  taken  a  position  only  eight  miles  from 
Yorktowu.  The  marquis  had  plainly  perceived 
the  mistake  of  Clinton  in  ordering  Cornwallis 
to  take  a  defensive  position  in  Virginia.  So 
early  as  July  he  wrote  to  Washington  from  Ran¬ 
dolph’s,  on  Malvern  Hill,  urging  him  to  march 
into  Virginia  in  force,  saying,  “  Should  a  French 
fleet  enter  Hampton  Roads,  the  British  army 
would  be  compelled  to  surrender.”  Foiled  in 
his  plau  of  attacking  New  York,  Washington 
anxiously  contemplated  the  chauce  of  success 
iu  Virginia,  when  his  determination  was  fixed 
by  a  letter  from  Admiral  de  Barras  (the  succes¬ 
sor  of  Admiral  Ternay,  who  had  died  at  New¬ 
port),  which  contained  the  joyful  news  that  De 
Grasse  was  to  sail  for  the  Chesapeake  at  the 
close  of  August  with  a  powerful  fleet  and  more 
than  three  thousand  land  troops.  De  Barras 
wrote  :  “  M.  de  Grasse  is  my  junior ;  yet,  as  soon 
as  he  is  within  reach,  I  will  go  to  sea  to  put 
myself  under  his  orders.”  Washington  at  once 
made  ample  preparations  for  marching  into  Vir¬ 
ginia.  To  prevent  any  interference  from  Clin¬ 
ton,  he  wrote  deceptive  letters  to  he  intercepted, 
by  which  the  baronet  was  made  to  believe  that 
the  Americans  still  contemplated  an  attack  upon 
New  York  City.  So  satisfied  w'as  Clinton  that 
such  was  Washington’s  design,  that,  for  nearly 
ten  days  after  the  allied  armies  had  crossed  the 
Hudson  (Aug.  23  and  24),  and  were  marching 
through  New  Jersey,  he  believed  the  movement 
to  be  only  a  feint  to  cover  a  sudden  descent 
upon  the  city  with  an  overwhelming  force.  It 
was  not  until  Sept.  2  that  he  was  satisfied  that 
the  allies  were  marching  against  Cornwallis. 
On  the  arrival  of  a  body  of  Hessians  at  New 
York,  he  had  countermanded  an  order  for  the 
earl  to  send  him  troops,  aud  for  this  he  was  now 
thankful.  On  Sept.  5,  while  the  allies  were  en¬ 
camped  at  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  Washington 
was  informed  that  De  Grasse  had  entered  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay.  In  that  event  he  saw  a  sure  proph¬ 
ecy  of  success,  and  of  the  independence  of  his 
country.  De  Grasse  had  moored  his  fleet  in  Lynn 
Haven  Bay,  aud  so  barred  the  entrance  to  the 
York  River  against  reinforcements  for  Cornwal¬ 
lis.  He  had  landed  three  thousand  troops  on 
the  peninsula,  near  old  Jamestown.  Meanwhile 
De  Barras  had  sailed  for  Newport  with  a  fleet 
convoying  ten  transports  laden  with  ordnance 
for  the  siege  of  Yorktowu.  The  British  admiral, 
Graves,  on  hearing  of  the  approach  of  the  French 
fleet,  had  sailed  for  the  Chesapeake.  De  Grasse 
went  out  to  meet  him,  and  on  Sept.  5  they  had 
a  sharp  engagement.  The  British  fleet  was  so 
shattered  that  it  retired  to  New  York,  leaving 
De  Grasse  master  of  the  Chesapeake.  When 
Clintou  was  assured  that  the  allies  were  bound 
for  Virginia,  he  tried  by  military  movements 
to  call  them  back.  He  menaced  New  Jersey  ; 
threatened  to  attack  the  works  in  the  Hudson 
Highlands;  and  sent  Arnold  on  a  marauding  ex¬ 
pedition  into  New  England.  (See  Arnold  at  New 
London.)  But  neither  Clinton’s  menaces  nor  Ar- 


ALLIED  ARMIES 


27 


ALMAGRO 


nold’s  atrocities  stayed  the  onward  march  of  the 
allies.  They  made  their  way  to  Annapolis,  and 
thence  by  water  to  the  James  River  in  trans¬ 
ports  furnished  by  De  Barras.  From  Baltimore 
Washington,  accompanied  by  Rochambeau  and 
the  Marquis  de  Chastellux,  visited  his  home  at 
Mount  Vernon,  from  which  he  had  been  absent 
since  J une,  1775.  There  they  remained  two  days, 
and  then  journeyed  to  Williamsburg,  where  they 
arrived  on  the  14th.  There  the  allies  rendez¬ 
voused,  and  prepared  for  the  siege  of  Yorktown. 

Allied  Annies,  The,  on  the  Hudson.  Count 
de  Rochambeau  received  intelligence  at  the 
close  of  May,  1781,  that  the  Count  de  Grasse 
might  be  expected  on  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  with  a  powerful  French  fleet  in  July  or 
August.  This  news  caused  the  French  forces, 
which  had  lain  idle  at  Newport  many  months, 
to  move  immediately  for  the  Hudson  River,  to 
form  a  junction  with  the  Continental  army  there 
under  Washington.  A  part  of  them  moved  on 
June  10,  and  the  remainder  immediately  after¬ 
wards.  They  formed  a  junction  with  the  Amer¬ 
ican  army,  near  Dobb’s  Ferry,  on  the  Hudson, 
July  6.  The  Americans  were  encamped  on  Val¬ 
entine’s  Hill,  in  two  lines,  with  the  right  wing 
resting  on  the  Hudson  River  near  the  ferry. 
The  French  ax-my  were  stationed  on  the  hills  at 
the  left,  in  a  single  line,  reaching  from  the  Hud¬ 
son  to  the  Bronx  River.  There  was  a  valley  of 
considerable  extent  between  the  two  armies. 
The  American  army  had  been  encamped  at 
Peekskill,  and  marched  down  to  Valentine’s  Hill 
on  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  July. 

Allied  Forces,  The  (1782).  At  the  beginning 
of  1782  the  American  army  encamped  in  the  vi¬ 
cinity  of  New  York ;  their  French  allies,  who  had 
assisted  in  the  capture  of  Cornwallis,  remained 
in  Virginia,  and  De  Grasse  took  his  fleet  to  the 
West  Indies. 

Allies,  Justice  to.  Much  of  the  earlier  part 
of  the  session  of  Congress  of  1797-98  was  devot¬ 
ed  to  the  consideration  of  private  matters,  par¬ 
ticularly  to  Revolutionary  claims.  An  act  was 
passed  authorizing  grants  of  land  to  refugees 
from  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia  who  had  joined 
and  adhered  to  the  American  cause  during  the 
Revolution.  At  a  former  session,  in  spite  of  vi¬ 
olent  opposition,  based  on  the  alleged  want  of 
power  in  Congress  for  that  purpose,  a  sum  of 
money  had  been  granted  to  the  daughters  of  the 
Count  de  Grasse,  who  had  been  reduced  to  pov¬ 
erty  by  the  death  of  their  father.  He  had  been 
guillotined  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  in  France. 
(See  Grasse ,  de.)  That  sum  had  been  exhausted, 
and  a  new  act  was  now  passed,  in  further  ac¬ 
knowledgment  of  De  Grasse’s  services  in  the 
war  for  independence,  granting  to  his  four 
daughters  $400  a  year  each  for  live  years.  At 
this  time  many  banished  Frenchmen  arrived  in 
America.  Among  them  were  the  young  Duke 
of  Orleans  (afterwards  King  Louis  Philippe), 
and  two  of  his  younger  brothers.  The  hearts  of 
Americans  were  gladdened  at  the  same  time  by 
news  of  the  release  of  Lafayette  from  an  Aus¬ 
trian  dungeon,  in  which  he  had  long  been  con- 
lined.  For  the  purpose  of  affording  pecuniary 


relief  to  his  family,  Congress  had  already  appro¬ 
priated  to  their  use  the  full  amount  of  the  pay 
of  a  major-general  in  the  American  service  to 
that  time. 

Allouez,  Claude  Jean,  was  one  of  the  earliest 
French  missionaries  and  exploi'ers  of  the  coun¬ 
try  near  the  Great  Lakes.  He  was  born  in  1620, 
and  died  iu  1690.  After  laboring  among  the  In¬ 
dians  on  the  St.  Lawrence  several  years,  he  pen¬ 
etrated  the  Western  wilds  and  established  a  mis¬ 
sion  on  the  western  shores  of  Lake  Michigan, 
where  he  heard  much  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  made  notes  of  what  he  learned  concerning 
it.  He  explored  Green  Bay,  and  founded  a  mis¬ 
sion  among  the  Foxes,  Miamis,  and  other  tribes 
there.  A  mission  begun  by  Marquette  at  Kas- 
kaskia,  Illinois  (see  Marquette),  Allouez  sought 
to  make  his  permanent  field  of  labor ;  but  when 
La  Salle,  the  bitter  opponent  of  the  Jesuits,  ap¬ 
proached  in  1679,  he  retired.  Returning  to  the 
Miamis  on  the  St.  Joseph’s  River,  he  labored  for 
a  while,  and  died.  The  contributions  of  Father 
Allouez  to  the  Jesuit  Belations  are  most  valuable 
records  of  the  ideas  and  manners  of  the  Indians. 

Allston,  Washington,  was  a  distinguished 
American  painter,  born  at  Wacomaco,  S.  C.,Nov. 
5,1779;  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  July  9,1843. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1800, 


went  to  Europe  the  next  year  to  study  art,  and 
became  a  student  iu  the  Royal  Academy  of  Eng¬ 
land.  He  remained  eight  years  abroad,  and,  re¬ 
turning  to  Cambridge,  married  a  sister  of  Dr. 
William  Ellei'y  Channing.  He  was  a  poet  as  well 
as  a  painter.  His  numerous  works  of  art  exhib¬ 
it  great  power  in  delineating  the  pictures  of  a 
fertile  imagination.  His  skill  as  a  colorist 
earned  him  the  title  of  “The  American  Titian.” 

Almagro,  Diego  de,  one  of  the  Spanish  con- 
queroi-s  of  Peru,  and  principal  associate  of  Pi- 
zarro.  He  was  a  foundling,  born  about  1464; 
died  July,  1538.  Almagro,  Pizarro,  and  a  priest 
named  Luque  undertook  the  conquest  of  Peru, 
and  effected  it,  with  a  small  force,  in  1533.  Al- 


ALSOP 


28 


AMERICA  AND  IRELAND 


magro  was  appointed  governor  of  what  is  now 
Chili,  in  1534,  extending  his  conquests  into  that 
region  in  1535.  He  aud  Pizarro  became  bitter  en¬ 
emies.  He  conquered  Cuzco,  the  ancient  capital 
of  Peru.  In  a  decisive  battle  near  that  place,  in 
1538,  Almagro  was  defeated,  made  prisoner,  and 
put  to  death  by  order  of  Pizarro.  Almagro  was 
profligate,  perfidious,  and  cruel.  His  barbarous 
treatment  of  the  Inca,  Atahualpa,  covered  his 
name  and  fame  with  infamy.  The  Inca’s  son 
rallied  men,  who  assassinated  Pizarro,  July  26, 
1541,  and  these  were  executed  by  order  of  the 
Viceroy  of  Peru,  in  1542. 

Alsop,  Richard,  a  witty  poet  and  essayist, 
was  born  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Jan.  23,  1761 ; 
died  at  Flatbush,  L.  I.,  Aug.  29, 1815.  He  is  best 
known  in  literature  as  the  principal  author  of  a 
series  of  burlesque  pieces,  begun  in  1791  and  end¬ 
ed  in  1805,  entitled,  in  collective  form,  The  Echo. 
They  were  thus  published  in  1807.  Dwight, 
Hopkins,  and  Trumbull  were  associated  with 
Alsop  in  the  production  of  The  Echo,  which, 
from  a  work  provocative  of  mirth,  became  a 
bitter  political  satirist  of  the  Democratic  Party. 
He  wrote  a  “Monody  on  the  Death  of  Washing¬ 
ton,”  in  heroic  verse,  which  was  published  in 
1800.  Alsop  ranked  among  the  “Hartford  Wits” 
at  the  close  of  the  last  century. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de,  a  Spanish  conqueror  in 
America,  was  born  at  Badajos,  Spain,  and  died 
in  1541.  Sailing  from  Spain  to  Cuba,  in  1518, 
he  accompanied  Grijalva  on  his  exploring  expe¬ 
dition  along  the  Gulf  coasts.  He  took  an  impor¬ 
tant  part  in  the  expedition  of  Cortez  in  1519, 
which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico.  Left 
in  charge  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  Alvarado’s  cru¬ 
elty  and  rapacity  caused  an  insurrection,  and 
he  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  On  his  re¬ 
turn  to  Spain  the  king  made  him  Governor  of 
Guatemala  (a  province  which,  in  1523,  he  had 
conquered)  and  Honduras.  Going  to  South 
America  with  some  troops,  he  marched  over  the 
Andes  with  the  design  of  seizing  Quito,  but, 
meeting  Pizarro’s  troops,  he  peaceably  returned 
after  receiving  an  enormous  indemnity  for  his 
expenses.  Alvarado  made  explorations  and  dis¬ 
coveries  on  the  coast  of  California,  aud  was 
killed  in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives. 

Alvarez,  Juan,  a  Mexican  leader,  was  born  in 
1790.  He  was  popular  among  the  republicans 
of  Mexico,  and,  by  energy  and  courage  iu  leader¬ 
ship,  put  an  end  to  the  dictatorship  of  Santa 
Aha  by  a  decisive  battle  at  Saltillo,  July  22-23, 
1855.  He  was  then  proclaimed  President,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  city  of  Mexico  attended  by  an  Indian 
body-guard.  He  found  his  position  uncomforta¬ 
ble,  so  he  resigned  in  less  than  a  month;  and 
placing  Comonfort,  his  Minister  of  War,  in  pow¬ 
er,  he  took  $200,000  from  the  treasury,  and  a 
quantity  of  arms  and  ammunition,  and  returned, 
with  his  Indians,  to  their  homes  in  Southern 
Mexico.  Alvarez  died  iu  1867. 

Amelia  Island  and  Galveston.  In  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1817,  Gregor  McGregor,  styling  himself 
“  Brigadier-general  of  the  armies  of  New  Gra¬ 
nada  and  Venezuela,  and  general-in-chief  em-l 
ployed  to  liberate  the  provinces  of  both  the  Flor- 


idas,”  commissioned  by  the  supreme  councils 
of  Mexico  and  South  America,  took  possession 
of  Amelia  Island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary’s 
River,  near  the  boundary  of  the  State  of  Geor¬ 
gia.  His  followers  were  a  band  of  adventurers 
which  he  had  collected  in  Charleston  and  Sa¬ 
vannah;  and  when  he  took  possession  of  Amelia 
Island,  he  proclaimed  a  blockade  of  St.  Augus¬ 
tine.  Iu  the  hands  of  these  desperadoes  the 
island  was  soon  converted  into  a  resort  ofbuc- 
caueeringprivateersundertheSpanish-American 
flag,  and  a  depot  for  smuggling  slaves  into  the 
United  States.  Another  similar  establishment 
had  been  set  up  on  Galveston  Island,  off  the 
coast  of  Texas,  under  a  leader  named  Aury. 
This  establishment  was  more  important  than 
that  on  Amelia  Island,  as  well  on  account  of 
numbers  as  for  the  greater  facilities  afforded 
for  smuggling.  An  adventurer  named  Louis 
Aury  was  at  the  head  of  this  establishment,  and 
had  organized  a  sort  of  civil  government.  It 
was  a  second  Barataria,  aud  to  it  several  of  the 
old  privateers  aud  smugglers  of  Lafitte’s  band  of 
Baratarians  resorted.  (See  Lafitte  and  the  Bara- 
tarians.)  Under  a  secret  act,  passed  in  1811,  now 
(1817)  first  made  public,  the  President  took  the 
responsibility  of  suppressing  both  these  estab¬ 
lishments.  Aury  had  joined  McGregor  with 
the  Galveston  desperadoes,  and  their  force  was 
formidable.  The  President  sent  Captain  Henly, 
in  the  ship  John  Adams,  with  smaller  vessels, 
and  a  battalion  of  Charleston  artillery  under 
Mnjor  Bankhead,  to  take  possession  of  Amelia 
Island.  McGregor  was  then  on  the  main,  leav¬ 
ing  Aury  in  command  of  the  island.  He  was 
summoned  to  evacuate  it;  and  on  Dec.  23  the 
naval  and  military  commanders  took  quiet  pos¬ 
session.  Aury  left  it  in  February,  and  so  both 
nests  of  pirates  and  smugglers  were  broken  up. 
At  the  same  time  there  was  much  sympathy  felt 
in  the  United  States  for  the  revolted  Spanish- 
American  colonies,  and,  in  spite  of  the  neutrality 
laws,  cruisers  were  fitted  out  in  American  ports 
under  their  flags. 

America  and  Ireland.  The  bold  stand  taken 
by  the  Americans  early  in  1775  made  the  British 
ministry  sore  afraid  of  like  movements  in  Ire¬ 
land,  where  the  Protestant  minority  had  hither¬ 
to  been  employed  to  keep  the  majority,  who 
were  Roman  Catholics,  in  subjection.  That  ma¬ 
jority,  amounting  to  seven  eighths  of  the  entire 
population,  were  not  only  deprived  of  all  polit¬ 
ical  privileges,  but  were  subjected  to  a  great 
many  rigorous  and  cruel  restraints,  designed  to 
keep  them  ignorant,  poor,  and  helpless.  Even 
the  Protestants  in  Ireland  were  not  allowed  an 
equality  with  their  fellow  subjects  in  England. 
Their  parliament  did  not  possess  the  rights  en¬ 
joyed  by  the  American  colonial  assemblies  ;  and 
Ireland,  in  matters  of  trade,  was  treated  very 
much  like  a  foreign  country.  The  ideas  of  po¬ 
litical  liberty  aroused  iu  the  colonies  was  al- 
i  ready  sowing  the  seeds  of  revolution  in  Ireland, 
and  it  was  judged  expedient  to  conciliate  the 
Irish  by  just  legislation  that  should  relax  the 
harsh  commercial  restrictions.  Tiiis,  however, 
was  done  so  sparingly  that  it  fell  far  short  of 
accomplishing  permanent  good.  Indeed,  it  was 


AMERICA 


29 


AMERICA 


regarded  as  a  delusive,  temporizing  policy,  and 
the  attitude  of  the  Irish  people,  encouraged  by 
that  of  the  Americans,  even  became  more  threat¬ 
ening  thau  ever.  The  Catholic  Relief  Bill  of 
1778  had  made  the  Irish,  for  the  first  time  in 
their  history,  one  people  ;  “  all  sects,  all  ranks, 
all  races — the  nobleman  and  the  merchant,  the 
Catholic  and  the  Protestant,  the  Churchman  and 
the  Dissenter,  he  who  boasted  of  his  pure  native 
lineage,  and  he  who  was  as  proud  of  the  Saxon  or 
Norman  blood  that  flowed  in  his  veins — rushed 
together  to  the  vindication  of  the  liberties  of 
their  common  country;”  and,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year,  beheld  them  embodied  to  the  num¬ 
ber  of  eighty  thousand  volunteers.  (See  Ireland 
arid  the  United  States,  and  Ireland,  Revolutionary 
Movements  in.)  The  British  government  dared 
not  refuse  the  arms  which  they  demanded  to 
repel  a  threatened  invasion  from  France.  The 
fiery  Grattan  was  then  leader  in  the  Irish  par¬ 
liament.  “I  never  will  be  satisfied,”  he  ex¬ 
claimed  in  debate,  “  so  long  as  the  meanest  cot¬ 
tager  in  Ireland  has  a  link  of  the  British  chain 
clanking  to  his  rags:  he  may  be  naked  —  he 
shall  not  be  in  irons.”  The  Irish  parliament 
acted  in  accordance  with  this  spirit,  and  adopted 
a  resolution  which  made  the  country  virtually 
free. 

America,  Discoverers  of.  There  are  un¬ 
questioned  historical  records  of  America  for  the 
space  of  about  five  hundred  years.  It  was  un¬ 
doubtedly  discovered  by  Northern  navigators 
(see  Northmen)  early  in  the  eleventh  century,  and 
the  colony  of  the  son  of  a  Welsh  prince  (see  Ma- 
doc)  probably  landed  on  the  North  American  con¬ 
tinent  about  the  year  1170.  There  is  no  evi¬ 
dence  that  the  Northmen  saw  more  than  the 
coasts  of  Labrador  and  New  Euglaud — possibly 
Newfoundland  ;  and  the  landing-place  of  Madoc 
is  wholly  conjectural.  On  the  11th  of  October, 
1492,  Christopher  Columbus  discovered  one  of 
the  Bahama  Islands,  east  of  Florida,  but  not  the 
continent.  (See  Columbus.)  In  the  summer  of 
1498,  Sebastian  Cabot  (commissioned  by  King 
Henry  VII.  of  England),  who  sailed  from  Bristol 
in  May  with  two  caravels,  discovered  the  North 
American  continent  at  Labrador.  He  was  seek¬ 
ing  a  northwest  passage  to  “Cathay”  (which 
see),  and  being  barred  from  the  Polar  Sea  by 
pack-ice,  sailed  southward,  discovered  Labrador, 
and  possibly  went  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the 
Carolinas.  He  discovered  and  named  Newfound¬ 
land,  and  found  the  treasures  of  cod-fishes  in  the 
waters  near  it.  (See  Cabot.)  On  the  1st  of  August, 
the  same  summer,  Columbus  discovered  the  con¬ 
tinent  of  South  America,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco  River.  Americus  Vespucius,  a  Floren¬ 
tine,  and  an  agent  of  the  De’  Medici  family  of 
Florence,  was  in  Spain  when  the  great  discov¬ 
ery  of  Columbus  was  made.  In  May,  1499,  Ves¬ 
pucius  sailed  from  Spain  with  Alonzo  do  Ojeda 
as  an  adventurer  and  self-constituted  geographer 
for  the  new-found  world.  They  followed  the 
southern  track  of  Columbus  in  his  third  voyage, 
and  off:'  the  coast  of  Surinam,  South  America, 
they  saw  the  mountains  of  the  continent.  That 
was  a  year  after  Columbus  first  saw  the  conti¬ 
nent  of  America.  On  his  return,  in  1500,  Ves¬ 


pucius  revealed  these  discoveries  in  a  letter  to 
the  Medici,  and  by  afterwards  antedating  it 
1497,  either  intentionally  or  accidentally,  made 
it  appear  that  his  claim  to  the  honor  of  being  the 
first  discoverer  of  the  Western  Continent  was 
well  founded.  It  was  called  America  in  his  hon¬ 
or.  (See  Vespucius;  also  America,  Origin  of  Name 
of.)  In  the  year  1499,  Vincent  Yanez  Pinzou 
sailed  from  Palos  with  his  brother  and  four  cara¬ 
vels,  and,  reaching  the  coast  of  South  America, 
discovered  the  great  river  Amazon  in  the  spring 
of  1500.  Before  Pinzon’s  return,  Pedro  Alvarez 
Cabral,  sent  by  Emanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  while 
on  an  exploring  expedition  discovered  Brazil, 
and  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the 
crown  of  Portugal.  It  was  within  the  territory 
donated  by  the  Pope  to  the  Spanish  monarclis. 
(See  Pope's  Gift.)  A  friendly  arrangement  was 
made,  and  it  was  ultimately  agreed  that  the 
King  of  Portugal  should  hold  all  the  country  he 
had  discovered  from  the  river  Amazon  to  the 
river  Platte.  On  the  announcement  of  the  dis¬ 
coveries  of  Cabot  in  the  Northwest,  King  Eman¬ 
uel  of  Portugal  sentGaspard  Cortereal,  a  skilful 
navigator,  with  two  caravels  on  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covei’y  towards  the  same  region.  He  saw  Labra¬ 
dor,  and  possibly  Newfoundland,  and  went  up 
the  coast  almost  to  Hudson’s  Bay ;  and  it  is  be¬ 
lieved  that  he  discovered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law¬ 
rence.  (See  Cortereal.)  In  1504  Columbus,  in  a 
fourth  voyage  to  America,  sailed  with  four  cara¬ 
vels  through  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  in  search  of  a 
passage  to  India,  anddiscovered  Central  America. 
(See  Columbus.)  Eight  years  later,  Juau  Ponce 
de  Leon,  an  old  Spanish  nobleman,  sailed  from 
Porto  Rico,  in  the  West  Indies,  of  which  he  was 
governor,  in  search  of  an  island  containing  a 
fabled  fountain  of  youth.  He  did  not  find  the 
spring,  but  discovered  a  beautiful  land  covered 
with  exquisite  flowers,  and  named  it  Florida. 
(See  Florida  and  Ponce  de  Leon.)  In  1520,  Lucas 
Vasquez  D’Allyon,  a  wealthy  Spaniard,  who 
owned  mines  in  Santo  Domingo,  voyaged  north¬ 
westerly  from  that  island,  and  discovex-ed  the 
coast  of  South  Carolina.  (See  D’  All  yon.)  Mean¬ 
while  the  Spaniai’ds  had  been  pushing  discoveries 
westward  from  Hispaniola,  or  Santo  Domingo. 
(See  Hayti.)  Ojeda  also  discovered  Central 
America.  In  1513  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  dis¬ 
covered  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  a  mountain  sum¬ 
mit  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  (See  Nunez.) 
Francisco  Fernandez  de  Cordova  discovered 
Mexico  in  1517.  (See  Mexico:)  Pamphila  de  Nar¬ 
vaez  and  Ferdinand  de  Soto  traversed  the  coun¬ 
try  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  former 
in  1528,  and  the  latter  in  1539-41.  In  the  lat¬ 
ter  year  De  Soto  discovered  and  crossed  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  and  penetrated  the  country  beyond. 
(See  De  Soto.)  This  was  the  last  attempt  of  the 
Spaniards  to  make  discoveries  in  North  America 
before  the  English  appeared  upon  the  same  field. 
(See  Narvaez  and  De  Soto.)  It  is  claimed  for 
Juan  Verazzani,  a  Florentine  navigator,  that  he 
sailed  from  France  with  four  ships,  in  1524,  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery,  and  that  he  traversed  the 
shores  of  America  from  Florida  to  Nova  Scotia. 
Ho  is  supposed  to  have  entered  Delaware  Bay 
and  the  harbors  of  New  York,  Newport,  and  Bos- 


AMERICA 


30 


AMERICAN  AMBASSADOR 


ton,  and  named  the  country  he  had  discovered 
New  France.  (See  Yercizzani.)  Jacques  Cartier 
discovered  the  gulf  and  river  St.  Lawrence  in 
1534,  and,  revisiting  them  the  next  year,  gave 
them  that  name,  because  the  day  when  he  en¬ 
tered  their  waters  was  dedicated  to  St.  Law¬ 
rence.  In  1576,  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  went  to 
Greenland  and  Labrador,  and  coasting  north¬ 
ward  discovered  the  bay  that  bears  his  name. 
(See  Frobisher.)  Huguenot  adventurers  from 
South  Carolina,  floating  on  the  ocean  helplessly, 
were  picked  np,  taken  to  England,  and  by  the 
stories  which  they  told  of  the  beautiful  land  they 
had  left,  caused  Queen  Elizabeth  to  encourage 
voyages  of  discovery  in  that  direction.  Sir  Wal¬ 
ter  Raleigh,  favored  by  the  queen,  sent  two 
ships,  commanded  by  Philip  Amidas  and  Arthur 
Barlow,  to  the  middle  regions  of  the  North  Amer¬ 
ican  coast.  (See  Raleigh.)  They  discovered  Ro¬ 
anoke  Island  and  the  main  near  (see  Roanoke), 
and  in  honor  of  the  unmarried  queen  the  whole 
country  was  named  Virginia.  In  1602  Bartholo¬ 
mew  Gosnold,  sailing  from  England  directly 
across  the  Atlantic,  discovered  the  continent  on 
the  14th  of  May,  near  Nahant,  Mass.,  and  sailing 
southward  also  discovered  a  long,  sandy  poiut, 
which  he  named  Cape  Cod,  because  of  the  great 
number  of  that  fish  found  there.  He  also  discov¬ 
ered  Nantucket,  Martha’s  Vineyard,  and  the 
Elizabeth  Islands.  (See  Gosnold.)  In  1604  Mar¬ 
tin  Pring  discovered  the  coast  of  Maine.  Again 
the  French  had  turned  their  attention  to  North 
America.  M.  de  Chastes,  Governor  of  Dieppe, 
having  received  a  charter  from  the  King  of 
France  to  form  a  settlement  in  New  France 
(which  see),  he  employed  Samuel  Champlain, 
au  eminent  navigator,  to  explore  that  region. 
He  sailed  from  Honfleur  in  March,  1603,  went  up 
the  St.  Lawrence  in  May  to  Quebec,  and,  return¬ 
ing  to  France,  found  De  Chastes  dead,  and  the 
concession  granted  to  him  transferred  by  the  king 
to  Pierre  du  Gast,  Sieur  de  Monts,  a  wealthy  Hu¬ 
guenot,  who  accompanied  Champlain  on  another 
voyage  to  the  St.  Lawrence  the  next  year.  In 
1608  he  went  up  the  St.  Lawrence  again ;  and 
the  following  summer,  while  engaged  in  war 
with  some  Hurons  and  Algonquins  against  the 
Iroqnois,  he  discovered  the  lake  that  bears  his 
name  in  Northern  New  York.  (See  Champlain.) 
At  the  same  time,  Henry  Hudson,  a  navigator  in 
the  employ  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company, 
entered  the  harbor  of  New  York  (Sept.,  1609)  and 
ascended  the  river  that  bears  his  name  as  far  as 
Albany.  (See  Hudson.)  The  region  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  upper  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
was  discovered  and  explored  by  French  traders 
and  Jesuit  missionaries  in  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury.  So  early  as  1640  the  former  penetrated 
the  western  wilds  from  Quebec.  Father  Allouez 
set  up  a  cross  and  the  arms  of  France  westward 
of  the  lakes  iu  1665.  (See  Allouez.)  Father  Mar¬ 
quette,  another  Jesuit  missionary,  pushed  far¬ 
ther  in  1673,  and  discovered  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Mississippi.  (See  Marquette.)  Father  Hen¬ 
nepin,  who  accompanied  La  Salle,  explored  the 
Mississippi  in  a  canoe  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Illinois  River,  northward,  in  1680,  and  discov¬ 
ered  and  named  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  (See 


Hennepin.)  A  little  later  Robert,  Cavalier  de  La 
Salle,  an  enterprising  young  trader,  penetrated 
to  the  Mississippi,  and  afterwards  visited  the 
coast  of  Texas  from  the  sea  and  planted  the 
germ  of  a  colony  in  Louisiana.  (See  La  Salle.) 

America,  Origin  of  the  Name  of.  Arneri- 
cus  Vespncius  sailed  from  Spaiu  with  Alonzo 
de  Ojeda,  iu  May,  1499.  They  followed  the  track 
of  Columbus  to  South  America,  and  saw  the 
continent  off  the  coast  of  Surinam.  Vespucins, 
after  his  return  to  Spain,  gave  au  accouut  of 
the  voyage  iu  a  letter  to  Lorenzo  de’  Medici.  He 
made  other  voyages,  and  iu  a  letter  to  Rend, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  writteu  iu  1504,  he  gave  au 
account  of  his  four  voyages,  in  which  he  erro¬ 
neously  dated  the  time  of  his  departure  on  his 
first  voyage  May  29,  1497,  or  a  year  or  more  be¬ 
fore  Columbus  aud  Cabot  severally  discovered 
the  continent  of  North  aud  South  America.  In 
1505  a  narrative  of  his  voyages  to  America  was 
published  at  Strasburg,  entitled  Americas  Yespu- 
tius  de  Orbe  Antarctico  perRegum  Portugallice  Pri- 
dem  Juventa.  From  that  publication,  bearing  the 
untrue  date  of  his  first  voyage,  Vespucins  ac¬ 
quired  the  reputation  of  being  the  first  discov¬ 
erer  of  America.  Alluding  to  that  false  date  and 
the  statements  under  it,  the  learned  and  con¬ 
scientious  Charlevoix  wrote  that  “  Ojeda,  when 
judicially  interrogated,  gave  the  lie  direct  to  the 
statement.”  And  Herrera,  an  early  Spanish  his¬ 
torian,  accuses  Vespucins  of  purposely  falsify¬ 
ing  the  date  of  two  of  his  voyages,  and  of  con¬ 
founding  one  with  the  other,  “in  order  that  he 
might  arrogate  to  himself  the  glory  of  having 
discovered  the  continent.”  Finally,  wheu  Colum¬ 
bus  was  dead,  and  no  voice  of  accusation  or  de¬ 
nial  could  escape  his  lips,  the  narratives  of  Ves- 
pucius  were  imblished  at  St.  Diey,  in  Lorraine, 
then,  as  now,  a  German  frontier  province.  At 
that  time  Vespucins  was  iu  correspondence 
with  a  learned  German  school-master  named 
Waldseemiiller  (Wood-lake-miller),  who  was  a 
correspondent  of  the  Academy  of  Cosmography 
at  Strasburg,  founded  by  the  Duke  of  Lorraine. 
Waldseemuller  suggested  to  the  members  of  that 
institution,  under  whose  auspices  the  narrative 
of  Vespucins  had  been  published,  the  name  of 
“America”  for  the  Western  Continent,  iu  com¬ 
pliment  to  the  reputed  discoverer.  This  propo¬ 
sition  was  published,  with  approval,  in  a  work 
entitled  Cosmographie  Rudimenta,  in  1507.  It  is 
believed  that  this  action  was  taken  at  the  re¬ 
quest  or  suggestion  of  Vespucins ;  at  any  rate, 
he  is  responsible  for  the  fraud,  for  it  was  pub¬ 
lished  seven  years  before  the  death  of  the  Flor¬ 
entine,  and  he  never  repudiated  it.  “  Consider¬ 
ing  the  intimacy  of  the  two  parties,”  says  the 
learned  Viscount  Santerem,  “  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  geographer  was  guided  by  the  naviga¬ 
tor  in  what  he  did.”  The  name  of  America  was 
given  in  honor  of  Americas  Vespucins,  for  whom 
a  fraudulent  claim  to  be  the  first  discoverer  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere  was  made,  and  it  was 
done  at  the  suggestion  of  a  German  school-mas¬ 
ter.  Both  Columbus  aud  Cabot  were  deprived 
of  the  rightful  honor.  (See  Columbus  and  Cabot.) 

American  Ambassador  at  the  French 


AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES 


31  AMERICAN  CAMP  AT  CAMBRIDGE 


Court,  The  First.  After  the  treaty  of  alliance 
with  France  was  promulgated,  Dr.  Franklin,  Silas 
Deane,  and  Arthur  Lee  were  admitted  to  a  pub¬ 
lic  audience  with  the  king  on  March  20,  1778. 
Franklin,  on  that  occasion,  tried  somewhat  to 
comply  with  the  customs  of  the  court  by  wear¬ 
ing  a  wig,  but  he  could  not  find  one  in  Paris 
large  enough  to  fit  his  head;  so  he  “wore  his 
own  hair  ” — venerable,  long,  white  locks.  He 
was  dressed  in  a  simple  but  elegant  suit  of  black 
velvet,  contrasting  most  conspicuously  with  the 
brilliant  dress  of  the  courtiers.  Here  was  a  nov¬ 
elty  for  Paris !  and  this,  with  the  fame  of  Frank¬ 
lin  as  a  philosopher,  created  a  social  sensation 
in  the  French  capital.  The  beautiful  young 
queen  (Marie  Antoinette)  kept  him  near  her  per¬ 
son  at  levees  and  in  the  salon s;  the  women  gath¬ 
ered  about  him,  and  some  of  the  more  enthusiastic 
ones  imprinted  kisses  on  his  forehead.  Franklin 
was  then  seventy-two  years  of  age.  Deane  and 
Lee  were  soon  afterwards  recalled,  and  Franklin 
was  left  sole  ambassador  at  the  French  court. 

American  Antiquities.  A  greater  portion  of 
objects  which  constitute  American  antiquities 
consist  of  the  architectural  and  other  remains 
of  the  handiwork  of  the  aborigines  who  inhab¬ 
ited  the  continent  before  any  of  the  present 
races  appeared  here  and  subjugated  or  displaced 
them  ;  also  the  ruins  occasioned  by  the  Spanish 
conquest.  These  are  chiefly,  in  Central  and 
South  America,  ruined  temples,  and,  in  North 
America,  rude  earth-works,  now  overgrown  with 
venerable  forest  trees  which  attest  their  an¬ 
tiquity.  In  connection  with  those  in  the  more 
southern  regions,  there  are  remains  of  elaborate 
carvings  and  ornamented  pottery.  There  are 
many  features  in  common  between  the  temples 
and  other  works  of  art  in  Mexico,  Central  Amer¬ 
ica,  and  Peru.  The  explorations  of  Stephens 
and  Catherwood  (1840-43)  revealed  to  the  world 
vast  remains  of  cities  in  Central  America,  which 
were  doubtless  inhabited  at  the  period  of  the 
conquest,  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago. 
There  they  found  carved  monoliths  and  the  re¬ 
mains  of  highly  ornamented  temples.  The  mon¬ 
oliths  at  Copau  (see  the  following  page)  some 
antiquaries  are  disposed  to  rank,  as  to  use,  with 
those  ruder  ones  at  Stonehenge,  in  England, 
and  older  ones  in  Arabia.  The  remains  of 
Aztec  art  in  Mexico  attest  the  existence  of  a 
high  degree  of  civilization  there  at  the  period 
of  their  structure.  So,  also,  the  ruins  of  the 
Temple  of  the  Sun,  at  Cuzco,  in  Pern,  tell  of 
great  advancement  in  the  arts  under  the  empire 
of  the  Incas.  These  remains  occupy  a  living 
place  on  the  borders  of  the  historic  period,  but 
the  mounds  in  North  America,  showing  much 
mathematical  skill  in  their  construction  and  in¬ 
genuity  in  their  contents,  have  hitherto  eluded 
the  keen  skill  of  antiquaries,  who  have  sought 
in  vain  among  prehistoric  mysteries  for  a  clew 
to  the  origin  of  the  people  who  fashioned  them. 
(See  Mound-builders.)  European  civilization  on 
our  continent  is  of  too  recent  introduction  to 
supply  anything  to  a  collection  of  real  American 
antiquities  originating  with  itself. 

American  Association,  The.  On  the  20th 


of  October,  1774,  the  first  Continental  Congress 
adopted  a  “non-importation,  non-consumption, 
and  non -exportation  agreement,”  applied  to 
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Madeira,  hy  which  the  inhabitants  of  all  the 
colonies  were  bound  to  act  in  good  faith  as 
those  of  certain  cities  and  towns  had  already 
done,  under  the  penalty  of  the  displeasure  of 
faithful  ones.  The  agreement  was  embodied  in 
fourteen  articles,  and  was  to  go  into  effect  on 
the  first  of  December  next  ensuing.  In  the  sec¬ 
ond  article,  the  congress  struck  a  blow  at  sla¬ 
very,  in  the  name  of  their  constituents,  declar¬ 
ing  that,  after  the  first  day  of  December  next 
ensuing,  they  would  neither  import  nor  pur¬ 
chase  any  slave  imported  after  that  date,  and 
they  would  in  no  way  be  concerned  in  or  abet 
the  slave-trade.  Committees  were  to  be  ap¬ 
pointed  in  every  county,  city,  and  town  to  en¬ 
force  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  associa¬ 
tion.  They  also  resolved  that  they  would  hold 
no  commercial  intercourse  with  any  colony  in 
North  America  that  did  not  accede  to  these 
terms,  or  that  should  thereafter  violate  them, 
but  hold  such  recusauts  as  enemies  to  their  com¬ 
mon  country.  The  several  articles  of  the  asso¬ 
ciation  were  adopted  unanimously,  except  the 
one  concerning  exportations.  The  South  Caro¬ 
linians  objected  to  it,  because  it  would  operate 
unequally,  and  insisted  upon  rice  being  exempt¬ 
ed  from  the  requirement  concerning  non-expor¬ 
tation.  When  the  article  was  adopted,  all  but 
two  of  the  South  Carolina  delegation  seceded. 
Gadsden  and  another,  in  the  spirit  of  Henry,  de¬ 
clared  they  were  not  “  South  Carolinians,”  but 
“Americans.”  The  seceders  were  brought  back 
and  signed  the  articles  of  association  after  a 
compromise  was  agreed  to,  which  allowed  their 
colony  to  bear  no  part  of  the  burden  of  sacrifice 
imposed  by  the  association.  Short  letters  were 
addressed  to  the  colonies  of  St.John  (now 
Prince  Edward’s),  Nova  Scotia,  Georgia,  and  the 
two  Floridas,  asking  them  to  join  the  association. 

American  Camp  at  Cambridge  (1775),  The. 
The  camp  of  the  Continental  Army  at  Cambridge, 
when  Washington  took  command  of  it  (July, 
1775),  presented  a  curious  and  somewhat  pict¬ 
uresque  spectacle.  There  was  no  conformity 
in  dress.  The  A'olunteers  from  Rhode  Island 
were  lodged  in  tents,  and  had  more  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  regular  troops  than  any  of  the  others ; 
others  were  quartered  in  Harvard  College  build¬ 
ings,  the  Episcopal  church,  and  private  dwell¬ 
ings  ;  and  the  fields  were  dotted  with  lodges 
of  almost  every  description,  varying  with  the 
tastes  of  their  occupants.  Some  of  them  were 
constructed  of  boards,  some  of  sail-cloth,  and 
some  partly  of  both.  There  were  huts  of  stone 
and  sods,  others  of  bushes,  while  a  few  had  regu¬ 
lar  doors  and  windows,  constructed  of  withes 
and  reeds.  To  these  the  feminine  relatives  of 
the  soldiers — mothers,  sisters,  wives — were  con¬ 
tinually  repairing  with  supplies  of  clothing  and 
gifts  for  comfort.  With  them  came  flocks  of 
boys  and  girls  from  the  surrounding  country, 
to  gratify  their  curiosity  and  behold  some  of  the 
mysteries  of  war.  Among  the  soldiers  in  the 
camp  might  be  seen  eminent  and  eloquent  min- 


AMERICAN  CAFITAL 


American  Capital 

(1815).  At  the  close  of 
the  War  of  1812-15— the 
second  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence— the  real  and  per¬ 
sonal  capital  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  the  United  States 
was  as  follows  :  Real 
property  —  public  lands, 
500,000,000  acres,  at  $2 
an  acre,  $1,000,000,000; 
cultivated  lands,  300,000,- 
000  acres,  at  $10  an  acre, 
$3,000,000,000;  dwell¬ 
ing-houses  of  all  kinds, 


AMERICAN  CIVIL  LIST 


ping  of  all  kinds,  $225,- 
000,000;  money, farming 
stock  and  utensils,  man¬ 
ufactures, household  fur¬ 
niture  and  plate,  car¬ 
riages,  and  every  species 
of  personal  property  not 
above  estimated, $1,550, - 
000,000.  Total  of  per¬ 
sonal  property,  $2,200,- 
000,000.  Grand  total  of 
American  capital, in  real 
and  personal  property, 
$7,200,000,000. 

American  Civil  List 
(1764).  The  crown  offi¬ 
cers  in  America  had  long 
urged  the  establishment 
of  a  parliamentary  rev¬ 
enue  for  their  support. 
Their  whole  political 
system  seemed  to  be  but 
methods  for  the  increase 
and  security  of  the  emol¬ 
uments  of  office.  To  meet 
their  views, they  advised 
a  thorough  revision  of 
the  American  govern¬ 
ments^ — a  parliamentary 
regulation  of  colonial 
charters,  and  a  certain 
and  sufficient  civil  list. 
This  latter  measure 


isters  of  the  Gospel,  act¬ 
ing  as  chaplains,  keep¬ 
ing  alive  the  habit  of 
daily  prayer  and  of  pub¬ 
lic  worship  on  the  Sab¬ 
bath.  There  was  among 
the  soldiers  a  spirit  of 
insubordination,  which 
grew  out  of  the  famil¬ 
iarity  that  existed  be¬ 
tween  the  officers  and 
men.  This  greatly  an¬ 
noyed  the  commander- 
in-chief,  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  wide  dis¬ 
tinctions  between  the 
governors  and  the  gov¬ 
erned. 


$1,000,000,000.  Total  of  real  property,  $5,000,000,- 
000.  Personal  property  — —  capital  of  the  holders 
of  government  stocks,  who  were  American  citi¬ 
zens,  $100,000,000;  banking  stocks,  $100,000,000; 
slaves,  1,500,000,  at  $150  each,  $225,000,000 ;  sliip- 


Grenville  opposed  (1764),  refusing  to  become 
the  attorney  for  American  office-holders,  or  the 
founder  of  a  stupendous  system  of  colonial  pat¬ 
ronage  and  corruption.  His  policy  in  all  his 
financial  measures  was  to  improve  the  finances 


STONE  IDOL  AT  COPAN,  THIRTEEN  FEET  IN  HEIGHT. 


AMERICAN  CONDITIONS  FOR  PEACE  33  AMERICAN  FLEET  ON  LAKE  ERIE 


of  liis  country  and  replenish  its  exhausted  treas¬ 
ury.  When  the  Earl  of  Halifax  proposed  the 
payment  of  the  salaries  of  colonial  crown-officers 
directly  from  England,  Grenville  so  strenuously 
opposed  it  that  the  dangerous  experiment  was 
postponed.  The  rapacity  of  crown-officers  in 
America  for  place,  money,  and  power  was  a 
chief  cause  of  public  discoutent  at  all  times. 

American  Conditions  for  Peace  ( 1782 ). 
Dr.  Franklin,  who  well  knew  the  condition  of 
parties  in  England,  and  how  precarious  was  the 
hold  of  Lord  Shelburne  on  the  premiership, 
hastened  to  promote  immediate  negotiations 
for  peace,  for  which  he  had  been  appointed. 
Ten  days  after  Shelburne’s  accession  (July, 
1782),  he  invited  Oswald,  the  British  agent  in 
Paris  to  prepare  for  negotiations,  to  come  to  his 
own  house.  Oswald  -went  there,  when  Frank¬ 
lin  laid  before  him  the  articles  for  a  treaty 
which  the  Americans  would  never  depart  from. 
They  were:  Independence  absolute  and  com¬ 
plete  in  every  sense  to  the  whole  thirteen 
states,  and  all  British  troops  to  be  withdrawn 
from  them  ;  for  boundaries,  the  Mississippi  on 
the  west,  and  on  the  side  of  Canada  as  they 
were  before  the  Quebec  Act  of  1774  (which 
see) ;  and  the  freedom  of  fishing  off  the  Banks 
of  Newfoundland.  Franklin  explained  that 
nothing  could  be  done  for  the  loyalists  in  the 
United  States,  the  separate  states  having  con¬ 
fiscated  their  property,  and  the  United  States 
having  no  control  in  the  matter ;  and  he  showed 
that  Great  Britain  had  forfeited  any  right  to 
intercede  for  them  by  its  conduct  and  example. 
He  gave  Oswald,  as  an  example,  the  orders  of 
the  British  in  the  Carolinas  for  confiscating  the 
lands  and  other  property  of  all  patriots,  under 
the  direction  of  the  military;  and  declared 
that,  whatever  the  separate  states  might  do  in 
compassion  for  the  loyalists,  the  United  States 
commissioners  for  peace  could  not  make  the 
compensation  of  refugees  a  part  of  the  treaty. 
Frankliu  recommended — but  not  as  an  ultima¬ 
tum — a  perfect  reciprocity  in  regard  to  ships 
and  trade ;  and  he  called  Oswald’s  attention  to 
the  reckless  destruction  of  property  by  the  Brit¬ 
ish  forces,  which  might  furnish  a  claim  for  in¬ 
demnity.  These  negotiations  were  carried  on 
with  the  knowledge  and  approval  of  Vergennes, 
but  everything  relating  to  their  conditions  was 
concealed  from  him.  Oswald  was  given  to  un¬ 
derstand  that  the  American  commissioners  were 
ready  to  sign  a  preliminary  treaty  whenever  one 
should  be  negotiated.  (See  Preliminary  Treaty  of 
Peace.)  Oswald  reported  the  result  of  this  in¬ 
terview  to  Shelburne.  The  minister  accepted 
Franklin’s  ultimatum  as  just,  and  sent  full  pow¬ 
ers  to  Oswald  to  negotiate  a  treaty  on  that  ba¬ 
sis. 

American  Flag,  First  British  Assault 
upon  the.  The  American  ship  Baltimore ,  Cap¬ 
tain  Phillips,  sailed  out  of  the  harbor  of  Ha¬ 
vana  on  the  morning  of  Nov.  16, 1798,  in  charge 
of  a  convoy,  bound  for  Charleston,  S.  C.  In 
sight  of  Morro  Castle  she  met  a  British  squad¬ 
ron,  and  Phillips  bore  up  to  the  Carnatic,  the 
British  flag-ship,  to  speak  to  the  captain,  when 
I— 3 


three  of  the  convoys  were  cut  off  from  the  rest 
and  were  captured  by  the  British  vessels.  Cap¬ 
tain  Phillips,  by  invitation,  went  on  board  the 
Carnatic,  when  he  was  iuformed  that  every  man 
on  the  Baltimore  not  having  an  American  pro¬ 
tection  should  be  transferred  to  the  British  flag¬ 
ship.  Phillips  protested  against  the  outrage, 
and  declared  that  he  would  formally  surrender 
his  vessel  and  refer  the  matter  to  his  govern¬ 
ment.  On  returning  to  the  Baltimore,  he  found 
a  British  officer  mustering  his  men.  Fifty-five 
of  them  were  transferred  to  the  Carnatic,  and 
the  colors  of  the  Baltimore  were  lowered.  Five 
of  the  men  were  pressed  into  the  British  ser¬ 
vice  ;  the  remainder  were  sent  back,  and  the 
Baltimore  was  released.  The  case  was  laid  be¬ 
fore  the  government  of  the  United  States.  This 
outrage  upon  the  sovereignty  of  the  nation — - 
the  practical  application  of  the  claim  of  the 
British  government  to  the  right  of  search  and 
impressment  (see  Impressment )  without  leave — 
aroused  fierce  indignation  throughout  theUnion  ; 
yet  the  American  government,  influenced,  if  not 
controlled,  by  the  mercantile  interest  (the  trade 
with  Great  Britain  was  then  very  profitable), 
not  only  submitted  meekly,  but.  committed  an 
act  of  the  most  flagrant  injustice.  Captain 
Phillips  was  dismissed  from  the  navy,  without 
a  trial,  because  he  surrendered  his  vessel  with¬ 
out  a  show  of  resistance;  and  no  notice  was 
taken  of  the  British  outrage.  The  administra¬ 
tion,  in  obsequious  deference  to  Great  Britain, 
had  instructed  the  American  naval  commanders 
not  to  molest  the  cruisers  of  any  nation  (the 
French  excepted)  on  any  account — not  even  to 
save  their  own  vessels;  and  Phillips,  because 
of  his  strict  adherence  to  this  order,  was  cash¬ 
iered. 

American  Fleet  on  Lake  Erie  (1813).  Who 
shall  be  masters  of  Lake  Erie  ?  was  an  impor¬ 
tant  question  to  be  solved  in  1813.  The  gov¬ 
ernment  did  not  fulfil  its  promise  to  Hull  to 
provide  means  for  securing  the  naval  suprem¬ 
acy  on  Lake  Erie.  The  necessity  for  such  an 
attainment  was  so  obvious  before  the  close  of 
1812  that  the  government  took  vigorous  action 
in  the  matter.  Isaac  Channcey  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  a  little  squadron  on  Lake  Ontario  late 
in  1812,  and  Captain  Oliver  Hazard  Perry,  a 
zealous  young  naval  officer,  of  Rhode  Island, 
who  was  in  command  of  a  flotilla  of  gunboats 
on  the  Newport  station,  offered  his  services  on 
the  lakes.  Channcey  desired  his  services,  and 
on  Feb.  17  Perry  received  orders  from  the  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Navy  to  report  to  Channcey  with 
all  possible  despatch,  and  to  take  with  him  to 
Sackett’s  Harbor  all  of  the  best  men  of  the  flo¬ 
tilla  at  Newport.  He  sent  them  forward,  in 
companies  of  fifty,  under  sailing-masters  Almy, 
Champlin,  and  Taylor.  He  met  Channcey  at 
Albany,  and  they  journeyed  together  in  a  sleigh 
through  the  then  wilderness  to  Sackett’s  Har¬ 
bor.  In  March,  Perry  went  to  Presque  Isle 
(now  Erie,  Pa.)  to  hasten  the  construction  and 
equipment  of  a  little  navy  there  designed  to  co¬ 
operate  with  General  Harrison  in  attempts  to 
recover  Michigan.  Four  vessels  were  speedily 
built  at  Erie,  and  five  others  were  taken  to  that 


AMERICAN  INFLUENCE 


AMERICAN  FORT  ON  THE  MISSISSIPPI  34 


well -sheltered  harbor  from  Black  Rock,  near 
Buffalo,  where  Henry  Eckford  had  converted 
merchant-vessels  into  war-ships.  The  vessels 
at  Erie  were  constructed  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  Sailing-master  Daniel  Dobbins, 
at  the  mouth  of  Cascade  Creek.  Early  in  May 


(1813)  the  three  smaller  vessels  were  launched, 
and  on  the  24tli  of  the  same  month  two  brigs 
were  put  afloat.  The  whole  fleet  was  finished 
on  the  *10th  of  July,  and  consisted  of  the  brig 
Lawrence,  20  guns;  brig  Niagara,  20  guns;  brig 
Caledonia,  3  gnus;  schooner  Ariel,  4  guns; 
schooner  Scorpion,  2  guns  and  2  swivels ;  sloop 
Trippe,  1  gun;  schooner  Tigress,  1  gun;  and 
schooner  Porcupine,  1  gun.  The  command  of 
the  fleet  was  given  to  Perry,  and  the  Lawrence, 
so  named  in  honor  of  the  slain  commander  of 
the  Chesapeake,  was  his  flag-ship.  But  men  and 
supplies  were  wanting.  A  British  squadron  on 
the  lake  seriously  menaced  the  fleet  at  Erie,  and 
Perry  pleaded  for  materials  to  put  his  vessels 
in  proper  order  to  meet  danger.  “Think  of  my 
situation,”  he  wrote  to  Chauncey — “  the  enemy 
in  sight,  the  vessels  under  my  command  more 
than  sufficient  and  ready  to  make  sail,  and  yet 
obliged  to  bite  my  fingers  with  vexation  for 
want  of  men.” 

American  Fort  on  the  Mississippi  (1780). 
Clarke  designed  to  extend  his  invasion  to  De¬ 
troit  (see  Clark,  George  R.)  but  troops  to  rein¬ 
force  him  had  been  added  to  the  force  of  an¬ 
other  bold  leader  (see  Shelhg,  Evan),  and  he  had 
to  abandon  the  undertaking.  Jefferson,  then 
Governor  of  Virginia,  gave  instructions  for  the 
occupation  of  a  station  on  the  Mississippi  River 
between  the  month  of  the  Ohio  and  the  parallel 
of  36°  30' ;  and  in  the  spring  of  1780  Clarke 
chose  a  strong  position  five  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio,  whereon  he  built  Fort  Jef¬ 
ferson.  Here  the  Americans  planted  their  first 
sentinel  to  watch  over  the  freedom  of  the  navi¬ 
gation  of  the  “  Father  of  Waters.” 


American  Forts.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
forts  in  existence  when  war  was  declared  in 
1812,  and  their  location  :  Fort  Sumner,  Port¬ 
land,  Me. ;  Fort  William  and  Mary,  Portsmouth, 
N.  II. ;  Fort  Lily,  Gloucester,  Cape  Anne  ;  Fort 
Pickering,  Salem,  Mass.;  Fort  Sevvall,  Marble¬ 
head,  Mass. ;  Fort  Inde¬ 
pendence,  Boston  Harbor; 
Fort  Wolcott,  near  New¬ 
port,  R.  I. ;  Fort  Adams, 
Newport  Harbor ;  Fort 
Hamilton,  near  Newport ; 
North  Battery,  a  mile 
northwest  of  Fort  Wol¬ 
cott  ;  Dumplings  Fort, 
entrance  to  Narraganset 
Bay,  R.  I. ;  ’Tonomy  Hill, 
a  mile  east  of  North  Bat- 
Fort  Trum¬ 
bull,  New  Loudon,  Conn. ; 
Fort  Jay,  Governor’s  Isl¬ 
and,  New  York  Harbor ; 
Works  on  Ellis  and  Bed- 
low’s  Islands,  New  York 
Harbor;  Fort  Mifflin,  Del¬ 
aware  River,  below  Phil¬ 
adelphia  ;  Fort  McHenry, 
Baltimore  ;  Fort  Severn, 
Annapolis;  Forts  Norfolk 
and  Nelson,  on  Elizabeth 
River,  below  Norfolk,  Va.; 
Forts  Pinckney,  Moultrie, 
and  Mechanic,  for  the  protection  of  Charleston, 
S.C.;  Fort  Mackinaw,  island  of  Mackinaw;  Fort 
Dearborn,  Chicago;  Fort  Wayne,  at  the  forks 
of  the  Maumee,  Iud. ;  Fort  Detroit,  Michigan  ; 
Fort  Niagara,  month  of  the  Niagara  River ;  Fort 
Ontario,  Oswego  ;  Fort  Tompkins,  Sackett’s  Har¬ 
bor,  N.  Y.  Some  of  these  were  unfinished,  and 
others  were  strengthened. 

American  Influence  in  Great  Britain  (1770). 
The  influence  of  political  agitation  in  the  colo¬ 
nies  began  to  be  sensibly  felt  in  Great  Britain 
at  the  beginning  of  1770.  The  friends  of  lib¬ 
erty  in  England  were  the  friends  of  the  colo¬ 
nists.  The  cause  was  the  same  in  all  places. 
There  was  a  violent  struggle  for  relief  from 
thralls  everywhere.  America  responded  to  calls 
for  help  from  England,  as  well  as  calls  for  help 
in  America  had  been  responded  to  in  England. 
In  December,  1769,  South  Carolina  sent  £10,500 
currency  to  London  for  the  society  for  support¬ 
ing  the  Bill  of  Rights,  “that  the  liberties  of 
Great  Britain  and  America  might  alike  be  pro¬ 
tected,”  wrote  members  of  the  South  Carolina 
Assembly.  In  Ireland,  the  dispute  with  Amer¬ 
ica  aroused  Grattan,  and  he  began  his  splendid 
career  at  about  this  time.  The  English  toilers 
in  the  manufacturing  districts  longed  to  enjoy 
the  abundance  and  freedom  which  they  heard 
of  in  America;  and  1769  is  marked  by  the  es¬ 
tablishment,  in  England,  of  the  system  of  pub¬ 
lic  meetings  to  discuss  subjects  of  importance 
to  free-born  Englishmen.  The  press,  too,  spoke 
out  boldly  at  that  time.  “  Can  you  conceive,” 
wrote  the  yet  mysterious  Junius  (which  see)  to 
the  king,  “that  the  people  of  this  country  will 
long  submit  to  be  governed  by  so  flexible  a 


MOUTH  OF  CASCADE  CREEK,  WHERE  FERRY.’S  FLEET  WAS  BUILT. 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


House  of  Commons  ?  The  oppressed  people  of 
Ireland  give  you  everyday  fresh  marks  of  their 
resentment.  The  colonists  left  their  native  land 
for  freedom  and  found  it  in  a  desert.  Looking 
forward  to  independence,  they  equally  detest 
the  pageantry  of  a  king  and  the  supercilious 
hypocrisy  of  a  bishop.” 

American  Literature,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  old  war  for  independence  (1775),  gradually 
assumed  a  distinct  type,  spirit,  and  substance. 
During  the  earlier  colonial  period  there  were  a 
considerable  number  of  works  written  and  jmb- 
lished  in  the  English-American  colonies,  chiefly 
of  a  religious  and  controversial  character.  The 
flrst  literary  work  produced  in  America  was  a 
translation  into  English  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses , 
by  George  Sandys,  Treasurer  of  Virginia,  in  1724, 
and  published,  in  folio  (with  illustrations),  in 
London  in  1726.  The  first  original  work  pub¬ 
lished  in  New  England  was  a  volume  of  poems 
by  Mrs.  Anne  Bradstreet,  a  daughter  of  Gov¬ 
ernor  Dudley  of  Massachusetts,  and  published 
in  1640.  Eliot’s  translation  of. the  Bible  into 
the  Indian  tongue,  issued  in  1663,  was  the  first 
publication  of  the  Scriptures  in  America.  This 
was  followed  by  translations  of  other  works 
into  the  language  of  the  barbarians  near  Bos¬ 
ton.  Religious  writers  monopolized  the  colo¬ 
nial  press — Williams,  Hooker,  Davenport,  Nor¬ 
ton,  and  the  Mathers.  Finally,  late  in  the  colo¬ 
nial  period,  Jonathan  Edwards  appeared  as  a 
brilliant  writer  on  theology  and  metaphysics, 
with  Dr.  Franklin  on  morals,  politics,  and  sci¬ 
ence.  The  papers  of  the  latter  were  read  with 
avidity  by  all  classes  of  cultivated  people,  for 
the  spirit  of  his  writings  was  catholic,  large- 
hearted,  and  humaue.  At  the  Revolution  poli¬ 
tics  naturally  took  possession  of  the  public 
mind  and  expelled  from  it  polemical  theology, 
and  the  ardent  theologian  became  a  sharp  po¬ 
litical  combatant.  The  state  papers  put  forth 
by  the  Continental  Congress,  in  style  aud  ex¬ 
pression,  won  the  applause  of  European  states¬ 
men.  Edwards  did  not  live  to  hear  more  than 
the  distant  rumblings  of  the  tempest ;  Franklin 
was  a  colossus  of  strength  when  the  storm  of 
the  Revolution  burst.  There  were  ready  writ¬ 
ers,  younger  in  years,  to  aid  him.  Franklin 
and  Washington,  Jefferson  and  Adams,  Hamil¬ 
ton,  Madison,  and  Jay,  laid  the  foundation  of 
American  literature  upon  which  our  writers 
have  built  a  noble  structure.  From  1776  until 
1812  the  most  eminent  writers  were  its  earnest 
statesmen.  The  Federalist,  written  by  Hamil¬ 
ton,  Jay,  and  Madison,  will  ever  remain  a  mon¬ 
ument  of  literary  excellence  and  political  sa¬ 
gacity.  There  were  some  poets  at  that  period 
— Trumbull,  Dwight,  Humphreys,  Barlow,  and 
Hopkins — who  grasped  the  political  and  his¬ 
torical  subjects  of  the  time;  but  after  the  sec¬ 
ond  war  for  independence  the  field  of  Ameri¬ 
can  authorship  widened,  and  the  question  asked 
by  Sidney  Smith,  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  in 
1820 — “  Who  reads  an  American  book  ?” — may 
now  be  answered  by  a  host  of  English  readers. 
Our  American  authors  have  since  then  bold¬ 
ly  traversed  every  field  of  literature,  whether 
historic,  scientific,  or  aisthetic.  America  now 


35  AMERICAN  LOYALISTS 

has  a  distinct  and  notable  literature  of  its 
own. 

American  Loyalists.  There  was  a  great 
diversity  of  sentiment  in  the  English-American 
colonies  during  the  disputes  with  the  mother 
country  before  war  commenced  in  1775  and  dur¬ 
ing  its  progress.  Probably  every  American  cit¬ 
izen  desired  the  freedom  which  the  most  zealous 
patriot  sought ;  they  differed  only  in  their  opin¬ 
ions  as  to  the  best  method  to  be  employed  for 
obtaining  it.  The  Whigs,  or  the  popular  party, 
were  radicals ;  the  Tories,  or  the  adherents  of 
the  crown  and  Parliament,  were  conservatives. 
The  latter  defended  or  condoned  the  oppressive 
measures  Of  Parliament ;  the  former  denounced 
them  as  absolutely  tyrannical  and  not  to  be 
endured.  The  question,  Which  party  is  right? 
was  a  vital  one.  The  imperial  governmeut  set¬ 
tled  it  in  favor  of  the  Whigs  by  rescinding  their 
oppressive  measures  one  after  another;  aud  this 
decision  has  been  ratified  by  the  judgment  of 
posterity  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
Declaration  of  Independence  compelled  men  of 
opposite  opinions  to  avow  them  pdblicly.  Then 
the  important  question  arose  concerning  the 
policy  of  tolerating  the  Tories,  or  loyalists  — 
their  acts  must  be  restrained  as  a  prudential 
measure  against  injury  to  the  patriot  cause. 
Having  the  power,  and  believing  themselves  to 
be  in  the  right,  the  Whigs  took  decisive  meas¬ 
ures  to  that  end.  Imprisonment  or  other  odious 
restraint  at  home,  or  bauishment,  was  the  alter¬ 
native  presented.  To  a  large  proportion  of  the 
loyalists  the  latter  horn  of  the  dilemma  appear¬ 
ed  the  least  affliction,  and  many  hundreds  aban¬ 
doned  their  country  aud  fled  to  Nova  Scotia  or 
to  England ;  while  a  considerable  number,  es¬ 
pecially  of  the  young  men,  were  embodied  in 
military  corps,  and  took  up  arms  against  their 
Whig  countrymen.  This  embodiment  was  un¬ 
dertaken  by  the  deposed  Governor  Try  on  of 
New  York.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  Oliver 
De  Lancey,  brother  of  a  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  province  of  New  York,  and  Courtlandt  Skin¬ 
ner,  of  New  Jersey.  But  these  loyalist  corps 
numbered  far  less,  for  a  long  time,  than  the 
ministry  or  their  partisans  in  America  antici¬ 
pated.  The  greatest  exertions  of  the  three 
leaders  above  named  had  not  caused  an  enroll¬ 
ment  of  over  twelve  hundred  of  them  so  late 
as  the  spring  of  1777.  Afterwards  the  number 
greatly  increased,  though  there  were  not  a  great 
many  in  the  field  at  one  time.  Sabine  ( Lives  of 
the  American  Loyalists )  estimates  the  whole  num¬ 
ber  enrolled  during  the  war  at  twenty  thousand. 
The  first  organization  was  under  Lord  Dunmore 
in  Virginia  (see  Dunmore),  and  Martin  in  North 
Carolina,  in  1775  (see  Martin,  Josiah).  Later 
there  were  loyalists  under  Sir  John  Johnson 
and  Colonel  Butler  in  New  York  ;  also  under 
Try  on  and  De  Lancey  in  the  same  state,  and 
Skinner  of  New  Jersey.  Later  still  the  loyalists 
of  the  Carolinas,  who  were  numerous  in  the 
western  districts,  were  embodied  under  Major 
Patrick  Ferguson,  killed  at  King’s  Mountain  in 
1781.  Altogether,  there  were  twenty-nine  or 
thirty  regiments,  regularly  officered  and  enroll¬ 
ed.  The  most  noted  loyalist  corps  in  the  war 


AMERICAN  LOYALISTS 


36  AMERICAN  PETITIONS  REJECTED 


■was  that  of  the  Queen’s  Rangers,  led  by  Major 
Simcoe,  afterwards  Governor  of  Canada.  The 
loyalists  were  of  two  kinds.  Some  were  honor¬ 
able,  conscientious  men,  governed  by  principle, 
and  friends  of  the  British  government  by  con¬ 
viction  ;  others  were  selfish  and  unscrupulous, 
siding  with  the  supposed  stronger  side  for  pur¬ 
poses  of  gain,  spite,  or  opportunities  for  plunder 
and  rapine  under  legal  sanction.  The  majority 
of  the  latter  class  filled  the  military  ranks,  and 
their  oppressions  and  cruelties  excited  the  fierc¬ 
est  animosities  of  the  Whigs,  who  suffered  dread¬ 
fully.  They  were  made  to  hate  the  name  of 
Tory,  and  in  many  instances  the  aversion  was 
felt  for  at  least  two  generations  in  Whig  fami¬ 
lies  towards  the  descendants  of  Tories.  Banish¬ 
ments  and  confiscations  by  the  Whig  authori¬ 
ties  were  popular;  but  when  peace  came  and 
animosities  subsided,  mercy  and  justice  com¬ 
bined  to  do  right.  In  the  negotiation  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  (1782),  the  British  commission¬ 
ers  claimed  indemnity  for  the  losses  of  the  loy¬ 
alists.  It  was  denied  on  the  ground  that  the 
Whigs  during  the  war  had  really  suffered  great¬ 
er  losses  through  the  acts  of  the  Tories,  and  the 
claim  was  not  allowed.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
the  military  organizations  of  the  loyalists  were 
disbanded,  and  some  of  the  officers  were  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  royal  army  and  continued  in  ser¬ 
vice  for  life.  Others,  less  fortunate,  went  with 
a  host  of  civil  and  military  companions  into  ex¬ 
ile,  the  northern  ones  chiefly  to  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Canada,  and  the  southern  ones  to 
the  Bahamas,  Florida,  and  the  British  West  Indies. 
Many  also  went  to  England,  and  for  years  were 
importunate  petitioners  for  relief  from  the  Brit¬ 
ish  government.  The  officers  generally  received 
half  pay.  Towards  the  close  of  1782  the  British 
Parliament  appointed  a  committee  to  attend  to 
the  claims  of  the  loyalists.  By  their  decision 
(June,  1783)  the  sum  of  $216,000  was  to  be  dis¬ 
tributed  annually  among  687  loyalist  pension¬ 
ers.  The  claimants  finally  became  so  numerous 
that  a  permanent  board  of  commissioners  was 
appointed,  which  continued  about  seven  years. 
On  March  25, 1784,  the  number  of  claimants  was 
2063,  and  the  aggregate  amount  of  property 
claimed  to  have  been  destroyed  or  confiscated, 
besides  debts  which  they  had  lost,  was  about 
$35,000,000.  In  1790  the  Parliament  settled  the 
whole  matter  by  enactment.  Altogether,  nearly 
$15,000,000  were  distributed  among  the  Ameri¬ 
can  loyalists  by  the  British  government.  It 
was  regarded  as  a  most  generous  act  in  a  na¬ 
tion  which  had  expended  nearly  $100,000,000  in 
the  war,  and  by  it  lost  a  vast  and  valuable  do¬ 
main. 

American  Loyalists,  Expatriation  of.  In 
consequence  of  laws  still  in  force  against  the 
loyalists,  several  thousand  Americans  found  it 
necessary  to  abandon  their  country  when  the 
British  army  left.  A  considerable  portion  of 
these  exiles  belonged  to  the  wealthier  class — 
officials,  merchants,  large  land-holders,  and  con¬ 
spicuous  members  of  the  colonial  aristocracy. 
Many  of  them  still  retained  much  wealth, 
though  suffering  from  confiscations  of  lands. 
Those  from  the  North  settled  principally  in 


Nova  Scotia  or  Canada.  To  the  former  places 
about  one  thousand  had  lied  on  the  British 
evacuation  of  Boston.  Those  from  the  South 
found  refuge  in  the  Bahamas  and  other  West 
India  islands.  The  evacuation  of  New  York 
City  by  the  British  troops  was  delayed  by  the 
necessity  and  difficulty  of  providing  transpor¬ 
tation  for  the  numerous  loyalists  assembled 
there  where  the  remaining  troops  of  Burgoyue 
and  Cornwallis  had  been  collected. 

American  Navigation  Acts  ( 1816-18).  Near¬ 
ly  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  since  the  downfall 
of  Napoleon  and  the  return  of  peace,  had  adopt¬ 
ed  a  very  discriminating  policy  in  favor  of 
their  own  shipping.  Of  the  effect  of  this 
policy  the  navigating  interest  of  the  United 
States  loudly  complained ;  and,  finally,  by  an 
act  (March  1,  1816),  copied  from  the  famous 
English  Navigation  Act  (which  see),  the  Amer¬ 
icans  retaliated.  Importations  by  foreign  ships 
were  to  be  limited  to  the  produce  of  their  re¬ 
spective  countries  —  a  provision  not  to  apply 
except  to  nations  having  a  similar  regulation. 
The  coasting  -  trade,  hitherto  open  to  foreign 
vessels,  was  now  restricted  to  those  American 
built  and  owned.  To  promote  the  increase  of 
American  seamen,  all  coasting  and  fishing  ves¬ 
sels  were  required  to  have  crews  three  fourths 
of  whom  were  Americans,  and  all  registered 
vessels  crews  of  whom  two  fifths  were  Ameri¬ 
cans,  under  penalty  of  an  additional  tonnage 
duty,  and,  in  case  of  fishing-vessels,  forfeiture 
of  the  fishing  bounties.  In  April,  1818,  an  act 
was  passed  closing  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  against  British  vessels  from  any  British 
colonial  port  into  which  American  vessels  were 
not  admitted.  This  policy,  which  totally  failed 
of  its  object,  was  kept  up  for  twelve  years,  and 
then  abandoned. 

American,  or  Know- nothing,  Party,  The, 
originated  in  1853,  and  was  so  anti-American 
that  it  soon  disappeared  from  the  arena  of  poli¬ 
tics.  The  members  of  the  “American  Party” 
were  called  “  Know-nothings,”  because  in  their 
endeavors  to  preserve  the  secrecy  of  their  move¬ 
ments  they  were  instructed  to  reply  “I  don’t 
know”  to  any  question  asked  in  reference  to  the 
party.  It  was  at  first  a  secret  political  organi¬ 
zation,  the  chief  object  of  which  was  the  pro¬ 
scription  of  foreigners  by  the  repeal  of  the  nat¬ 
uralization  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
exclusive  choice  of  Americans  for  office.  The 
more  radical  members  of  the  party  advocated 
a  purely  American  school  system,  and  uncom¬ 
promising  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholics. 
Such  narrow  views  were  incompatible  with  the 
generosity  and  catholic  spirit  of  enlightened 
American  citizens.  In  1856  they  nominated  ex- 
Presideut  Fillmore  for  the  presidency  of  the  U.  S. 

American  Petitions  rejected  (1769).  When 
it  became  evident,  late  in  1768,  that  the  British 
government  meant  to  bring  the  Americans  to 
submission  by  military  force,  each  assembly,  as 
it  convened,  denied  the  assumed  right  of  Par¬ 
liament  to  tax  the  Americans  without  their 
consent,  and  embodied  that  denial  in  petitions 
to  the  king.  The  monarch  disapproved  aud  re- 


AMERICAN  PRISONERS  IN  ENGLAND  37 


AMERICAN  SQUADRONS 


jectecl  them  because  the  ministry  were  pledged 
to  enforce  the  absolute  supremacy  of  Parlia¬ 
ment.  He  assured  the  assemblies,  through  the 
proper  officers,  in  more  or  less  soothing  or  harsh 
words,  that  he  would  never  listen  to  “the  views 
of  wicked  men  ”  who  questioned  the  supreme 
authority  of  Parliament.  This  unwise  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  sacred  right  of  petition  by  the 
king  did  much  towards  alienating  the  affec¬ 
tions  of  his  American  subjects. 

American  Prisoners  in  England  (  1778  ). 

When  it  was  ascertained  that  there  were  hun¬ 
dreds  of  American  prisoners  of  war  in  Eugland, 
enduring  great  sufferings  for  want  of  the  nec¬ 
essaries  of  life,  a  subscription  was  made  by  the 
friends  of  the  Americans  in  Great  Britain,  which 
speedily  gave  them  relief.  At  that  time  there 
were  nine  hundred  of  them  suffering  in  British 
prisons.  A  subscription  started  in  London  soou 
procured  about  two  thousand  dollars,  which 
was  more  than  sufficient  to  relieve  the  immedi¬ 
ate  wants  of  the  captives.  These  wants  con¬ 
sisted  chiefly  in  a  lack  of  sufficient  clothing. 

American  Privateers  in  Spanish  Ports 

(1778).  While  the  Spanish  court  was  opposed 
to  the  establishment  of  a  republic  in  America, 
as  being  dangerous  to  the  colonial  interests 
of  Spain,  American  merchant-ships  and  priva¬ 
teers  were  allowed  free  entrance  to  Spanish 
ports.  Every  remonstrance  from  England  was 
met  by  the  plea  that  they  hoisted  English  col¬ 
ors,  and  that  their  real  character  could  not  be 
known.  Spain  was  willing  to  hurt  England,  if 
it  could  be  done  with  safety. 

American  Property,  Seizure  of,  in  Europe 
(1810).  Bonaparte  declared,  in  1810,  that  no 
trade  would  be  allowed  with  the  allies  of 
France  in  which  France  herself  was  forbid¬ 
den  to  participate.  In  the  ports  of  Spain 
under  French  control,  of  Holland,  and  at  Na¬ 
ples,  a  large  number  of  American  vessels  and 
a  great  amount  of  American  property  were 
seized  ;  also  at  Hamburg,  in  Denmark,  and  in 
the  Baltic  ports,  it  being  alleged  that  many 
American  and  many  British  vessels  were  em¬ 
ployed  in  bringing  British  produce  from  Brit¬ 
ish  ports  under  forged  papers  seeming  to  show 
that  the  property  and  vessels  were  American, 
directly  from  the  United  States.  The  seizures 
were,  therefore,  made  indiscriminately,  and  a 
vast  amount  of  bona  fide  American  property 
was  thus  lost.  The  seizures  at  Naples  were 
particularly  piratical,  for  the  ships  were  lured 
into  that  port  by  a  special  proclamation  of 
King  Joachim  Murat.  These  spoliations  con¬ 
stituted  the  basis  of  claims  subsequently  made 
upon,  and  settled  by,  France  and  Naples.  (See 
French  and  Neapolitan  Spoliations,  Claims  for.) 
The  only  country  in  Europe  into  whose  ports 
American  vessels  might  enter  with  safety  was 
Russia. 

American  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
National  Union.  Early  in  1861  there  seemed 
to  be  concerted  action  all  over  the  State  of 
New  York  to  discountenance  anti-slavery  move¬ 
ments,  and  to  silence  the  men  whose  agency, 
it  was  alleged,  had  caused  “  the  public  senti¬ 


ment  of  the  North  to  have  the  appearance  of 
hostility  to  the  Union.”  Anti-slavery  meetings 
were  broken  up  by  violence,  and  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  State  Committee  called  a  convention  at 
Albany  of  four  delegates  from  each  assembly 
district  in  January,  1861.  That  convention  de¬ 
clared,  by  a  series  of  resolutions,  as  expressive 
of  the  sense  of  the  party,  that  a  “  conflict  of 
sectional  passions  had  produced  the  present 
convulsions;  that  war  could  not  restore  the 
Union,  but  would  defeat  forever  its  reconstruc¬ 
tion ,”  and  that  the  Union  could  only  be  pre¬ 
served  by  the  adoption  of  a  border -state  pol¬ 
icy,  embodied  in  the  Crittenden  Compromise 
(which  see).  They  appointed  a  committee  to 
prepare  a  memorial  to  the  Legislature,  urging 
it  to  submit  that  compromise  to  a  vote  of  the 
electors  of  the  state.  Early  in  March  (1861) 
an  association  was  formed  in  the  city  of  New 
York  called  the  “American  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  National  Union,”  of  which  Pro¬ 
fessor  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  was  chosen  presi¬ 
dent.  Its  proposed  object  was  “  to  promote  the 
union  and  welfare  of  our  common  country  by 
addresses,  publications,  and  all  other  suitable 
means  adapted  to  elucidate  and  inculcate,  in 
accordance  with  the  Word  of  God,  the  duties 
of  American  citizens,  especially  in  relation  to 
slavery.  In  its  “Programme”  this  society  de¬ 
nounced  the  seminal  doctrine  of  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Independence,  saying  :  “  The  popular 
declaration  that  all  men  are  created  equal,  and 
entitled  to  liberty,  intended  to  embody  the  sen¬ 
timents  of  our  ancestors  respecting  the  doctrine 
of  the  divine  right  of  kings  and  nobles,  and 
perhaps,  also,  the  more  doubtful  sentiment  of 
the  French  school,  may  be  understood  to  indi¬ 
cate  both  a  sublime  truth  and  a  pernicious  er¬ 
ror.”  In  its  numerous  publications  scattered 
broadcast  over  the  land,  this  society  advo¬ 
cated  the  righteousness  of  slavery  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States,  saying:  “Four  millions  of  immortal 
beings,  incapable  of  self-care,  and  indisposed 
to  industry  and  foresight,  are  providentially 
committed  to  the  care  of  our  Southern  friends. 
This  stupendous  trust  they  cannot  put  from 
them  if  they  would.  Emancipation,  were  it 
possible,  would  be  rebellion  against  Provi¬ 
dence  and  destruction  to  the  colored  race  in 
our  land.”  The  political  publications  of  this 
society  were  all  in  favor  of  the  confederated 
citizens  of  the  republic  who  were  trying  to 
destroy  the  Union.  This  society  was  the  germ 
of  that  powerful  Peace  Party  which,  like  the 
Peace  Faction  (which  see)  in  the  war  of  1812- 
15,  embarrassed  the  government  in  every  way 
in  its  efforts  to  save  the  liberties  and  free  insti¬ 
tutions  of  our  country. 

American  Squadrons  in  the  West  Indies. 

Late  iu  1798  the  United  States  had  four  squad¬ 
rons  among  the  West  Indian  islands  :  one  of 
nine  vessels,  commanded  by  Commodore  Barry 
(the  senior  officer  of  the  navy),  cruised  to  the 
eastward  as  far  south  as  Tobago ;  a  second,  of 
five  vessels,  under  Commodore  Truxton,  had  its 
rendezvous  at  St.  Christopher’s  (St.  Kitts),  its 
business  being  to  watch  the  island  of  Guada- 
loupe ;  and  two  smaller  squadrons  guarded, 


AMERICAN  SYSTEM 


38 


AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS 


one  the  passage  between  Cuba  and  Santo  Do¬ 
mingo,  the  other  the  neighborhood  of  Havana, 
whence  privateers  were  accustomed  to  issue 
under  French  colors.  Each  of  these  squad¬ 
rons  had  captured  French  privateers.  War 
with  France  was  considered  inevitable  at  that 
time. 

American  System,  The.  To  Henry  Clay  is 
due  the  credit  of  originating  the  system  of  tar¬ 
iffs  for  the  protection  of  American  manufact¬ 
ures  known  as  the  “American  System.”  In 
this  effort  he  was  associated  with  John  C.  Cal¬ 
houn,  W.  J.  Lowndes,  and  others  ;  and,  in  1816, 
a  new  tariff  of  duties  was  laid,  but  it  proved 
inadequate  to  sustain  many  domestic  manufact¬ 
ures  which,  in  consequence  of  embargo  acts 
and  the  restrictions  upon  commerce  by  the 
war,  had  been  brought  into  existence.  When 
commerce  was  made  free  at  the  close  of  the 
war,  excessive  importations  of  manufactured 
goods  prostrated  that  industry  in  the  United 
States.  In  1818  a  heavier  tariff  was  laid  in 
order  to  protect  American  manufactures,  there 
being  a  large  majority  in  Congress  in  favor  of 
the  American  System.  The  duties  laid  by  the 
tariff  of  1816  were  continued  for  seven  years  ; 
and  in  1824  much  heavier  duties  were  laid 
on  cotton  and  woollen  manufactures  imported 
from  abroad,  with  a  view  to  encourage  the  yet 
feeble  American  manufacturing  interest.  But 
the  cotton-growers  of  the  South  soon  began  to 
perceive  that  this  tariff  was  injurious  to  their 
business,  as  it  was  calculated  to  lessen  the  de¬ 
mand  for  that  product  in  the  British  markets 
which  had  become  important  to  them.  In  a 
convention  held  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  in  July, 
1827,  to  discuss  the  matter,  delegates  from  only 
four  of  the  slave-labor  states  appeared.  The 
result  of  the  deliberations  at  that  convention 
was  a  memorial  to  Congress  asking  an  augmen¬ 
tation  of  the  duties  on  several  articles  then 
manufactured  in  the  United  States.  In  the  re¬ 
port  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  in  De¬ 
cember  following,  he  called  attention  to  the 
subject;  and,  during  the  session  of  1827-28, 
Congress  enacted  a  very  stringeut  tariff  law 
(May  15,  1828),  and  the  American  System  be¬ 
came  very  popular  among  the  manufacturers 
of  the  North.  At  the  same  time  it  was  de¬ 
nounced  by  the  cotton-growers  of  the  South  as 
both  oppressive  and  unconstitutional.  The  op¬ 
position  to  this  tariff  led  to  open  opposition  to 
the  laws.  (See  Nullification.') 

Americans  excluded  from  New  Orleans. 

On  Oct.  18,  1802,  the  French  Intendant,  or  gov¬ 
ernor,  of  New  Orleans  issued  a  decree  by  which 
the  Americans  were  no  longer  permitted  to  de¬ 
posit  their  merchandise  in  New  Orleans.  That 
port  was  also  shut,  on  the  same  day,  against 
all  foreign  commerce,  which  could  be  carried 
on,  thereafter,  only  by  Spanish  subjects  in 
Spanish  vessels.  This  virtual  shutting-up  of 
the  Mississippi  as  a  highway  of  commerce  led 
to  negotiations  with  France,  which  resulted, 
early  in  1803,  in  the  purchase  of  Louisiana 
from  the  latter-named  country  by  the  United 
States.  (See  Louisiana,  Purchase  of.) 


Americus  Vespucius,  born  in  Florence, 
March  9,  1451 ;  died  in  Seville,  Feb.  22,  1512. 
When  Columbus  was  in  Seville  preparing  for 
his  second  voyage,  Vespucius  was  there  as  a 
commercial  agent  of  the  Medici  family  of 
Florence,  and  he  became  personally  acquaint¬ 
ed  with  the  discoverer.  That  acquaintance 


.AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS. 


inspired  the  Florentine  with  an  ardent  desire 
to  make  a  voyage  to  the  newly  found  conti¬ 
nent,  and  he  was  gratified  when,  in  1499,  he 
sailed  from  Spain  with  Alonzo  de  Ojeda  as  an 
adventurer  and  self-constituted  geographer  of 
the  expedition.  Ojeda  followed  the  track  of 
Columbus  in  his  third  voyage,  and  discovered 
mountains  in  South  America  when  off  the  coast 
of  Surinam.  He  ran  up  the  coast  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  River  (where  Columbus  had 
discovered  the  continent  the  year  before ), 
passed  along  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  crossed 
the  Caribbean  Sea  to  Santo  Domingo,  kid¬ 
napped  some  natives  of  the  Antilles,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  Spain  in  June,  1500,  and  sold  his 
victims  for  slaves  to  Spanish  grandees.  In 
May,  1501,  Vespucius,  then  in  the  service  of 
the  King  of  Portugal,  sailed  on  his  second  voy¬ 
age  to  America,  exploring  the  coast  of  Brazil. 
Iu  1503  he  commanded  a  caravel  in  a  squad¬ 
ron  destined  for  America,  but  parted  compauy 
with  the  other  vessels,  aud  off  the  coast  of 
Brazil  discovered  the  Bay  of  All -saints.  He 
then  ran  along  the  coast  two  hundred  and 
sixty  leagues,  and,  taking  iu  a  cargo  of  Brazil 
wood,  returned  to  Lisbon  in  1504.  He  entered 
the  Spanish  service  again  in  1505,  was  made 
chief  pilot  of  the  realm,  and  again  voyaged  to 
America.  In  1504,  Vespucius,  iu  a  letter  to  the 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  gave  an  account  of  his  four 
voyages  to  the  New  World,  iu  which  was  given 
the  date  of  May  29,  1497,  as  the  time  when  he 
sailed  on  his  first  voyage.  That  was  a  year 
earlier  than  the  discovery  of  the  continent 
of  South  America  by  Columbus  and  of  North 
America  by  Cabot  (see  Columbus  and  Cabot), 
and  made  it  appear  that  Vespucius  was  the 
first  discoverer.  After  the  death  of  Columbus 


AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS 


39 


AMIDAS 


in  1506,  a  friend  of  Vespucins  proposed  to  tlie 
Academy  of  Cosmography  at  Strasburg,  upon 
the  authority  of  the  falsely  dated  letter,  to 
give  the  name  America  to  the  Western  Conti¬ 
nent  in  compliment  to  its  “  first  discoverer.” 
It  was  done,  and  so  Columbus  and  Cabot  were 
both  deprived  of  the  honor  of  having  their 
names  associated  with  the  title  of  this  conti¬ 
nent  by  fraud.  (See  America,  Origin  of  Name 
«/•) 

Americus  Vespucius,  Voyage  of,  to  Bra¬ 
zil.  (See  Cabral.) 

Ames,  Adelbert,  was  born  in  Maine,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1861.  He  entered 
the  military  service,  and  for  his  gallant  conduct 
in  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run  (1861)  he  was  brevet¬ 
ed  major.  He  served  in  the  conflicts  on  the 
Peninsula  in  1862.  At  Chancellorsville  he  led  a 
brigade,  also  at  Gettysburg,  in  1863,  and  before 
Petersburg,  in  1864,  he  commanded  a  division. 
In  the  expedition  against  Fort  Fisher,  near  the 
close  of  that  year,  he  commanded  a  divisiou 
of  colored  troops,  and  afterwards  led  the  same 
in  North  Carolina.  In  the  spring  of  1865,  he 
was  breveted  Major-general  of  Volunteers  and 
Brigadier -general  in  the  U.  S.  Army.  In  1871 
lie  was  a  representative  of  Mississippi  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate,  and  was  governor  in  1874. 

Ames,  Fisher,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Dedham, 
Mass.,  April  9, 1758  ;  died  there  July  4, 1808.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1774,  which 
he  entered  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years.  He 
taught  school  until  1781,  when  he  began  the  suc¬ 
cessful  practice  of  law,  and  soon  displayed  rare 
oratorical  powers.  Mr.  Ames  wrote  political  es¬ 
says  for  Boston  newspapers,  over  the  signatures 
of  “  Brutus”  and  “  Camillus.”  In  Congress  from 
1789  until  1797  he  was  always  distinguished  for 
his  great  business  talent,  exalted  patriotism,  and 


FISHER  AMES. 


brilliant  oratory.  Ardently  devoted  to  Wash¬ 
ington,  personally  and  politically,  he  was  chosen 
by  his  colleagues  to  write  the  address  to  the 
first  President  on  his  retiring  from  office  in  1797. 
After  leaving  Congress  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  practice  of  his  profession;  but  finally,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  declining  health,  gave  it  up  to  engage 
exclusively  in  agricultural  pursuits.  In  1804  he 
was  chosen  President  of  Harvard  University,  but 


declined  the  honor.  He  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  that  institution.  His  orations,  es¬ 
says,  and  letters  were  collected  and  published 
in  one  volume,  with  a  biographical  sketch  by 
Rev.  Dr.  Kirkland,  in  1809.  So  powerful  was  his 
great  speech  iu  Congress  in  favor  of  Jay’s  Treaty 
(which  see),  on  April  28, 1795,  that  an  opposition 
member  moved  to  postpone  the  decision  of  the 
question  that  they  might  not  “  vote  under  the 
influence  of  a  sensibility  which  their  calm  judg¬ 
ment  might  condemn.” 

Amherst,  Sir  Jeffrey,  was  born  in  Kent, 
England,  Jan.  29,  1717  ;  died  Aug.  3,  1797.  He 
became  an  ensign  iu  the  army  in  1731,  and  was 

aid  to  Lord  Ligo- 
nier  and  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland.  In 
1756  he  was  promot¬ 
ed  to  major-general, 
and  given  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  expedi¬ 
tion  against  Louis- 
burg  iu  1758,  which 
resulted  in  its  capt- 
nre,  witli  other 
French  strongholds 
sir  Jeffrey  amherst.  i  u  that  viciu ity.  In 

September  that  year 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  and  led  the  troops  in  person,  in  1759,  that 
drove  the  French  from  Lake  Champlain.  The 
next  year  he  captured  Montreal,  and  completed 
the  conquest  of  Canada.  For  these  acts  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  thanks  of  Parliament  and 
the  Order  of  the  Bath.  In  1763  he  was  appoint¬ 
ed  governor  of  Virginia.  He  was  made  gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  island  of  Guernsey  in  1771 ;  created 
a  baron  in  1776;  was  commander-iu-cbief  of 
the  forces  from  1778  until  1795;  and  field-mar¬ 
shal  in  July,  1796. 

Amherst  and  Pontiac.  The  atrocities  of  the 
Ii  diaus  in  May  and  June,  1763  (see  Pontiac's 
War),  aroused  the  anger  and  the  energies  of  Sir 
Jeffrey  Amherst  ,  commander  of  the  British  forces 
in  America,  and  he  contemplated  hurling  swift 
destruction  upon  the  barbarians.  He  denounced 
Pontiac  as  the  “chief  ringleader  of  mischief;” 
and,  iu  a  proclamation,  said,  “  Whoever  kills 
Pontiac  shall  receive  from  me  a  reward  of  £100” 
($500).  He  bade  the  commander  at  Detroit  to 
make  public  proclamation  for  an  assassin  to 
pursue  him.  He  regarded  the  Indians  as  “the 
vilest  race  of  creatures  on  the  face  of  the  earth  ; 
and  whose  riddance  from  it  must  be  esteemed  a 
meritorious  act,  for  the  good  of  mankind.”  He 
instructed  his  officers  engaged  in  war  against 
,  hem  to  “  take  no  prisoners,  but  put  to  death  all 
hat  should  fall  into  their  hands.”  (See  Pontiac.) 

Amidas,  Philip,  was  of  a  Breton  family  in 
France,  but  was  born  at  Hull,  England,  in  1550. 
When  Raleigh  sent  two  ships  to  America  in  1584, 
the  chief  command  was  given  to  Arthur  Barlow, 
who  commanded  one  of  the  vessels,  and  Philip 
Amidas  the  other.  They  were  directed  to  ex¬ 
plore  the  coasts  within  the  parallels  of  N.  lati¬ 
tude  32°  and  38°.  They  touched  at  the  Canary 
Islands,  the  West  Indies,  and  Florida,  and  made 


AMNESTY  AND  PARDON 


40 


AMPHIBIOUS  WARFARE 


their  way  northward  along  the  coast.  On  the 
13th  of  July,  1584,  they  entered  Ocrakoke  Inlet, 
and  lauded  on  Wocokeu  Island.  There  Barlow 
set  up  a  small  column  with  the  British  arms 
rudely  carved  upon  it,  and  took  formal  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  whole  region  in  the  name  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  as  he  waved  the  English  banner  over 
it  in  the  presence  of  the  wondering  natives. 
They  spent  several  weeks  in  exploring  Roanoke 
Island  and  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  Sounds.  (See 
Roanoke.)  On  Roanoke  Island  the  Englishmen 
were  entertained  by  the  mother  of  Kiug  Win- 
gini,  who  was  absent,  and  were  hospitably  re¬ 
ceived  everywhere.  After  getting  what  infor¬ 
mation  they  could  about  the  neighboring  main, 
and  inspired  by  the  beauties  of  nature  around 
them,  the  navigators  returned'  to  England,  at¬ 
tended  by  Manteo  and  Wanchese,  two  Indian 
chiefs.  The  former  was  afterwards  created 
‘Lord  of  Roanoke,”  and  was  the  first  and  last 
American  peer  of  England  created.  The  glow¬ 
ing  accounts  given  by  Amidas  and  Barlow  of 
the  country  they  had  discovered  captivated  the 
queen,  and  she  named  the  region,  as  some  say, 
in  allusion  to  her  unmarried  state,  Virginia  ; 
others  say  it  was  in  allusion  to  the  virgin  coun¬ 
try.  Amidas  was  in  the  maritime  service  of 
England  long  afterwards  ;  anti  a  few  years  after 
his  voyage  to  Virginia,  he  commanded  an  expe¬ 
dition  to  Newfoundland.  He  died  in  England 
in  1618,  a  short  time  before  Raleigh  was  behead¬ 
ed.  (See  Raleigh.) 

Amnesty  and  Pardon.  On  Dec.  25,  1868, 
President  Johnson  issued  a  proclamation  of  un¬ 
conditional  amnesty,  which  reinstated  all  per¬ 
sons,  “  without  reservation,”  “  who,  directly  or 
indirectly,  participated  in  the  late  insurrection 
or  rebellion.”  He  granted  “  full  pardou  and  am¬ 
nesty  for  the  offence  of  treason  against  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States.”  This  embraced  Jefferson  Davis,  the 
head  of  the  league  formed  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Union,  who  had  been  released  from  pris¬ 
on  on  bail.  His  trial  had  been  commenced  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  on  the  3d  of  December,  before 
Chief-justice  Chase  and  Judge  Underwood.  His 
counsel  moved  that  the  indictment  should  he 
quashed,  on  the  ground  that  the  14th  Amend¬ 
ment  had  punished  him  by  disfranchisement. 
The  court  was  divided  in  opinion,  Chief-justice 
Chase  favoring  the  idea  of  Davis’s  counsel.  The 
President’s  proclamation  of  amnesty  and  pardon, 
twenty-two  days  afterwards,  seemed  to  remove 
all  occasion  for  further  action,  and  Davis  was 
never  tried.  On  May  22, 1872,  Congress  passed 
an  amnesty  bill  for  removing  the  political  dis¬ 
abilities  imposed  by  the  14th  Amendment  from 
all  persons  excepting  members  of  the  36th  and 
37th  Congress,  heads  of  departments,  members 
of  diplomatic  corps,  and  officers  of  the  army  and 
navy  who  had  engaged  in  the  rebellion.  About 
six  hundred  persons  were  denied  the  privileges 
of  the  act.  Mr.  Davis  was  among  the  exceptions. 

Amphibious  Engagement  on  the  James 
River,  1864.  While  a  greater  part  of  the  na¬ 
tional  naval  force  on  the  James  River  was  on 
the  expedition  against.Fort  Fisher  (which  see), 
the  Confederates  sent  down  from  the  shelter  of 


Fort  Darling,  on  Drewry’s  Bluff,  a  squadron  of 
vessels  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  obstruc¬ 
tions  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Dutch  Gap  Canal 
(which  see),  and  destroying  the  pontoon  bridges 
below,  so  as  to  separate  the  national  troops  ly¬ 
ing  on  both  sides  of  the  James.  The  squadron 
moved  silently  under  cover  of  darkness,  but  was 
observed  and  fired  upon  when  passing  Fort 
Brady.  The  vessels  responded,  and  dismounted 
a  100-pounder  Parrott  gun  in  the  fort.  The  Fred¬ 
ericksburg  broke  the  obstructions  at  Dutch  Gap 
and  passed  through, but  two  other  iron-clads  and 
an  uuarmored  gunboat  grounded.  At  dawn  the 
gunboat  ( Drewry )  had  been  abandoned,  and  a 
shell  from  a  national  battery  exploded  her  mag¬ 
azine,  when  she  was  blown  to  a  wreck.  So  hot 
was  the  fire  from  the  shore  that  the  voyage  of 
the  Confederate  vessels  was  checked,  and  all  but 
the  ruined  Drewry  fled  up  the  river. 

Amphibious  Warfare.  During  the  spring 
and  summer  of  1813  a  most  distressing  warfare 
was  carried  on  upon  land  and  water  by  a  Brit¬ 
ish  squadron,  under  the  command  of  Admiral 
Cockburn,  along  the  coasts  between  Delaware 
Bay  and  Charleston  Harbor.  It  was  marked  by 
many  acts  of  cruelty.  “  Chastise  the  Americans 
into  submission”  was  the  substance  of  the  order 
given  to  Cockburn  by  the  British  cabinet,  and 
he  seemed  to  be  a  willing  servant  of  the  will  of 
his  government.  An  Order  in  Council,  issued 
on  Dec.  20,  1812,  declared  the  ports  and  harbors 
of  much  of  the  American  coast  in  a  state  of 
blockade.  (See  Blockade.)  Cockburn  entered 
between  the  capes  of  Virginia  early  iu  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1813,  with  a  squadron,  of  which  his  flag¬ 
ship  was  the  Marlborough,  74.  This  squadron 
bore  a  land  force  of  about  eighteen  hundred 
men,  a  part  of  them  captive  Frenchmen  from 
British  prisons,  who  preferred  active  life  in  the 
British  service  to  indefinite  confinement  in  jails. 
The  appearance  of  this  force  alarmed  all  Lower 
Virginia;  and  the  militia  of  the  Peninsula  and 
about  Norfolk  were  soon  in  motion  after  the 
squadron  had  entered  Hampton  Roads.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  ordered  the  extin¬ 
guishment  of  all  the  beacon-lights  on  the  Chesa¬ 
peake  coast.  At  the  same  time  the  frigate  Con¬ 
stellation,  38,  lying  at  Norfolk,  was  making  ready 
to  attack  the  British  vessels.  A  part  of  the 
squadron  went  into  Delaware  Bay,  but  the  fore¬ 
warned  militia  were  ready  for  the  marauders, 
who  only  attacked  the  village  of  Lewiston. 
Cockburn,  iu  person,  led  marauding  expeditions 
along  the  coasts  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  plundering 
and  burning;  and  he  eveu  contemplated  attack¬ 
ing  Baltimore,  Annapolis,  and  the  national  cap¬ 
ital.  He  fell  upon  Frenchtown,  Georgetown, 
Frederick,  and  Havre-de-Grace  on  the  Chesa¬ 
peake.  Finally,  on  June  1,  Admiral  Warren  en¬ 
tered  the  Chesapeake  with  a  naval  reinforce¬ 
ment  for  the  marauders,  which  made  the  force 
within  the  capes  of  Virginia  to  consist  of  eight 
ships  of  the  line,  twelve  frigates,  and  a  considera¬ 
ble  number  of  smaller  vessels.  They  attempted 
to  penetrate  to  Norfolk.  The  British  were  re¬ 
pulsed  by  troops  on  Craney  Island,  and  gun¬ 
boats  on  the  water.  Then  the  troops  attacked 
Hamptou,  and  committed  many  outrages  there. 


ANCESTORS  OF  THE  PILGRIMS 


41 


ANDERSON  AND  PICKENS 


Leaving  Hampton,  Cockbnrn  sailed  .down  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina,  plundering  the  inhab¬ 
itants  wherever  opportunity  offered,  and  carry¬ 
ing  away  a  large  number  of  slaves,  whom  be 
sold  in  the  West  Indies  on  his  private  account. 
(See  Havre-de-Grace,  Craney  Island,  and  Norfolk.) 

Ancestors  of  the  Pilgrims.  At  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  the  social  condition  of 
the  people  of  England  was  very  primitive,  and 
their  wants  were  few.  The  common  people 
lived  in  cottages  built  of  wooden  frames  filled 
in  with  clay  ;  their  houses  were  without  wooden 
fioors,  and  in  many  of  them  the  fireplaces  were 
constructed  in  the  middle  of  the  rooms  without 
chimneys,  a  hole  being  left  in  the  roof  for  the 
escape  of  the  smoke.  The  windows  were  not 
glazed,  and  were  closed  against  the  weather,  and 
the  light  allowed  to  enter  by  means  of  oiled  paper. 
Such  was  the  plain  condition  of  the  houses  of 
the  Puritans  of  New  England.  In  England  in 
the  early  part  of  Queen  Elizabeth’s  reign  pallets 
of  straw  served  for  beds  of  the  common  people, 
who  had  coverings  made  of  rough  mats,  and 
their  pillows  were  logs.  This  was  regarded  as 
a  good  bed,  for  many  slept  in  straw  alone.  Very 
few  vegetables  were  then  cultivated,  for  garden¬ 
ing  had  not  yet  been  generally  introduced  from 
Holland,  anil  gardens  were  cultivated  only  for 
the  rich,  and  these  chiefly  for  ornament.  The 
common  material  for  bread  was  the  unbolted 
flour  of  oats,  rye,  and  barley ;  and  sometimes, 
when  these  were  scarce  (afterwards  in  New  Eng¬ 
land),  they  wrere  mixed  with  ground  acorns. 
Even  this  black  bread  was  sometimes  denied 
them,  and  flesh  was  the  principal  diet.  Their 
forks  and  ploughs  were  made  of  wood,  and  these, 
with  a  hoe  and  spade,  constituted  the  bulk  of 
their  agricultural  implements.  Their  spoons  and 
platters  were  made  chiefly  of  wood,  and  table- 
forks  were  unknown.  It  is  said  that  glazed 
windows  were  so  scarce,  and  regarded  as  so 
much  of  a  luxury,  that  noblemen,  when  they  left 
their  country-houses  to  go  to  court,  had  their 
glazed  windows  packed  away  carefully  with 
other  precious  furniture.  Chimneys  had  been 
introduced  into  England  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Anderson,  Alexander,  M.D.,  the  first  en¬ 
graver  on  wood  in  America,  was  born  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  April  21,  1775  ;  died  in  Jersey 
City,  N.  J.,  Jan.  6, 1870.  His  father  was  a  Scotch¬ 
man,  who  printed  a  Whig  newspaper  in  New 
York,  called  The  Constitutional  Gazette,  until  he 
was  driven  from  the  city  by  the  British  in  1776. 
At  the  age  of  twelve  years  young  Anderson 
made  quite  successful  attempts  at  engraving 
on  copper  and  type-metal,  and  two  or  three 
years  later  he  began  the  study  of  medicine.  In 
1796  he  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  Co¬ 
lumbia  College,  writing  for  the  occasion  an  able 
thesis  on  “Chronic  Mania.”  He  practised  the 
profession  for  a  few  years,  and  engraved  at  the 
same  time,  liking  that  employment  better.  Af¬ 
ter  the  yellow -fever  in  1798  had  swept  away 
nearly  his  whole  family,  ho  abandoned  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  medicine  and  made  engraving  his  life 
profession.  Having  seen  an  edition  of  Bewick’s 


History  of  Quadrupeds,  illustrated  with  wood- 
engravings  by  that  master,  Anderson  first  learn¬ 
ed  that  wood  was  used  for  such  a  purpose.  He 


ALEXANDER  ANDERSON. 


tried  it  successfully;  and  from  that  time  (1795) 
he  used  it  almost  continuously  until  a  few 
mouths  before  his 'death,  a  period  of  seventy- 
five  years.  A  vast  number  of  American  books 
illustrated  by  Anderson  attest  the  skill  and  in¬ 
dustry  of  this  pioneer  of  the  ai't  of  wood-engrav¬ 
ing  in  America.  The  writer  possesses  the  last 
work  from  his  baud — an  unfinished  engraving 
on  wood,  executed  when  he  lacked  only  a  few 
months  of  being  ninety-five  years  of  age. 

Anderson  and  Pickens  (1860).  Major  Ander¬ 
son,  in  Fort  Sumter,  keenly  felt  the  insult  to  his 
country’s  flag  in  the  firing  upon  the  Star  of  the 
West  (which  see).  He  accepted  it  as  an  act  of 
war,  and  sent  a  letter,  under  a  flag  of  truce,  to 
Governor  Pickens,  as  to  a  belligerent  enemy, 
asking  him  for  an  explanation  of  the  outrage. 
Pickens  replied  that  it  was  an  act  authorized 
by  the  State  of  South  Carolina,  and  that  any 
attempt  to  reinforce  Sumter  would  be  resisted. 
Anderson  referred  the  whole  subject  to  his  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  wrote  to  Pickens  to  that  effect, 
expressing  a  hope  that  he  would  not  prevent 
the  bearer  of  his  despatches  (Lieutenant  Tal¬ 
bot)  from  proceeding  at  once  to  Washington. 
No  objection  was  interposed,  and  Talbot  carried 
to  the  North  the  first  full  tidings  of  the  failure 
of  the  expedition  of  the  Star  of  the  West.  Two 
days  after  the  attack  on  that  vessel,  Pickens 
sent  his  Secretary  of  State  (Magrath)  and  Sec¬ 
retary  of  War  (Jamieson)  as  commissioners  to 
Anderson  to  make  a  formal  demand  for  the  im¬ 
mediate  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter  to  the  au¬ 
thorities  of  South  Carolina.  They  tried  every 
art  to  persuade  and  alarm  him,  but  in  vain.  He 
assured  them  that  sooner  than  suffer  such  a  hu¬ 
miliation  he  would  fire  the  magazine  and  blow 
fort  and  garrison  into  the  air.  They  perceived 
that  the  only  hope  of  gaining  possession  of  the 
fort  was  in  an  assault  or  the  starvation  of  the 


ANDERSON  IN  FORT  SUMTER 


42 


ANDERSON  IN  FORT  SUMTER 


garrison.  That  afternoon  the  authorities  had  | 
four  old  hulks,  tilled  with  stones,  towed  into 
the  ship -channel  and  sunk,  to  prevent  rein¬ 
forcements  reaching  Fort  Sumter. 

Anderson  in  Fort  Sumter  (1860).  Ander¬ 
son  had  long  urged  his  government,  but  in  vain, 
to  strengthen  the  military  works  in  Charleston 
harbor.  The  burden  of  the  few  replies  was, 
“Be  prudent;  be  kind;  do  nothing  to  excite 
the  South  Carolinians.  It  will  not  do  to  send 
you  reinforcements,  for  that  might  bring  on  hos¬ 
tilities.”  At  length  he  was  satisfied  that  the 
Secessionists  of  South  Carolina  were  about  to 
attempt  to  seize  Fort  Sumter.  This  would  in- 


signal  guns  were  fired.  The  voyage  was  short 
and  successful;  and  the  little  garrison  of  sev¬ 
enty  men,  with  the  women  and  children,  and 
several  weeks’  provisions,  were  soon  safe  within 
the  strong  granite  walls  of  Fort  Sumter.  A  few 
officers  and  men  had  been  left  at  Fort  Moultrie 
to  spike  the  guns,  destroy  their  carriages,  and 
cut  down  the  flag-staff,  when  they  were  to  fol¬ 
low  to  Sumter.  The  tidings  of  this  movement 
fell  among  the  Secessionists  at  Washington  like 
a  thunderbolt.  Floyd  was  dismayed.  Anderson 
was  cool.  The  next  day  (Dec.  27, 1860),  at  noon, 
the  stars  and  stripes  were  seen  floating  from 
the  flag-staff'  of  Sumter.  The  garrison  wanted 


FORT  SUMTER  IN  1860. 


sure  the  capture  of  all  the  other  forts  and  his 
garrison,  and  he  resolved  to  take  xiosition  in 
Sumter  before  it  should  be  too  late.  He  was 
commander  of  all  the  defences  of  the  harbor, 
and,  in  the  absence  of  orders  to  the  contrary,  he 
might  occupy  any  one  he  chose.  Vigilant  eyes 
were  watching  him.  He  revealed  his  secret  to 
only  three  or  four  officers,  for  he  did  not  know 
whom  he  might  trust.  He  first  removed  the 
women  and  children,  with  a  supply  of  provi¬ 
sions,  to  Fort  Sumter.  This  was  done  by  decep¬ 
tive  movements.  They  were  sent  first  to  Fort 
Johnson  (December  26)  in  vessels,  with  an  am¬ 
ple  supply  of  provisions,  where  they  were  de¬ 
tained  on  board  until  evening,  under  the  pre¬ 
text  of  preparing  accommodations  for  them. 
The  firing  of  three  guns  at  Moultrie  was  to  be 
the  signal  for  them  to  be  conveyed  to  Sumter. 
In  the  edge  of  the  evening  the  greater  part  of 
the  garrison  at  Moultrie  embarked  for  Sumter. 
The  people  of  Charleston  were  aware  of  the 
women  and  children  of  the  garrison  being  be¬ 
fore  Fort  Johnson,  and  concluded  Anderson  was 
going  there  also  with  his  troops.  Then  three 


Anderson  to  hoist  it  at  dawn.  He  would  not 
do  it  until  his  chaplain,  who  had  gone  to  the 
city,  had  returned.  Around  the  flag-staff,  not 
far  from  a  great  columbiad,  the  inmates  of  the 
fort  were  gathered.  The  commander,  with  the 
halliards  in  his  hand,  knelt  at  the  foot  of  the 
staff.  The  chaplain  prayed  reverently  for  en¬ 
couragement,  support,  and  mercy;  and  when  he 
ceased,  an  impressive  “Amen”  fell  from  many 
lips.  Anderson  then  hoisted  the  flag  to  the 
head  of  the  staff.  It  was  greeted  with  cheer 
after  cheer,  and  the  baud  struck  up  “  Hail  Co¬ 
lumbia!”  Governor  Pickens  sent  a  message  to 
Anderson  demanding  his  immediate  withdrawal 
from  Fort  Sumter.  The  demand  was  politely 
refused,  and  the  Major  was  denounced  in  the 
Secession  Convention,  in  the  Legislature,  in 
public  and  private  assemblies,  as  a  “traitor  to 
the  South,”  because  he  was  a  native  of  a  slave- 
labor  state.  The  Secessionists  in  Charleston 
and  Washington  were  filled  with  rage.  Floyd 
declared  the  “solemn  pledges  of  the  govern¬ 
ment”  had  been  violated  by  Anderson,  and  he 
demanded  of  the  President  permission  to  with- 


ANDEESON  IN  FOET  SUMTEE 


43 


ANDEESON 


draw  the  garrison  from  Charleston  harbor.  The 
President  refused;  a  disruption  of  the  Cabinet 
followed.  Floyd  fled;  and  Anderson  received 
(December  31)  from  Secretary  of  War  Holt — a 
Kentuckian  like  himself — an  assurance  of  his 
approval  of  what  he  had  done.  (See  Disruption 
of  Buchanan's  Cabinet.)  Earlier  than  this  words 
of  approval  had  reached  Anderson.  From  the 
Legislature  of  Nebraska,  two  thousand  miles 
away,  a  telegram  said  to  him,  “  A  happy  New- 
Year!”  Other  greetings  from  the  outside  world 
came  speedily  ;  and  a  poet,  in  a  parody  on  the 
dear  old  Scotch  song  of  “John  Anderson,  my 
Jo,”  made  “Miss  Columbia”  sing: 

“  Bob  Anderson,  my  beau,  Bob,  when  we  were  first  aquent, 
You  were  in  Mex-i-co,  Bob,  because  by  order  sent ; 

But  now  you  are  in  Sumter,  Bob,  because  you  chose  to  go  ; 
And  blessings  on  you  anyhow,  Bob  Anderson,  my  beau ! 

“  Bob  Anderson,  my  beau,  Bob,  I  really  don’t  know  whether 
I  ought  to  like  you  so,  Bob,  considering  that  feather ; 

I  don’t  like  standing  armies,  Bob,  as  very  well  you  know, 
But  I  love  a  man  that  dares  to  act ,  Bob  Anderson,  my  beau.” 


reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  as  seen  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  engraving,  and  has  not  been  rebuilt. 

Anderson,  Major  Eobert,  in  Command  in 
Charleston  Harbor.  In  October,  1860,  Secre¬ 
tary  Floyd  removed  Colonel  Gardiner  from  the 
command  of  the  defeuces  of  Charleston  harbor 
because  he  attempted  to  increase  his  supply  of 
ammunition,  and  Major  Eobert  Anderson,  a  na¬ 
tive  of  Kentucky,  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him.  He  arrived  there  on  the  20th,  and  was 
satisfied,  by  the  tone  of  conversation  and  feel¬ 
ing  in  Charleston,  and  by  the  military  drills 
going  on,  that  a  revolution  was  to  be  inaugu¬ 
rated  there.  He  commnuicated  his  suspicious 
to  Adjutant-general  Cooper,  a  native  of  Duchess 
County,  N.Y.,  who  had  married  Senator  Mason’s 
sister.  In  that  letter  Anderson  announced  to 
the  government  the  weakuess  of  the  forts  in 
Charleston  harbor,  and  urged  the  necessity  of 
immediately  strengthening  them.  He  told  the 
Secretary  of  War  that  Fort  Moultrie,  his  head- 


FORT  SUMTER  IN  1864. 


Governor  Pickens,  nettled  by  Anderson’s  refu¬ 
sal  to  give  up  Sumter,  treated  him  as  a  public 
enemy  within  the  domain  of  South  Carolina. 
Armed  South  Carolinians  had  been  sent  to  take 
possession  of  Fort  Moultrie,  where  they  found 
the  works  dismantled.  When,  the  next  morn¬ 
ing,  Anderson  sent  to  inquire  by  what  authority 
they  were  there,  the  commander  replied,  “By 
the  authority  of  the  sovereign  State  of  South 
Carolina,  .and  by  command  of  her  Governor.” 
From  that  time  until  the  close  of  President 
Buchanan’s  administration,  and  even  longer, 
Major  Anderson  was  compelled,  by  government 
policy,  to  see  the  insurgents  gathering  by  thou¬ 
sands  around  Charleston,  erecting  fortifications 
within  reach  of  his  guns,  and  making  every 
needful  preparation  for  the  destruction  of  Fort 
Sumter,  without  being  allowed  to  fire  a  shot. 
Fort  Sumter,  then  in  perfect  order,  experienced 
some  sad  changes  before  the  war  was  over. 
During  the  siege  (see  Fall  of  Fort  Sumter )  the 
barracks  were  all  destroyed.  By  heavy  can¬ 
nonades  and  bombardments  in  1863-64  it  was 


quarters,  was  so  weak  as  to  invite  attack. 
“Fort  Sumter  and  Castle  Pinckney,”  he  said, 
“must  be  garrisoned  immediately,  if  the  gov¬ 
ernment  determines  to  keep  command  of  this 
liarbor.f  Fort  Sumter,  he  said,  had  forty  thou¬ 
sand  pounds  of  cannon  powder  and  other  am¬ 
munition,  but  was  lying  completely  at  the  mer¬ 
cy  of  insurgents.  He  informed  the  secretary 
of  evident  preparations  for  a  speedy  seizure  of 
the  defences  of  the  harbor  by  South  Carolinians. 
Anderson  continued  his  appeals,  not  suspecting 
that  the  chief  of  the  War  Department  was  plot¬ 
ting  for  the  destruction  of  liis  government,  or 
that  Adjutant-general  Cooper,  his  medium  of 
communication  with  the  department,  was  in 
secret  league  with  his  chief.  Rumors  of  this 
condition  of  things  in  Charleston  caused  loyal 
members  of  Congress  to  ask  for  information ; 
but  all  such  inquiries  were  suppressed  by  Floyd’s 
friends  in  both  Houses,  and  no  correct  informa¬ 
tion  could  be  obtained  about  affairs  connected 
with  the  War  Department  until  that  officer  with¬ 
drew  and  Joseph  Holt,  a  loyal  man,  occupied  his 


ANDERSON 


44 


ANDERSONYILLE 


place.  The  Secessionists  discovered  Anderson 
to  be  too  loyal  for  their  purpose,  and  they  began 
to  fear  he  might  reveal  some  startling  things  to 
General  Scott,  to  whom  all  subordinate  officers 
had  to  report.  Scott,  aware  of  the  weakness 
of  the  Southern  forts,  urged  the  government 
from  time  to  time,  from  October  until  the  close 
of  December,  to  reinforce  those  on  the  coasts  of 
the  slave-labor  states.  But  nothing  was  done, 
and  Anderson,  left  to  his  own  resources,  was 
compelled  to  assume  grave  responsibilities.  He 
began  to  strengthen  Castle  Pinckney,  near  the 
city,  and  Fort  Moultrie.  When  the  South  Caroli¬ 
na  Ordinance  of  Secession  had  passed,  menaces 
became  more  frequent  and  alarming.  He  knew 
that  the  convention  had  appointed  commission¬ 
ers  to  repair  to  Washington  and  demand  the 
surrender  of  the  forts  in  Charleston  harbor,  and 
he  was  conscious  that  the  latter  were  liable  to 
be  attacked  at  any  moment.  He  knew,  too, 
that  if  he  should  remain  in  Fort  Moultrie,  their 
efforts  would  be  successful.  Watch-boats  were 
out  continually  spying  his  movements.  He  had 
applied  to  government  for  instructions,  but  re¬ 
ceived  none,  and  he  determined  to  leave  Fort 
Moultrie  with  his  garrison  and  take  post  in 
stronger  Fort  Sumter.  This  he  did  on  the  even¬ 
ing  of  December  26.  (See  Anderson  in  Fort  Sum- 
tei •.)  The  vigilance  of  the  Secessionists  had  been 
eluded.  They,  amazed,  telegraphed  to  Floyd. 
The  latter,  by  telegraph,  ordered  Anderson  to 
explain  his  conduct  in  acting  withont  orders. 
Anderson  calmly  replied  that  it  was  done  to 
save  the  government  works.  In  Sumter,  he 
was  a  thorn  in  the  flesh  of  the  Secessionists. 
Finally  they  attacked  him,  and,  after  a  furious 
bombardment,  the  fort  was  evacuated  by  Major 
Anderson  in  April,  1861.  (See  Fall  of  Fort  Sumter.) 

Anderson,  Richard  H.,  was  born  in  South 
Carolina  about  1822,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mex¬ 
ico;  and  in  March,  1861,  he  left  the  army  and 
became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
service.  He  was  wounded  at  Antietam ;  com¬ 
manded  a  division  at  Gettysburg ;  and  was 
made  lieutenant-general  in  May,  1864. 

Anderson,  Robert,  defender  of  Fort  Sumter 
in  1861,  was  born  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  June  14, 
1805 ;  died  at  Nice,  France,  Oct.  26,  1871.  He 
was  a  graduate  of  West  Poiut  Military  Acad¬ 
emy,  and  entered  the  artillery.  He  was  in¬ 
structor  for  a  while  at  West  Point.  He  served 
in  the  Black  Hawk  War  (1832),  and  in  Florida. 
In  May,  1838,  he  became  assistant  adjutant-gen¬ 
eral  on  the  staff  of  General  Scott,  and  accompa¬ 
nied  that  officer  in  his  campaign  in  Mexico, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded  in  the  battle 
of  Molino  del  Rey  (which  see).  Iu  1857  he  was 
commissioned  major  of  artillery,  and  assumed 
command  of  the  fortifications  of  Charleston 
harbor  in  November,  1860.  As  a  precautionary 
measure  of  safety,  he  transferred  the  garrison 
of  Fort  Moultrie  to  Fort  Sumter  on  the  night 
of  Dec.  26, 1860.  (See  Anderson  in  Fort  Sumter.) 
There  he  was  besieged  by  South  Carolina  in¬ 
surgents  until  near  the  middle  of  April,  1861, 
when  he  and  the  garrison  evacuated  the  fort. 


(See  Sumter,  Evacuation  of.)  In  May,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  brigadier- general  in  the  U.  S. 
Army,  and  commauder  of  the  Department  of 
the  Cumberland,  but  failing  health  caused  him 
to  retire  from  the  service.  In  1868  he  went  to 
Europe  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  where  he 
died  iu  1871.  His  remains  are  bulled  at  West 
Point. 


ROBERT  AXDERSON. 


Andersonville  and  other  Confederate  Pris¬ 
ons.  Libby,  Belle  Isle,  and  Danville  prisons, 
in  Virginia;  Salisbury  prison  in  North  Caro¬ 
lina;  Andersonville  and  Milieu  prisons  in  Geor¬ 
gia  ;  and  Charleston,  in  South  Carolina,  were  the 
principal  places  of  confinement  of  Union  prison¬ 
ers  during  the  Civil  War.  Iu  these  prisons  the 
captives  sometimes  endured  the  most  terrible  suf¬ 
ferings  from  cold,  hunger,  filth, and  cruel  person¬ 
al  treatment.  Libby  prison  had  six  rooms,  each 
one  hundred  feet  in  length  and  forty  in  breadth. 
(See  Libby  Prison.)  At  one  time  these  held 
twelve  hundred  Union  officers  of  every  grade, 
from  a  lieutenant  to  a  brigadier-general.  They 
were  allowed  no  other  place  iu  which  to  cook, 
eat,  wash  and  dry  their  clothes  and  their  per¬ 
sons,  sleep,  and  take  exercise.  Ten  feet  by  two 
feet  was  all  the  space  each  man  might  claim. 
Their  money,  watches,  and  sometimes  part  of 
their  clothing  were  taken  from  them  when  they 
went  in.  For  a  long  time  they  were  not  allowed 
a  seat  of  any  kiud  to  sit  upon.  The  board  floors, 
on  which  they  slept,  were  washed  every  after¬ 
noon,  and  were  damp  at  night,  causing  many  to 
become  consumptive  and  die.  The  glasses  in 
the  numerous  windows  were  mostly  broken,  and 
they  suffered  intensely  from  cold  in  winter,  for 
they  were  allowed  only  one  blanket  each,  and 
these  in  time  became  ragged,  filthy,  and  filled 
with  vermin.  Turner,  a  lieutenant  of  General 
Winder,  the  commissary  of  prisoners,  seemed  to 
make  cruelty  his  study.  He  ordered  that  no 
one  should  go  within  three  feet  of  a  window. 
A  violation  of  the  rule  gave  license  to  the  guard 
to  shoot  the  offender.  Sometimes  an  officer 
would  accidentally  break  the  rule,  and  he  would 
be  shot,  for  the  guard  seemed  to  take  pleasure 
in  the  sport  of  “  shooting  Yankees.”  The  pris¬ 
oners  were  also  deliberately  starved.  The  proc¬ 
ess  of  slow  starvation  began  in  the  fall  of  1863, 
and  was  so  general  and  uniform  in  all  the  pris¬ 
ons  that,  according  to  a  report  of  a  committee 


ANDERSONVILLE 


45 


ANDERSONVILLE 


of  the  Sanitary  Commission,  there  can  he  no 
doubt  of  its  having  been  done  by  direct  orders 
from  the  Confederate  leaders  at  Richmond. 
This  starvation  was  done  when,  as  has  been 
proved,  there  was  abundance  of  food  at  the 
command  of  their  jailers.  Boxes  of  food  and 
clothing,  sent  to  the  prisoners  from  their  friends 
at  the  North,  were  denied  them  after  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  January,  1864,  because,  it  is  alleged,  these 
interfered  with  the  starvation  scheme.  (See 
Prisoners ,  Exchange  of.)  “  Three  hundred  boxes,” 
said  the  report,  “arrived  every  week,  and  were 
received  by  Ould,  the  commissioner  of  exchange, 
but,  instead  of  being  distributed,  were  retained, 
and  piled  up  in  a  warehouse  near  by.  .  .  .  The 
officers  were  permitted  to  send  out  and  buy  ar¬ 
ticles  at  extravagant  prices,  and  would  find  the 
clothes,  stationery,  hams,  and  butter,  which 
they  had  purchased,  bearing  the  marks  of  the 
Sanitary  Commission.”  Over  three  thousand 
boxes  were  sent  to  the  captives  in  Libby  prison, 
and  on  Belle  Isle,  in  the  James  River  near  by, 
which  were  withheld  from  the  sufferers.  The 
writer  saw  a  large  number  of  them  stored  near 
the  prison  immediately  after  the  evacuation  of 
Richmond.  The  treatment  of  the  prisoners  in 
the  Libby  was  no  worse  than  in  other  prisons, 
nor  nearly  so  bad  as  on  Belle  Isle  and  at  Ander- 
sonville.  That  island  is  in  the  James  River,  in 
front  of  Richmond,  containing  a  few  acres.  A 
part  of  it  was  a  grassy  bluff,  with  a  few  trees, 
and  a  part  was  a  low  sandy  barren,  a  few  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  river,  which  there  flows 
swiftly.  In  the  scorching  summer  sun  the  pris¬ 
oners  were  kept  on  the  open  sand-barren,  and 
never  allowed  to  touch  the  cool  grass  or  feel  the 
grateful  shade  of  the  trees — a  spot  a  few  yards 
off — which  appeared  to  them  like  heaven,  in 
comparison  with  the  spot  on  which  they  were 
suffering.  The  barren  spot,  about  five  acres, 
was  surrounded  by  earthworks,  and  guarded  by 
Confederate  soldiers.  There,  without  shelter, 
though  lumber  was  plentiful,  near  eleven  thou¬ 
sand  captives  were,  at  one  time,  crowded  into 
that  bleak  space  of  five  acres.  The  winter  of 
1863-64  was  one  of  the  severest  ever  experi¬ 
enced  in  the  South,  but  no  shelter  was  provided 
for  the  captives.  The  mercury  sank  to  zero,  and 
snow  lay  deep  on  the  ground  around  Richmond. 
Ice  formed  in  the  river,  and  water  left  in  buck¬ 
ets  on  the  island  froze  two  or  three  inches  in 
thickness  in  a  single  night.  To  keep  from  per¬ 
ishing,  the  captives  lay  in  the  ditches  on  top  of 
each  other,  taking  turns  as  to  who  should  have 
the  outside.  The  report  of  the  committee  in¬ 
forms  us,  that  “  in  the  morning  the  row  of  the 
previous  night  couldbe  marked  by  the  motionless 
forms  of  those  who  were  sleeping  on  in  their  last 
sleep — frozen  to  death!"  There,  likewise,  the 
prisoners  were  starved.  “  The  cold  froze  them,” 
said  the  report,  “  because  they  were  hungry; 
the  hunger  consumed  them,  because  they  were 
cold.”  Hundreds  of  benevolent  women  nursed 
the  Confederate  sick  and  wounded  in  Northern 
prisons  and  hospitals;  not  one  was  ever  seen  upon 
Belle  Isle  while  the  Union  captives  were  there.  At 
Andersonville,  6a.,  the  sufferings  of  the  captives 
were  still  more  acute  and  dreadful,  and  the 


cruelties  practised  upon  them  were  more  fear- 
fid.  The  prison  was  one  open  pen,  in  an  un¬ 
healthy  locality,  near  Anderson  Station,  about 
sixty  miles  from  Macon,  and  surrounded  by  the 
most  fertile  region  of  the  state.  The  site  was 
selected,  it  is  said,  at  the  suggestion  of  Howell 
Cobb,  the  commander  of  the  district.  It  com¬ 
prised  twenty-seven  acres  of  land,  with  a  swamp 
in  the  centre.  A  sluggish  and  choked  stream 
crawled  through  it,  while  within  rifle-shot  dis¬ 
tance  flowed  a  brook  of  pure,  delicious  water, 
fifteen  feet  wide  and  three  feet  deep.  Had  that 
stream  been  included  in  the  pen,  the  prisoners 
might  have  drunk  and  bathed.  The  spot  se¬ 
lected  for  the  pen  was  covered  with  pine-trees. 
These  were  cut  down.  When  some  one  sug¬ 
gested  that  the  shade  would  alleviate  the  suffer¬ 
ings  of  the  prisoners,  Captain  M.  S.  Winder,  son 
of  the  commissary  of  prisoners  at  Richmond, 
declared  that  they  were  to  be  intentionally  de¬ 
prived  of  that  comfort.  The  pen  was  a  quadran¬ 
gle,  with  two  rows  of  stockades  from  twrelve  to 
eighteen  feet  in  height ;  and  seventeen  feet  from 
the  inner  stockade  was  the  “dead-line,”  over 
which  no  captive  could  pass  and  live.  It  is  un¬ 
necessary  to  detail  the  cruelties  suffered  here 
by  Union  prisoners.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  un¬ 
impeachable  testimony  proves  that  they  were 
far  more  malignant  and  intense  than  at  Libby 
or  Belle  Isle.  They  were  worse  after  the  elder 
Winder  arrived.  (See  Prisoners,  Exchange  of.) 
At  one  time  more  than  thirty  thousand  human 
beings  were  crowded  into  that  awful  prison-pen, 
sometimes  smitten  by  the  hot  sun,  at  other 
times  flooded  with  filthy  water ;  exposed  to  frost 
and  heat ;  to  the  bullets  of  guards  in  wanton 
sport;  beaten,  bruised,  and  cursed;  driven  to 
madness  and  idiocy ;  starved  into  skeletons ; 
and  worse  than  all,  tortured  by  the  false  decla¬ 
ration  of  their  jailers  that  their  government  had 
forsaken  them,  leaving  t  hem  no  other  relief  from 
misery  but  in  death.  To  almost  13,000  of  these 
sufferers  that  everlasting  relief  came.  The 
graves  of  12,462  of  the  victims  tell  the  dreadful 
tale.  Of  these,  only  about  450  are  unknown. 
(See  Peport  of  a  Committee  of  the  United  States 
Sanitary  Commission . ) 

The  prison  records  showr  that  the 


Total  number  of  prisoners  received  at  Andersonv'.lle 

was .  49,485 

Largest  number  in  prison  at  one  time,  Aug.  9, 1804. . . .  33,008 
Total  number  of  deaths  as  shown  by  hospital  register.  12, 482 

“  u  “  in  hospital .  8,735 

“  “  “  in  a  stockade  near .  3,727 

Percentage  of  deaths  to  whole  number  recewed. .  28 

“  l"  to  whole  number  admitted  to 

hospital . 69 12-17 

Average  number  of  deaths  for  each  of  the  thirteen 

months .  958 

Largest  number  of  deaths  in  one  day,  Aug.  23, 1864 _  97 

Cases  returned  from  hospital  to  stockade .  3,469 

Total  number  of  escapes .  328 


The  method  of  burial  in  the  gra  veyard,  a  short 
distance  from  the  stockade  and  prison-pen,  was 
by  digging  trenches  varying  in  length  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  yards,  iu  which  the  bodies  were 
laid  in  rows  of  one  hundred  to  three  hundred, 
without  coffins  or  the  ordinary  clothing,  with  an 
allowance  of  space  for  each  body  of  not  more 
than  twelve  inches  in  width,  and  then  covered 
with  earth.  Henry  Wirz,  a  Swiss  by  birth,  was 


ANDRll 


46 


ANDRE 


appointed  by  General  Winder  as  superintendent 
of  the  prison  and  prisoners.  In  the  summer  of 
1865,  he  was  tried  on  numerous  charges  of  the 
most  horrid  cruelties  towards  the  prisoners  at 
Anderson ville.  He  was  found  guilty  of  all  the 
charges,  and  hanged  in  November.  It  was 
proved  that  in  a  small  hut  between  the  stock¬ 
ade  and  the  graveyard  he  kept  nine  blood¬ 
hounds  to  hunt  down  prisoners  who  should  at¬ 
tempt  to  escape. 

Andre,  John,  born  in  London,  in  1751 ;  died  in 
Rockland  County,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  2, 1780.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Genevan,  who  was  a  merchant  in  Lon¬ 
don.  After  receiving  an  education  at  Geneva, 
young  Audr6  returned,  and  entered  a  mercantile 
house  in  London  when  he  was  eighteen  years  of 
age.  He  was  a  youth  of  great  genius — painted 
well  and  wrote  poetry  with  fluency.  His  literary 
tastes  brought  to  him  the  acquaintance  of  liter¬ 
ary  people.  Among  these  was  the  poetess  Anna 
Seward,  of  Lichfield,  to  whose  cousin,  Honora 
Sneyd,  Audr6  became  warmly  attached.  They 
were  betrothed,  but  their  youth  caused  a  post¬ 
ponement  of  their  nuptials,  and  Andr6  entered 
the  army  and  came  to  America,  in  1774,  as  lieu¬ 
tenant  of  the  Royal  Fusileers.  With  them,  in 
Canada,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  Montgomery, 
at  St.  Johns  (Nov.  2,  1775),  and  was  sent  to 
Lancaster,  Penn.  In  December,  1776,  he  was  ex¬ 
changed,  and  promoted  to  captain  in  the  British 
army.  He  was  appointed  aid  to  General  Grey 
in  the  summer  of  1777,  and  on  the  departure  of 
that  officer  he  was  placed  on  the  staff  of  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  by  whom  he  was  promoted  (1780) 
to  the  rank  of  major,  and  appointed  adjutant- 
general  of  the  British  forces  in  America.  His 
talents  were  appreciated,  and  whenever  taste  was 
to  be  displayed  in  any  arrangements,  the  matter 
was  left  to  AndrA  He  was  the  chief  actor  in 
promoting  and  arranging  the  Mischianza  (which 
see),  and  took  a  principal  part  in  all  private 


JOHN  ANDRE. 


theatrical  performances.  Sir  Henry  employed 
him  to  carry  on  the  correspondence  with  Ar¬ 
nold  respecting  the  betrayal  of  his  country. 
Having  held  a  personal  interview  with  the  trai¬ 
tor  (see  Treason  of  Arnold),  he  was  returning  to 
New  York  on  horseback,  when  he  was  arrested, 
near  Tarry  town,  conveyed  to  Tnppan,  in  Rock¬ 


land  County,  nearly  opposite,  tried  as  a  spy, 
and  wras  condemned  and  executed,  Oct.  2,  1780. 
Andre  carried  in  his  bosom,  it  is  said,  through 
all  his  vicissitudes  in  America,  a  miniature  of 
his  “  beloved  Honora,”  which  he  had  painted  at 
Lichfield  during  their  wooing.  She  had  mar¬ 
ried  the  father  of  Maria  Edgewmrth,  the  novel¬ 
ist,  and  died  before  the  death  of  Andre  occurred. 


ANDRE’S  MONUMENT  IN  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY. 


The  latter  wrote  poems  for  the  loyal  papers  in 
America.  One  of  these  —  “The  Cow-Chace” 
(which  see)  —  has  become  famous  in  history. 
The  king  caused  a  handsome  monument  to  be 
placed  in  Westminster  Abbey  to  the  memory 
of  Andr6.  It  seems  to  be  quite  out  of  place 
among  the  “worthies”  of  England,  for  he  was 
hung  as  a  spy,  and  was  a  plotter  for  the  ruin 
of  a  people  struggling  for  justice.  Nor  did  he 
have  the  prestige  of  a  spotless  private  charac¬ 
ter.  But  his  monarch  honored  him  for  an  at¬ 
tempted  State  service,  knighted  his  brother, 
and  pensioned  his  family.  His  remains  were 
at  first  interred  at  the  place  of  his  execution, 

I  and  in  1821  were  exhumed  and  conveyed  to  Eng¬ 
land.  A  monument  has  been  erected  at  the  place 
of  his  execution  to  commemorate  the  event. 

Andre,  Major,  Fate  of.  The  story  of  Major 
John  Andre’s  career,  in  connection  with  the  conn 
plot  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton  and  General  Benedict 
Arnold,  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  our  his¬ 
tory,  and  sympathy  for  the  offender,  not  unmixed 
with  denunciations  of  the  court  of  inquiry  that 
condemned  him,  have  been  abundant,  and  not 
always  wise  or  just.  The  court  that  condemned 
him  saw  clearly,  by  his  own  confession,  that  he 
deserved  the  fate  of  a  spy ;  and  if  they  had  been 
swayed  by  other  motives  than  those  of  justice 
and  the  promotion  of  the  public  good,  they  had 
full  justification  in  the  course  of  the  British  of¬ 
ficers  in  pursuit  of  the  British  policy  towards 
the  Americans.  Scores  of  good  men,  not  guilty 
of  any  offence  but  love  of  country  and  defence 


ANDREW 


47 


ANDROS 


of  their  rights,  had  been  hanged  by  the  positive 
orders  of  Cornwallis  in  the  South ;  and  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  himself,  who  ungenerously  at¬ 
tributed  the  act  of  the  board  of  inquiry  in  con¬ 
demning  Andre,  and  of  Washington  in  approv¬ 
ing  the  sentence,  to  “  personal  rancor,”  for  wffiicli 
no  cause  existed,  had  approved  of  tenfold  more 
“inhumanity”  in  the  acts  of  his  subordinates. 
One  of  them  wrote  to  Clinton,  “  I  have  ordered, 
in  the  most  positive  manner,  that  every  militia¬ 
man  who  has  borne  arms  with  us,  and  after- 
wards  joined  the  enemy,  shall  be  immediately 
hanged.”  This  included  all  officers  and  men, 
even  those,  as  in  South  Carolina,  where  this 
subaltern  was  serving,  who  had  been  forced  into 
the  royal  service.  This  order  Clinton  approved, 
and  sent  it  to  Secretary  Germain.  That  secre¬ 
tary  answered  Clinton’s  letter,  saying,  “  The 
most  disaffected  will  now  be  convinced  that  we 
are  not  afraid  to  punish.”  The  order  wras  rig¬ 
orously  executed.  Men  of  great  worth  and 
purity  were  hanged,  without  the  forms  of  a 
trial,  for  bearing  arms  in  defence  of  their  liber¬ 
ties;  Andr6  was  hanged,  after  an  impartial  trial, 
for  the  crime  of  plotting  and  abetting  a  scheme 
for  the  enslavement  of  three  million  people. 
He  deserved  his  fate  according  to  the  laws  of 
war.  It  was  just  towards  him  and  merciful  to 
a  nation.  Cicero  justly  said,  in  regard  to  Cati¬ 
line,  “Mercy  towards  a  traitor  is  an  injury  to 
the  State.”  Andrd  was  treated  with  great  con¬ 
sideration  by  Washington,  whose  headquarters 
at  Tappan  (yet  standing  in  1879)  were  near  the 
place  of  his  trial.  The  commander-in-chief  sup¬ 


plied  the  former  with  all  needed  refreshments 
for  his  table.  Washington  did  not  have  a  per¬ 
sonal  interview  with  Andrd,  but  treated  him  as 
leniently  as  the  rules  of  war  would  allow. 

Andrew,  John  Albion,  LL.D.,  was  governor 
of  Massachusetts.  He  was  born  at  Windham, 
Me.,  May  31,  1818 ;  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct. 
30,  1807.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1837,  and  became  conspicuous  as  an  anti-slavery 
advocate.  He  was  chosen  Governor  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  in  1800,  by  the  largest  popular  vote 
ever  cast  for  any  candidate  for  that  office.  Fore¬ 
seeing  a  conflict  with  the  Secessionists,  he  took 
means  to  make  the  state  militia  efficient;  and, 


within  a  week  after  the  President’s  call  for 
troops,  he  sent  live  regiments  of  infantry,  a  bat¬ 
talion  of  riflemen,  and  a  battery  of  artillery  to 
the  assistance  of  the  government.  He  was  ac¬ 
tive  in  raising  troops  during  the  war  and  pro¬ 
viding  for  their  comfort.  An  eloquent  orator, 
his  voice  was  very  efficacious.  He  was  re-elect¬ 
ed  in  1862,  and  declined  to  be  a  candidate  in 
1864. 

Andrews,  George  L.,  was  born  at  Bridge- 
water,  Mass.,  in  1827,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1851,  entering  the  engineer  corps.  He 
resigned  in  1855.  He  was  first  lieutenant- 
colonel  and  then  colonel  of  the  Second  Massachu¬ 
setts  regiment,  and  led  it  with  distinction,  first 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  then  under  Pope 
in  his  campaign  in  August,  1862.  He  was  made 
brigadier-general  in  November  of  that  year,  and 
led  a  brigade  in  Banks’s  expedition  in  Louisiana 
and  against  Port  Hudson  in  1863.  From  July, 
1863,  to  February,  1865,  he  commanded  the 
“  Corps  d’Afrique,”  and  assisted  in  the  capture 
of  Mobile,  for  which  he  was  breveted  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  was  appointed  pro¬ 
fessor  of  French  at  West  Point  early  in  1871. 

Andros,  Reception  of,  in  New  York.  In  the 
spring  of  1688  the  clear-headed  and  right-mind¬ 
ed  Governor  Dongan,  of  New  York,  was  super¬ 
seded  by  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  who  was  called 
“  the  tyrant  of  New  England.”  He  entered  New 
York  City  early  in  August,  with  a  viceregal  com¬ 
mission  to  rule  that  province  in  connection  with 
all  New  England.  He  had  journeyed  from  Bos¬ 
ton,  and  was  received  by  Colonel  Bayard’s  regi¬ 
ment  of  foot  and  horse.  He  was  enter¬ 
tained  by  the  loyal  aristocracy.  In  the 
midst  of  the  rejoicings,  news  came  that 
the  queen,  the  second  wife  of  James  II., 
had  given  birth  to  a  son,  who  became 
heir  to  the  throne.  The  event  was  cel¬ 
ebrated,  on  the  evening  of  the  day  of  the 
arrival  of  the  intelligence,  by  bonfires  in 
the  streets  and  a  feast  at  the  City  Hall. 
At  the  latter,  Mayor  Van  Cortlandt  be¬ 
came  so  hilarious  that  he  made  a  notable 
display  of  his  loyalty  to  the  Stuarts  by 
setting  fire  to  his  hat  aud  periwig,  and 
waving  the  burning  coverings  of  his 
head  over  the  banquet  on  the  poiut  of 
his  straight-sword.  A  few  months  later 
James  and  Andros  w  ere  both  driven  from 
power,  and  a  great  political  change  came 
over  New  York.  (  See  English  Revolu¬ 
tion). 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  born  in  London,  Dec. 
6, 1637 ;  died  there  Feb.  24, 1714.  His  father  was 
an  officer  of  the  royal  household,  and  Edmund 
w7as  reared  amidst  the  corruptions  of  a  court. 
He  accompanied  the  royal  family  in  exile.  He 
was  commissioned  a  Major  in  Prince  Rupert’s 
dragoons  when  quite  young,  and  in  1674  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  as  bailiff  of  Guernsey  Island. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  province  of  New  York,  and  received  the 
surrender  of  it  by  the  Dutch  in  fulfilment  of  a 
treaty.  Andros  was  destined  to  play  an  impor¬ 
tant  part  in  our  history.  He  was  a  favorite  of 
the  Duke  of  York,  an  excellent  Dutch  and  French 


WASHINGTON’S  HEADQUARTERS  AT  TAPE  AN. 


ANGLICAN  CHURCH 


48 


ANNAPOLIS 


scholar,  a  thorough  royalist,  and  an  obedient  ser¬ 
vant  of  his  superiors.  He  administered  public 
affairs  wholly  in  the  interest  of  his  master.  His 
private  life  was  unblemished;  but  such  was  his 
public  career  that  he  acquired  the  title  of  “  ty¬ 
rant.”  The  duke,  his  master,  was  a  strange  com¬ 
pound  of  wickedness  and  goodness — slow  to  per¬ 
ceive  right  from  wrong,  and  seldom  seeing  the 
truth  in  its  purity — and  the  public  career  of  An¬ 
dros  reflected  that  of  his  employer.  Sometimes 
he  exceeded  his  instructions,  and  became  in¬ 
volved  in  serious  disputes  with  the  colonists.  In 
1680  he  deposed  Philip  Carteret,  and  seized  the 
government  of  East  Jersey.  The  next  year  he 
was  recalled,  and  retired  to  Guernsey,  after  hav¬ 
ing  cleared  himself  of  several  charges  preferred 
against  him.  The  New  England  governments 
were  consolidated  in  1686,  and  Andros  was  ap¬ 
pointed  governor-general.  Under  instructions, 
lie  forbade  all  printing  in  those  colonies.  He 
was  authorized  to  appoint  and  remove  his  own 
council,  and  with  their  consent  to  enact  laws, 
levy  taxes,  and  control  the  militia.  These  priv¬ 
ileges  were  exercised  in  a  despotic  manner,  and 
his  government  became  odious.  He  attempted 
to  seize  the  Charter  of  Connecticut,  but  failed. 
(See  Charter  of  Connecticut.)  New  York  and  New 
Jersey  were  added  to  his  jurisdiction  in  1688, 
but  his  rule  over  them  was  brief.  He  appoint¬ 
ed  Francis  Nicholson  lieutenant-governor  over 
the  two  latter  provinces.  When  news  of  the 
successful  revolution  in  England  reached  Bos¬ 
ton,  the  people  seized  Andros  and  several  of  his 
officers  (April  18,  1689),  and  imprisoned  them, 
and  the  New  England  colonies  resumed  their 
former  governments  under  their  charters.  (See 
Revolution  in  England.)  In  July  following  he 
was  sent  to  England  by  royal  order,  with  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  his  accusers,  but  was  acquitted  with¬ 
out  a  formal  trial.  Andros  was  appointed  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Virginia  in  1692,  where  he  became  pop¬ 
ular;  but,  through  the  influence  of  Commissary 
Blair,  he  was  removed  in  1698.  In  1704—6  he 
was  Governor  of  Guernsey.  (See  Downfall  of 
Andros.) 

Anglican  Church  established  in  Mary¬ 
land.  (See  Revolution  in  Maryland.) 

Anglican  Church  Establishment  abolished 
in  Virginia,  1776.  When  the  state  government 
of  Virginia  was  organized,  the  Presbytery  of 
Hanover  demanded  the  abolition  of  the  Angli¬ 
can  Church  Establishment  in  Virginia,  and  the 
civil  equality  of  every  denomination.  In  this 
demand  the  Quakers  and  Baptists  joined.  There 
was  a  contest  over  the  question  for  eight  weeks 
in  the  Legislature,  when  the  measure  was  car¬ 
ried,  largely  by  the  activity  and  influence  of 
Jefferson.  In  that  assembly  there  was  a  ma¬ 
jority  of  Protestant  Episcopalians. 

Annapolis  (Maryland).  Puritan  refugees  from 
Massachusetts,  led  by  Durand,  a  ruling  elder,  set¬ 
tled  on  the  site  of  Annapolis  iu  1649,  and,  in  im¬ 
itation  of  Roger  Williams,  called  the  place  Prov¬ 
idence.  The  next  year  a  commissioner  of  Lord 
Baltimore  organized  there  the  county  of  Anue 
Arundel,  so  named  iu  compliment  to  Lady  Bal¬ 
timore,  and  Providence  was  called  Auue  Arun¬ 


del  Town.  A  few  years  later  it  again  bore  the 
name  of  Providence,  and  became  the  seat  of 
Protestant  influence  and  of  a  Protestant  govern¬ 
ment,  disputing  the  legislative  authority  with 
the  Roman  Catholic  government  at  the  ancieut 
capital,  St.  Mary’s.  In  1694  the  latter  was  aban¬ 
doned  as  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  the 
seat  of  government  was  established  on  the  Sev¬ 
ern.  The  village  was  finally  incorporated  a  city, 
and  named  Annapolis,  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne. 
It  has  remained  the  permanent  political  capital 
of  Maryland.  It  was  distinguished  for  the  re- 
iinement  and  wealth  of  its  inhabitants  and  ex¬ 
tensive  commerce,  being  a  port  of  entry  long 
before  the  foundations  of  Baltimore  were  laid. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  estab¬ 
lished  there  in  1845.  The  only  remaining  traces 
of  the  ancient  capital  (St.  Mary’s)  are  the  ruins 
of  a  brick  church. 

Annapolis,  Congress  at.  On  April  14, 1755, 
General  Braddock  and  Commodore  Keppel,with 
governors  Shirley  of  Massachusetts,  De  Lancey 
of  New  York,  Morris  of  Pennsylvania,  Sharpe  of 
Maryland,  and  Dinwiddie  of  Virginia,  held  a 
Congress  at  Annapolis.  Braddock  had  lately 
arrived  as  commauder-in-chief  of  the  British 
forces  in  America.  Under  his  instructions,  he 
first  of  all  directed  the  attention  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  to  the  necessity  of  raising  a  revenue  in 
America.  He  expressed  astonishment  that  no 
such  fund  was  already  established.  The  gov¬ 
ernors  told  him  of  their  strifes  with  their  re¬ 
spective  assemblies,  and  assured  Braddock  that 
no  such  fund  could  ever  be  established  in  the 
colonies  without  the  aid  of  Parliament.  The 
Congress  then  resolved  unanimously  that  it  was 
the  opinion  of  its  members  that  it  should  be  pro¬ 
posed  to  his  majesty’s  ministers  to  “find  out 
some  method  of  compelling”  the  colonists  to  es¬ 
tablish  such  a  public  fund,  and  for  assessing  the 
several  governments  in  proportion  to  their  re¬ 
spective  abilities.  At  once  all  the  crown  officers 
in  America  sent  voluminous  letters  to  England, 
urging  such  a  measure  upon  the  government. 
(See  Crown  Officers'  Clamor  for  Taxes.) 

Annapolis,  Convention  at.  On  July  26, 
1775,  a  convention  assembled  at  Annapolis,  in 
Maryland,  and  formed  a  temporary  government, 
which,  recognizing  the  Continental  Congress  as 
invested  with  a  general  supervision  of  public 
affairs,  managed  its  own  internal  affairs  through 
a  provincial  Committee  of  Safety  and  subordi¬ 
nate  executive  committees,  appointed  in  every 
county,  parish,  or  hundred.  It  directed  the  en¬ 
rolment  of  forty  companies  of  minutemen,  au¬ 
thorized  the  emission  of  over  $500,000  in  bills  of 
credit,  and  extended  the  franchise  to  all  freemen 
having  a  visible  estate  of  £210,  without  any  dis¬ 
tinction  as  to  religious  belief.  The  convention 
fully  resolved  to  sustain  Massachusetts,  and  meet 
force  by  force  if  necessary. 

Annapolis,  Destruction  of  Tea  at.  No  tea- 
ship  had  ever  entered  the  port  of  Annapolis,  in 
Maryland,  but  the  Republicans  there  felt  and 
expressed  strong  sympathy  with  the  acts  of  the 
Sons  of  Liberty  in  Boston.  On  the  morning  of 
Oct.  15,  1774,  a  vessel  owned  by  Anthony  Stew- 


ANNE 


49 


ANNEXATION  OF  VIRGINIA 


art,  of  Annapolis,  entered  the  port  with  seven¬ 
teen  packages  of  tea  among  her  cargo,  assigned 
to  Stewart.  When  this  became  known,  and  that 
Stewart  had  paid  the  duty  on  the  tea,  the  peo¬ 
ple  gathered,  and  resolved  that  the  plant  should 
not  be  landed.  Another  meeting  was  appoint¬ 
ed,  aud  the  people  declared  that  the  ship  and  her 
cargo  should  be  burned.  Stewart  disclaimed 
all  intention  to  violate  non-importation  agree¬ 
ments,  but  the  people  were  inexorable.  They 
had  gathered  in  large  numbers  from  the  sur¬ 
rounding  country.  Charles  Carroll  and  others, 
fearing  mob  violence,  advised  Stewart  to  burn 
the  vessel  and  cargo  with  his  own  hands,  which 
he  did.  The  vessel  was  run  ashore  and  de¬ 
stroyed,  when  the  people  cheered  and  dispersed. 
This  was  the  last  attempt  at  importation  of  tea 
into  the  English-American  colonies. 

Anne,  Queen,  second  daughter  of  James  II. 
of  England,  born  at  Twickenham,  near  London, 
Feb.  6, 1664  ;  died  Aug.  1,  1714.  Her  parents  be¬ 
came  Roman  Catholics ;  but  she,  educated  in  the 
principles  of  the  Church  of  England,  remained 
a  Protestant.  In  1683  she  was  married  to  Prince 


QUEEN  ANNE. 


George  of  Denmark.  She  took  the  side  of  her 
sister  Mary  and  her  husband  in  the  revolution 
that  drove  her  father  from  the  throne.  She  had 
intended  to  accompany  her  father  in  his  exile  to 
France,  but  was  dissuaded  by  Sarah  Churchill, 
chief  lady  of  the  bed-chamber  (afterwards  the 
imperious  Duchess  of  Marlborough),  for  whom 
she  always  had  a  romantic  attachment.  By  the 
act  of  settlement  at  the  accession  of  William 
aud  Mary,  the  crown  was  guaranteed  to  her  in 
default  of  issue  to  these  sovereigns.  This  exi¬ 
gency  happening,  Anu6  was  proclaimed  queen 
(March  8,  1702)  on  the  death  of  William.  Of 
her  seventeen  children,  only  one  lived  beyond 
infancy — Duke  of  Gloucester — who  died  at  the 
age  of  eleven  years.  Feeble  in  character,  but 
very  amiable,  Anna’s  reign  became  a  conspicu¬ 
ous  one  in  English  history,  for  she  was  governed 
by  some  able  ministers,  and  she  was  surrounded 
by  eminent  literary  men.  Her  reign  has  been 
I.— 4 


called  the  “Augustan  age  of  English  literature.” 
The  Duke  of  Marlborough,  the  husband  of  her 
bosom  friend,  was  one  of  her  greatest  military 
leaders.  A  greater  part  of  her  reign  was  occu¬ 
pied  in  the  prosecution  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  kuowu  in  America  as  “  Queen  Anna’s 
War.”  It  was  ended  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
in  1713.  (See  Queen  Anne's  War.)  She  died  child¬ 
less  at  the  age  of  fifty  years. 

Annexation  of  Plymouth  to  Massachusetts. 
In  1691  the  people  of  Plymouth  sent  an  agent  to 
England  to  solicit  a  separate  patent ;  but,  to  their 
mortification,  they  were  included  under  the  new 
royal  charter  for  Massachusetts  (which  see). 
The  Plymouth  colony  had  been  an  independent 
commonwealth  then  for  seventy-one  years. 

Annexation  of  Texas.  The  Southern  peo¬ 
ple  were  anxious  to  have  the  State  of  Texas  an¬ 
nexed  to  the  United  States,  and  such  a  desire 
was  a  prevailing  feeling  in  that  sovereign  state. 
The  proposition,  when  formally  made,  was  op¬ 
posed  by  the  people  of  the  North,  because  the 
annexation  would  increase  the  area  and  polit¬ 
ical  strength  of  the  slave-power,  and  lead  to  a 
war  with  Mexico.  But  the  matter  was  persist¬ 
ed  in  by  the  South,  and,  with  the  approbation 
of  President  Tyler,  a  treaty  to  that  effect  was 
signed  at  Washington  City,  April  12,  1844,  by 
Mr.  Calhouu,  Secretary  of  State,  and  Messrs. 
Van  Zandt  and  Henderson  on  the  part  of  Tex¬ 
as.  It  was  rejected  by  the  Senate  in  June  fol¬ 
lowing.  The  project  was  presented  at  the  next 
session  of  Congress  in  the  form  of  a  joint  reso¬ 
lution.  It  had  been  made  a  leading  political 
question  at  the  presidential  election  in  the  au¬ 
tumn  of  1844.  James  K.  Polk  had  been  nomi¬ 
nated  over  Mr.  Van  Buren,  because  he  was  in  fa¬ 
vor  of  the  annexation.  The  joint  resolut  ion  was 
adopted  March  1,  1845,  and  received  the  assent 
of  President  Tyler  the  next  day.  On  the  last 
day  of  his  term  of  office  he  sent  a  message  to 
t lie  Texas  government,  with  a  copy  of  the  joint 
resolutions  of  Congress  in  favor  of  annexation. 
These  were  considered  by  a  convention  in  Tex¬ 
as,  called  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  state 
constitution.  That  body  approved  the  meas¬ 
ure  (July  4,  1845),  and  on  that  day  Texas  be¬ 
came  one  of  the  states  of  the  Union. 

Annexation  of  Virginia  to  the  Confederate 
States.  The  Virginia  Convention  appointed 
ex -President  John  Tyler,  W.  Ballard  Preston, 
S.  M.  D.  Moore,  James  P.  Holcombe,  James  C. 
Bruce,  and  Levi  E.  Harvie,  commissioners  to 
treat  with  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Confederate  States  of  America,  for 
the  annexation  of  Virginia  to  that  Southern 
league.  Mr.  Stephens  was  clothed  with  fidl 
power  to  make  .a  treaty  to  that  effect.  It  was 
then  a  capital  plan  of  the  Secessionists  to  seize 
the  national  capital ;  and  at  several  places  on 
his  way  towards  Richmond,  where  he  ha¬ 
rangued  the  people,  he  raised  the  cry  of  “On 
to  Washington !”  Troops  were  pressing  tow¬ 
ards  that  goal  from  the  South.  He  was  re¬ 
ceived  in  Richmond,  by  the  authorities  of  ev¬ 
ery  kind,  with  assurances  that  his  mission 
would  be  successful.  The  Virginia  leaders 


ANNEXATION  OF  VIRGINIA 


50  ANTI-BLOCKADE  PROCLAMATION 


were  eager  for  the  consummation  of  the  treaty 
before  the  people  should  vote  on  the  Ordinance 
of  Secession  (see  Virginia,  Ordinance  of  Seces¬ 
sion)  ;  and  on  Stephens’s  arrival  he  and  the 
Virginia  commissioners  entered  upon  their  pre¬ 
scribed  duties.  On  April  24,  1861,  they  agreed 
to  and  signed  a  “Convention  between  the  Com¬ 
monwealth  of  Virginia  and  the  Confederate 
States  of  America,”  which  provided  that,  un¬ 
til  the  union  of  Virginia  with  the  league 
should  be  perfected,  “  the  whole  military  force 
and  military  operations,  offensive  and  defen¬ 
sive,  of  said  commonwealth  in  the  impending 
conflict  with  the  United  States,  should  be  un¬ 
der  the  chief  control  and  direction  of  the  Pres¬ 
ident  of  the  Confederate  States.”  On  the  fol- 


mond  its  headquarters.  The  proclamation  of 
the  annexation  was  immediately  put  forth  by 
John  Letcher,  the  governor  of  Virginia.  All 
this  was  done  almost  a  month  before  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  Virginia  were  allowed  to  vote  on  seces¬ 
sion. 

Anthon,  Charles,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  New 
York,  1797 ;  died  there,  July  29,  1867.  His 
father,  a  surgeon -general  in  the  British  army, 
settled  in  New  York  soon  after  the  Revolution. 
Charles  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1815, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1820  was  made 
professor  of  languages  in  his  alma  mater.  Pro¬ 
fessor  Anthon  was  the  author  of  many  books 
connected  with  classical  studies.  He  was  made 
the  head  of  the  classical  department  of  the  col- 


cot' 

SIGNATURES  OF  THE  COMMISSIONERS  OF  VIRGINIA  AND  THE  SOUTHERN  CONFEDERACY. 


lowing  day  (April  25)  the  convention  passed 
an  ordinance  ratifying  the  treaty,  and  adopt¬ 
ing  and  ratifying  the  “Provisional  Constitu¬ 
tion  of  the  Confederate  States  of  America.” 
On  the  same  day,  John  Tyler  telegraphed  to 
Governor  Pickeus  of  South  Carolina,  “We  are 
fellow  -  citizens  once  more.  By  an  ordinance 
passed  this  day  Virginia  has  adopted  the 
Provisional  Government  of  the  Confederate 
States.”  They  also  proceeded  to  appoint  del¬ 
egates  to  the  Confederate  Congress ;  author¬ 
ized  the  banks  of  the  state  to  suspend  specie 
payment ;  made  provision  for  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  navy  for  Virginia,  and  for  enlist¬ 
ments  for  the  state  army,  and  adopted  other 
preparations  for  war.  They  also  invited  the 
“  Confederate  States”  government  to  make  Rich- 


lege  as  successor  of  Professor  Moore  in  1835, 
having  served  as  rector  of  the  grammar-school 
of  the  college  for  five  years.  Professor  Anthon 
was  very  methodical  in  his  habits.  He  retired 
at  ten  o’clock  and  rose  at  four,  and  performed 
much  of  his  appointed  day’s  work  before  break¬ 
fast.  By  industry  he  produced  about  fifty  vol¬ 
umes,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  Latin  classics  and 
aids  to  classical  study.  All  of  his  works  were 
republished  in  England.  His  larger  works  are 
a  Classical  Dictionary,  and  a  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities.  When  he  was  made  rec¬ 
tor  of  the  grammar-school  he  conferred  on  the 
public  schools  of  his  native  city  six  free  schol¬ 
arships. 

Anti  -  blockade  Proclamation  (1814).  On 
April  25,  1814,  Admiral  Cochrane  declared  the 


ANTI-MASONIC  PARTY 


51 


ANTI-RENTISM 


whole  coast  of  the  United  States  in  a  state  of 
blockade.  On  June  29  the  President  of  the 
United  States  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
the  blockade  proclaimed  by  tbe  British  of  the 
whole  coast  of  the  United  States,  nearly  two 
thousand  miles  in  extent,  to  be  incapable  of 
being  carried  iuto  effect  by  any  adequate  force 
actually  stationed  for  the  purpose.  It  declared 
that  it  formed  no  lawful  prohibition  or  obsta¬ 
cle  to  such  neutral  or  friendly  vessels  as  might 
desire  to  visit  and  trade  with  the  United 
States ;  and  all  pirates,  armed  vessels,  or  let- 
ters-of-marque  and  reprisal  (which  see),  were 
warned  not  to  interfere  with  or  molest  any 
vessels,  belonging  to  neutral  powers,  bound  to 
any  port  or  place  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States. 

Anti-Masonic  Party.  In  1826  William  Mor¬ 
gan,  a  citizen  of  western  New  York,  announced 
his  intention  to  publish  a  book  in  which  the 
secrets  of  Freemasonry  were  to  be  disclosed. 
It  was  printed  at  Batavia,  N.  Y.  On  Sept.  11 
Morgan  was  seized  at  Batavia,  upon  a  criminal 
charge,  by  a  company  of  men  who  came  from 
Canandaigua.  He  was  taken  to  that  place, 
tried,  and  acquitted  on  the  criminal  charge, 
but  was  immediately  arrested  on  a  civil  proc¬ 
ess  for  a  trifling  debt.  He  was  cast  into  jail 
there,  and  the  next  night  was  discharged  by 
those  who  procured  his  arrest,  taken  from  pris¬ 
on  at  nine  o’clock  at  night,  and  at  the  door  wras 
seized  and  thrust  into  a  carriage  in  waiting, 
which  was  driven  rapidly  towards  Rochester. 
He  was  taken  by  relays  of  horses,  by  the  agen¬ 
cy  of  several  individuals,  to  Fort  Niagara,  at 
tlie  mouth  of  the  Niagara  River,  and  deposited 
in  the  powder  magazine  there.  It  w  as  know  n 
that  the  Freemasons  had  made  violent  at¬ 
tempts  to  suppress  Morgan’s  announced  book, 
and  this  outrage  w  as  charged  upon  the  frater¬ 
nity.  A  committee  wras  appointed,  at  a  public 
meeting  held  at  Batavia,  to  endeavor  to  ferret 
out  the  perpetrators  of  the  outrage.  They 
found  evidences  of  the  existence  of  what  they 
believed  to  be  an  extended  conspiracy,  with 
many  agents  and  powerful  motives.  Similar 
meetings  were  held  elsewhere.  Public  excite¬ 
ment  became  very  great  and  widespread;  and 
a  strong  feeling  soon  pervaded  the  public  mind 
that  the  masonic  institution  was  responsible 
for  the  crime.  The  profound  mystery  in 
which  the  affair  was  involved  gave  wings  to 
a  thousand  absurd  rumors.  Mutual  crimina- 
nations  and  recriminations  became  very  vio¬ 
lent,  and  entered  iuto  all  the  religious,  social, 
and  political  relations.  A  very  strong  anti- 
masonic  party  was  soon  created,  at  first  only 
social  in  its  character,  but  soon  it  became  po¬ 
litical.  This  feature  of  the  party  first  ap¬ 
peared  at  town-meetings  in  the  spring  of  1827, 
where  it  wras  resolved  that  no  mason  was  worthy 
to  receive  the  votes  of  freemen.  A  political 
party  for  the  exclusion  of  masons  from  public 
offices  was  soon  spread  over  the  State  of  New 
York  and  into  several  other  states,  and  ran  its 
course  for  several  years.  In  1832  a  National 
Anti -masonic  Convention  was  held  at  Phila¬ 
delphia,  in  which  several  states  were  repre¬ 


sented,  and  William  Wirt,  of  Virginia,  was  nom¬ 
inated  for  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
States.  Although  the  party  polled  a  consid¬ 
erable  vote,  it  soon  afterwards  disappeared. 
The  fate  of  Morgan  after  he  reached  the  maga¬ 
zine  at  Fort  Niagara  was  never  positively  re¬ 
vealed,  but  circumstances  seemed  to  indicate 
that  he  was  taken  to  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
cast  into  the  water  and  drowned.  More  recent 
revelations  seem  to  make  it  certain  that  Morgan 
was  living  some  years  after  these  events. 

Anti-Rentism.  After  the  old  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence,  when  the  laws  of  primogeniture  were 
abolished,  a  large  portion  of  the  lands  of  the 
settled  parts  of  the  State  of  New  York  was  held 
by  the  patroons,  and  the  cultivators  of  the  es¬ 
tates  occupied  farms  on  leases  for  one  or  more 
lives,  or  from  year  to  year,  stipulating  for  the 
payment  of  rents,  dues,  and  services,  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  the  old  feudal  tenures  in 
England  and  Holland.  (See  Patroons .)  These 
feudal  tenures  having  been  abolished,  the  pro¬ 
prietors  of  manor  grants  contrived  a  form  of 
deed  by  which  the  grantees  agreed  to  pay 
rents  and  dues  almost  precisely  as  before. 
This  tenure  became  burdensome  and  odious 
to  the  tillers ;  and  in  1839  associations  of 
farmers  were  formed  for  the  purpose  of  devis¬ 
ing  a  scheme  of  relief  from  the  burdens.  The 
movement  was  soon  known  as  anti-rentism ,  and 
speedily  manifested  itself  in  open  resistance  to 
the  service  of  legal  processes  for  the  collecting 
of  manorial  rents.  The  first  overt  act  of  law¬ 
lessness  that  attracted  public  attention  was  in 
the  town  of  Grafton,  Rensselaer  County,  where 
a  band  of  anti-renters,  disguised,  killed  a  man, 
yet  the  criminal  was  never  discovered.  In 
1841  and  1842  Governor  Seward  in  his  mes¬ 
sages  recommended  the  reference  of  the  al¬ 
leged  grievances  and  matters  in  dispute  on 
both  sides  to  arbitrators,  and  appointed  three 
men  to  investigate  and  report  to  the  Legislat¬ 
ure.  Nothing  was  accomplished,  and  the  dis¬ 
affection  increased.  So  rampant  was  the  in¬ 
subordination  to  law  in  Delaware  County  that 
Governor  Wright,  in  1845,  recommended  legis¬ 
lation  for  its  suppression,  and  he  declared  the 
county  in  a  state  of  insurrection.  Finally,  the 
trial  and  conviction  of  a  few  persons  for  con¬ 
spiracy  and  resistance  to  law,  and  their  con¬ 
finement  in  the  state  prison,  caused  a  cessa¬ 
tion  of  all  operations  by  masked  bands.  There 
was  so  much  public  sympathy  manifested  for 
the  cause  of  the  anti-renters  that  the  associa¬ 
tions  determined  to  form  a  political  party  fa¬ 
vorable  to  their  cause.  It  succeeded  in  1842, 
and  several  years  afterwards,  in  electing  one 
eighth  of  the  Legislature  who  favored  the  anti- 
renters  ;  and  in  1846  a  clause  was  inserted  in 
the  revised  constitution  of  the  state  abolish¬ 
ing  all  feudal  tenures  and  incidents,  and  for¬ 
bidding  the  leasing  of  agricultural  lands  for  a 
longer  term  than  twelve  years.  The  same  year 
Governor  Wright,  who  was  a  candidate  for  re- 
election  as  chief  magistrate,  was  defeated  by 
ten  thousand  majority  given  to  John  Young, 
the  anti -rent  candidate,  who  afterwards  re¬ 
leased  all  offenders  of  the  law  who  were  in 


ANTI-SLAVERY  CHAMPIONS 


52 


prison.  The  excitement  gradually  subsided, 
and  only  in  courts  of  law  were  the  anti-rent 
associations  actively  seen.  The  last  proprietor 
of  the  Van  Rensselaer  manor  sold  his  interests 
in  his  lands  a  few  years  ago  to  a  judicious  per¬ 
son  who  made  amicable  arrangements  with  all 
the  tenants  for  the  rent,  sale,  and  purchase  of 
the  farms. 

Anti -Slavery  Champions  in  Massachu¬ 
setts  (1766).  While  the  public  mind  was  agi¬ 
tated  and  absorbed  by  the  political  questions 
of  the  day  at  the  time  of  the  repeal  of  the 
Stamp  Act  (which  see),  some  reflecting  per¬ 
sons  had  been  struck  with  the  inconsistency 
of  contending  for  one’s  own  liberty  while  de¬ 
priving  others  of  theirs.  A  controversy  arose 
in  1766  as  to  the  justice  and  legality  of  ne¬ 
gro  slavery,  in  which  Nathaniel  Appleton  and 
James  Swan,  merchants  of  Boston,  distin¬ 
guished  themselves  as  writers  on  the  side  of 
human  liberty.  Opposing  writers  generally 
concealed  their  names,  but  were  promptly  an¬ 
swered.  This  controversy  was  renewed  from 
time  to  time  uutil  1773,  when  it  became  so 
warm  that  it  was  a  subject  for  disputations  at 
Harvard  College.  The  Assembly  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  made  repeated  attempts  to  restrict  the 
further  importation  of  negroes  into  the  prov¬ 
ince,  but  the  governors  interposed  their  ve¬ 
toes.  The  question  whether  any  person  could 
be  held  as  a  slave  iu  Massachusetts  was  car¬ 
ried  before  the  Supreme  Court  in  a  suit  by 
a  negro  to  recover  wages  from  his  alleged 
master.  The  negroes  collected  money  among 
themselves  to  carry  on  the  suit,  and  it  was  de¬ 
cided  in  favor  of  the  alleged  slave.  Other 
suits  were  instituted  between  that  time  aud 
the  Revolution,  and  the  jurors  invariably  gave 
their  verdicts  in  favor  of  freedom.  The  col¬ 
ored  people  placed  their  arguments  on  the 
broad  basis  of  the  royal  charter  of  the  prov¬ 
ince,  which  expressly  declared  “  all  persons  boru 
or  residing  in  the  province  to  be  as  free  as  the 
subjects  of  the  king  iu  Great  Britain,”  and  the 
declaration  of  Judge  Holt,  that  a  “slave  can¬ 
not  breathe  in  England” — iu  other  words,  that 
as  soon  as  a  slave  should  set  his  foot  on  Eng¬ 
lish  soil  he  is  free  by  the  law  which  makes  it 
impossible  for  slavery  to  exist  there.  (See  Slaves 
in  England). 

Anti-Slavery  Resolutions,  First,  in  Con¬ 
gress.  Rufus  King,  delegate  in  Congress  from 
Massachusetts,  proposed  ( March  16,  1787 )  to 
modify  the  report  on  the  Western  Territory, 
already  accepted,  by  inserting  iu  it  a  total  and 
immediate  prohibition  of  slavery.  This  was 
the  tirst  proposition  for  the  abolition  of  sla¬ 
very  laid  before  Congress.  The  motion  was 
referred  to  a  committee  by  a  vote  of  eight 
states.  (See  Northwestern  Territory.) 

Anti -Slavery  Societies.  The  system  of 
slavery  was  opposed  by  many  of  the  best  men 
and  women  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  on  economic  and  moral  grounds,  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  where 
it  was  not  so  prevalent  aud  apparently  indis¬ 
pensable  as  in  the  Southern  States.  The  first 


ANT1ETAM,  BATTLE  OF 

society  established  for  promoting  a  public  sen¬ 
timent  iu  favor  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  was 
formed  in  Philadelphia  ou  April  14,  1775,  with 
Dr.  Franklin  as  president,  and  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush  as  secretary.  John  Jay  was  the  first 
president  of  a  society  for  the  same  purpose 
formed  in  New  York,  Jan.  25,  1785,  and  called 
the  “New  York  Manumission  Society.”  The 
Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers  always  opposed 
slavery,  and  were  a  perpetual  and  active  abo¬ 
lition  society,  presenting  to  the  National  Con¬ 
gress  the  first  petition  on  the  subject.  Other 
abolition  societies  followed  in  other  parts  of  the 
Union.  A  society  w  as  formed  iu  Ohio  in  1815 
by  a  zealous  citizen  named  Lundy  (see  First 
Abolition  Newspaper );  and  in  1831  the  subject 
was  vehemently  revived  by  the  publication,  be¬ 
gun  in  Boston  that  year,  of  the  Liberator, hy  Will¬ 
iam  Lloyd  Garrison.  It  denounced  slave-hold¬ 
ing  as  “  a  sin  against  God  and  a  crime  against 
humanity.”  With  such  sentiments  Arnold  Buf- 
fum  (a  Quaker)  and  eleven  others  formed  an 
anti-slavery  society  in  Boston  in  1832.  This 
was  followed  in  1833  by  the  formation  in  Phil¬ 
adelphia  of  the  “  American  Anti-Slavery  Socie¬ 
ty,”  which  existed  until  after  the  civil  war  that 
destroyed  the  institution  of  slavery. 

Antietam  Creek,  Battle  of.  After  the  sur¬ 
render  of  Harper’s  Ferry,  Sept.  15, 1862  (see  Har¬ 
per's  Ferry,  Surrender  of),  Lee  felt  himself  in  a 
perilous  position,  for  Geueral  Franklin  had  en¬ 
tered  Pleasant  Valley  that  very  morning  aud 
threatened  the  severance  of  his  army.  Lee  at 
once  took  measures  to  concentrate  his  forces. 
He  withdrew  his  troops  from  South  Mountain 
and  took  position  in  the  Antietam  valley,  near 
Sharpsburg,  Md.  Jackson,  by  swift  marches, 
had  recrossed  the  Potomac  and  joined  Lee  on 
Antietam  Creek.  When  the  Confederates  left 
South  Mountain,  McClellan’s  troops  followed 
them.  Lee’s  plans  wTere  thwarted,  aud  he  found 
himself  compelled  to  fight.  McClellan  was  very 
cautious,  for  he  believed  the  Confederates  were 
on  his  front  iu  overwhelming  numbers.  It  w’as 
ascertained  that  Lee’s  aimy  did  not  number 
more  than  sixty  thousand.  McClellan’s  effec¬ 
tive  force  was  eighty-seven  thousand.  McClel¬ 
lan’s  army  was  well  in  hand  (Sept.  16),  and  Lee’s 
was  well  posted  ou  the  heights  near  Sharps¬ 
burg,  on  the  western  side  of  Antietam  Creek, 
a  sluggish  stream  with  few  fords,  spanned  by 
four  stone  bridges.  On  the  right  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  line  were  the  corps  of  Hooker  and  Sum¬ 
ner.  In  the  advance,  and  near  the  Antietam, 
Geueral  Richardson’s  division  of  Sumner’s  corps 
was  posted.  On  a  line  with  this  was  Sykes’s 
(regular)  division  of  Porter’s  corps.  Farther 
down  the  stream  was  Burnside’s  corps.  Iu  front 
of  Sumner  and  Hooker  were  batteries  of  24- 
pouuder  Parrot  guns.  Franklin’s  corps  and 
Couch’s  division  were  farther  down  the  valley, 
and  the  divisions  of  Morrell  and  Humphrey,  of 
Porter’s  corps,  w  ere  approaching  from  Frederick. 
A  detachment  of  the  signal  corps,  under  Major 
Myer,  was  on  a  spur  of  South  Mountain.  As 
McClellan  prudently  hesitated  to  attack,  the 
Confederates  put  him  on  the  defensive  by  open¬ 
ing  au  artillery  fire  upon  the  Nationals  at  dawn 


ANT1ETAM,  BATTLE  OF 

(Sept.  16,  1862).  He  was  ready  for  respouse  in 
the  course  of  the  afteruoou,  when  Hooker  cross¬ 
ed  the  Autietam  with  a  part  of  his  corps,  com¬ 
manded  by  Generals  Ricketts,  Meade,  and  Doub¬ 
leday.  Hooker  at  once  attacked  the  Confeder¬ 
ate  left,  commanded  by  “  Stonewall  Jackson,” 
who  was  soon  reinforced  by  General  Hood. 
Sumner  was  directed  to  send  over  Mansfield’s 
corps  during  the  night,  and  to  hold  his  own  in 
readiness  to  pass  over  the  next  morning.  Hook¬ 
er’s  first  movement  was  successful.  He  drove 
back  the  Confederates,  and  his  army  rested  on 
their  arms  that  night  on  the  ground  they  had 
won.  Mansfield’s  corps  ci’ossed  in  the  even¬ 
ing,  and  at  dawn  (Sept.  17)  the  contest  was  re¬ 
newed  by  Hooker.  It  was  obstinate  and  se¬ 
vere.  The  National  batteries  on  the  east  side 
of  the  creek  greatly  assisted  in  driving  the  Con¬ 
federates  away,  with  heavy  loss,  beyond  a  line 
of  woods.  It  was  at  this  time,  when  Hooker 
advanced,  that  Jackson  was  reinforced.  The 
Confederates  swarmed  out  of  the  works  and  fell 
heavily  upon  Meade,  when  Hooker  called  upon 
Doubleday  for  help.  A  brigade  under  General 
Hartsutf  pressed  forward  against  a  heavy  storm 
of  missiles,  and  its  leader  was  severely  wound¬ 
ed.  Meanwhile  Mansfield’s  corps  had  been  or¬ 
dered  up,  and  before  it  became  engaged  the  vet¬ 
eran  leader  was  mortally  wounded.  The  com¬ 
mand  then  devolved  on  General  Williams,  who 
left  his  division  in  the  care  of  General  Crawford, 
and  the  latter  seized  a  piece  of  woods  near  by. 
Hooker  had  lost  heavily;  Doubleday’s  guns  had 
silenced  a  Confederate  battery;  Ricketts  was 
struggling  against  constantly  increasing  num¬ 
bers  on  his  front;  and  the  National  line  began 
to  waver,  when  Hooker,  in  the  van,  was  wound¬ 
ed  and  taken  from  the  field.  Sumner  sent  Sedg¬ 
wick  to  the  support  of  Crawford,  and  Gordon 
and  Richardson  and  French  bore  down  upon 
the  Confederates  more  to  the  left.  The  Nation¬ 
als  now  held  position  at  the  Dunker  Church, 
and  seemed  about  to  grasp  the  palm  of  victory 
(for  Jackson  and  Hood  were  falling  back),  when 


ANTIETAM,  BATTLE  OF 

fresh  Confederate  troops,  under  McLaws  and 
Walker,  supported  by  Early,  came  up.  They 
penetrated  the  National  line  and  drove  it  back, 
when  the  unflinching  Doubleday  gave  them 
such  a  storm  of  artillery  that  they,  in  turn,  fell 
back  to  their  original  position.  Sedgwick, 
twice  w’ounded,  was  carried  from  the  field,  and 
the  command  of  his  division  devolved  on  Gener¬ 
al  O.  O.  Howard.  Generals  Crawford  and  Dana 
were  also  wounded.  Franklin  was  sent  over  to 
assist  the  hard-pressed  Nationals.  Forming  on 
Howard’s  left,  he  sent  Slocum  with  his  division 
towards  the  centre.  At  the  same  time  General 
Smith  was  ordered  to  retake  the  ground  on 
which  there  had  been  so  much  fighting,  and  it 
was  done  within  fifteen  minutes.  The  Confed¬ 
erates  were  driven  far  back.  Meanwhile  the 
divisions  of  French  and  Richardson  had  been 
busy.  The  former  received  orders  from  Sumner 
to  press  on  and  make  a  diversion  in  favor  of  the 
right.  Richardson’s  division,  composed  of  the 
brigades  of  Meagher,  Caldwell,  and  Brooks  (who 
had  crossed  the  Autietam  at  ten  o’clock),  gained 
a  good  position.  The  Confederates,  reinforced 
by  fresh  troops,  fought  desperately.  Finally 
Richardson  was  mortally  wounded,  and  General 
W.S.  Hancock  succeeded  him  in  command,  when 
a  charge  was  made  that  drove  the  Confederates 
in  great  confusion.  Night  soon  closed  the  ac¬ 
tion  on  the  National  right  and  centre.  General 
Meagher  had  been  wounded  and  carried  from 
the  field,  when  the  command  of  his  troops  de¬ 
volved  on  Colonel  Burke.  During  the  fierce 
strifes  of  the  day  Porter’s  corps,  with  artillery 
and  Pleasanton’s  cavalry,  had  remained  on  the 
east  side  of  the  stream,  as  a  reserve,  until  late 
iu  the  afternoon,  when  McClellan  sent  over  some 
brigades.  On  the  morning  of  the  17th  the  left, 
under  Burnside,  engaged  in  a  desperate  struggle 
for  the  possession  of  a  bridge  just  below  Sharps- 
burg.  That  commander  had  been  ordered  to 
cross  it  and  attack  the  Confederates.  It  was  a 
difficult  task,  and  Burnside,  exposed  to  a  raking 
fire  from  the  Confederate  batteries  and  an  en¬ 
filading  fire  from  sharp-shooters, 
was  several  times  repulsed.  Final¬ 
ly,  at  a  little  past  noon,  two  regi¬ 
ments  charged  across  the  bridge 
and  drove  its  defenders  away.  The 
divisions  of  Sturgis,  Wilcox,  and 
Rodman,  and  Scammon’s  brigade, 
with  four  batteries,  passed  the 
bridge  and  drove  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  almost  to  Sharpsburg.  A.  P. 
Hill,  with  fresh  troops,  fell  upon 
Burnside’s  left,  mortally  wound¬ 
ing  General  Rodman  and  driving 
the  Nationals  nearly  back  to  the 
bridge.  General  O'B.  Branch,  of 
North  Carolina,  was  also  killed  in 
this  encounter.  The  Confederates 
were  checked  by  National  artil¬ 
lery  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
stream,  and,  reserves  advancing 
under  Sturgis,  there  was  no  fur¬ 
ther  attempt  to  retake  “  the  Burn¬ 
side  Bridge,”  as  it  was  called.  Hill 
came  up  just  in  time  to  save  Lee’s 


53 


APACHES 


54 


APPOMATTOX  COURT-HOUSE 


army  from  destruction.  Darkness  ended  the 
memorable  struggle  known  as  the  Battle  of  An- 
tietam.  The  losses  were  very  severe.  McClel¬ 
lan  reported  his  losses  at  12,460  men,  of  whom 
2010  were  killed.  He  estimated  Lee’s  loss  as 
much  greater.  The  losses  fell  heavily  upon 
certain  brigades.  That  of  Dury6e  retired  from 
the  field  with  not  more  than  twenty  men  and 
four  colors.  Of  the  brigades  of  Lawton  and 
Hays,  on  the  Confederate  side,  more  than  one 
half  -were  lost.  On  the  morning  of  the  18th 
both  parties  seemed  more  willing  to  rest  than 
to  tight;  and  that  night  Lee  and  his  shattered 
army  stole  away  in  the  darkness,  recrossed  the 
Potomac  at  Williamsport,  and  planted  eight  bat¬ 
teries  on  the  high  Virginia  bank  that  menaced 
pursuers.  There  had  been  a  very  tardy  pursuit. 
At  dark  on  the  evening  of  the  19th  Porter,  who 
was  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  ordered  Grif¬ 
fin  to  cross  the  stream  with  two  brigades  and 
carry  Lee’s  batteries.  He  captured  four  of  the 
guns.  On  the  next  morning  (Sept.  20)  a  part 
of  Porter’s  division  made  a  recon noissance  in 
force  on  the  Virginia,  side,  and  were  assailed  by 
Hill  in  ambush,  who  drove  them  across  the  Po¬ 
tomac  and  captured  two  hundred  of  the  Nation¬ 
als.  Maryland  Heights  and  Harper’s  Ferry  were 
retaken  by  the  Union  troops. 

Apaches.  These  are  a  fierce  people  of  the 
Athabasca  nation.  (See  Athabasca s.)  They  are 
mostly  wanderers,  and  have  roamed  as  maraud¬ 
ers  over  portions  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Ar¬ 
izona,  in  the  United  States,  and  several  of  the 
northern  provinces  of  Mexico.  Wanderers,  they 
do  not  cultivate  the  soil,  and  have  only  tempo¬ 
rary  chiefs  to  lead  them.  Civil  government 
they  have  none.  Divided  into  many  roving 
bands,  they  resisted  all  attempts  by  the  Span¬ 
iards  to  civilize  and  Christianize  them,  but  con¬ 
stantly  attacked  these  Europeans.  So  early  as 
1762,  it  was  estimated  that  the  Apaches  had 
desolated  and  depopulated  one  hundred  and 
seventy-four  mining-towns,  stations,  and  mis¬ 
sions  in  the  province  of  Sonora  alone.  For  fifty 
years  a  bold  chief — Mangas  Colorado— led  pow¬ 
erful  bands  to  wrar;  and  since  the  annexation 
of  their  territory  to  the  United  States,  they  have 
given  its  government  more  trouble  than  any  of 
the  Western  Indians.  Colorado  was  killed  in 
1863.  Whether  they  can  be  civilized  is  an  un¬ 
solved  problem.  The  estimated  number  of  the 
Apaches  is  about  ten  thousand.  Though  fierce 
in  war,  they  never  scalp  or  torture  their  enemies. 
A  Great  Spirit  is  the  central  figure  in  their  sim¬ 
ple  system  of  theology,  and  they  reverence  as 
sacred  certain  animals,  especially  a  pure  white 
bird. 

Apostle  of  the  Indians.  A  name  given  to 
Rev.  John  Eliot,  a  missionary  among  the  In¬ 
dians  of  Massachusetts.  Born  in  Essex,  Eng¬ 
land,  in  1603,  he  died  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  May  20, 
1690.  He  came  to  Boston  in  1631,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  minister  at  Roxbury.  Among  the  twenty 
Indian  tribes  that  surrounded  the  English  plan¬ 
tation  he  labored  almost  fifty  years  with  zeal  and 
success,  learning  their  language  and  translating 
the  Scriptures  and  other  good  writings  into  their 


native  tongue.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  Protestant  minister  who  preached  to 
the  Indians.  In  1651  an  Indian  village  was 
built  at  Natick,  on  the  Charles  River,  and  there 
the  first  Indian  church  was  established.  His 
humane  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  “  praying  In¬ 
dians,”  as  his  converts  were  called,  during  King 
Philip’s  war  were  successful.  Four  of  his  sons, 
educated  at  Harvard  University,  were  classed 
with  “the  best  preachers  of  their  generation.” 
(See  Eliot,  John.) 

Appeals  from  Colonial  Courts.  In  1697  the 
right  of  appeal  from  the  colonial  courts  to  the 
king  in  council  was  sustained  by  the  highest 
legal  authority.  By  this  means,  and  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  courts  of  admiralty  (which  see), 
Great  Britain  at  length  acquired  a  judicial  con¬ 
trol  over  the  colonies,  and  with  it  a  power 
(afterwards  imitated  in  our  National  Constitu¬ 
tion)  of  bringing  her  supreme  authority  to  bear 
not  alone  upon  the  colonies  as  political  corpora¬ 
tions,  but,  what  was  much  more  effectual,  upon 
the  colonists  as  individuals. 

Appeals  to  the  States  (1783).  Under  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  (which  see)  the  Con¬ 
gress  had  no  power  to  levy  taxes  without  the 
consent  of  the  several  state  legislatures.  These 
were  always  tardy  in  responding  to  appeals  for 
money  to  support  the  general  government.  On 
April  26, 1783,  an  eloquent  address  in  the  form 
of  an  appeal,  prepared  by  Hamilton,  Madison, 
and  Ellsworth,  was  sent  forth  to  the  several 
states,  in  which  the  necessity  of  providing  for 
t  he  Federal  debt  was  strongly  urged  not  only  as 
a  matter  of  justice,  but  of  policy  in  sustaining 
the  public  credit.  “  Let  it  be  remembered,”  said 
the  address,  “  that  it  has  ever  been  the  pride  and 
the  boast  of  America  that  the  rights  for  which 
she  contended  were  the  rights  of  human  nature. 
By  the  blessing  of  the  Author  of  these  rights  on 
the  means  exerted  for  their  defence^they  pre¬ 
vailed  against  all  opposition,  and  form  the  basis 
of  thirteen  independent  states.”  They  urged 
that  an  opportunity  was  then  offered  of  trying 
a  great  experiment  of  republicanism  under  more 
favorable  circumstances  than  ever  before.  On 
May  7,  another  urgent  appeal  was  made  to  the 
states  to  provide  means  for  three  mouths’  pay 
for  the  furloughed  soldiers,  which  was  to  be  ad¬ 
vanced  in  treasury  notes — a  new  species  of  pa¬ 
per  currency — payable  six  months  after  date, 
and  receivable  for  all  Continental  taxes,  and  re¬ 
deemable  at  sight  by  all  Continental  receivers 
having  money.  The  preparations  then  making 
for  disbanding  the  army,  while  their  dues  re¬ 
mained  unpaid,  had  produced  symptoms  of  dis¬ 
content  again  among  the  soldiers  at  Newburgh  ; 
but  the  judicious  course  of  Washington  pacified 
them.  (See  Newburgh  Addresses  and  Disbanding 
of  the  Continental  Army.) 

Appomattox  Court-house,  Surrender  of 
Lee  at.  The  Array  of  Northern  Virginia  was 
reduced  by  famine,  disease,  death,  wounds,  and 
capture  to  a  feeble  few.  These  struggled 
against  enormous  odds  with  almost  unexam¬ 
pled  fortitude,  but  were  compelled  to  yield  to 
overwhelming  numbers  and  strength.  On  April 


APPOMATTOX  COURT-HOUSE 


55 


AQUEDUCT 


8,  a  portion  of  Sheridan’s  cavalry,  under  General  |  for  a  month  afterwards  he  and  his  family  wTere 
Cnster,  supported  by  Devin,  captured  four  Con-  kindly  furnished  with  daily  rations  from  the 


federate  supply-trains  at  Appomattox  Station, 
on  the  Lynchburg  Railroad.  Lee’s  vanguard 
approaching,  were  pushed  back  to  Appomattox 
Court-house,  five  miles  northward — near  which 
was  Lee’s  main  army — losing  twenty-five  guns 
and  many  wagons  and  prisoners.  Sheridan 
hurried,  forward  the  remainder  of  his  com¬ 
mand,  aud  on  that  evening  he  stood  directly 
across  Lee’s  pathway  of  retreat.  Lee’s  last  ave¬ 
nue  of  escape  was  closed,  and  on  the  following 
day  he  met  General  Grant  at  the  residence  of 
Wilmer  McLean,  at  Appomattox  Court-house, 
to  consummate  an  act  of  surrender.  The  two 


MCLEAN’S  HOCSE.  THE  PLACE  OF  LEE’S  SURRENDER. 


commanders  met,  with  courteous  recognition, 
at  two  o’clock  P.M.,  on  Palm  Sunday  (April  9). 
Grant  was  accompanied  by  his  chief  of  staff, 
Colonel  Parker;  Lee  by  Colonel  Marshall,  his 
adjutant-general.  The  terms  of  surrender  were 
discussed  .and,  settled,  in  the  form  of  a  written 
proposition  by  Grant,  and  a  written  acceptance 
by  Lee,  and  at  half- past  three  o’clock  they 
were  signed.  The  terms  prescribed  by  Grant 
-were  extraordinary,  under  the  circumstances,  in 
their  leniency  and  magnanimity,  and  Lee  pro¬ 
fessed  to  be  touched  by  them.  They  simply  re¬ 
quired  Lee  and  his  men  to  give  their  parole  of 
honor  that  they  would  not  take  up  arms  against 
the  government  of  the  Uuited  States  until  reg¬ 
ularly  exchanged  ;  gave  to  the  officers  their 
side-arms,  baggage,  and  private  horses;  and 
pledged  the  faith  of  the  government  that  they 
should  not  be  punished  for  their  treason  and 
rebellion  so  long  as  they  should  respect  that 
parole  and  be  obedient  to  law.  Grant,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Lee,  actually  allowed  such  caval¬ 
rymen  of  the  Confederate  army  as  owned  their 
own  horses  to  retain  them,  as  they  would,  he 
said,  need  them  for  tilling  their  farms.  Lee 
now  returned  to  Richmond,  where  his  family 
resided.  He  had  started  on  that  campaign 
with  (55,000  men,  and  he  returned  aloue ;  aud 


National  commissariat  at  Richmond.  Lee  had 
lost,  during  the  movements  of  his  army  from 
March  26  to  April  9,  about  14,000  men,  killed 
and  wounded,  and  25,000  made  prisoners.  The 
number  of  men  paroled  was  about  26,000,  of 
whom  not  more  than  9000  had  arms  in  their 
hands.  About  16,000  small-arms  were  surren¬ 
dered,  150  cannon,  71  colors,  about  1100  wagons 
and  caissons,  and  4000  horses  and  mules. 

Apportionment  of  Representatives,  The 
First.  In  the  matter  of  apportionment  there 
was  considerable  disagreement  when  the  sub¬ 
ject  was  brought  before  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives,  in  1791.  A  bill 
was  passed  (Nov.  24)  giv¬ 
ing  to  every  30,000  inhab¬ 
itants  one  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives. 
A  distribution  was  agreed 
upon  giving  a  total  of  113 
members,  but  leaving 
large  unrepresented  frac¬ 
tions  in  several  of  the 
Northern  States.  The 
Senate  sent  back  the  bill 
so  amended  as  to  raise 
the  ratio  of  apportion¬ 
ment  to  33,000,  with  the 
avowed  purpose  of  di¬ 
minishing  the  fractions. 
Long  aud  warm  debates 
ensued,  and  threats  of 
dissolving  the  Union  were 
freely  uttered.  The  Sen¬ 
ate  amendment  was  disa¬ 
greed  to.  A  committee  of 
conference  was  appoint¬ 
ed  (March,  1792),  but  pro¬ 
duced  no  result.  The  House  finally  agreed  to 
the  amendment,  31  to  29,  the  North  in  favor  of 
concession,  the  South  opposed  to  it.  When  the 
bill  was  sent  to  the  President,  he  asked  the 
opinion  of  his  cabinet  as  to  its  constitutional¬ 
ity.  The  cabinet  were  divided  in  opinion,  aud 
Washington  vetoed  the  bill.  Another  bill  passed, 
making  the  ratio  33,000.  (See  United  States,  Ap¬ 
portionment  of  liepresentatives  in  Congress.) 

Aqueduct,  The  Croton.  This  is  the  great¬ 
est  work  of  the  kind  constructed  in  modern 
times  in  its  extent  and  magnificence.  It  was 
completed  in  1842,  after  continued  labor  upon 
it  for  five  years,  under  the  superintendence  of 
John  B.  Jervis,  at  an  expense  of  $10,375,000,  in¬ 
cluding  $1,800,000  for  distributing-pipes  aud 
amounts  paid  for  right  of  way  and  other  inci¬ 
dental  charges.  The  entire  cost,  including  com¬ 
mission  and  interest,  was  $12,500,000.  Its  whole 
length,  from  the  Croton  River  to  the  distribu¬ 
ting  reservoir  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  Fortieth 
Street,  is  forty  and  a  half  miles.  There  are  six¬ 
teen  tunnels  on  the  line,  cut  mainly  through 
gneiss  rock  ;  and  much  of  the  open  cutting  is 
also  through  rock.  Croton  Lake  was  made  by 
casting  up  a  dam  across  the  Croton  River,  and 
raising  the  water  forty  feet.  This  is  the  source 
of  the  aqueduct.  It  is  built  of  stone,  brick, 


ARCHDALE 


AQUIA  CREEK  56 


and  cement,  arched  over  and  under,  six  feet  nine 
inches  wide  at  the  bottom  (the  chord  of  an  arc), 
seven  feet  five  inches  at  the  spriuging-line  of 
the  arch,  and  eight  feet  five  and  a  half  inches 
high.  It  crosses  the  Harlem  River  over  a  high 
bridge,  under  the  arches  of  which  sailing-ves¬ 
sels  may  pass. 

Aquia  Creek,  Engagement  at.  Alarmed  by 
the  gathering  of  troops  at  Washington,  Govern¬ 
or  Letcher,  of  Virginia,  by  command  of  the  Con¬ 
federate  government,  called  out  the  militia  of 
that  state,  appointing  no  less  than  twenty  places 
as  points  of  rendezvous,  one  fourth  of  which 
were  west  of  the  mountains,  for  the  insurgents 
were  threatened  by  Ohio  and  Indiana  volun¬ 
teers.  His  proclamation  was  issued  May  3, 1861. 
Batteries  were  erected  on  the  Virginia  branch 
of  the  Potomac,  below  Washington,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  obstructing  the  navigation  of  that  stream 
and  preventing  supplies  reaching  Washington 
that  way.  At  the  middle  of  May,  Captain  J.  H. 
Ward,  a  veteran  officer  of  the  navy,  was  placed 
in  command  of  a  flotilla  on  the  Potomac,  which 
he  had  organized,  composed  of  four  armed  pro¬ 
pellers.  On  his  way  to  Washington  from  Hamp¬ 
ton  Roads,  he  had  captured  two  schooners  filled 
with  armed  insurgents.  He  then  patrolled  that 
river,  reconnoitring  the  banks  in  search  of  bat¬ 
teries  which  the  Virginians  had  constructed.  On 
the  heights  at  Aquia  Creek  (the  terminus  of  a 
railway  from  Richmond),  fifty-five  miles  below 
Washington,  he  found  formidable  works,  and  at¬ 
tacked  them,  May  31,  with  his  flag-ship,  Thomas 
Freeborn,  and  the  gunboats  Anacosta  and  Reso¬ 
lute.  For  two  hours  a  sharp  conflict  was  kept 
up,  and  the  batteries  were  silenced.  Ward’s 
ammunition  for  long-range  was  exhausted,  and 
on  the  slacking  of  his  fire  the  batteries  opened 
again.  Unable  to  reply  at  that  distance,  Ward 
withdrew,  but  resumed  the  conflict  the  follow¬ 
ing  day,  in  company  with  the  Pawnee,  Captain 
S.  C.  Rowan.  The  struggle  lasted  more  than  five 
hours.  Twice  the  batteries  on  shore  were  si¬ 
lenced,  but  their  fire  was  renewed  each  time. 
The  Pawnee  was  badly  bruised,  but  no  person 
on  board  of  her  nor  on  Ward’s  flotilla  was  killed 
or  seriously  injured. 

Arapahoes.  This  is  one  of  the  five  tribes 
constituting  the  Blackfeet'confederacy,  residing 
near  the  head-waters  of  the  Arkansas  and  Platte 
rivers.  They  were  great  hunters,  and  fifty  years 
ago  numbered  10,000  souls.  With  the  disap¬ 
pearance  of  the  buffalo  they  have  rapidly  de¬ 
creased,  and  are  now  less  than  1000. 

Arbitrary  Measures  towards  the  Colonies. 

In  the  session  of  Parliament  in  1756,  that  body 
attempted  to  extend  its  authority  in  a  signal 
manner  over  the  colonies.  They  passed  laws 
to  regulate  the  internal  policy  of  the  colonies, 
as  well  as  their  acts  for  the  common  good.  The 
law  in  Pennsylvania,  under  which  Franklin’s 
militia  (which  see)  were  raised,  was  repealed 
by  the  king  in  council;  the  commissions  of  all 
officers  elected  under  it  were  cancelled,  and  the 
companies  were  dispersed.  Volunteers  were  for¬ 
bidden  to  organize  for  their  defence ;  and  the  ar¬ 
rangements  made  by  the  Quakers  (see  Friendly 


Association)  with  the  Delawares,  to  secure  peace 
and  friendship  with  the  Indians,  were  censured 
by  Lord  Halifax  at  the  head  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  and  Plantations,  as  “the  most  daring  vi¬ 
olation  of  the  royal  prerogative.”  Each  north¬ 
ern  province  was  also  forbidden  to  negotiate 
with  the  Indians.  But  the  spirit  of  the  colo¬ 
nists  could  not  be  brought  into  subjection  to 
arbitrary  royal  authority.  A  person  who  had 
long  resided  in  America,  and  had  just  returned 
to  England,  declared  prophetically,  “  In  a  few 
years  the  colonies  in  America  will  be  indepen¬ 
dent  of  Great  Britain  and  it  was  actually  pro¬ 
posed  to  send  over  William,  Duke  of  Cumber¬ 
land,  to  be  their  sovereign,  and  to  emancipate 
them  at  once. 

Arbuthnot,  Marriott,  a  British  admiral,  was 
born  about  1711 ;  died  in  London,  Jan.  31,  1794. 
He  became  a  post-captain  in  1747.  From  1775 


to  1778  he  was  naval  commissioner  resident  at 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  Having  been  raised  to 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral  in  1779,  he  obtained 
the  chief  command  on  the  American  station, 
and  was  blockaded  by  the  Count  D’Estaing  in 
the  harbor  of  New  York.  In  the  spring  of 
1780  he  co-operated  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in 
the  siege  of  Charleston,  S.  C.  In  February,  1793, 
he  became  admiral  of  the  bine. 

Archdale  (John)  and  his  Administration. 
Faction  was  postponing  the  era  of  real  prosper¬ 
ity  in  Carolina,  and  the  unwise  conduct  of  its 
governors  was  fanning  the  flame,  when  John 
Archdale,  a  Quaker,  and  a  native  of  Buckingham¬ 
shire,  England,  was  sent  to  govern  the  province. 
The  proprietors  had  abandoned  (1693)  their  ab¬ 
surd  scheme  of  government  (see  Fundamental' 
Constitutions),  and  Archdale  was  sent  to  soothe 
the  irritation  by  persuasive  and  mild  measures. 
He  had  taken  great  interest  in  colonial  schemes, 
and  was  one  of  the  Carolina  proprietors.  In 
their  scheme  he  had  been  a  great  helper.  His 
eldest  sister,  Mary,  had  married  Ferdinando 
Gorges,  grandson  of  Sir  Ferdinaudo  (which  see), 
who  was  Governor  of  Maine,  and  in  1659  pub¬ 
lished  America  Painted  from  Life.  Archdale  had 
been  in  Maine  as  Gorges’s  agent  in  1664,  was  in 
North  Carolina  in  1686,  and  was  commissioner 
for  Gorges  in  Maine  in  1687-88.  On  his  arrival 


ARCTIC  DISCOVERY 


57 


ARCTIC  DISCOVERY 


in  South  Carolina  as  governor,  in  1694,  Archdale 
formed  a  commission  of  sensible  and  moderate 
men,  to  whom  he  said,  at  their  first  meeting,  “I 
believe  I  may  appeal  to  your  serious  and  ration¬ 
al  observations  whether  I  have  not  already  so  al¬ 
layed  your  heats  as  that  the  distinguishing  titles 
thereof  are  so  much  withered  away  ;  and  I  hope 
this  meeting  with  you  will  wholly  extinguish 
them,  so  that  a  solid  settlement  of  this  hope¬ 
ful  colony  may  ensue  ;  and  by  so  doing,  your 
posterity  will  bless  God  for  so  happy  a  conjunc¬ 
tion.”  He  told  them  wdiy  he  had  been  sent,  and 
said,  “And  now  you  have  heard  of  the  proprie¬ 
tors’  intentions  of  sending  me  hither,  I  doubt 
not  but  the  proprietors’  intentions  of  choosing 
you  were  much  of  the  same  nature;  I  advise 
you,  therefore,  to  proceed  soberly  and  mildly  in 
this  weighty  concern  ;  and  I  question  not  but 
we  shall  answer  you  in  all  things  that  are  rea¬ 
sonable  and  honorable  for  us  to  do.  And  now, 
friends,  I  have  giveu  you  the  reason  of  my  com¬ 
ing,  I  shall  give  you  the  reasons  of  my  calling 
you  so  soon,  which  was  the  consideration  of 
my  own  mortality  [he  was  then  nearly  seventy 
years  of  age],  and  that  such  a  considerable  trust 
might  not  expire  useless  to  you  ;  and  I  hope  the 
God  of  peace  will  prosper  your  counsels  here¬ 
in.”  Archdale  was  one  of  the  proprietors  of 
North  Carolina,  and,  arriving  there  in  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1695,  had  a  very  successful  though  brief 
administration.  Elected  to  Parliament  in  1698, 
he  would  only  affirm,  instead  of  taking  the  re¬ 
quired  oath,  and  was  not  allowed  to  take  his 
seat  in  consequence. 

Arctic  Explorations.  During  almost  four 
hundred  years  efforts  have  been  made  by  Euro¬ 
pean  navigators  to  discover  a  passage  for  vessels 
through  the  Arctic  seas  to  India.  The  stories  of 
Marco  Polo  of  the  magnificent  countries  in  East¬ 
ern  Asia  and  adjacent  islands — Cathay  and  Zip- 
angi,  China  and  Japan — -stimulated  desires  to  ac¬ 
complish  such  a  passage.  The  Cabots  went  in  the 
direction  of  the  pole,  northwestward,  at  or  near 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  penetrated 
as  far  north  as  67°  JO',  or  half-way  up  to  (pres¬ 
ent)  Davis  Strait.  The  next  explorers  were  the 
brothers  Cortereal,  who  made  three  voyages  in 
that  direction,  1500-2.  In  1553  Sir  Hugh  Wil¬ 
loughby  set  out  to  find  a  northeast  passage 
to  India,  but  was  driven  back  from  Nova  Zein- 
bla,  and  perished  on  the  shore  of  Lapland.  In 
1576-78  Martin  Frobisher  made  three  voyages  to 
find  a  northwest  passage  into  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  discovered  the  entrance  to  Hudson’s  Bay. 
Between  1585  and  1587  John  Davis  discovered 
the  strait  that  bears  his  name.  The  Dutch  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  discover  a  north-east  pas¬ 
sage.  William  Barentz  made  three  voyages  in 
that  direction  in  1594-96,  and  perished  on  his 
third  voyage.  Demy  Hudson  tried  to  round 
the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia  in  1607-8,  but 
failed,  and,  pushing  for  the  lower  latitudes  of 
the  American  coast,  discovered  the  river  that 
bears  his  name.  While  on  an  expedition  to  dis¬ 
cover  a  northwest  passage,  he  found  Hudson’s 
Bay,  and  perished  (1610)  on  its  bosom.  In  1616 
Baffin  explored  the  bay  called  by  his  name,  and 
entered  the  mouth  of  Lancaster  Sound.  After 


that,  for  fifty  years,  no  navigator  went  so  far 
north  in  that  direction.  In  1720  the  Hudson’s 
Bay  Company  (which  see)  sent  captains  Knight 
and  Barlow  to  search  for  a  northwest  passage 
to  India.  They  sailed  with  a  ship  and  sloop, 
and  were  never  heard  of  afterwards.  In  1741 
Vitus  Behring  discovered  the  strait  that  bears 
his  name,  having  set  sail  from  a  port  in  Kam¬ 
chatka.  In  that  region  Behring  perished.  Rus¬ 
sian  navigators  tried  in  vain  to  solve  the  prob¬ 
lem.  Between  1769  and  1772  Samuel  Hearne 
made  three  overland  journeys  in  America  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  The  British  government  having, 
in  1743,  offered  $100,000  to  the  crew  who  should 
accomplish  a  northwest  passage,  stimulated  ef¬ 
forts  in  that  direction.  Captain  Phipps  (Lord 
Mulgrave)  attempted  to  reach  the  north  pole  in 
1773;  and  before  setting  out  on  his  last  voyage 
(1776),  Captain  Cook  was  instructed  to  attempt 
to  penetrate  the  Polar  Sea  by  Behring’s  Strait. 
He  went  only  as  far  as  70°  45'.  In  1817  Captain 
Ross  and  Lieutenant  Parry  sailed  for  the  Polar 
Sea  from  England ;  and  the  same  year  Captain 
Buchan  and  Lieutenant  (Sir  John)  Franklin 
went  in  an  easterly  direction  on  a  similar  errand, 
namely,  to  reach  the  north  pole.  At  this  time 
the  chief  object  of  these  explorations  was  sci¬ 
entific,  and  not  Commercial.  Buchan  and  Frank¬ 
lin  went  by  way  of  Spitsbergen  ;  but  they  only 
penetrated  to  80°  34'.  Ross  and  Parry  entered 
Lancaster  Sound,  explored  its  coasts,  and  Ross 
returned  with  the  impression  that  it  was  a  bay. 
Parry  did  not  agree  with  him  in  this  opinion, 
and  he  sailed  on  a  further  exploration  in  1819. 
He  advanced  farther  in  that  direction  than  any 
mariner  before  him,  and  approached  the  mag¬ 
netic  pole,  finding  the  compass  of  little  use.  On 
Sept.  4,  1819,  Parry  announced  to  his  crew  that 
they  were  entitled  to  $20,000  offered  by  Parlia¬ 
ment  for  reaching  so  westerly  a  point  in  that 
region,  for  they  had  passed  the  one  hundred 
and  tenth  meridian.  There  they  were  frozen  in 
for  about  a  year.  Parry  sailed  again  in  1821. 
Meanwhile  an  overland  expedition,  led  by  Frank¬ 
lin,  had  gone  to  co-operate  with  Parry.  They 
were  absent  from  home  about  three  years, 
travelled  over  five  thousand  miles,  and  accom¬ 
plished  nothing.  They  had  endured  great  suf¬ 
fering.  Parry,  also,  accomplished  nothing,  and 
returned  in  October,  1823.  Other  English  ex¬ 
peditions  followed  in  the  same  direction,  by 
land  and  water.  Sir  John  Franklin  and  others 
went  overland,  and  Parry  by  sea,  on  a  joint  ex¬ 
pedition,  and  Captain  Beechey  was  sent  around 
Cape  Horn  to  enter  Behring’s  Strait  and  push 
eastward  to  meet  Parry.  Franklin  explored  the 
North  American  coast,  but  nothing  else  was  ac¬ 
complished  by  these  expeditions.  Mr.  Scores- 
by,  a  whaleman,  and  his  son,  had  penetrated 
to  81°  north  latitude  in  1806.  His  experience 
led  him  to  advise  an  expedition  with  boats  fixed 
on  sledges,  to  be  easily  dragged  on  the  ice.  With 
an  expedition  so  fitted  out,  Captain  Parry  sailed 
for  the  polar  waters  in  1827.  This  expedition 
was  a  failure.  Captain  Ross  was  in  the  polar 
waters  again  from  May,  1829,  until  the  midsum¬ 
mer  of  1833.  The  party  had  been  given  up  as  lost,. 
Another  party  had  started  in  search  of  Ross,  ex- 


ARGALL 


58 


plored  the  north  coast  of  America,  and  discov- ' 
ered  Victoria  Land.  Oilier  land  expeditions  fol¬ 
lowed  ;  and  one,  under  Dr.  John  Rae,  completed 
a  survey  of  the  north  coast  of  the  American  con¬ 
tinent  in  the  spring  of  1847.  Sir  John  Frank-  I 
lin  yet  believed  a  northwest  passage  possible.  ! 
With  two  vessels — -the  Erebus  and  Ten-or — each 
fitted  with  a  small  steam-engine  and  screw-pro¬ 
peller,  he  sailed  from  England  May  19,  1845.  ! 
They  were  seen  by  a  whale-ship,  in  July,  about , 
to  enter  Lancaster  Sound,  and  were  never  heard 
of  afterwards.  The  British  goverumeut  de¬ 
spatched  three  expeditions  in  search  of  them  in 
1348.  One  of  them  was  an  overland  expedition 
under  Sir  John  Richardson,  who  traversed  the 
northern  coast  of  America  eight  hundred  miles, 
in  1848,  without  finding  Franklin.  The  sea  expe¬ 
dition  was  equally  unfortunate.  Dr.  Rae  failed  ! 
in  an  overland  search  in  1850.  Three  more  ex¬ 
peditions  were  sent  out  by  the  British  govern-  ! 
ment  in  search  in  1850;  and  from  Great  Britain 
five  others  were  fitted  out  by  private  means. 
One  was  also  sent  by  the  United  States  govern¬ 
ment,  chiefly  at  the  cost  of  Henry  Grinnell,  a  New 
York  merchant.  It  was  commanded  by  Lieuten¬ 
ant  De  Haven,  of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  There  were 
two  ships,  the  Advance  and  Rescue.  Dr.  E.  K. 
Kane  was  surgeon  and  naturalist  of  the  expedi¬ 
tion.  It  was  unsuccessful,  and  returned  in  1851. 
Lady  Franklin,  meanwhile,  had  been  sending 
out  expeditions  in  search  of  her  husband,  and 
the  British  government  and  British  navigators 
made  untiring  efforts  to  find  the  lost  explorers, 
but  in  vain.  Another  American  expedition,  un¬ 
der  Dr.  Kane,  made  an  unsuccessful  search,  and 
finally  the  search  was  given  up.  In  a  sci¬ 
entific  point  of  view,  Dr.  Kane’s  expedition  ob¬ 
tained  the  most  important  results.  It  is  believed 
that  he  saw  an  open  polar  sea ;  and  to  find  that 
sea  other  American  expeditious  sailed  under  Dr. 

I.  I.  Hayes,  a  member  of  Kane’s  expedition,  and 
Captain  Charles  F.  Hall.  The  latter  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1860,  and  Dr.  Hayes  in 
1861.  Hall  sailed  again  in  1864,  and  returned 
in  1869.  The  Germans  and  Swedes  now  sent  ex¬ 
peditions  in  that  direction.  In  1869  Dr.  Hayes 
again  visited  the  polar  waters.  The  same  year, 
and  for  some  time  afterwards,  several  expedi¬ 
tions  were  sent  out  from  the  continent  of  Eu¬ 
rope.  Finally,  by  the  help  of  Congress,  Captain 
Hall  was  enabled  to  sail,  with  a  well-furnished 
company,  in  the  ship  Polaris,  for  the  polar  seas, 
in  Juue,  1871.  In  October  Hall  left  the  vessel, 
and  started  northward  on  a  sledge  expedition. 
On  his  return  he  suddenly  sickened  and  died, 
and  the  Polaris  returned  without  accomplishing 
much.  The  passage  from  the  coast  of  Western 
Europe,  around  the  north  of  that  continent  and 
of  Asia,  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  first  accom¬ 
plished  in  the  summer  of  1879,  by  Professor  Nor- 
denskjold,  an  accomplished  Swedish  explorer,  in 
the  steamship  Vega.  She  passed  through  Behr¬ 
ing’s  Strait  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  reached 
Japan  in  the  first  week  in  September.  Thus  the 
great  problem  has  been  solved.  The  Jeannette, 
Lieut.  De  Long,  an  American  exploring  vessel, 
was  lost  on  the  coast  of  Siberia,  in  1881. 

Argali,  Samuel,  first  appears  in  history  in  a 


ARGUS,  CAPTURE  OF  THE 

nefarious  transaction  in  Virginia,  in  1612,  when 
he  was  forty  years  of  age.  He  was  born  at  Bris¬ 
tol,  England,  in  1572,  and  died  in  1639.  Argali 
was'one  of  the  early  adventurers  to  Virginia. 
He  commanded  a  vessel,  and  was  a  sort  of  buc¬ 
caneer.  He  was  in  Virginia  at  a  time  when 
Powhatan  was  particularly  hostile  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish  settlers.  He  and  his  nearest  neighbors 
would  not  allow  the  people  to  carry  food  to  the 
English  at  Jamestown,  and  provisions  became 
very  scarce.  Argali  was  sent  with  a  vessel  on 
a  foraging  expedition  up  the  York  River.  Be¬ 
ing  near  the  dwelling  of  Powhatan,  he  bribed  a 
savage  by  a  gift  of  a  copper  kettle  to  entice  Poca¬ 
hontas  on  board  his  vessel,  where  he  detained 
her  a  prisoner,  hoping  to  get  a  large  quantity  of 
corn  from  her  father  as  a  ransom,  and  to  recover 
some  arms  and  implements  of  labor  which  the 
Indians  had  stoleu.  Powhatan  rejected  Argali’s 
proposal  for  a  ransom  with  scorn,  and  would  not 
hold  intercourse  with  the  pirate;  but  he  sent 
word  to  the  authorities  at  Jamestown  that,  if 
his  daughter  should  be  released,  lie  would  for¬ 
get  the  injury  and  be  the  friend  of  the  English. 
They  would  not  trust  him,  and  the  maiden 
was  taken  to  Jamestown  and  detained  several 
months,  always  treated  with  great  respect  as  a 
princess.  There  she  became  the  object  of  ayoung 
Englishman’s  affections;  and  the  crime  of  Ar¬ 
gali  led  to  peace  and  happiness  (see  Pocahontas ). 
The  next  year  (1613)  Argali  went,  with  the  sanc¬ 
tion  of  the  Governor  of  Virginia  (see  Thomas 
Dale )  to  expel  the  French  from  Acadia  as  in¬ 
truders  upon  the  domain  of  the  North  and  South 
Virginia  Company.  He  stopped  on  his  way  at 
Mount  Desert  Island,  and  broke  up  the  Jesuit 
settlement  there.  (See  Acadia.)  The  priests, 
it  is  said,  feeling  an  enmity  towards  the  authori¬ 
ties  at  Port  Royal,  in  Acadia,  willingly  accom¬ 
panied  Argali  as  pilots  thither  in  order  to  be 
revenged.  Argali  plundered  the  settlement,  and 
laid  the  village  in  ashes,  driving  the  people  to 
the  woods,  and  breaking  up  the  colony.  Iu  1617 
Argali  became  deputy  governor  of  Virginia.  On 
going  to  Jamestown  he  found  it  fallen  into  de¬ 
cay,  the  storehouse  used  as  a  church ;  the  mar¬ 
ket-place,  streets,  and  other  spots  in  the  town 
planted  with  tobacco;  the  people  dispersed  ac¬ 
cording  to  every  man’s  convenience  for  plant¬ 
ing  ;  and  the  number  of  the  settlers  there  re¬ 
duced.  Argali’s  rule  was  so  despotic  that,  in 
1619,  he  was  recalled,  and  Sir  George  Yeardly 
was  put  iu  his  place.  He  returned  to  England 
with  much  wealth.  After  the  death  of  Lord 
Delaware  Captain  Argali  took  charge  of  his 
estate,  and  Lady  Delaware  charged  him  with 
gross  fraud  and  peculation. 

“Argus,”  Capture  of  the  (1813).  The 
American  brig  Argus ,  Captain  W.  H.  Allen,  bore 
to  France  William  H.  Crawford,  United  States 
minister  to  that  government.  She  afterwards 
cruised  in  British  waters,  and  by  the  celerity 
of  her  movements  and  destructive  energy  she 
spread  consternation  throughout  commercial 
England.  She  carried  32  pound  carronades  and 
two  bow-guns ;  and  her  commander,  who  had 
served  under  Decatur,  was  one  of  the  most  gal¬ 
lant  men  of  the  navy.  He  roamed  the  “  chops  of 


ARISTA 


59 


the  Channel”  successfully;  and,  sailing  around 
Land’s  End,  in  the  space  of  thirty  days  he  capt¬ 
ured  no  less  than  twenty  valuable  British  mer¬ 
chantmen,  with  cargoes  valued  at  $2,000,000. 
Too  far  away  from  friendly  ports  into  which  he 
might  send  his  prizes,  he  burned  all  the  vessels. 
Every  non-combatant  captive  he  allowed  to  re¬ 
move  his  private  property,  and  for  this  generos¬ 
ity  he  was  thanked  by  them.  The  British  gov¬ 
ernment,  alarmed  by  the  exploits  of  the  Argus, 
sent  out  several  cruisers  after  her.  Just  before 
the  dawn  of  the  14th  of  August  (1813),  the  Brit¬ 
ish  brig  Pelican,  18,  Captain  J.  F.  Maples,  ap¬ 
peared  ;  and  at  six  o’clock  the  Argus  wore  round 
and  delivered  a  broadside  upon  her  at  grapeshot 
distance.  The  fire  was  immediately  returned, 
and  a  round  shot  carried  away  Allen’s  left  leg. 
He  refused  to  be  taken  from  the  deck  ;  but  soon 
becoming  unconscious  from  loss  of  blood,  he  was 
taken  to  the  cockpit,  and  died  the  next  day. 
The  men  of  the  Argus,  weakened  by  too  free  use 
of  captured  wine  the  night  before,  did  not  fight 
with  their  usual  vigor,  yet  they  handled  the  ves¬ 
sel  admirably.  Lieutenant  W.  Howard  Allen 
was  left  in  chief  command.  Very  soon  the  Ar¬ 
gus  became  so  badly  injured  that  she  began  to 
reel.  All  her  braces  were  shot  away,  and  she 
could  not  be  kept  in  position.  The  Pelican  at 
length  crossed  her  stern,  and  raked  her  dread¬ 
fully  ;  and  at  the  end  of  twenty-five  minutes 
from  the  beginning  of  the  action  the  Argus  be¬ 
came  unmanageable.  Yet  she  fought  on  feebly 
twenty  minutes  longer,  when  she  was  compelled 
to  surrender,  the  Sea-horse,  the  Pelican’s  con¬ 
sort,  having  hove  in  sight.  The  Argus  lost,  in 
killed  and  wounded,  23  men  ;  the  Pelican  lost  7 
men. 

Arista,  Mariano,  a  Mexican  general,  was 
born  at  San  Luis  Potosi,  July  16,  1802;  died  in 
Spain,  Aug.  9,  1855.  Receiving  a  military  edu¬ 
cation,  he  served  in  the  Spanish  army  until  June, 
1821,  when  he  joined  the  Mexican  revolutionists. 
He  rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-gen¬ 
eral;  and  in  June,  1833,  he  was  made,  by  Santa 
Ana,  second  in  command  of  the  Mexican  army. 
Joining  another  leader  in  an  unsuccessful  revolt, 
he  was  expelled  from  Mexico,  and  came  to  the 
United  States.  In  1835  he  returned,  and  was 
restored  to  his  rank  in  the  army,  and  made 
J  udge  of  the  Supreme  Tribunal  of  War.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  French  at  Vera  Cruz  (Dec. 
5,  1838),  but  was  soon  released  on  parole.  In 
1839  he  became  general-in-chief  of  the  northern 
division  of  the  army,  and  received  the  “  Cross  of 
Honor”  for  defeating  insurgents.  Though  only 
a  military  commander,  he  was  for  some  time  the 
real  ruler  of  Mexico  when  Herrera  was  Presi¬ 
dent  in  1844.  Commanding  at  the  battles  of 
Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (which  see), 
in  May,  1848,  he  was  appointed  Minister  of  War 
a  month  later.  Within  two  years  he  suppressed 
seventeen  revolts  in  Mexico  ;  and  in  1850  he  was 
elected  President  of  his  native  country.  He  re¬ 
signed  the  government  in  July,  1853.  Banished 
from  his  country  by  his  enemies,  he  made  a  voy¬ 
age  to  Europe  ;  and  died  there  on  the  day  when 
Santa  Ana,  who  had  usurped  his  seat,  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  fly  from  the  city  of  Mexico. 


ARIZONA,  LEGEND  OF 

Arizona  and  California,  Jesuit  Missions  in. 
So  early  as  1658  Eusebio  Francisco  Kino,  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  engaged  in  the 
exploration  of  the  (present)  Territory  of  Ari¬ 
zona;  and  in  1670,  in  pursuance  of  a  vow  made 
when  he  supposed  he  was  dying,  he  undertook 
single-handed  the  spiritual  regeneration  of  the 
peninsula  of  California.  To  Kino  is  due  the 
honor  of  founding  the  first  settlements  in  Cali¬ 
fornia  and  Arizona,  which  now  belong  to  the 
United  States.  In  1670  he  set  out,  with  other 
priests,  on  a  mission  in  the  valley  of  the  Gila. 
They  established  five  missions  in  that  region 
during  the  next  eight  years;  and  in  1697  his 
efforts  to  establish  permanent  missions  in  Cali¬ 
fornia  were  gratified  when  a  station  was  planted 
in  that  country.  Salvatierra,  who  was  person¬ 
ally  engaged  in  founding  the  mission,  and  in 
the  introduction  of  civilization  into  that  region, 
discovered,  by  the  aid  of  the  “  Holy  Virgin  of 
Loretto,”  he  said,  that  California  was  really  a 
peninsula,  for  he  passed  around  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  California.  These  Jesuit  missionaries 
made  many  converts  among  the  Indians,  who 
were  provided  with  food  from  the  stores  of  the 
mission-house.  The  Indian  parishioners  of  the 
priests  were  clothed  by  the  good  father  with 
warm  cloth  from  Spain  ;  and  he  furnished  them 
with  cloaks  and  blankets.  They  were  taught 
the  art  of  agriculture  ;  but  as  they  would  not 
save  the  crops,  they  were-  taken  for  the  common 
use  at  the  mission.  Wine  was  thus  early  pro¬ 
duced  at  the  missions  in  California.  Missions 
became  quite  numerous,  though  most  of  them 
were  small,  one  priest  and  one  soldier  constitut¬ 
ing  the  whole  of  the  white  population.  A  semi- 
theocratic  government  was  established  at  each 
mission  village.  The  priest  appointed  one  In¬ 
dian  as  governor,  one  to  the  charge  of  the  church, 
and  the  third  to  be  the  catechist  of  those  who 
were  learners.  In  the  absence  of  the  priest,  the 
soldier  acted  as  his  vicegerent.  At  some  sta¬ 
tions  the  Indians  were  taught  to  spin  wool  and 
weave  it;  also  to  make  sail-cloth  from  hemp,  in 
violation  of  the  navigation  laws  of  Spain.  Pueb- 
las  containing  semi -civilized  barbarians  were 
soon  formed  in  many  places  in  Arizona  and  Cali¬ 
fornia,  where  men  and  women  were  trained  by 
the  Jesuits  in  the  elements  of  Christian  civiliza¬ 
tion  ;  but  their  progress  was  frequently  inter¬ 
rupted  by  inroads  from  the  wild  tribes  around 
them.  The  decline  in  the  power  of  Spain  hin¬ 
dered  aid  to  Spanish  missions,  and  the  Indian 
converts  began  to  relapse  into  the  habits  of  sav¬ 
age  life.  Revolts  ensued.  The  power  of  the 
Jesuits  at  the  Spanish  court  waned  and  disap¬ 
peared  ;  and  on  June  26, 1767,  the  king  (Charles 
III.)  issued  a  decree  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Jes¬ 
uits  from  California.  Clioiseul,  the  able  French 
minister,  and  the  equally  able  Aranda,  convinced 
Charles  that  the  Jesuits  had  circulated  slanders 
in  regard  to  his  own  birth;  and  the  monarch 
eagerly  gave  the  sudden  and  unexpected  blow 
to  their  power  in  the  Spanish  dominions. 

Arizona,  Legend  of.  To  one  of  the  pioneer 
explorers  of  the  Arizona  region  the  Zunia  In¬ 
dians  gave  the  following  account  of  their  origin 
as  preserved  in  their  traditions.  Their  legend 


60  ARKANSAS  SECESSION  ORDINANCE 


ARIZONA,  TERRITORY  OF 

relates  that  in  the  beginning  a  race  of  men 
sprang  up  out  of  the  earth,  as  plants  arise  and 
come  forth  in  the  spring.  This  race  increased 
until  they  spread  over  the  whole  earth,  and,  after 
continuing  through  countless  ages,  passed  away. 
The  earth  then  remained  without  people  a  great 
length  of  time,  until  at  length  the  sun  had  com¬ 
passion  on  the  earth,  and  sent  a  celestial  maiden 
to  repeople  the  globe.  This  young  goddess  was 
called  Arizonia,  the  name  signifying  “  Maiden 
Queen.”  This  Arizonia  dwelt  upon  the  earth  a 
great  length  of  time  in  lonely  solitude,  until  at 
a  certain  time,  while  basking  in  the  sunbeams, 
a  drop  of  dew  fell  from  heaven  and  rested  upon 
Arizonia,  who  in  due  time  blessed  the  world 
with  twins,  a  son  and  daughter,  and  these  be¬ 
came  the  father  and  mother  of  the  Zunia  In¬ 
dians,  and  from  this  tribe  arose  all  other  races  of 
men  ;  the  black,  white,  olive,  and  all  other  clay- 
colored  men  being  merely  apostate  otf-slioots 
from  this  original  tribe,  and  the  Zunias  being 
the  only  pure,  original  stock,  children  of  the  sun, 
now  upon  the  earth. 

Arizona,  Territory  of,  is  in  the  extreme 
southwestern  portion  of  the  republic,  lying  on 
the  border  of  Mexico.  The  region  was  early 
known  to  Spanish  explorers.  So  early  as  1526, 
Don  Jos6  de  Vasconcellos,  a  follower  of  Cortez, 
crossed  the  centre  of  this  territory  towards  the 
Great  Canon,  and  the  region  was  afterwards  vis¬ 
ited  by  other  Spanish  explorers.  They  then,  as 
we  do  now,  found  on  the  river  banks  ruins  of 
cities  which  seemed  to  have  existed  for  centu¬ 
ries.  These,  with  regular  fortifications,  reser¬ 
voirs,  and  canals,  show  that  the  country  was 
once  inhabited  by  an  enterprising  and  cultivated 
people.  There  are  found  walls  of  solid  masonry, 
usually  two  stories  in  height.  It  is  estimated 
that  full  one  hundred  thousand  people  must 
have  inhabited  the  valley  of  the  Gila  alone. 
Arizona  was  settled  by  Spanish  missionaries 
from  Mexico  as  early  as  1687.  These  missions 
were  principally  seated  on  the  Lower  Colorado 
and  Gila  rivers.  The  territory  formed  a  part 
of  Mexico  until  its  purchase  by  the  United  States 
in  1850.  It  was  organized  into  a  territory  by 
act  of  Congress,  Feb.  24, 1863,  with  its  area  de¬ 
scribed  as  comprising  all  the  “  United  States 
lands  west  of  longitude  109°  to  the  California 
line.”  Since  then  the  northwest  corner  has  been 
ceded  to  Nevada.  It  is  a  mountainous  region, 
and  much  of  the  northern  portion  remains  un¬ 
explored.  Population  in  1880,  40,440. 

Arkansas  was  discovered  by  Do  Soto  in  1541, 
who  crossed  the  Mississippi  near  the  site  of  He¬ 
lena.  (See  De  Soto.)  It  was  next  visited  by  Fa¬ 
ther  Marquette  (which  see)  in  1673.  It  was  orig¬ 
inally  a  part  of  Louisiana,  purchased  from  the 
French  in  1803,  and  so  remained  until  1812,  when 
it  formed  a  part  of  Missouri  Territory  (which 
see).  It  was  erected  into  a  territory  in  1819, 
with  its  present  name,  and  remained  under  a 
territorial  government  until  1836,  when  a  con¬ 
vention  at  Little  Rock,  its  present  capital, 
formed  a  state  constitution.  Its  first  territo¬ 
rial  legislature  met  at  Arkansas  Post  in  1820. 
On  June  15,  1836,  Arkansas  was  admitted  into 


the  Union  as  a  state.  At  the  beginnins:  of  the 
Civil  War  a  state  convention  was  held  at  Little 
Rock,  and  on  May  6,  1861,  adopted  an  ordinance 
of  secession,  when  the  state  became  a  member 

of  the  Southern 
Confederacy.  Mean¬ 
while  the  state  au¬ 
thorities  had  seized 
the  national  prop¬ 
erty  in  the  state. 
During  almost  the 
whole  period  of  the 
war,  National  or 
Confederate  troops 
occupied  the  state ; 
and  one  of  the  most 
hotly  contested  bat¬ 
tles  of  the  war  was 
foughton  its  soil.  (See  Pea  Ridge.)  On  Oct. 30, 1863, 
a  meeting  of  loyal  citizens,  representing  about 
twenty  counties,  was  held  at  Fort  Smith,  to  take 
measures  for  reorganizing  the  state  government. 
In  January  following,  a  convention,  composed  of 
representatives  of  forty-two  counties,  assembled 
at  Little  Rock,  and  framed  a  loyal  constitution, 
which  was  ratified  by  the  people  in  March, 
1864.  Members  of  the  Legislature  were  elected, 
and  in  April  a  state  government  was  organized. 
In  1867  military  rule  was  established  in  Arkan¬ 
sas,  which,  with  Mississippi,  constituted  a  mili¬ 
tary  district.  A  new  constitution  was  framed 
by  a  convention  at  Little  Rock,  Jan.  7, 1868,  and 
was  ratified  by  a  small  majority  in  March.  On 
June  22,  Congress  declared  Arkansas  entitled  to 
representation  in  that  body,  and  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  the  government  was  transferred  to  the 
civil  authority.  Population  in  1880,  802,525. 

Arkansas  Post,  Capture  of.  General  W.  T. 
Sherman  and  Commodore  Porter,  near  Vicks¬ 
burg,  had  planned  an  attack  upon  Arkansas 
Post,  or  Fort  Hindman,  on  the  Arkansas  River, 
fifty  miles  from  the  Mississippi.  General  McCler- 
nand,  who  had  arrived  and  taken  the  chief  com¬ 
mand,  accompanied  the  expedition.  The  troops 
landed,  about  twenty-five  thousand  strong,  three 
miles  below  the  fort,  on  June  9,  and  were  led  by 
Generals  McClernand,  Sherman,  Morgan,  Steele, 
Stewart,  A.  J.  Smith,  and  Osterhaus.  Porter 
had  a  strong  flotilla  of  armored  and  unarmored 
gunboats.  The  latter,  moving  on,  shelled  the 
Confederates  out  of  their  rifle  pits;  and  on  the 
11th  the  army  moved  against  Fort  Hindman. 
When  the  gunboats  opened  fire  upon  it,  Morgan’s 
artillery  covered  the  advance.  After  a  short  fight 
for  about  two  hours,  the  Confederates  raised  a 
white  flag,  while  troops,  which  had  stormed  the 
works,  were  swarming  over  them.  Arkansas 
Post  was  surrendered.  The  Nationals  lost  977 
men,  of  whom  129  were  killed.  The  spoils  were 
about  5000  prisoners, 7  cannons,  3000  small-arms, 
and  a  large  quantity  of  stores.  The  fort  was 
blown  up,  and  property  which  could  not  be  car¬ 
ried  away  Avas  destroyed. 

Arkansas  Secession  Ordinance.  The  peo¬ 
ple  of  Arkansas  were  attached  to  the  Union, 
but,  unfortunately,  the  governor  and  most  of 
the  leading  politicians  of  the  state  were  dis- 


61 


ARMED  NEUTRALITY 


ARKANSAS,  THE  RAM 

loyal,  and  no  effort  was  spared  by  them  to  ob¬ 
tain  the  passage  of  an  ordinance  of  secession. 
For  this  purpose  a  state  convention  of  delegates 
assembled  at  the  capital  (Little  Rock)  on  March 
4,1861.  It  was  composed  of  seventy-five  mem¬ 
bers,  of  whom  forty  were  such  stanch  Unionists 
that  it  was  evident  no  ordinance  of  secession 
could  be  passed.  The  friends  of  secession  then 
proposed  a  plan  that  seemed  fair.  A  self-con¬ 
stituted  committee  reported  to  the  convention 
an  ordinance  providing  for  an  election  to  be 
held  on  the  first  Monday  in  August,  at  which 
the  legal  voters  of  the  state  should  decide,  by 
ballot,  for  “secession”  or  “co-operation.”  If  a 
majority  should  appear  for  “  secession,”  that  fact 
would  be  considered  in  the  light  of  instructions 
to  the  convention  to  pass  an  ordinance  to  that 
effect ;  if  for  “  co-operation,”  then  measures  were 
to  be  used,  in  conjunction  with  the  border  slave- 
labor  states  “yet  in  the  Union,”  for  the  settle¬ 
ment  of  existing  difficulties.  The  next  session 
of  the  convention  was  fixed  for  August  17.  The 
proposition  seemed  so  fair  that  it  was  adopted  by 
unanimous  vote,  and  the  convention  adjourned, 
subject  to  the  call  of  its  president,  who  was 
known  as  a  Union  man.  Taking  advantage  of 
the  excitement  incident  to  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter  and  the  President’s  call  for  troops,  the 
governor  (Rector)  and  his  disloyal  associates 
adopted  measures  for  arraying  Arkansas  among 
the  “  seceded  states.”  In  violation  of  the  pledge 
of  the  convention  that  the  whole  matter  should 
be  determined  by  the  people  in  August,  the  gov¬ 
ernor  induced  the  president  of  the  convention 
to  call  that  body  together  on  May  6.  It  met  on 
that  day.  Seventy  delegates  were  present.  An 
ordinance  of  secession,  previously  prepared,  was 
presented  to  it  at  three  o’clock  in  the  afternoon, 
when  the  hall  in  which  the  delegates  met  was 
crowded  by  an  excited  multitude.  It  was  moved 
that  the  “yeas”  and  “nays”  on  the  question 
should  be  taken  without  debate.  Though  the 
motion  was  rejected  by  a  considerable  majority, 
the  president  declared  it  carried.  Then  a  vote 
on  the  ordinance  was  taken.  There  seemed  to 
be  a  majority  against  it ;  but  the  president  arose 
and  earnestly  exhorted  the  Unionists  to  change 
their  votes,  which  they  did,  as  they  perceived  a 
determination  on  the  part  of  the  crowd  of  spec¬ 
tators  to  compel  them  to  do  so.  The  place  (the 
hall  of  the  House  of  Representatives)  was  dense¬ 
ly  packed  with  human  beings.  As  each  vote 
was  given  there  was  a  solemn  stillness,  and  one 
Union  man  after  another  prefaced  his  vote  by 
some  stirring  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  South. 
When  the  result  was  announced  —  sixty-nine 
for  the  ordinance,  to  one  against  it — there  was 
tremendous  cheering.  The  negative  vote  was 
given  by  Isaac  Murphy,  who  was  the  Union  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Arkansas  in  1864. 

“Arkansas,”  The  Ram.  The  Confederates 
had  a  powerful  “ram,”  named  Arkansas,  on  the 
Yazoo  River,  above  Vicksburg.  Farragut  sent 
three  armored  vessels,  about  the  middle  of  July, 
1862,  to  attack  her.  Six  miles  up  the  stream 
they  found  and  assailed  her;  but  she  repulsed 
the  attack,  and  took  shelter  under  the  batteries 
at  Vicksburg.  Another  attempt  to  capture  her 


was  made  on  July  22  by  the  Essex  (Captain  Por¬ 
ter)  and  the  Queen  of  the  West.  Again  the  at¬ 
tempt  was  unsuccessful.  After  the  repulse  of 
the  Confederates  at  Baton  Rouge,  early  in  Au¬ 
gust  (see  Baton  llouge),  Porter,  with  the  Essex 
and  two  other  gunboats,  went  in  search  of  the 
Arkansas,  and  found  her  five  miles  above  that 
city.  A  sharp  engagement  ensued.  The  Arkan¬ 
sas  became  unmanageable,  when  her  crew  ran 
her  against  the  river  bank,  set  her  on  fire,  and 
she  was  blown  up. 

Armand,  Charles  Tufin,  Marquis  de  la. 
Rouarie,  was  born  near  Rennes,  France,  in 
1756 ;  died  Jan.  30, 1793.  He  was  in  the  French 
army,  when,  fighting  a  duel  in  Paris,  to  which 
his  passion  for  an  actress  had  led  him,  he  fled, 
came  to  America,  and  on  May  10,  1777,  he  en¬ 
tered  the  Continental  army  as  a  volunteer.  He 
received  the  commission  of  colonel,  and  com¬ 
manded  a  small  corps,  to  which  was  attached  a 
company  of  cavalry,  who  acted  as  the  police  of 
camps.  He  was  an  exceedingly  active  officer, 
and  was  highly  esteemed  by  Washington.  In 
February,  1780,  his  corps  was  incorporated  with 
that  of  Pulaski,  who  was  killed  at  Savannah  a 
few  mouths  before.  In  March,  1783,  his  services 
throughout  the  whr  from  1777  were  recognized, 
and  he  was  created  a  brigadier-general.  Re¬ 
turning  to  France,  he  took  part  in  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  there,  and  was  for  a  time  a  prisoner  in  the 
Bastile.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the  royalists 
of  La  Vendee,  Brittany,  Anjou,  and  Poitou.  The 
execution  of  Louis  XVI.  gave  such  a  shock  to  his 
nervous  system  that  he  sank  under  it  and  died. 

Armed  Neutrality  (  1780  ),  The.  A  move¬ 
ment  in  Europe,  known  as  the  “Armed  Neutral¬ 
ity,”  threatened  to  seriously  cripple  the  power 
of  Great  Britain  and  incidentally  aid  the  Amer¬ 
icans  in  their  struggle  for  independence.  It 
was  a  league  of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe 
against  the  pretensions  of  Great  Britain  as 
“  Mistress  of  the  Seas.”  It  was  conceived  in 
the  summer  of  1778,  when  British  cruisers  seized 
American  vessels  in  the  Baltic  Sea  engaged  in 
commerce  with  Russia.  The  latter  nation  was 
then  assuming  colossal  proportions,  and  all  the 
others  courted  the  friendship  of  its  empress, 
Catherine  II.,  who  was  able  and  powerful. 
Great  Britain  tried  to  induce  her  to  become  an 
ally  .against  France.  Catherine  coquetted  a 
long  time  with  King  George,  while  her  sympa¬ 
thies  were  with  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Holland, 
whose  neutral  ships  were  continually  interfered 
with  by  British  sea-rovers,  whose  acts  wero 
justified  by  their  government.  France  had 
gained  the  good-will  of  the  Northern  powers  by 
a  proclamation  (July,  1778)  of  protection  to  all 
neutral  vessels  going  to  or  from  a  hostile  port 
with  contraband  goods  whose  value  did  not  ex¬ 
ceed  three  fourths  of  the  whole  cargo.  From 
that  time  until  the  beginning  of  1780  the  inso¬ 
lence  of  British  cruisers  and  the  tone  of  the 
British  ministers  offended  the  Northern  powers. 
The  tone  was  often  insulting.  “  When  the 
Dutch,”  said  Lord  North,  “say  ‘We  maritime 
powers,’  it  reminds  me  of  the  cobbler  who  lived 
next  door  to  the  lord  mayor,  and  used  to  say 
‘My  neighbor  and  I.’”  Official  language  was 


ARMING  INDIANS  AND  NEGROES 


62 


ARMISTICE 


often  equally  offensive.  The  British  Minister 
at  the  Hague  said,  “For  the  present,  treaty  or 
no  treaty,  England  will  not  suffer  materials  for 
ship-building  to  be  taken  by  the  Dutch  to  any 
French  port.”  A  similar  tone  was  indulged  tow¬ 
ards  the  other  powers,  excepting  Russia.  The 
shrewd  Catherine,  perceiving  the  commercial  in¬ 
terests  of  her  realm  to  be  involved  in  the  main¬ 
tenance  of  the  neutral  rights  of  others,  after 
long  coquetting  with  Great  Britain,  assumed 
the  attitude  of  defender  of  those  rights  before 
all  the  world.  Early  in  March,  1780,  she  is¬ 
sued  a  declaration,  in  substance,  (1)  that  neu¬ 
tral  ships  shall  enjoy  free  navigation  from  port 
to  port,  and  on  the  coasts  of  belligerent  powers ; 
(2)  that  free  ships  free  all  goods  except  contra¬ 
band ;  (3)  that  contraband  are  arms  and  muni¬ 
tions  of  war,  and  nothing  else ;  (4)  that  no  port 
is  blockaded  unless  the  enemy’s  ships  in  ade¬ 
quate  number  are  near  enough  to  make  the  en¬ 
try  dangerous.  “In  manifesting  these  princi¬ 
ples  before  all  Europe,”  that  state  paper  said, 
“  Her  Imperial  Majesty  is  firmly  resolved  to 
maintain  them.  She  lias  therefore  given  an 
order  to  fit  out  a  considerable  portion  of  her 
naval  forces  to  act  as  her  honor,  her  interest, 
and  necessity  may  require.”  The  empress  in¬ 
vited  Sweden,  Denmark,  Portugal,  and  the  Neth¬ 
erlands  to  join  in  support  of  her  declaration. 
These,  with  Prussia  and  Russia,  entered  into  a 
league  in  the  course  of  the  year.  France  and 
Spain  acquiesced  in  the  new  maritime  code; 
and  at  one  time  a  general  war  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  Continental  nations  seemed 
inevitable.  The  United  States  approved  the 
measure,  and  towards  the  close  of  1780  sent 
Francis  Dana  as  Ambassador  to  the  Court  of 
St.  Petersburg,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  amity 
and  commerce.  The  alliance  neither  awed  nor 
in  any  sensible  way  affected  England.  The 
known  fickleness  and  faithlessness  of  Catherine 
made  other  powers  hesitate  in  going  to  war,  and 
the  league  resulted  in  inaction. 

Arming  Indians  and  Negroes  (1775).  Hav¬ 
ing  no  sufficient  force  at  home  to  send  for  the 
subjugation  of  the  colonies,  and  as  mercenaries 
from  the  Continent  could  not  be  immediately 
procured,  the  British  king  ordered  Duumore, 
Governor  of  Virginia,  to  arm  negroes  and  In¬ 
dians,  if  necessary,  to  crush  the  rebellion  in  that 
colony.  To  Dnnmore  three  thousand  stand  of 
arms,  with  two  hundred  rounds  of  powder  and 
ball  for  each  musket,  together  with  four  pieces 
of  light  artillery,  were  instantly  shipped.  An 
order  was  also  sent  directly,  in  the  king’s  name, 
to  the  unscrupulous  Guy  Johnson,  agent  among 
the  Six  Nations,  to  seek  immediate  assistance 
from  the  Iroquois  Confederacy.  “  Lose  no 
time,”  so  ran  the  order;  “induce  them  to  take 
up  the  hatchet  against  his  majesty’s  rebellious 
subjects  in  America.  It  is  a  service  of  very 
great  importance;  fail  not  to  exert  every  effort 
that  may  tend  to  accomplish  it;  use  the  utmost 
diligence  and  activity.”  Johnson  was  promised 
an  ample  supply  of  arms  and  ammunition  from 
Quebec. 

Armistead,  George,  was  born  at  New  Mar¬ 


ket,  Caroline  Co.,  Va.,  April  10,  1730;  died  in 
Baltimore,  April  25, 1819.  He  entered  the  army 
as  second  lieutenant  in  1799;  was  appointed  as¬ 
sistant  military  agent  at  Fort  Niagara  in  1802, 
and  assistant  paymaster  in  1805.  In  1813  he  held 


the  rank  of  major  in  the  Third  Artillery,  and 
was  distinguished  at  the  capture  of  Fort  George 
in  May.  He  had  married  (1810)  a  sister  of  the 
eminent  Christopher  Hughes  (which  see),  and 
before  that  had  served  much  among  the  Indians. 
His  gallant  defence  of  Fort  McHenry  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1814,  won  for  him  immortal  honors.  Ho 
had  five  brothers  in  the  military  service  in  the 
second  Avar  for  independence — three  in  the  reg¬ 
ular  army  and  two  in  the  militia  service.  Be¬ 
cause  of  his  bravery  in  defending  Baltimore,  he 
was  breveted  a  lieutenant-colonel;  and  the  cit¬ 
izens  presented  him  with  an  elegant  silver  ser¬ 
vice  in  the  form  of  a  vase  fashioned  like  a 
bombshell,  with  goblets  and  salver.  After  his 
death  a  fine  marble  monument  was  erected  in 
the  city  of  Baltimore  to  his  memory.  The 
grateful  citizens  also  erected  a  large  monu¬ 
ment,  designed  by  Maximiliau  Godefroy,  and 
wrought  in  white  marble,  in  memory  of  all  the 
defenders  of  Baltimore.  It  is  a  cenotaph,  and 
was  erected  in  1815,  at  a  cost  of  sixty  thousand 
dollars.  It  bears  the  names,  in  bronze  letters, 
of  the  officers  who  perished  in  defence  of  the 
city. 

Armistice  (1783).  On  the  day  when  the  Pre¬ 
liminary  Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  was  concluded  (Jan. 
20,  1783),  the  respective  commissioners  of  the 
two  powers  signed  an  armistice  declaring  a  ces¬ 
sation  of  hostilities  between  the  two  nations. 
It  was  signed  by  Alleyne  Fitzherbert  on  the 
part  of  Great  Britain,  and  John  Adams  and  Ben¬ 
jamin  Franklin  on  the  part  of  the  United  States. 

Armistice  (1812).  In  consequence  of  nego¬ 
tiations  for  a  suspension  of  hostilities  between 
the  American  and  British  armies  then  proposed, 


ARMS  AND  MILITARY  STORES 


63 


ARMY  CHANGES  AT  ATLANTA 


General  Dearborn  agreed  -with  Sir  George  Pre- 
vost,  Governor- general  of  Canada,  for  a  provi¬ 
sional  armistice,  confined  to  the  American  troops 
on  the  northern  frontier  and  the  armies  of  the 
British  along  the  opposite  and  corresponding 
line.  To  effect  this  armistice  Sir  George’s  ad¬ 
jutant-general,  Edward  Baynes,  repaired  to 
Dearborn’s  headquarters  at  Greenhush,  opposite 
Albany,  and  there  the  armistice  was  signed, 
Aug.  9,  1812.  This  armistice  was  rejected  by 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  Dear¬ 
born  was  directed  to  put  an  end  to  it  imme¬ 
diately.  But  he  continued  it  until  August 
29,  for  the  purpose,  as  he  alleged,  of  forwarding 
stores  to  Sackett’s  Harbor.  It  released  the 
British  troops  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  and  Sir 
Isaac  Brock,  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  was 
enabled  to  hasten  to  the  Detroit  River  and  effect 
the  capture  of  the  army  of  General  Hull.  Dear¬ 
born  gave  that  commander  uo  intimation  of  the 
armistice ;  and  it  was  during  its  unwarranted 
continuance  for  twenty  days  that  the  forced 
surrender  of  Hull  to  overwhelming  numbers 
(Aug.  16)  took  place.  Dearborn’s  excuse  for 
his  sileuce  was  that  he  did  not  consider  Hull 
within  the  limits  of  his  command. 

Arms  and  Military  Stores,  Exportation 
of,  Prohibited  (1774).  Towards  the  close  of 
1774  the  king  issued  a  proclamation  prohibiting 
the  exportation,  from  Great  Britain,  of  military 
stores.  As  soon  as  the  proclamation  reached 
America  it  created  great  excitement.  Prepara¬ 
tions  were  made  for  the  manufacture  of  gun¬ 
powder  and  of  cannons.  The  Assembly  of  Rhode 
Island  passed  resolutions  for  obtaining  arms  and 
military  stores  and  for  arming  the  inhabitants. 
From  the  public  battery  at  Newport  about  forty 
cannons  were  removed,  that  they  might  not  be 
used  by  the  government  authorities.  At  Ports¬ 
mouth,  N.  H.,  a  similar  movement  had  taken 
place.  Paul  Revere  had  been  sent  there  ex¬ 
pressly,  by  a  committee  at  Boston,  with  the 
king’s  order  and  an  account  of  the  proceedings 
of  a  meeting  in  the  New  England  capital.  On 
the  following  day  about  four  hundred  men  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  Castle  William  and  Mary,  at  the  en¬ 
trance  to  Boston  harbor,  seized  it,  broke  open 
the  powder-house,  and  carried  away  more  than 
one  hundred  barrels  of  gunpowder. 

Arms  for  the  National  Troops.  One  of 

the  most  serious  difficulties  encountered  at  the 
headlining  of  the  Civil  War  was  a  lack  of  arms. 
The  arsenals  and  armories  of  the  free -labor 
states  had  been  stripped  by  Secretary  Floyd. 
(  See  Floyd’s  Disloyal  Ads. )  The  armory  at 
Harper’s  Ferry  had  been  destroyed,  and  that  at 
Springfield,  Mass.,  was  the  only  one  upon  which 
t lie  government  could  rely  for  the  manufacture 
of  arms.  To  supply  this  lack  Colonel  G.  L. 
Schuyler  was  sent  to  Europe  to  buy  arms  for 
the  government.  He  bought  116,000  rifles, 
10,000  revolvers,  10,000  cavalry  carbines,  and 
21,000  sabres,  at  an  aggregate  cost  of  $2,044,- 
931.  It  was  not  long  before  the  private  and 
national  armories  of  the  United  States  were 
able  to  meet  all  demands.  The  loss  of  over 
2000  cannon  at  the  Gosport  Navy-yard  was  a  se¬ 


rious  one,  but  very  soon  the  founderies  of  the 
country  supplied  all  that  were  required. 

Armstrong,  John,  was  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa., 
Nov.  25,  1758  ;  died  at  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  April  1, 
1843.  While  a  student  at  Princeton,  in  1775, 
he  became  a  volunteer  in  Potter’s  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  regiment,  and  was  soon  afterwards  made 
an  aide-de-camp  to  General  Mercer.  He  was 


JOHN  ARMSTRONG. 


afterwards  placed  on  the  staff  of  General  Gates, 
and  remained  so  from  the  beginning  of  that  of¬ 
ficer’s  campaign  against  Burgoyne  until  the  end 
of  the  war,  having  the  rank  of  major.  Holding 
a  facile  pen,  he  was  employed  to  write  the  fa¬ 
mous  Newburgh  Addresses  (which  see).  They 
were  powerfully  aud  eloquently  written.  Af¬ 
ter  the  war  he  was  successively  Secretary  of 
State  and  Adjutant -general  of  Pennsylvania; 
and  in  1784  lie  conducted  operations  against 
the  settlers  in  the  Wyoming  Valley.  The 
Continental  Congress  in  1787  appointed  him 
one  of  the  judges  for  the  Northwestern  Terri¬ 
tory,  but  he  declined.  Two  years  later  he 
married  a  sister  of  Chancellor  Livingston,  re¬ 
moved  to  New  York,  purchased  a  farm  within 
the  precincts  of  the  old  Livingston  manor  on 
the  Hudson,  and  devoted  himself  to  agricult¬ 
ure.  He  was  a  member  of  the  national  Sen¬ 
ate  from  1800  to  1804,  and  became  United 
States  Minister  at,  the  French  court  in  the  lat¬ 
ter  year,  succeeding  his  brother-in-law  Chan¬ 
cellor  Livingston.  He  was  commissioned  a 
brigadier-general  in  July,  1812,  and  in  January, 
1813,  became  Secretary  of  War  in  the  cabinet 
of  President  Madison.  His  lack  of  success  in 
the  operations  against  Canada,  and  at  the  at¬ 
tack  upon  and  capture  of  Washington  in  1814, 
made  him  so  unpopular  that  he  resigned  and 
retired  to  private  life.  General  Armstrong 
wrote  Notes  on  the  War  of  1812,  and  Lives  of 
Generals  Montgomery  and  Wayne  for  “  Sparks’s 
American  Biography ;”  also  a  Review  of  Wilkin¬ 
son’s  Memoirs ,  and  treatises  on  agriculture  and 
gardening. 

Army  Changes  at  Atlanta  (1864).  The  Con¬ 
federate  government  became  dissatisfied  with 


ARMY 


64  ARMY  OF  LIBERATION  IN  MISSOURI 


General  Johnston’s  steady  retrograde  move¬ 
ments  before  Sherman’s  advancing  forces,  and 
suddenly  relieved  him  of  his  command,  and 
put  General  J.  B.  Hood  in  his  place.  John¬ 
ston  had  cared  more  for  the  salvation  of  his 
army  than  for  the  possession  of  forts;  Hood’s 
feeling  was  the  reverse,  and  in  a  very  short 
time,  by  recklessness,  he  lost  nearly  one  half 
of  his  troops.  When  Hood  assumed  command 
his  army  numbered  about  fifty-one  thousand 
effective  men,  of  whom  ten  thousand  were  cav¬ 
alry.  There  were  changes  also  of  commanders 
in  Sherman’s  army.  By  order  of  the  President, 
O.  0.  Howard  was  made  successor  of  McPher¬ 
son  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee. 
This  gave  dissatisfaction  to  Hooker,  who  re¬ 
signed  the  command  of  the  tenth  corps,  and  it 
was  assigned  to  General  H.W.  Slocum  ;  General 
Palmer  resigned  the  command  of  the  fourteenth 
corps,  and  was  succeeded  by  General  Jefferson 
C.  Davis;  General  Stanley  succeeded  Howard  as 
commander  of  the  fourth  corps. 

Army,  New,  Authorized  (1808).  Jefferson’s 
policy  had  always  been  to  keep  the  army  and 
navy  as  small  and  inexpensive  as  possible. 
The  army  was  reduced  to  a  mere  frontier 
guard  against  the  Indians.  In  1808  the  as¬ 
pect  of  international  affairs  was  such  as  to 
demand  an  increase  of  the  military  strength 
of  the  republic,  and  the  President  asked  Con¬ 
gress  to  augment  the  number  and  efficiency 
of  the  regular  army.  They  did  so,  though  the 
measure  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  Federal¬ 
ists.  There  was  a  rising  war -spirit  in  tbe 
land.  A  bill  to  raise  seven  new  regiments 
was  passed  by  a  vote  in  the  House  of  ninety- 
eight  to  sixteen.  Other  provisions  for  war 
followed.  The  sum  of  $1,000,000  was  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  President  for  the  erection 
of  coast  and  harbor  defeuces.  Another  sum 
of  $300,000  was  appropriated  for  the  purchase 
of  arms,  and  $150,000  for  saltpetre  to  make 
gunpowder.  The  President  was  also  author¬ 
ized  to  call  upon  the  governors  of  the  several 
states  to  form  an  army,  in  the  aggregate,  of 
one  hundred  thousand  militia,  to  be  immedi¬ 
ately  organized,  equipped,  and  “held  in  readi¬ 
ness  to  march  at  a  moment’s  warning”  when 
called  for  by  the  chief  magistrate  —  in  other 
words,  one  hundred  thousand  minute-men. 
The  President  was  authorized  to  construct 
arsenals  and  armories  at  his  discretion ;  and 
$200,000  were  placed  at  his  disposal  for  pro¬ 
viding  equipments  for  the  whole  body  of  the 
militia  of  the  republic.  About  $1,000,000  were 
appropriated  to  pay  the  first  year’s  expenses  of 
the  seven  new  regiments.  Altogether  the  gov¬ 
ernment  appropriated  in  1808  about  $5,000,000 
for  war  purposes.  Efforts  to  increase  the  navy 
failed.  Men  were  needed  for  the  additional  one 
hundred  and  eighty  -  eight  gunboats,  the  con¬ 
struction  of  which  was  authorized  in  Decem¬ 
ber,  1807.  Nothing  was  done  until  January, 
1809,  when  the  President  was  authorized  to 
equip  three  frigates  and  a  sloop  of  war. 

Army  Officers  (1812).  In  organizing  the 
military  forces  for  war  in  1812  the  following 


appointments  were  made:  Henry  Dearborn,  a 
soldier  of  the  Revolution,  collector  of  the  port 
of  Boston,  late  Secretary  of  War,  and  then  six¬ 
ty  years  of  age,  was  appointed  (February, 
1812)  first  major-general,  or  acting  command¬ 
er-in-chief  of  the  armies  in  the  field,  having 
tbe  Northern  Department  under  his  immediate 
control.  Thomas  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina, 
also  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution,  was  appointed 
(March,  1812)  second  major-general,  and 
placed  in  command  of  the  Southern  Depart¬ 
ment.  Joseph  Bloomfield  (Governor  of  New 
Jersey),  James  Winchester  (of  Tennessee),  John 
P.  Boyd  (of  Massachusetts),  and  William  Hull 
(then  Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Michigan), 
were  commissioned  (April  8,  1812)  brigadiers. 
The  same  commission  was  given  (June)  to 
Thomas  Flournoy,  of  Georgia.  John  Arm¬ 
strong,  of  New  York  (see  Armstrong),  was  also 
commissioned  (July  4)  a  brigadier,  to  fill  a  va¬ 
cancy  caused  by  the  recent  death  of  General 
Peter  Gansevoort.  This  was  sood  followed 
(July  8)  by  a  like  commission  for  John  Chaud- 
ler,  of  Maine.  Morgan  Lewis,  of  New  York, 
was  appointed  quartermaster -general  (April 
3),  and  Alexander  Smyth,  of  Virginia,  was 
made  inspector-general  (March  30) — each  bear¬ 
ing  the  commission  of  a  brigadier.  Thomas 
Cushing,  of  Massachusetts,  was  appointed  ad¬ 
jutant-general  with  the  rank  of  brigadier. 
James  Wilkinson,  of  Maryland,  the  senior  brig¬ 
adier  in  the  army,  was  sent  to  New  Orleans  to 
relieve  Wade  Hampton  (now  a  brigadier),  who 
was  a  meritorious  subaltern  officer  in  South 
Carolina  during  the  Revolution.  Alexander 
Macomb  of  the  engineers  —  one  of  the  first 
graduates  of  the  United  States  Military  Acad¬ 
emy  at  West  Point  (which  see) — was  promot¬ 
ed  to  colonel,  and  Winfield  Scott  ,  Edward  Pen¬ 
dleton  Gaines,  and  Eleazer  W.  Ripley  were 
commissioned  colonels.  Scott  and  Gaines  were 
of  Virginia  ;  Ripley,  of  Maine. 

Army  of  Liberation  in  Missouri.  By  in¬ 
vitation  of  Governor  Jackson,  of  Missouri,  Gen¬ 
eral  Gideon  J.  Pillow,  in  command  of  Tennessee 
troops,  entered  Missouri  at  or  near  the  close  of 
July,  1861,  and  took  post  at  New  Madrid.  He 
had  suggested  this  movement  at  an  earlier  day 
as  a  part  of  a  plan  for  securing  possession  of 
Bird’s  Point  (which  see)  to  the  Confederacy. 
He  was  empowered  to  make  and  enforce  such 
civil  police  regulations  as  he  might  deem  nec¬ 
essary  for  the  security  of  his  forces,  the  preser¬ 
vation  of  order  and  discipline  in  his  camp,  and 
the  protection  of  the  lives  and  property  of  the 
citizens— in  other  words,  to  establish  martial 
law.  Jackson  clothed  one  of  his  brigadiers 
(M.  J.  Thompson)  with  similar  authority,  and 
he  and  Pillow,  with  W.  J.  Hardee,  who  was  com¬ 
missioned  a  brigadier  in  the  Confederate  ser¬ 
vice,  held  military  possession  of  the  southeast¬ 
ern  districts  of  the  commonwealth,  and  made 
vigorous  preparations  to  co-operate  with  Gen¬ 
eral  Price  and  his  associates  in  “expelling  the 
enemy”  from  the  state.  Pillow  assumed  the 
pompous  title  of  “Liberator  of  Missouri,”  and 
his  orders  and  despatches  were  headed,  “  Head¬ 
quarters  Army  of  Liberation.” 


ARMY  OF  OCCUPATION 


65 


ARMY  OF  THE  NORTH 


Army  of  Occupation  (1845-46).  When  the 
annexation  of  Texas  caused  warlike  prepara¬ 
tions  in  Mexico,  General  Zachary  Taylor  was 
ordered  to  proceed  to  a  point  near  the  frontier 
between  the  two  countries  to  defend  Texas 
from  invasion.  Taylor  was  then  in  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Southwest.  In  a  let¬ 
ter  of  instructions  from  the  War  Department, 
he  was  told,  “  Texas  must  be  protected  from 
hostile  invasion ;  and  for  that  purpose  you 
will,  of  course,  employ  to  the  utmost  extent 
all  the  means  you  possess  or  can  command.” 
He  at  once  repaired  to  New  Orleans  with  fif¬ 
teen  hundred  men  (July,  1845),  where  he  em¬ 
barked,  and  early  in  August  arrived  at  the  isl¬ 
and  of  St.  Josephs  on  the  Texan  coast,  whence 
he  sailed  for  Corpus  Christi,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Nueces,  where  he  established  his  headquar¬ 
ters.  Ihere  he  was  soon  afterwards  reinforced 
by  seven  companies  of  infantry  under  Major 
Brown  and  two  volunteer  companies  under  Ma¬ 
jor  Gaily.  With  these  forces  he  remained  at 
Corpus  Christi  until  the  next  spring,  wTben  the 
camp  at  that  place  was  broken  up  (March  8, 
1846),  and  the  Army  of  Occupation  proceeded 
to  Poiut  Isabel,  nearer  the  Rio  Grande.  When 
approaching  Point  Isabel,  Taylor  was  met  by  a 
deputation  of  citizens,  and  presented  with  a 
protest,  signed  by  the  Prefect  of  the  Northern 
District  of  the  Department  of  Tamaulipas, 
against  the  presence  of  his  army.  But  he 
pressed  forward  to  Point  Isabel,  from  whence, 
with  a  larger  portion  of  his  army,  he  proceed¬ 
ed  to  the  Rio  Grande  opposite  Matamoras,  arriv¬ 
ing  there  on  March  29.  There  he  began  the 
erection  of  defensive  works;  and  so  the  Army 
of  Occupation  in  Texas  assumed  a  hostile  atti¬ 
tude  towards  the  Mexicans.  (See  Mexico,  War 
with.) 

Army  of  the  James,  on  the  Appomattox. 
When  General  Grant  began  his  march  against 
Richmond  (May,  1864),  General  Benjamin  F. 
Butler  was  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
James,  and  was  directed  to  co-operate  with 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Butler  prepared 
to  make  a  vigorous  movement  agaiust  Rich¬ 
mond  from  the  south,  while  Grant  moved 
down  from  the  north.  Butler’s  effective  force 
was  about  forty  thousand  men  when  he  was 
ordered  to  advance.  It  was  composed  chiefly 
of  the  eighteenth  army  corps,  commanded  by 
General  W.  F.  Smith,  and  the  tenth  corps  un¬ 
der  General  Q.  A.  Gillmore,  who  arrived  at  For¬ 
tress  Monroe  May  3.  Butler  successfully  de¬ 
ceived  the  Confederates  as  to  his  real  inten¬ 
tions  by  making  a  demonstration  towards 
Richmond  by  way  of  the  York  River  and  the 
Peninsula,  along  McClellan’s  line  of  march. 
On  the  night  of  May  4,  Butler’s  army  was  em¬ 
barked  on  transports  and  conveyed  around  to 
Hampton  Roads ;  and  at  dawn  the  next  morn¬ 
ing  thirty -five  thousand  troops,  accompanied 
by  a  squadron  of  war  vessels  under  Admiral 
Lee,  were  rapidly  ascending  the  James  tow¬ 
ards  City  Poiut,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Appo¬ 
mattox.  At  the  same  time,  General  A.  V. 
Kautz,  with  three  thousand  cavalry,  moving 
swiftly  from  Suffolk,  south  of  the  James, 
I.— 5 


struck  the  Weldon  railway  south  of  Peters¬ 
burg,  and  burned  a  bridge  over  Stony  Creek, 
while  Colonel  R.  M.  West,  with  eighteen  hun¬ 
dred  cavalry  ( mostly  colored  men  ),  moved 
from  Williamsburg  up  the  north  bank  of  the 
James,  keeping  abreast  of  the  grand  flotilla. 
The  bewildered  Confederates  made  no  serious 
opposition  to  these  movements.  A  division  of 
National  troops  took  quiet  possession  of  City 
Point  (May  5)  and  the  war  vessels  took  a  posi¬ 
tion  above  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox.  At 
the  same  time  a  heavy  force  landed  on  a  trian¬ 
gular  piece  of  land  between  the  James  and  Ap¬ 
pomattox,  called  Bermuda  Hundred,  and  there 
established  an  intrenched  camp.  In  the  space 
of  twenty-four  hours,  Butler  gained  an  important 
foothold  within  fifteen  miles  of  Richmond  in  a 
straight  line,  and  only  about  eight  miles  from 
Petersburg.  This  movement  produced  great 
consternation  at  Richmond  ;  but  before  Peters¬ 
burg  could  be  seriously  threatened  by  Butler, 
Beauregard  was  there  with  troops  from  Charles¬ 
ton. 

Army  of  the  North,  Operations  of  the 
(1813).  In  the  summer  of  1812,  General  Joseph 
Bloomfield  was  sent  to  Lake  Champlain  with 
several  regiments,  and  on  September  1  he  had 
gathered  at  Plattsbnrg  about  eight  thousand 
men — regulars,  volunteers,  and  militia — besides 
small  advanced  parties  at  Chazy  and  Cham¬ 
plain.  General  Dearborn  took  direct  com¬ 
mand  of  this  army  soon  afterwards,  and  about 
the  middle  of  November  he  made  an  unsuc¬ 
cessful  attempt  to  invade  Canada.  No  other 
special  military  movements  occurred  in  that 
quarter  until  the  next  year.  General  Wade 
Hampton  succeeded  Bloomfield  in  command 
on  Lake  Champlain,  and  in  the  summer  of 
1813  he  was  at  the  head  of  four  thousand 
men,  with  his  headquarters  at  Burlington,  Yt. 
This  force  composed  the  right  wing  of  the 
Army  of  the  North,  of  which  General  Wilkin¬ 
son  was  commander-in-chief.  There  was  such 
personal  enmity  between  these  two  command¬ 
ers  that  the  public  service  was  greatly  injured 
thereby.  The  Secretary  of  War  (Armstrong) 
was  preparing  to  invade  Canada  by  way  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and,  fearing  the  effects  of 
this  enmity,  transferred  the  headquarters  of 
the  War  Department  to  Sackett’s  Harbor,  at 
the  east  end  of  Lake  Ontario,  that  he  might 
promote  harmony  between  these  testy  old  gen¬ 
erals.  In  arranging  for  the  expedition  down 
the  St.  Lawrence  (which  see),  Armstrong  di¬ 
rected  Hampton  to  penetrate  "Canada  towards 
Montreal  by  way  of  the  Sorel  River.  Instead 
of  obeying  the  order,  Hampton  marched  li is 
troops  to  the  Chateaugay  River,  and  at  Cha- 
teaugay  Four  Corners  he  tarried  twenty -six 
days  awaiting  orders.  Finally  he  was  or¬ 
dered  to  descend  the  Chateaugay  and  meet 
Wilkinson  at  its  mouth.  He  moved  forward 
late  in  October,  when  he  was  confronted  by 
Lieutenant  -  colonel  De  Salaberry,  near  the 
junction  of.  Outard  Creek  and  the  Chateau¬ 
gay,  where  Hampton  encamped  and  was  over¬ 
taken  by  his  artillery.  De  Salaberry  was 
encamped  with  a  force  about  one  thousand 


ARMY  OF  THE  POTOMAC 


66 


ARMY  OF  THE  POTOMAC 


strong,  and  Sir  George  Prevost  and  General 
De  Watteville  were  within  bugle-call.  Hamp¬ 
ton  resolved  to  dislodge  De  Salaberry,  and 
sent  a  force  under  Colonel  Robert  Purdy  on 
the  evening  of  Oct.  25  to  force  a  ford  and 
fall  upon  the  British  rear.  Purdy  lost  his 
way  in  a  hemlock  swamp.  Meanwhile  Hamp¬ 
ton  put  three  thousand  five  hundred  of  his 
men  in  motion  under  General  George  Izard, 
who  moved  to  the  attack  at  two  o’clock  in 
the  afternoon.  De  Salaberry  came  out  with 
a  few  Canadians  and  Indians,  but  finding  over¬ 
whelming  numbers  in  front  of  him  he  fell  back 
to  his  intrenched  camp.  Firing  was  now  heard 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  Purdy,  who 
had  neglected  to  post  pickets,  had  been  sur¬ 
prised,  his  troops  flying  to  the  river.  Several 
of  his  officers  and  men  swam  across,  and  bore 
alarming  news  of  a  heavy  force  approaching. 
Instead  of  such  a  force  approaching,  those 
who  attacked  Purdy  had  fled  at  the  first  fire; 
and  so  the  belligerents  were  in  the  ridiculous 
predicament  of  running  away  from  each  oth¬ 
er.  De  Salaberry  now  tried  a  clever  trick. 
He  posted  buglers  at  some  distance  from  each 
other,  and  when  some  concealed  provincial  mi¬ 
litia  opened  fire  almost  upon  Hampton’s  flanks, 
the  buglers  sounded  a  charge.  Hampton  was 
alarmed,  for  the  position  of  the  buglers  indi¬ 
cated  an  extensive  British  line,  and  he  sup¬ 
posed  a  heavy  force  was  about  to  fall  upon  his 
front  and  flank.  He  immediately  sounded  a 
retreat  and  withdrawal  to  his  old  quarters  at 
Chateaugay  Four  Corners,  annoyed  all  the 
way  by  the  fire  of  Canadian  militia.  There 
this  inglorious  campaign  ended.  The  Ameri¬ 
cans  lost  in  this  affair  fifteen  killed  and  twen¬ 
ty-three  wounded.  The  British  lost  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing,  twenty-five.  “No  offi¬ 
cer,”  said  a  distinguished  general  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  army,  “  who  had  any  regard  for 
his  reputation,  would  voluntarily  acknowl¬ 
edge  himself  as  having  been  engaged  in  it.” 
Hampton  refused  to  meet  Wilkinson  at.  St.  Re¬ 
gis,  as  the  latter  had  requested  after  the  bat¬ 
tle  at  Chrysler’s  Field.  Wilkinson  directed 
Hampton  to  join  the  camp  at  French  Mills. 
This  order,  also,  he  disobeyed,  and  retired  to 
Plattsburg  with  his  army  of  four  thousand 
men.  He  had  accomplished  the  defeat  of  ef¬ 
forts  to  take  Canada,  by  which  he  gratified 
his  wish  to  thwart  Armstrong  and  Wilkinson, 
whom,  in  his  supreme  egotism,  he  despised. 
Leaving  General  Izard,  of  South  Carolina,  in 
command  at  Plattsburg,  Hampton  abandoned 
the  service,  to  the  great  relief  of  the  Army  of 
the  North  and  the  people.  The  Army  of  the 
North  especially,  and  the  cause  generally,  were 
greatly  injured  by  the  appointment  of  Arm¬ 
strong,  Wilkinson,  and  Hampton  to  high  of¬ 
fice.  The  services  intrusted  to  them,  and  in 
which  they  all  signally  failed,  would,  un¬ 
doubtedly,  have  been  successfully  performed 
by  younger  officers. 

Army  of  the  Potomac  (  1863 ).  When  the 
battle  of  Fredericksburg  (which  see)  had  ended, 
there  was  much  feeling  against  General  Burn¬ 
side  on  the  part  of  the  officers  of  the  Army  of 


the  Potomac  who  had  participated  in  it.  An 
order  received  by  Burnside,  just  as  he  was  pre¬ 
paring  for  other  active  operations,  from  the 
President  of  the  United  States  (Dec.  30,  1862), 
directing  him  not  to  enter  upon  further  opera¬ 
tions  without  his  (the  President’s)  knowledge, 
satisfied  him  that  enemies  in  his  own  army 
were  at  work  against  him.  Burnside  hastened 
to  Washington  for  an  explanation,  when  he 
learned  that  general  officers  of  his  army  had 
declared  that  such  was  the  feeling  among  the 
troops  against  him  that  the  safety  of  the  army 
would  be  imperilled  by  a  movement  under  his 
direction.  He  believed  there  was  a  secret  con¬ 
spiracy  among  the  officers  for  his  removal.  He 
returned  to  the  army,  determined  to  do  what  he 
might  to  retrieve  the  disaster  at  Fredericks¬ 
burg,  but  was  soon  induced  to  return  to  Wash¬ 
ington,  bearing  a  general  order  for  the  instant 
dismissal  or  relief  from  duty  of  several  of  the 
generals  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  wdiom 
lie  charged  with  “  fomenting  discontent  in  the 
army.”  Generals  Hooker,  Brooks,  and  Newton 
were  designated  for  instant  dismissal;  and  Gen¬ 
erals  Franklin,  W.  F.  Smith,  Cochran,  and  Ferre- 
ro,  and  Lieutenant-colonel  J.  H.  Taylor,  were  to 
be  relieved  from  duty  in  that  army.  Generals 
Franklin  and  Smith  had  written  a  joint  letter 
to  the  President  (Dec.  21)  expressing  their  opin¬ 
ion  that  Burnside’s  plan  of  operations  could 
not  succeed,  and  substantially  recommending 
that  McClellan  should  be  reinstated  in  com¬ 
mand.  Burnside  was  competent  to  issue  the 
order  for  such  dismissal  and  relief  on  his  own 
responsibility,  but  he  submitted  it  to  the  Presi¬ 
dent.  The  latter  was  perplexed.  He  talked 
with  Burnside  as  a  friend  and  brother,  and  it 
was  finally  arranged  that,  the  general  should  be 
relieved  of  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  and  await  orders  for  further  service. 
Major  -  geueral  Joseph  Hooker  vras  appointed 
Burnside’s  successor.  In  making  this  appoint¬ 
ment  the  President  wrote  a  fatherly  letter  to 
Hooker,  in  which,  after  speaking  of  his  many 
excellent  qualities  as  a  soldier,  he  referred  to 
his  (Hooker)  having  beeu,  with  others,  to  blame 
for  too  freely  criticising  the  military  conduct  of 
Burnside,  and  so  doing  a  great  wrong  to  him. 
He  reminded  Hooker  that  he  wrnnld  now  be 
open  to  such  criticism,  but  that  he  (Lincoln) 
would  do  w  hat  he  might  to  suppress  it,  for  little 
good  could  be  got  out  of  an  army  in  w  hich  such 
a  spirit  prevailed.  The  army  was  then  lying, 
weak  and  demoralized,  at,  Falmouth,  opposite 
Fredericksburg.  From  January  until  April 
(1863)  Hooker  was  engaged  in  preparing  for  a 
vigorous  summer  campaign.  His  forces  re¬ 
mained  in  comparative  quiet  for  about  three 
months,  during  which  time  they  were  reorgan¬ 
ized  and  well  disciplined,  and  at  the  close  of 
April  his  army  numbered  one  hundred  thousand 
effective  men.  General  Lee’s  army,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  had  been  divided,  a  large  force, 
under  General  Longstreet,  having  been  required 
to  watch  the  movements  of  the  Nationals  under 
General  Peck  in  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk.  Lee 
had  in  hand  about  sixty  thousand  wTell-drilled 
j  Iroops,  lying  behind  strong  intrenchmeuts  ex- 


ARMY  OF  THE  POTOMAC  CREATED  67 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


tending  twenty-five  miles  along  the  line  of  tlie 
Rappahannock  River.  Hooker  had  made  im¬ 
portant  changes  in  the  organization  of  the 
army,  and  in  the  various  staff  departments ; 
and  the  cavalry,  hitherto  scattered  among  the 
three  grand  divisions  into  which  the  six  corps 
of  the  army  had  been  consolidated — two  corps 
in  each — and  without  organization  as  a  corps, 
were  now  consolidated  and  soon  placed  in  a 
state  of  greater  efficiency.  To  improve  them  he 
had  seut  them  out  upon  raids  within  the  Con¬ 
federate  lines,  and  for  several  weeks  the  region 
between  Bull’s  Run  and  the  Rapid  Anna  was  the 
theatre  of  many  daring  cavalry  exploits. 

Army  of  the  Potomac  Created  (1861).  On 
the  day  after  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Ruu  (which 
see)  General  McClellan,  then  in  Western  Vir¬ 
ginia,  was  summoned  to  Washington  and  placed 
in  command  of  the  shattered  army  there.  The 
Departments  of  Washington  and  of  Northeast¬ 
ern  Virginia  were  created  and  placed  under  the 
command  of  McClellan.  The  Department  of  the 
Shenandoah  was  also  created,  and  General  N.  P. 
Banks  was  placed  in  command  of  it,  relieving 
Major-general  Patterson.  McClellan  turned 
over  the  command  of  the  troops  in  Western  Vir¬ 
ginia  to  General  Rosecrans,  and  on  July  27  he 
entered  with  zeal  upon  the  duty  of  reorganizing 
the  army  in  the  vicinity  of  the  national  capital. 
He  brought  to  the  service  youth,  a  spotless  mor¬ 
al  character,  robust  health,  untiring  industry,  a 
good  theoretical  military  education,  the  prestige 
of  recent  success,  aud  the  unlimited  confidence 
of  the  loyal  people.  Having  laid  a  broad  moral 
foundation  for  an  efficient  army  organization, 
he  proceeded  with  skill  and  vigor  to  mould  his 
material  into  perfect  symmetry.  So  energeti¬ 
cally  was  this  done  that  at  the  end  of  fifty  days 
an  army  of  at  least  100,000  men,  well  organized, 
officered,  equipped,  aud  disciplined,  were  in  and 
around  Washington.  At  that  time  the  entire 
force  in  his  department  included  152,000  sol¬ 
diers.  By  the  1st  of  March,  1862,  that  number 
was  so  increased  that  when,  at  that  time,  the 
forces  were  put  in  motion,  having  been  thor¬ 
oughly  drilled  and  disciplined,  the  grand  total 
of  the  army  was  222,000,  of  which  number  about 
30,000  were  sick  or  absent.  It  was  called  the 
“  Grand  Army  of  the  Potomac.” 

Army  of  the  Potomac  on  the  Peninsula 

(1862).  General  McClellan  left  Washington  for 
Fortress  Monroe,  April  1, 1862,  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  leaving  for  the 
defence  of  the  capital  and  other  service  more  re¬ 
mote  75,000.  Very  soon  there  were  120,000  men 
at  Fortress  Monroe,  exclusive  of  the  forces  of 
General  Wool,  the  commander  there.  A  large 
portion  of  these  moved  up  the  Peninsula  in  two 
columns,  one  under  General  S.  P.  Heintzelman, 
marching  near  the  York  River;  the  other  under 
General  Keyes,  near  the  James  River.  A  com¬ 
paratively  small  Confederate  force,  under  Gen¬ 
eral  J.  B.  Magruder,  formed  a  fortified  line  across 
the  Peninsula  in  the  pathway  of  the  Nationals. 
The  left  of  this  line  was  at  Yorktown,  and  the 
right  on  the  Warwick  River,  that  falls  into  the 
James.  In  front  of  this  line  McClellan’s  con¬ 


tinually  augmenting  army  remained  a  month, 
engaged  in  the  tedious  operations  of  a  regular 
siege,  under  the  direction  of  General  Fitz  John 
Porter,  skirmishing  frequently,  and,  on  one  oc¬ 
casion,  making  a  reconnoissance  in  force  that 
was  disastrous  to  the  Nationals.  On  the  3d  of 
May,  Magruder,  who  had  resorted  to  all  sorts 
of  tricks  to  deceive  and  mislead  the  Nationals, 
wrote  to  Cooper,  of  the  Confederate  War  Depart¬ 
ment  :  “ Thus,  with  five  thousand  men,  exclusive 
of  the  garrison,  we  stopped  and  held  in  check 
over  one  hundred  thousand  of  the  enemy.” 
McClellan  now  began  those  approaches  toward 
Richmond  which  resulted  in  the  Seven  Days’ 
battles  near  that  city. 

Army  of  the  United  States.  The  military 
system  of  the  United  States  is  based  upon  vol¬ 
unteer  armies,  raised  as  occasion  may  require. 
A  small  standing  army  is  kept  up  for  the  sup¬ 
port  of  good  order  and  for  safety  against  incur¬ 
sions  of  barbarians  on  the  borders  of  expanding 
settlements;  and  a  well-regulated  militia,  un¬ 
der  the  control  of  the  respective  states,  forms 
an  ample  body  of  citizen  soldiery.  The  first  act 
for  the  enrolment  in  the  militia  of  all  able-bod¬ 
ied  white  men  of  eighteen  and  under  forty-five 
years  of  age  was  passed  by  Congress  in  1792. 
The  act  provided  that  in  the  organization  there 
should  be  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery.  An 
act  was  passed  early  in  1795  which  empowered 
the  President,  in  case  of  invasion,  or  imminent 
danger  thereof,  to  call  forth  the  militia  of  the 
state  or  states  most  convenient  to  the  place  of 
danger.  He  was  also  empowered,  in  case  of 
insurrection,  or  when  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  should  be  opposed  by  a  combination  too 
powerful  to  be  suppressed  by  the  ordinary  course 
of  judicial  proceedings,  to  call  out  the  militia. 
The  late  Civil  War  gave  full  examples  of  the 
working  of  our  military  system.  When  combi¬ 
nations  in  the  slave -labor  states  became  too 
powerful  for  the  civil  authorities  to  oppose,  the 
President  of  the  United  States  called  for  75,000 
militia  (designating  the  number  required  from 
each  state)  to  suppress  them.  (See  President 
Lincoln’s  Call  for  Troops.)  As  soon  as  the  va¬ 
rious  regiments  from  the  states  were  mustered 
into  the  service  of  the  United  States  they  were 
no  longer  under  the  control  of  their  respective 
state  governments,  but  of  that  of  the  national 
government,  and  were  assigned  to  brigades,  di¬ 
visions,  corps,  and  armies,  according  to  the  re¬ 
quirements  of  the  service.  They  were  then  en¬ 
tirely  supported  by  the  national  government. 
All  their  general  and  staff  officers  were  commis¬ 
sioned  by  the  President,  and  no  officers,  after 
having  been  mustered  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  could  he  dismissed  by  the  state 
authorities.  During  the  Civil  War,  from  first  to 
last,  2,690,401  men,  including  reinforcements, 
were  enrolled,  equipped,  and  organized  into  ar¬ 
mies.  The  regular  army  during  that  war  was 
raised  to  something  over  50,000  men,  but  was 
reduced,  at  its  close,  to  30,000  men.  The  stand¬ 
ing  army  now  (1876)  numbers  25,000,  and  is  main¬ 
ly  used  in  garrisoning  the  permanent  fortifica¬ 
tions,  protecting  the  routes  of  travel  and  com¬ 
merce  across  the  continent,  and  preserving  or- 


ARMY  OF  VIRGINIA 


68 


ARNOLD 


der  among  the  Indian  tribes  west  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  River. 

Army  of  Virginia  (1862).  To  give  more  ef¬ 
ficiency  to  the  troops  covering  Washington  in 
1862,  they  were  formed  into  an  organization 
called  the  “Army  of  Virginia,”  and  placed  un¬ 
der  the  command  of  Major-general  John  Pope. 
General  Halleck  was  then  general-in-chief  of 
all  the  armies,  with  his  headquarters  at  Wash¬ 
ington.  The  corps  of  the  new  army  were  com¬ 
manded,  respectively,  by  Generals  McDowell, 
Banks,  and  Sigel.  When  McClellan  had  re¬ 
treated  to  Harrison’s  Landing  (which  see),  and 
the  Confederate  leaders  were  satisfied  that  no 
further  attempts  would  then  be  made  to  take 
Richmond,  they  ordered  Lee  to  make  a  dash  on 
Washington.  Hearing  of  this,  Halleck  ordered 
Pope,  in  the  middle  of  July,  to  meet  the  intend¬ 
ed  invaders  at  the  outset  of  their  raid.  General 
Rufus  King  led  a  troop  of  cavalry  that  de¬ 
stroyed  railroads  and  bridges  to  within  thirty 
or  forty  miles  of  Richmond.  Pope’s  troops  were 
posted  along  a  line  from  Fredericksburg  to  Win¬ 
chester  and  Harper’s  Ferry,  and  were  charged 
with  the  threefold  duty  of  covering  the  nation¬ 
al  capital,  guarding  the  valley  entrance  into 
Maryland  in  the  rear  of  Washington,  and  threat¬ 
ening  Richmond  from  the  north  as  a  diversion 
in  favor  of  McClellan. 

Army,  The  (1861).  When  Mr.  Lincoln  en¬ 
tered  upon  the  duties  of  President  of  the  Re¬ 
public  (March  4,  1861)  the  total  regular  force 
of  the  army  was  16,000  men,  and  these  were 
principally  in  the  Western  states  and  territo¬ 
ries,  guarding  the  frontier  settlers  against  the 
Indians.  The  forts  and  arseuals  on  the  sea¬ 
board,  especially  within  the  slave-labor  states, 
were  so  weakly  manned,  or  not  mauned  at  all, 
that  they  became  an  easy  prey  to  the  insur¬ 
gents.  The  consequence  was  that  they  were 
seized;  and  when  the  new  administration  came 
into  power,  of  all  the  fortifications  within  the 
slave-labor  states  only  Fortress  Monroe,  in  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  Forts  Jefferson,  Taylor,  and  Pickens, 
on  the  Gulf  coast,  remained  in  possession  of  the 
government.  The  seized  forts  were  sixteen  in 
number.  They  had  cost  the  government  about 
$6,000,000,  and  had  an  aggregate  of  1226  guns. 
All  the  arseuals  in  the  cotton-growing  states 
had  been  seized.  Twiggs  had  surrendered  a 
portion  of  the  National  army  in  Texas.  (See 
Twiggs's  Treacherous  Conduct.)  The  army  had  been 
put  so  far  out  of  reach,  and  the  forts  and  arse¬ 
nals  in  the  North  had  been  so  stripped  of  de¬ 
fenders,  by  the  ti’eacherous  Floyd,  Buchanan’s 
secretary  of  war,  in  preparation  for  the  assault 
on  the  Union  (see  Floyd's  Disloyal  Jets),  that 
the  government  was  threatened  with  sudden 
paralysis. 

Arnold  at  New  London  (1781).  When  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  found  that  the  allied  armies 
were  actually  going  to  Virginia,  he  tried  to 
alarm  Washington  by  threats  and  marauding 
expeditions.  He  sent  the  traitor,  Arnold,  with 
a  band  of  regulars  and  Tories  to  commit  atroci¬ 
ties  in  Connecticut.  Arnold  crossed  the  Sound, 
from  Long  Island,  and  on  Sept.  6,  1781,  landed 


his  troops  on  each  side  of  the  Thames,  below 
New  London.  He  plundered  and  burned  that 
town,  and  a  part  of  his  force  took  Fort  Gris¬ 
wold,  opposite,  by  storm.  It  was  gallantly  de¬ 
fended  by  Colonel  Ledyard  and.  a  garrison  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  poorly-armed  militiamen. 
Only  six  of  the  garrison  were  killed  in  the  con¬ 
flict,  but  after  the  surrender  the  British  officer 
in  command  (Colonel  Eyre)  murdered  Ledyard 
with  his  sword,  and,  refusing  to  give  quarter 
to  tlie  garrison,  seventy-three  were  massacred. 
Then  the  wounded  wTere  placed  in  a  baggage- 
wagon  and  sent  down  the  slope  towards  the 
river,  with  the  intention  of  drowning  them  in 
the  stream  at  its  foot,  but  the  vehicle  was 
caught  by  an  apple-tree.  The  cries  of  the  suf¬ 
ferers  could  be  heard  above  the  crackling  of 
the  burning  town  by  persons  across  the  river. 
With  this  atrocious  expedition  the  name  of 
Benedict  Arnold  disappears  from  the  records  of 
our  history. 

Arnold  at  Richmond.  Virginia  had  gener¬ 
ously  sent  her  best  defenders  to  help  Greene  in 
the  Carolinas,  when  Arnold,  the  traitor,  invaded 
the  state,  by  way  of  the  James  River,  with  a 
band  of  British  and  Tories.  (See  Arnold  in  Vir¬ 
ginia.)  Only  militia  remained  to  protect  the 
state.  These  were  called  out,  but  they  were  in- 
j  sufficient  for  the  emergency.  Arnold  penetrated 
to  Richmond,  hoping  to  catch  Governor  Jeffer¬ 
son  there,  but  the  latter  had  left.  Many  of  the 
i  inhabitants  fled  into  the  country,  followed  by 
the  militia.  After  taking  possession  of  Rich¬ 
mond,  destroying  the  cannon  -  foundery  there, 
and  casting  the  powder  that  he  could  not  carry 
away  into  the  river,  Arnold  promised  to  spare 
the  town  if  his  vessels  might  be  permitted  to 
carry  off-  the  tobacco  in  the  warehouses  unmo¬ 
lested.  The  proposition  was  rejected,  when  he 
applied  the  torch.  A  great  number  of  public 
and  private  buildings  were  burned,  with  a  large 
quantity  of  tobacco.  He  then  retreated  down 
the  river,  for  he  found  dangers  rapidly  gather¬ 
ing  around  him.  This  was  in  the  winter  of  1781. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  born  at  Norwich,  Conn., 
Jan.  3,  1741.  As  a  boy  he  was  bold,  mischievous, 


BIRTH-PLACE  OP  BENEDICT  ARNOLD. 


and  quarrelsome.  Apprenticed  to  an  apothe¬ 
cary,  he  ran  away,  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  but  de¬ 
serted.  For  four  years  (1763-67)  he  was  a  book¬ 
seller  and  druggist  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and 


ARNOLD 


69 


ARNOLD 


was  afterwards  master  and  supercargo  of  a  ves¬ 
sel  trading  to  the  West  Indies.  Immediately 
after  the  affair  at  Lexington,  he  raised  a  com¬ 
pany  of  volunteers  and  marched  to  Cambridge. 
There  he  proposed  to  the  Massachusetts  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Safety  an  expedition  against  Fort  Ti- 
conderoga,  and  was  commissioned  a  colonel. 
Finding  a  small  force,  under  Colonels  Easton, 
Brown,  and  Allen,  on  the  same  errand  when  he 
reached  Western  Massachusetts,  he  joined  them 
without  command.  (See  Ticonderoga.)  Return¬ 
ing  to  Cambridge,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
an  expedition  for  the  capture  of  Quebec,  which 
went  by  the  way  of  the  Kennebec,  the  Wilderness, 
and  the  Cliaudihre  River,  and,  after  terrible  suf¬ 
ferings,  reached  the  St.  Lawrence  and  boldly  de¬ 
manded  the  surrender  of  the  city.  (See  Arnold's 
Expedition.')  He  assisted  Montgomery  in  the 
siege  of  Quebec,  and  was  there  severely  wounded 
in  the  leg.  Montgomery  was  killed,  and  Arnold 
was  promoted  to  brigadier-general  (Jan.  10, 1776) 
and  took  command  of  the  remnant  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  troops  in  the  vicinity  of  Quebec.  Succeed¬ 
ed  by  Wooster,  he  went  up  Lake  Champlain  to 
Ticonderoga,  where  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  an  armed  flotilla  on  the  lake.  With  these  ves¬ 
sels  he  had  disastrous  battles(Oct.  11  and  13, 1776) 
with  British  vessels  built  at  St.Johns.  Arnold 
was  deeply  offended  by  the  appointment,  by  Con¬ 
gress,  early  in  1777,  of  five  of  his  juniors  to  the 
rank  of  major-general.  He  received  the  same 
appointment  soon  afterwards  (Feb.  7, 1777),  but 
the  affront  left  an  irritating  thorn  in  his  bosom, 
and  he  was  continually  in  trouble  with  his  fel¬ 
low-officers,  for  his  temper  was  violent  and  he 
was  not  upright  in  pecuniary  transactions.  Gen¬ 
eral  Schuyler  admired  him  for  his  bravery,  and 
was  his  abiding  friend  until  his  treason.  He  suc¬ 
cessfully  went  to  the  relief  of  Fort  Schuyler  on  the 
upper  Mohawk  (August,  1777),  with  eight  hun¬ 
dred  volunteers  ;  and  in  September  and  October 
following  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  de¬ 
feat  of  Burgoyne,  in  spite  of  General  Gates.  (See 
Bemis's  Heights,  Battles  on.)  There  he  was  again 
severely  wounded  in  the  same  leg,  and  was  dis¬ 
abled  several  months.  When  the  British  evacu¬ 
ated  Philadelphia  (June,  1778)  Arnold  was  ap¬ 
pointed  commander  at  Philadelphia,  where  he 
married  the  beautiful  young  daughter  of  a  lead¬ 
ing  Tory  (Edward  Shippen),  lived  extravagant¬ 
ly,  became  involved  in  debt,  was  accused  of  dis¬ 
honest  official  conduct,  plotted  treason  against 
his  country,  and,  when  his  scheme  had  failed, 
fled  to  the  British  lines  and  obtained  his  prom¬ 
ised  reward.  (See  Treason  of  Arnold.)  Arnold 
led  a  British  marauding  expedition  into  Virginia 
early  in  1781,  when  he  ascended  the  James  River 
and  inflicted  great  injury  by  burning  and  pil¬ 
laging  property.  In  September  (1781)  he  led  a 
force  of  British  and  Tories  to  the  coasts  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  who  massacred  the  garrison  at  Fort 
Griswold,  opposite  New  London,  and  burned  the 
latter  place.  Arnold  went  to  England  at  the 
close  of  the  war,  where  he  was  despised  and 
shunned  by  all  honorable  men.  He  was  after¬ 
wards  a  resident  of  St.  Johns,  New  Brunswick, 
engaged  chiefly  in  trade  and  navigation,  but  was 
very  unpopular.  He  was  thero  hung  in  effigy. 


His  son,  James  Robertson  (an  infant  at  the  time 
of  his  father’s  treason),  became  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  the  British  army.  Arnold’s  second 
wife  (daughterof  Chief-justice  Shippen,  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania),  whom  he  married  when  she  was  not 
quite  eighteen  years  of  age,  survived  him  just 
three  years.  Arnold  died  in  obscurity,  but  in 
comfortable  pecuniary  circumstances,  in  Glouces¬ 
ter  Place,  London,  June  14,  1804. 

Arnold  in  Virginia.  With  great  generosity 
Virginia  had  sent  her  best  troops  to  assist  the 
Carolinians  in  their  attempt  to  throw  off  the 
yoke  laid  upon  their  necks  by  Cornwallis.  To 
call  these  troops  back  from  Greene’s  army,  the 
British,  at  the  close  of  1780,  sent  Arnold,  the 
newly-bought,  traitor,  into  Virginia  with  a  ma¬ 
rauding  party  of  British  and  Tories,  about  six¬ 
teen  hundred  in  number,  with  seven  armed  ves¬ 
sels,  to  plunder,  distress,  and  alarm  the  people 
of  that  state.  In  no  other  way  could  Arnold  be 
employed  by  his  master,  for  respectable  British 
officers  refused  to  serve  with  him  in  the  army. 
He  arrived  at  Hampton  Roads  on  Dec.  30,  1780. 
Anxious  to  distinguish  himself,  he  immediate¬ 
ly  pushed  up  the  James  River  as  far  as  Rich¬ 
mond,  when,  after  destroying  a  large  quantity 
of  public  and  private  stores  there  and  in  the  vi¬ 
cinity  (Jan.  5, 1781),  he  withdrew  to  Portsmouth, 
opposite  Norfolk,  and  made  that  place  his  head¬ 
quarters  for  a  while.  Earnest  efforts  were  made 
to  capture  the  marauder,  but  in  vain.  Jefferson 
offered  $25,000  for  his  arrest,  and  Washington 
detached  Lafayette,  with  twelve  hundred  men, 
drawn  from  the  New  England  and  New  Jersey 
levies,  who  marched  to  Virginia  for  that  purpose 
and  to  protect  the  state.  A  portion  of  the  French 
fleet  went  from  Rhode  Island  (March  8)  to  shut 
Arnold  up  in  the  Elizabeth  River  and  assist  in 
capturing  him.  Steuben,  who  was  recruiting 
for  Greene’s  army  in  Virginia,  also  watched  him. 
The  effort  failed,  for  Arnold  was  vigilant  and 
extremely  cautious.  He  knew  what  would  be 
his  fate  if  caught.  “  What  would  the  Americans 
do  with  me,  if  they  should  catch  me?”  Arnold 
inquired  of  a  young  prisoner.  “They  would  cut 
off  and  bury  with  military  honors  your  leg  that 
was  wounded  at  Saratoga,  and  hang  the  rest,  of 
you,”  replied  the  young  American  soldier.  Gen¬ 
eral  Phillips  joined  Arnold  (March  26)  with  more 
than  two  thousand  men,  and  took  the  chief  com¬ 
mand.  The  traitor  accompanied  him  on  another 
expedition  up  the  James  River,  in  April,  and 
then  returned  to  New  York,  for  Cornwallis,  who 
came  into  Virginia  from  North  Carolina,  refused 
to  serve  with  him. 

Arnold,  Richard,  was  born  in  Providence, 
R.  I.,  April  12, 1828,  and  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1850.  Entering  the  artillery,  he  served  in 
Florida,  and  was  aid  to  General  Wool  in  Cali¬ 
fornia.  He  was  at  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run, 
served  on  the  Peninsula,  and  was  made  chief  of 
artillery  of  Banks’s  expedition  in  November,  1862, 
when  he  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers.  At  Port  Hudson  (which  see)  and 
in  the  Red  River  campaign  (which  see)  he  ren¬ 
dered  important  service;  also  in  the  capture  of 
Fort  Fisher,  and  of  Fort  Morgan,  near  Mobile. 


ARNOLD  70  ARSENAL  AT  ST.  LOUIS 


He  was  breveted  major-geueral  U.  S.  Army  in 
1866. 

Arnold,  Samuel  Greene,  was  born  in  Provi¬ 
dence,  R.  I.,  April  12,  1821.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1841,  find  (be  Cambridge 
Law  School  in  1845.  After  extensive  travel  in 
Europe,  the  East,  and  Smith  America, he  became, 
in  1852,  lieutenant-governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and 
in  1861  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Convention 
(which  see).  He  took  the  field  a  little  later  in 
command  of  a  battery  of  artillery,  and  as  aide- 
de-camp  to  Governor  Sprague.  He  was  lieu¬ 
tenant  -  governor,  1861-62,  and  United  States 
Senator  in  1863.  He  was  the  author  of  a  valu¬ 
able  History  of  Rhode  Island,  published  in  1859- 
60.  Mr.  Arnold  died  Feb.  14, 1880. 

Arnold’s  attempt  at  Corruption.  Soon  af¬ 
ter  his  flight  to  the  British  army,  Arnold,  the  j 
traitor,  published  an  “Address  to  the  Inhabi-  i 
tants  of  America,”  in  which  he  attempted  to  ■ 
gloss  over  his  treason  by  abusing  the  Congress 
and  the  French  alliance.  He  also  published  a 
“  Proclamation  to  the  Officers  and  Soldiers  of 
the  Continental  Army,”  in  which  he  contrasted 
the  wretchedness  of  their  condition  with  the 
prompt  pay  and  abundant  supplies  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  service.  To  induce  them  to  desert  he  offered 
fifteen  dollars  to  every  private  soldier,  and  to  the 
officers  commissions  in  the  British  army  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  rank  and  the  number  of  men  they 
might  bring  with  them.  This  effort  by  a  traitor 
to  corrupt  those  whom  he  had  sought  to  betray 
produced  no  result  except  to  excite  the  contempt 
and  scorn  of  the  American  soldiers. 

Arnold's  Expedition  to  Quebec.  While, 
Montgomery  was  successfully  invading  Canada 
by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  Colonel  Benedict 
Arnold  was  making  his  way  to  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Quebec  by  the  Kennebec  and  Chaudibre 
rivers,  through  a  terrible  wilderness.  Arnold, 
commissioned  a  colonel  in  the  Continental  Army, 
left  Cambridge  with  a  little  more  than  one  thou¬ 
sand  men,  composed  of  New  England  musket¬ 
eers  and  riflemen  from  Virginia  and  Pennsylva¬ 
nia,  the  hitter  under  Captain  Daniel  Morgan. 
He  sailed  from  Newburyport  for  the  Kennebec 
in  the  middle  of  September,  1775.  They  rendez¬ 
voused  at  Fort  Western,  on  the  Kennebec  River, 
opposite  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Augusta, 
Maine,  and  on  the  verge  of  a  wilderness  un¬ 
inhabited  except  by  a  few  Indian  hunters. 
At  Norridgewock  Falls  (see  Rale)  their  severe 
labors  began.  Their  bateaux  were  drawn  by 
oxen,  and  their  provisions  were  carried  on  their 
backs  around  the  falls — a  wearisome  task  often 
repeated  as  they  pressed  towards  the  head-wa¬ 
ters  of  the  Kennebec,  often  wading  and  pushing 
their  bateaux  against  swift  currents.  At  length 
they  left  that  stream  and  traversed  tangled  ra¬ 
vines,  craggy  knolls,  and  deep  morasses,  until 
they  reached  the  Dead  River.  That  stream 
flowed  placidly  on  the  summit  of  the  water-shed 
between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Atlantic,  and 
they  moved  pleasantly  over  its  bosom  until  they 
encamped  at  the  foot  of  a  high  mountain  capped 
with  snow.  Sickness  and  desertion  now  began 
to  reduce  the  number  of  effective  men.  October 


was  passing  away.  Keen 
blasts  came  from  the 
north.  A  heavy  rain  fell, 
and  the  water,  rushing 
from  the  hills,  suddenly 
tilled  the  Dead  River  to 
its  brim  and  overflowed 
its  banks.  Some  of  the 
boats  were  overturned 
and  much  provision  was 
lost  or  spoiled.  Food 
for  only  twelve  days  re¬ 
mained.  A  detachment 
was  sent  to  get  a  sup¬ 
ply,  but  did  not  return. 
The  floods  began  to 
freeze  andthe  morassesbe- 
came  almost  impassable. 
Through  ice-cold  water 
they  were  frequently 
compelled  to  wade  ; 
even  two  women,  wives 
of  soldiers,  endured  this 
hardship.  Atlengththey 
reached  the  Chaudihre 
River,  that  empties  into 
the  St.  Lawrence.  Star¬ 
vation  threatened.  Sev¬ 
enty  miles  lay  between 
them  and  Sertigan,  the 
nearest  French  settle¬ 
ment.  Leaving  his  troops 
on  the  banks  of  the  up¬ 
per  Chaudiere,  Arnold  and  fifty-five  men  start¬ 
ed  down  the  river  for  Sertigan  to  obtain  food. 
Two  or  three  boats  had  been  wrecked  just  be¬ 
fore  their  departure,  and  much  of  their  scanty 
supply  of  food  was  lost.  Arnold  and  his  party 
reached  the  settlement.  Indians  were  sent  back 
with  provisions  and  as  guides  for  the  rest  of  the 
troops  to  the  settlement.  When  the  forces  were 
joined  they  moved  towards  the  St. Lawrence; 
and  on  the  9th  of  November,  in  a  heavy  snow¬ 
storm,  they  suddenly  appeared  at  Point  Levi, 
opposite  Quebec,  only  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
in  number.  It  was  almost  two  months  after 
they  left  Cambridge  before  they  reached  the 
St.  Lawrence.  Their  sufferings  from  cold  and 
hunger  had  been  extreme.  At  one  time  they 
had  attempted  to  make  broth  of  boiled  deer¬ 
skin  moccasins  to  sustain  life,  and  a  dog  belong¬ 
ing  to  Henry  (afterwards  General)  Dearborn 
made  savory  food  for  them.  In  this  expedition 
were  men  who  afterwards  became  famous  in 
American  history  —  Aaron  Burr,  R.  J.  Meigs, 
Henry  Dearborn,  Daniel  Morgan,  and  others. 

Arsenal  at  St.  Louis,  Attempted  Seizure 
of.  Under  the  inspiration  of  a  disloyal  graduate 
of  the  West  Point  Academy  (Daniel  M.  Frost),  a 
native  of  New  York,  and  under  the  lead  of  the 
Governor  of  Missouri  (C.  F.  Jackson),  an  attempt 
was  made  in  May,  1861,  to  seize  the  U.  S.  Arse¬ 
nal  at  St.  Louis.  The  Secessionists  had  already 
seized  one  unguarded  arsenal  at  Liberty,  Clay 
County,  under  the  direction  of  the  governor,  but 
the  one  at  St.  Louis  was  guarded  by  five  hun¬ 
dred  regular  troops,  under  Captain  Nathaniel 
Lyon,  who  had  been  appointed  commander  of 


ARNOLD’S  ROUTK  THROUGH 
THE  WILDERNESS. 


ARSENAL  AT  ST.  LOUIS 


71 


ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION 


the  post  in  place  of  Major  Bell,  a  Secessionist. 
The  governor  had  sent  orders  to  the  militia  offi¬ 
cers  of  the  state  to  assemble  their  respective 
commands  and  go  into  encampment  for  a  week, 
the  avowed  object  being  “to  attain  a  greater 
degree  of  efficiency  and  perfection  in  discipline.” 
For  weeks  before  the  President’s  call  for  troops 
the  Secessionists  of  St.  Louis  were  drilled  in  the 
use  of  tire-arms  in  a  building  in  that  city  ;  were 
furnished  with  state  arms  by  the  governor;  re¬ 
ceived  commissions  from  him,  and  were  sworn 
into  the  military  service  of  the  state.  They 


were  closely  watched  by  a  few  Unionists,  and 
finally  the  latter  class  in  St.  Louis  (who  were 
largely  of  the  German  population)  were  formed 
into  military  companies,  and  drilled  in  the  use  of 
fire-arms.  When  the  President’s  call  for  troops 
came,  they  openly  drilled,  made  their  place  of 
meeting  a  citadel,  established  a  perpetual  guard, 
and  kept  up  constant  communication  with  the 
arsenal.  They  were  denounced  by  the  Seces¬ 
sionists  as  “outlaws,  incendiaries,  and  miscre¬ 
ants,”  preparing  to  make  war  on  Missouri.  They 
were  relieved  by  an  order  from  the  President 
(April  30,  1861)  for  Captain  Lyon  to  enroll  into 
the  military  service  of  the  United  States  the  loy¬ 
al  citizens  of  St.  Louis,  in  number  not  exceeding 
one  thousand.  This  order  was  procured  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  Colonel  (afterwards 
Major-general)  Frank  P.  Blair,  who  bad  already 
raised  and  organized  a  regiment  of  Missourians, 
and  assisted  in  the  primary  formation  of  four 
others.  Meanwhile,  in  accordance  with  an  or¬ 
der  from  General  Wool  (see  Wool,  Major-General 
J.  E.),  a  large  portion  of  the  arms  at  the  .arse¬ 
nal  were  removed  (April  26)  secretly  to  Alton, 
Illinois,  in  a  steamboat,  and  thence  by  railway  to 
Springfield.  Frost,  the  New  York  Secessionist, 
whom  the  governor  had  commissioned  a  briga¬ 
dier-general,  formed  a  militia  camp  in  the  sub¬ 
urbs  of  St.  Louis,  and,  to  deceive  the  people, 
kept  the  national  flag  flying  over  it.  Captain 
Lyon  had  enrolled  a  large  number  of  volunteers, 
who  occupied  the  arsenal  grounds.  Some  of 
them,  for  want  of  room,  occupied  ground  out¬ 
side.  The  St.  Louis  police  demanded  their  re¬ 
turn  to  the  government  grounds,  because  they 
were  “Federal  soldiers,  violating  the  rights  of 
the  sovereign  state  of  Missouri.”  No  attention 
was  paid  to  this  demand.  To  make  his  little 
force  appear  large,  Lyon  sent  out  squads  at  night 
to  distant  points,  to  return  in  the  morning  with 
drums  beating  and  flags  flying.  Finally  word 


came  to  Lyon  that  cannons  and  mortars,  in  box¬ 
es  marked  “  marble,”  had  been  landed  from  a 
steamboat  and  sent  to  Frost’s  Secession  camp. 
Disguised  as  a  woman,  closely  veiled,  Lyon  rode 
around  that  camp,  and  was  satistied  that  it  was 
time  for  him  to  act  with  vigor.  Early  in  the 
afternoon  of  May  9,  Lyon,  by  a  quick  movement, 
surrounded  Frost’s  camp  with  six  thousand 
troops  and  heavy  cannon,  and  placing  guards 
so  as  to  prevent  any  communication  with  the 
city,  demanded  of  the  commander  the  immediate 
surrender  of  men  and  munitions  of  war  under 
him,  giving  him  only  thirty  minutes 
for  deliberation.  Intelligence  of 
this  movement  had  reached  the 
city,  and  an  armed  mob  of  Seces¬ 
sionists  rushed  out  to  assist  their 
friends.  They  were  too  late.  Frost 
surrendered  his  twelve  hundred 
militia,  twelve  hundred  new  rifles, 
twenty  cannons,  several  chests  of 
muskets,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
ammunition.  Most  of  these  materi¬ 
als  of  war  had  been  stolen  from  the 
arsenal  at  Baton  Rouge.  The  arse¬ 
nal  was  saved. 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  was  born 
in  Fairfield,  Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1830.  He  was  graduated 
at  Uuiou  College  in  1848,  studied  law,  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1854,  and  became  a  very 
successful  practitioner.  He  gained  much  celeb¬ 
rity  in  a  suit  which  involved  the  freedom  of 
some  slaves,  known  as  the  “Lemmon  case.”  He 
procured  the  admission  of  colored  persons  to  the 
street  cars  of  New  York  City  by  gaining  a  suit 
against  a  railway  company  in  1856.  Mr.  Arthur 
did  efficient  service  during  the  Civil  War  as 
Quartermaster  -  General  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  He  resumed  the  practice  of  law  after  the 
war.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  Collector  of 
the  Port  of  New  York,  and  was  removed  in 
1878.  In  1880,  he  was  elected  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  and  on  the  death  of 
President  Garfield,  Sept.  19,  1881,  he  became 
President.  He  died  Nov.  18,  1886. 

Articles  of  Confederation.  In  July,  1775, 
Dr.  Franklin  submitted  to  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress  a  plan  of  government  for  the  colonies,  to 
exist  until  the  war  then  begun  with  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  should  cease.  It  was  not  acted  upon.  On 
July  12,  1776,  a  committee,  appointed  on  July 
11,  reported,  through  John  Dickenson,  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  a  draft  of  “Articles  of  Confederation.” 
Almost  daily  debates  upon  it  continued  until 
August  20,  when  the  report  was  laid  aside,  and 
was  not  called  up  for  consideration  until  April 
8,  1777.  Meanwhile  several  of  the  states  had 
adopted  constitutions  for  their  respective  gov¬ 
ernments,  and  the  Congress  was  practically  ac¬ 
knowledged  the  supreme  head  in  all  matters  ap¬ 
pertaining  to  war,  public  finances,  etc.,  and  was 
exercising  the  functions  of  sovereignty.  From 
April  8  until  Nov.  15  ensuing,  the  subject  was 
debated  two  or  three  times  a  week,  and  several 
amendments  were  made.  On  Nov.  15, 1777,  after 
a  spirited  debate,  daily,  for  a  fortnight,  a  plan 
of  government,  known  as  “Articles  of  Coufod- 


UNITED  STATES  ARSENAL  AT  ST.  LOUIS. 


ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION 


72 


ARTS 


eration,”  was  adopted,  the  substance  of  which 
was,  that  the  thirteen  confederated  states  should 
be  known  as  the  “United  States  of  America;” 
that  all  engage  in  a  reciprocal  treaty  of  alliance 
and  friendship  for  mutual  advantage ;  each  to  as¬ 
sist  the  other  when  help  should  be  needed;  that 
each  state  should  h:;ve  the  right  to  regulate  its 
own  internal  affairs ;  that  no  state  should  sep¬ 
arately  send  or  receive  embassies,  begin  any  ne¬ 
gotiations,  contract  engagements  or  alliances,  or 
conclude  treaties  with  any  foreign  power,  with¬ 
out  the  consent  of  the  general  Congress ;  that 
no  public  officer  should  be  allowed  to  accept  any 
presents,  emoluments,  office,  or  title  from  any 
foreign  power;  and  that  neither  Congress  nor 
state  governments  should  possess  the  power  to 
confer  any  title  of  nobility ;  that  none  of  the 
states  should  have  the  right  to  form  alliances 
among  themselves  without  the  consent  of  Con¬ 
gress  ;  that  they  should  not  have  the  power  to 
levy  duties  contrary  to  the  enactments  of  t lie 
Congress  ;  that  no  state  should  keep  up  a  stand¬ 
ing  army  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  be¬ 
yond  the  amount  stipulated  by  Congress ;  that 
when  any  of  the  states  should  raise  troops  for 
the  common  defence,  all  officers  of  the  rank  of 
colonel  or  under  should  be"  appointed  by  the 
legislature  of  the  state,  and  the  superior  officers 
by  Congress;  that  all  expenses  of  the  war  should 
be  paid  out  of  the  public  treasury ;  that  Congress 
alone  should  have  the  power  to  coin  money  ;  and 
that  Canada  might  at  any  time  be  admitted  into 
the  confederacy  when  she  felt  disposed.  The  last 
clauses  of  the  “Articles  of  Confederation”  were 
explanatory  of  thepowersof  certain  government¬ 
al  operations,  and  contained  details  of  the  same. 
Under  this  weak  government,  without  a  sover¬ 
eign  head  anywhere,  its  whole  being  subject  to 
the  caprices  of  thirteen  distinct  legislative  bod¬ 
ies,  the  inchoate  nation  existed  about  seven 
years,  when  this  form  of  government  was  su¬ 
perseded  by  one  under  a  constitution  plethoric 
with  national  life,  and  by  which  the  republic  has 
become  one  of  the  leading  members  of  the  fami¬ 
ly  of  nations.  The  “Articles  of  Confederation” 
were  submitted  to  the  several  state  legislatures, 
and  if  approved  by  them  they  were  advised  to 
authorize  their  delegates  to  ratify  the  same  by 
affixing  their  signatures  thereto.  Slowly  the 
states  ratified  them,  some  of  them  pointing 
out  serious  defects,  and  all  taking  time  to  dis¬ 
cuss  them.  The  work  was  finally  accomplished, 
March  1, 1781,  by  the  signatures  of  the  delegates 
from  all  the  colonies.  (See  Articles  of  Confedera¬ 
tion ,  Signing  of  the.) 

Articles  of  Confederation,  Signing  of  the. 
Congress  again  assembled,  in  Philadelphia,  on 
July  2, 1778,  and  on  the  9tli  the  “  Articles  of  Con¬ 
federation”  (which  see),  engrossed  on  parchment, 
were  signed  by  the  delegates  of  eight  states.  A 
circular  was  sent  to  the  other  states,  urging  them 
“  to  conclude  the  glorious  compact  which  was  to 
unite  the  strength  and  councils  of  the  whole.” 
North  Carolina  acceded  to  the  Confederation  on 
the  21st  of  July ;  Georgia  on  the  24th,  and  New 
Jersey  on  the  26tli  of  November  following.  On 
May  5, 1779,  the  delegates  from  Delaware  agreed 
to  the  compact;  but  Maryland  steadily  refused 


to  assent  without  a  compliance  with  its  demands 
that  the  public  lauds  northwest  of  the  Ohio 
should  first  be  recognized  as  the  common  prop¬ 
erty  of  all  the  states,  and  held  as  a  common  re¬ 
source  for  the  discharge  of  the  debts  contracted 
by  Congress  for  the  expense  of  the  war.  Mary¬ 
land  alone  stood  in  the  way  of  the  consumma¬ 
tion  of  the  union  at  that  time.  This  point  was 
finally  settled  by  the  cession,  by  claiming  states, 
to  the  United  States,  of  all  unsettled  and  unap¬ 
propriated  lauds,  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole 
Union.  This  action  having  removed  all  objec¬ 
tions,  the  delegates  from  Maryland  signed  the 
“Articles  of  Confederation”  March  1,  1781,  and 
the  league  of  states  was  perfected. 

Artillery,  The  Ancient  and  Honorable,  was 
organized  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1638,  and  is  still 
(1876)  in  existence.  It  is  the  oldest  military 
organization  in  the  United  States.  On  the  oc¬ 
casion  of  its  annual  election  of  officers  it  has 
a  sermon  preached.  The  first  one  was  by 
the  Rev.  Uriah  Oakes,  in  1672.  On  the  top  of 
the  Bunker  Hill  Monument  are  two  cannons, 
named  respectively  “Hancock”  and  “Adams,” 
which  formerly  belonged  to  this  artillery  com¬ 
pany.  The  “Adams”  was  burst  by  them  in  firing 
a  salute.  Each  gun  bears  the  following  inscrip¬ 
tion  :  “  Sacred  to  Liberty.  This  is  one  of  four 
cannons  which  constituted  the  whole  train  of 
field-artillery  possessed  by  the  British  colonies 
of  North  America  at  the  commencement  of  the 
war,  on  the  19th  of  April,  1775.  This  cannon 
and  its  fellow,  belonging  to  a  number  of  citizeus 
of  Boston,  were  used  in  many  engagements  dur¬ 
ing  the  war.  The  other  two,  the  property  of  the 
government  of  Massachusetts,  were  taken  by  the 
enemy.” 

Arts,  Fine,  Introduction  of  the.  The  ear¬ 
lier  settlers  in  our  country  were  compelled  to 
battle  with  privations  of  every  kind,  and  for 
long  years  were  struggling  to  overcome  the  wil¬ 
derness  and  to  procure  food  and  clothing.  This 
condition  did  not  admit  of  the  cultivation  of 
festhetic  tastes.  Their  architecture  was  at  first 
little  superior  in  form  to  the  log-hut,  and  paint¬ 
ing  and  sculpture  were  strangers  to  most  of  the 
inhabitants.  Music,  for  use  in  public  worship 
only,  was  cultivated  to  the  extent  of  the  ability 
of  the  common  singing-master,  and  only  occa¬ 
sionally  poetry  was  attempted.  Engraving  was 
wholly  unknown  before  the  middle  of  the  last 
century.  At  about  that  time  Horace  Walpole 
wrote,  “As  our  disputes  and  politics  have  trav¬ 
elled  to  America,  it  is  probable  that  poetry 
and  painting,  too,  will  revive  amidst  those  ex¬ 
tensive  tracts,  as  they  increase  in  opulence  and 
empire,  and  where  the  stores  of  nature  are  so 
various,  so  magnificent,  and  so  new.”  That  was 
written  fourteen  years  before  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  Little  could  he  comprehend  the 
value  of  freedom,  such  as  the  Americans  were 
then  about  to  struggle  for,  in  the  development 
of  every  department  of  the  fine  arts,  of  which 
Dean  Berkeley  had  a  prophetic  glimpse  when  he 
wrote : 

“There  shall  be  sting  another  Golden  Age, 

The  rise  of  empires  and  of  arts. 

The  good  and  great,  inspiring  epic  rage, 

The  w.sest  heads  and  noblest  hearts.” 


ARTS 


73 


ASBURY 


The  rirst  painter  who  found  his  way  to  America 
professionally  was  John  Watson,  a  Scotchman, 
who  was  born  in  1685.  He  began  the  practice 
of  his  art  at  Perth  Amboy,  then  the  capital  of 
New  Jersey,  in  1715,  where  he  purchased  land 
and  built  houses.  He  lived  long,  and  died  at  an 
old  age.  John  Smybert  (which  see)  came  with 
Dean  Berkeley  in  1728,  and  began  portrait-paint¬ 
ing  in  Newport,  R.  I.  Nathan  Smybert,  “an 
amiable  youth,”  began  the  practice  of  paint¬ 
ing,  but  died  young  in  1757.  During  John  Smy- 
bert’s  time  there  were  Blackburn  in  Boston  and 
Williams  of  Philadelphia  who  painted  portraits. 
These  were  all  Englishmen.  The  first  Ameri¬ 
can  painter  was  Benjamin  West,  who  spent  a 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  England,  where  he  at¬ 
tained  to  a  high  reputation.  (See  West.)  John 
Singleton  Copley  was  his  contemporary,  and 
painted  portraits  so  early  as  1760.  At  the  same 
time  Woollaston,  who  painted  the  portraits  of 
Mrs.  Cnstis  (afterwards  Mrs.  Washington)  and 
her  husband,  about  1756.  He  was  an  English¬ 
man.  At  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  Charles 
Wilson  Peale,  who  had  learned  the  manipula¬ 
tion  of  the  art  from  Hesselius,  a  portrait  paint¬ 
er,  was  the  only  American,  if  we  except  young 
Trumbull,  who  might  be  called  a  good  artist, 
for  Copley  had  gone  to  England.  So  it  was  that 
the  fine  art  of  painting  was  introduced.  At  that 
time  there  were  no  professional  architects  in  the 
United  States.  Plans  for  churches,  other  than  the 
ordinary  buildings,  were  procured  from  abroad. 
The  “  meeting-house”  of  that  day  was  only  the 
shell  of  a  dwelling-house,  with  very  little  deco¬ 
ration,  and  with  a  small  bell-tower  rising  a  few 
feet  above  the  roof.  The  dwelling-houses  were 
extremely  plain,  generally.  When  a  fine  one  was 
to  be  built,  plans,  and  even  materials  sometimes, 
were  procured  from  Europe.  But  from  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  present  century  there  have  been 
competent  American  architects,  who  have  car¬ 
ried  the  people  through  the  various  styles — the 
Greek,  Gothic,  and  Mansard  —  of  architecture. 
Sculpture  waited  long  for  a  practitioner  in 
America,  and  very  little  of  the  sculptor’s  art 
was  known  in  this  country.  Within  forty  or 
fifty  years  it  has  become  appreciated,  and  now 
the  demand  for  statuary  promises  a  fair  fut¬ 
ure  for  the  sculptor.  Among  the  earlier  of 
good  American  sculptors  were  Horatio  Green- 
ough  and  Hiram  Powers.  They  may  be  said 
to  have  introduced  the  art.  Greenough  was  the 
first  American  who  produced  a  marble  group 
— “The  Chanting  Cherubs,”  for  J.  Feuimore 
Cooper.  Until  within  the  last  forty  years  there 
was  a  prudish  feeling  in  this  country  that  made 
nude  figures  an  abomination.  So  sensitive  were 
the  ladies  of  Philadelphia  concerning  the  an¬ 
tique  figures  displayed  at  the  exhibitions  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  that  one  day  in  the  week 
was  set  apart  for  the  visits  of  the  gentler  sex. 
Crawford  gave  to  American  sculpture  a  fame 
that  widened  that  of  Greenough  and  Powers. 
Now  (1883)  we  have  as  able  sculptors  as  any  in 
the  world.  Music  has  had  a  habitation  here, 
first  in  the  form  of  psalm-singing,  from  the  ear¬ 
liest  settlements.  Now  its  excellent  professors 
and  practitioners  are  legion  in  number.  The 


graphic  art  in  our  country  is  only  a  little  more 
than  a  century  old.  Nathaniel  Hurd,  of  Boston, 
engraved  on  copper  portraits  and  caricatures  as 
early  as  1762.  Paul  Revere,  also,  engraved  at 
the  period  of  the  Revolution.  He  engraved  the 
plates  for  the  Continental  money.  Amos  Doo¬ 
little  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  our  better  en¬ 
gravers  on  copper.  The  late  Dr.  Alexander  An¬ 
derson  (which  see)  was  the  first  man  who  en¬ 
graved  on  wood  in  this  country — an  art  now 
brought  to  the  highest  perfection  here.  The 
earliest  and  best  engraver  on  steel  was  Asher 
B.  Durand,  now  (1880)  living,  who  became  one 
of  the  first  line-engravers  in  the  world,  but  aban¬ 
doned  the  profession  for  the  art  of  painting. 
The  art  of  lithography  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  in  1821,  by  Messrs.  Burnet  and 
Doolittle,  and  steadily  gained  favor  as  a  cheap 
method  of  producing  pictures.  It  is  now  ex¬ 
tensively  employed  in  producing  chromo-litho- 
graphic  pictures.  Photography,  the  child  of  the 
daguerreotype,  was  first  produced  in  England 
by  Mr.  Talbot,  and  was  introduced  here  chiefly 
by  the  labors  in  science  of  Dr.  J.  W.  Draper  of 
New  York.  Indeed,  the  discovery  of  the  proc¬ 
ess  of  making  pictures  by  employing  sunlight 
as  the  artist  was  tl>e  result  of  the  previous  exper¬ 
iments  and  writings  concerning  the  chemical  ac¬ 
tion  of  light  by  Dr.  Draper.  The  “American 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts”  was  incorporated  in  1808, 
and  the  first  public  exhibition  of  works  of  art 
followed.  It  did  not  prosper.  At  the  suggestion 
of  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  younger  painters  associated, 
and  in  1826  organized  the  “  National  Academy 
of  the  Arts  of  Design  in  the  United  States.”  Mr. 
Morse  was  the  first  president.  Only  one  of  the 
original  officers, Gen. T.S. Cummings,  now  (1887) 
survives. 

Asboth,  Alexander  Sandor,  a  native  of 
Hungary,  where  he  was  born  Dec.  18,  1811, 
died  in  Buenos  Ayres,  Jan.  21,  1868.  He  had 
served  in  the  Austrian  army,  and  at  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  European  revolution  in  1848  he 
entered  the  insurgent  army  of  Hungary,  strug¬ 
gling  for  Hungarian  independence.  He  accom¬ 
panied  Kossuth  in  exile  in  Turkey.  In  the  au¬ 
tumn  of  1851  he  came  to  the  United  States  in 
the  frigate  Mississippi,  and  became  a  citizen. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  in  1861  he  offered 
his  services  to  the  government,  and  in  July  he 
went  as  chief  of  Fremont’s  staff  to  Missouri, 
where  he  was  soon  promoted  to  brigadier-gener¬ 
al.  He  performed  faithful  services  until  wound¬ 
ed  in  the  face  and  one  arm,  in  Florida,  in  a  bat¬ 
tle  on  Sept.  27, 1864.  For  his  services  there  he 
was  breveted  a  major-general  in  the  spring  of 
1865,  and  in  August  following  ho  resigned,  and 
was  appointed  Minister  to  the  Argentine  Repub¬ 
lic.  The  wound  in  his  face  caused  liis  death. 

Asbury,  Francis,  D.D.,  was  the  first  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  America. 
He  was  born  at  Handsworth,  Staffordshire,  Eng¬ 
land,  Aug.  26,  1745  ;  died  at  Spottsylvania,  Va., 
March  31,  1816.  In  his  twenty-third  year  ho 
became  an  itinerant  preacher  under  the  guid¬ 
ance  of  John  Wesley,  and  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1771.  The  next  year  Wesley  appoint- 


ASGILL 


74 


ASSASSINATION  OF  LINCOLN 


ed  him  general  superintendent  of  the  Methodist 
churches  in  America,  and  he  held  that  office  until 
the  close  of  the  Revolution,  when  the  Method¬ 
ists  here  organized  as  a  body  separate  from  the 
church  in  England.  Mr.  Asbury  was  consecrat¬ 
ed  bishop  by  Dr.  Coke  in  1784.  After  that,  for 
thirty-two  years,  he  travelled  yearly  through  the 
Uuited  States,  ordaining  not  less  than  3000  min¬ 
isters,  and  preaching  not  less  than  17,000  sermons. 

Asgill,  Sir  Charles,  held  for  retaliation  by 
Washington.  (See  Huddy  and  Asgill.)  He  was 
born  in  England  in  1762;  died  a  baronet  and 
British  general  in  July,  1823.  He  was  a  son  of 
Sir  Charles  Asgill,  Alderman  of  London.  He 
was  among  the  troops  under- Cornwallis  surren¬ 
dered  at  Yorktown,  where  he  held  the  position 
of  captain.  After  his  narrow  escape  from  death 
under  the  law  of  retaliation,  he  returned  home, 
and  served  with  the  troops  engaged  in  suppress¬ 
ing  a  rebellion  in  Ireland.  He  was  commis¬ 
sioned  a  major-general  iu  1814. 

Ashby,  Turner,  was  born  iu  Fauquier  Coun¬ 
ty,  Va.,  iu  1824;  killed  in  the  battle  of  Cross 
Keys  (which  see),  June  6, 1862.  When  the  Civil 
War  began  he  raised  a  regiment  of  insurgent 
cavalry,  which  soon  became  celebrated.  He 
covered  the  retreat  of  “  Stonewall  Jackson  ” 
from  attacks  by  General  Banks  and  General  Fre¬ 
mont,  skirmishing  with  the  vanguard  of  each  ; 
and  he  was  made  a  brigadier -general  in  the 
Confederate  army  in  1862. 

Ashe,  John,  a  general  of  the  Revolution.  He 
was  born  in  England  in  1721 ;  died  iu  Duplin 
County,  N.  C.,  Oct.  24, 1781.  He  came  to  Amer¬ 
ica  with  his  father  while  yet  a  small  child.  He 
was  in  the  North  Carolina  Legislature  for  sev¬ 
eral  years,  and  was  speaker  in  1762-65.  He 
warmly  opposed  the  Stamp  Act  (which  see); 
assisted  Governor  Tryou  iu  suppressing  the 
Regulator  movement  in  1771  (see  Regulators), 
but  soon  afterwards  became  a  zealous  Whig. 
He  was  an  active  patriot,  and  because  he  led 
live  hundred  men  to  destroy  Fort  Johnson 
(which  see)  he  was  denounced  as  a  rebel. 
Raising  and  equipping  a  regiment  at  his  own 
expense,  he  was  appointed  brigadier  of  the  Wil¬ 
mington  district  in  April,  1776.  He  joined  Lin¬ 
coln  in  South  Carolina  in  1778;  and  after  he 
was  defeated  at  Brier  Creek  (which  see),  in 
March,  1779,  he  returned  home.  General  Ashe 
suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  the  British  at 
Wilmington  after  the  battle  at  Guilford  (which 
see),  and  died  of  small-pox,  which  he  had  con¬ 
tracted  iu  prison. 

Ashmun,  Jehudi,  Agent  of  the  Colonization 
Society,  was  born  at  Champlain,  N.  Y.,  in  April, 
1794  ;  died  Aug.  25, 1828.  He  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1816,  and  prepared  for  the  min¬ 
istry.  He  was  sent  with  a  reinforcement  to 
the  colony  of  Liberia  (which  see)  in  1822,  where 
he  acted  as  legislator,  soldier,  and  engineer  in 
constructing  fortitications.  He  had  a  force  of 
only  thirty-live  men  and  boys,  with  which  he 
repulsed  the  attacks  of  eight  hundred  natives. 
His  wife  died,  and  he,  attacked  by  fevers,  was 
compelled,  by  brokeu  health,  to  sail  for  Ameri¬ 
ca.  A  fortnight  after  his  arrival  at  New  Haven, 


Conn.,  he  died.  He  had  made  the  settlement  in 
Africa  orderly  and  permanent  during  the  six 
years  he  was  there. 

"Asia,”  The,  at  New  York.  This  British 
man-of-war  brought  Governor  Tryon  to  New 
York  (June,  1775),  and  anchored  off'  the  Grand 
Battery,  foot  of  Broadway.  A  party  led  by 
John  Lamb,  a  captain  of  artillery,  proceeded,  on 
the  evening  of  Aug.  23,  to  remove  the  cannons 
from  that  battery  and  the  fort  (for  war  seemed 
inevitable)  and  take  them  to  a  place  of  safety. 
There  was,  also,  an  independent  corps,  under 
Colonel  Lasher,  and  a  body  of  citizens,  guided 
by  Isaac  Sears.  The  captain  of  the  Asia,  in¬ 
formed  of  the  intended  movement,  sent  a  barge 
filled  with  armed  men  to  watch  the  patriots. 
The  latter,  indiscreetly,  sent  a  musket -ball 
among  the  men  iu  the  barge,  killing  and  wound¬ 
ing  several.  It  was  answered  by  a  volley.  The 
Asia  hurled  three  round  shot  ashore  in  quick 
succession.  Lamb  ordered  the  drums  to  beat 
to  arms;  the  church-bells  in  the  city  were 
rung,  and,  while  all  was  confusion  and  alarm, 
the  war-ship  fired  a  broadside.  Others  rapidly 
followed.  Several  houses  were  injured  by  the 
grape  and  round  shot,  and  three  of  Sears’s  party 
were  killed.  Terror  seized  the  inhabitants  as 
the  rumor  spread  that  the  city  was  to  be  sacked 
and  burned.  Hundreds  of  men,  women,  and 
children  were  seen,  at  midnight,  hurrying  from 
the  town  to  places  of  safety.  The  exasperation 
of  the  citizens  was  intense ;  and  Tryon,  taking 
counsel  of  his  fears,  took  refuge  on  another  ves¬ 
sel  of  war  in  the  harbor,  whence,  like  Dun  more, 
he  attempted  to  exercise  authority  as  governor. 
Among  the  citizens  led  by  Sears  was  Alexander 
Hamilton,  then  a  student  in  King’s  (Columbia) 
College,  eighteen  years  of  age.  The  cannon 
were  removed  from  the  battery  and  fort,  and 
were  hidden  on  the  college  grounds.  These  did 
good  service  in  the  patriot  cause  afterwards. 

Aspirations  for  Political  Independence, 
The  First  in  America.  With  the  dawn  of 
1766,  there  were,  here  and  there,  almost  whis¬ 
pered  expressions  of  a  desire  for  political  inde¬ 
pendence  of  Great  Britain.  Samuel  Adams  had 
talked  of  it  in  private;  but  in  Virginia,  where 
the  flame  of  resistance  to  t-lie  Stamp  Act  burned 
with  vehemence,  Richard  Bland,  in  a  printed 
“  Inquiry  into  the  Rights  of  the  British  Colo¬ 
nies,”  etc.,  claimed  freedom  from  all  parliamen¬ 
tary  legislation  ;  and  he  pointed  to  independence 
as  a  remedy  in  case  of  a  refusal  of  redress.  He 
appealed  to  the  “  law  of  nature  and  those  rights 
of  mankind  which  flow  from  it,”  and  pleaded 
that  the  people  of  the  English  colonies  ought  to 
be  as  free  in  the  exercise  of  privileges  as  the 
people  of  England — freedom  from  taxation,  cus¬ 
toms,  and  impositions,  excepting  with  the  con¬ 
sent  of  their  general  assemblies.  He  denounced 
the  navigation  laws  (which  see)  as  unjust  tow¬ 
ards  the  colonies,  because  the  latter  wTere  not 
represented  in  Parliament.  This  was  but  an 
expression  of  sentiments  then  rapidly  spread¬ 
ing,  and  which  soon  grew  into  strong  desires 
for  political  independence. 

Assassination  of  President  Lincoln.  On 


ASSINIBOINS 


75 


ASTOR  LIBRARY 


tlie  morning  of  April  14, 1865,  General  Grant  ar¬ 
rived  in  Washington,  and  attended  a  meeting 
of  the  Cabinet  at  eleven  o’clock.  An  arrange¬ 
ment  was  made,  at  the  close  of  the  meeting,  for 
the  President  and  the  General  to  attend  Ford’s 
Theatre  in  the  evening,  and  a  box  was  engaged. 
The  General  was  called  to  New  York,  and  did 
not  attend.  The  President,  with  Mrs.  Lincoln 
and  a  little  party,  was  there.  Mr.  Lincoln  was 
seated  in  a  high -back  chair.  The  play  was 
Our  American  Cousin;  and  just  before  its  close, 
at  a  little  past  ten  o’clock,  John  Wilkes  Booth, 
an  actor  by  profession,  entered  the  President’s 
box,  closed  and  fastened  the  door  behind  him, 
and  with  a  Derringer  pistol  in  one  hand  and  a 
dagger  in  the  other,  he  rested  the  former  on  the 
back  of  the  chair  and  shot  the  President.  The 
ball  entered  behind  the  ear,  passed  through  his 
brain,  and  lodged  near  one  of  his  eyes.  The 
President  lived  nine  hours  afterwards,  but  in 
an  insensible  state.  The  assassin  was  seized  by 
Major  Rathbone,  who  was  in  the  box.  Booth 
dropped  his  pistol,  struck  Rathbone  on  the  arm 
with  his  dagger,  tore  away  from  his  grasp,  rush¬ 
ed  to  the  front  of  the  box  with  the  gleaming 
weapon  in  his  hand,  and  shouting  “  Sic  semper 
tyrannis”  (So  may  it  always  be  with  tyrants — 
the  motto  on  the  seal  of  Virginia),  leaped  upon 
the  stage.  He  was  booted  and  spurred  for  a 
night  ride.  One  of  his  spurs  caught  in  the  flag, 
and  he  fell.  Rising,  he  turned  to  the  audience 
and  said,  “  The  South  is  avenged !”  and  then  es¬ 
caped  by  a  back  door.  There  he  mounted  a 
horse  which  a  boy  had  held  for  him,  fled  across 
the  Anacosta,  and  found  temporary  refuge 
among  sympathizing  friends  in  Maryland.  The 
President  died  the  next  morning,  April  15. 
Booth  was  pursued  and  overtaken  in  Virginia, 
concealed  in  a  barn.  He  refused  to  surrender. 
The  barn  was  set  on  fire,  and  the  assassin  was 
shot  by  a  sergeant.  The  President’s  body  was 
embalmed  and  taken  back  to  his  home  in 
Springfield  by  almost  the  same  route  as  he  went 
to  the  capital  more  than  four  years  before. 
Everywhere  funeral  honors  were  performed,  aud 
the  loyal  people  of  the  laud  were  his  sincere 
mourners.  Foreign  governments  and  distin¬ 
guished  men  expressed  their  grief  and  sympa¬ 
thy,  aud  forty  thousand  French  Democrats  tes¬ 
tified  their  appreciation  of  his  character  aud 
services  by  causing  a  magnificent  gold  medal 
to  be  struck  aud  presented  to  the  President’s 
widow.  (See  Lincoln  Medals.)  Mr.  Lincoln’s  re¬ 
mains  repose  at  Springfield,  Ill. 

Assiniboins,  a  branch  of  the  Dakota  family, 
inhabiting  each  side  of  the  boundary-line  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  British  America  in 
Montana  and  Manitoba.  They  were  originally 
a  part  of  the  Yankton  Sioux,  but,  after  a  bitter 
quarrel  about  women,  they  separated  from  the 
main  body  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  the  two  bands  have  ever  remained 
hostile.  The  French  discovered  them  as  early 
as  1640.  In  1871  the  number  of  Assiniboins  in 
the  United  States  was  estimated  at  four  thou¬ 
sand  eight  hundred  and  fifty. 

Assistants,  Court  of.  (See  Court  of  Assistants.) 


Associated  Loyalists,  Board  of.  This 
board,  formed  in  the  winter  of  1779-80,  was  or¬ 
ganized  for  the  purpose  of  embodying  such 
American  loyalists  as  did  not  desire  to  enter 
military  life  as  a  profession,  but  were  anxious 
to  serve  the  king.  William  Franklin,  only  son 
of  Dr.  Franklin,  and  the  last  royal  governor  of 
New  Jersey,  was  made  president  of  the  board  ; 
and  in  the  course  of  1780-81  they  collected  a  con¬ 
siderable  navy  of  small  vessels  in  Long  Island 
Sound  for  predatory  expeditions,  making  Oyster 
Bay  its  general  rendezvous.  They  established 
their  headquarters  at  Lloyd’s  Neck,  au  elevated 
promontory  between  Oyster  Bay  and  Hunting- 
ton  harbor,  where  the  Tories  had  erected  a  small 
fort.  The  chief  operations  of  the  association 
were  directed  against  the  Whig  inhabitants  on 
Long  Island  and  the  neighboring  shores.  There 
were  branches  in  New  Jersey  and  elsewhere. 
Their  depredations  aroused  a  fierce  spirit  of  re¬ 
taliation,  and  the  manifest  mischief  to  the  royal 
cause  which  the  association  was  working  caused 
its  dissolution  at  the  close  of  1781. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  founder  of  the  Astor  Li¬ 
brary,  New  York,  was  born  at  Waldorf,  Germany, 
July  17, 1763;  died  in  New  York  city,  March  29, 
1848.  Joining  his  brother,  a  dealer  in  musical 
instruments  in  London,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  he 
remained  until  he  was  twenty,  when,  with  a 
small  stock  of  furs,  he  began  business  in  New 
York.  He  built  up  a  vast  fur-trade  with  the 
Indians,  extending  his  business  to  the  mouth  of 
Columbia  River,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  he 
founded  the  trading  station  of  Astoria  in  1811. 
By  this  and  other  operations  in  trade,  and  by 
investments  in  real  estate,  he  accumulated  vast 
wealth.  He  appropriated  four  hundred  thou¬ 
sand  dollars  for  establishing  a  library  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  aud  afterwards  added  an  en¬ 
dowment  fund. 

Astor  Library,  The,  was  founded  under  the 
provisions  of  the  will  of  John  Jacob  Astor  (which 
see),  who  bequeathed  $400,000  “  for  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  a  public  librai'y  in  the  city  of  New 
York.”  It  was  placed  under  the  care  of  eleven 
trustees.  At  the  head  of  the  first  board  of  man¬ 
agers  was  Washington  Irving ;  and  the  mayor 
of  New  York  and  the  chancellor  of  the  university 
of  the  state  for  the  time  being  are  ex  officio  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  board  of  trustees.  Aided  by  Dr.  J.  G. 
Cogswell,  one  of  the  trustees,  Mr.  Astor  had,  so 
early  as  1839,  purchased  a  number  of  volumes 
with  the  ultimate  intention  expressed  in  his  will. 
The  first  meeting  of  the  trustees  was  in  May, 
1848,  when  Dr.  Cogswell  was  appointed  super¬ 
intendent.  He  went  to  Europe  in  the  fall  of 
1848,  authorized  to  purchase  books  to  the  amount 
of  $20,000.  He  was  absent  four  months,  and  col¬ 
lected  20,000  volumes.  During  other  visits  to 
Europe  the  number  of  volumes  was  increased 
to  70,000,  with  which  the  library  was  first  opened, 
Jan.  9, 1854.  The  library  building  is  in  Lafay¬ 
ette  Place.  In  January,  1856,  the  first  building 
(the  library  room  one  hundred  feet  in  length 
and  fifty-four  in  width)  having  become  filled, 
William  B.  Astor,  eldest  son  of  the  founder,  gave 
a  lot  of  land  adjoining  to  the  trustees,  on  which 


ATHABASCAS 


76  ATLANTA,  SIEGE  AND  CAPTURE  OF 


another  library  building  was  erected  in  1859. 
Both  buildings  may  contain  200,000  volumes, 
and  are  rapidly  tilling  up.  In  December,  1866, 
William  B.  Astor  made  a  further  donation  to 
the  library  of  $50,000,  and  at  his  death,  in  1877, 
he  made,  by  his  will,  further  provision  for  the  en¬ 
largement  of  the  library,  whicli  has  been  done. 

Athabascas.  A  nation  of  North  American 
Indians  divided  into  two  great  families,  one 
bordering  on  the  Esquimaux  in  the  northwest, 
and  the  other  stretching  along  the  Mexican 
frontier  from  Texas  to  the  Gulf  of  California. 
The  domain  of  the  northern  family  extends 
across  the  continent  from  Hudson’s  Bay  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  some  smaller  bands 
of  the  same  nation,  scattered  along  the  Pacific 
coast  from  Cook’s  Inlet  to  Umpqua  River,  in 
Oregon.  The  northern  family  is  divided  into  a 
large  number  of  tribes,  none  of  them  particular¬ 
ly  distinguished.  The  population  of  the  north¬ 
ern  family  is  estimated  at  32,000,  that  of  the 
scattered  bands  at  25,000,  and  the  southern  fam¬ 
ily  at  17,000.  The  latter  includes  the  Navajos 
and  those  fierce  rovers,  the  Apaches,  with  which 
the  government  of  the  United  States  has  had 
much  to  do.  (See  Navajos  and  Apaches.)  The 
southern  family  also  includes  the  Lipans  on  the 
borders  of  Texas.  (See  Lipans.)  The  Athabascas 
are  distinguished  for  their  heavy  beards,  short 
hands  and  feet,  and  square,  massive  heads. 
They  derive  their  name  from  Lake  Athabasca, 
in  British  North  America,  in  latitude  59°  north, 
and  half-way  between  Hudson’s  Bay  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  They  claim  to  have  come 
from  the  West,  over  a  series  of  islands,  and  from 
a  land  covered  with  snow.  Some 
observers  trace  in  their  language  and 
features  a  resemblance  to  the  Tartar 
race. 

Atlanta,  Evacuation  of.  Hood, 
flanked  out  of  Atlanta,  was  joined  by 
Hardee  near  Jonesborough.  Heleftthe 
city  half  in  ruins  by  incendiary  fires. 

The  Nationals  marched  in  (Sept.  2, 

1864)  with  drums  beating  and  flags 
flying.  Two  days  afterwards,  Sher¬ 
man  issued  an  order  for  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  to  leave  the  town  within  five 
days,  that  the  place  might  be  ap¬ 
propriated  to  military  purposes.  He 
deemed  the  measure  humaue,  under 
the  circumstances,  for  he  expected 
the  Confederates  to  attack  him  there. 

To  a  remonstrance  by  Hood,  he  re¬ 
plied,  “  God  will  judge  me  in  good 
time,  and  he  will  pronounce  whether 
it  be  more  humane  to  fight  with  a 
town  full  of  women  and  the  families 
of  a  brave  people  at  our  backs,  or  to 
remove  them  in  time  to  places  of 
safety  among  their  own  friends.”  In 
a  few  days  Atlanta  was  thoroughly 
evacuated  by  the  civilians. 

Atlanta  (Georgia),  Siege  and 
Capture  of  (1864).  The  main  National 
and  Confederate  armies  remained 
quiet  in  their  camps  after  their  ar¬ 


rival  at  the  Chattahoochee  (which  see)  until  the 
middle  of  July.  Sherman  was  eight  miles  from 
the  city.  On  the  17th  he  resumed  offensive 
and  active  operations,  by  throwing  Thomas’s 
army  across  the  Chattahoochee,  close  to  Scho¬ 
field’s  right,  with  directions  to  move  forward. 
McPherson  moved  against  the  railway  east  of 
Decatur,  and  destroyed  (July  18)  four  miles  of 
the  track.  Schofield  seized  Decatur.  At  the  same 
time  Thomas  crossed  Peach-tree  Creek,  on  the 
19th,  in  the  face  of  the  Confederate  intrench- 
meuts,  skirmishing  heavily  at  every  step.  At  this 
juncture,  General  Rousseau,  who  had  swept 
through  Alabama  and  Northern  Georgia,  joined 
Sherman  with  2000  cavalry.  On  the  20th  the 
National  armies  had  all  closed  in,  converging 
towards  Atlanta,  and  at  4  o’clock  P.M.  the  Con¬ 
federates,  under  Hood  (see  Army  Changes  at  At¬ 
lanta),  made  a  sortie,  and  struck  Hooker’s  corps 
with  great  strength.  The  Confederates  were  re¬ 
pulsed  and  driven  back  to  their  intrenchments. 
The  entire  National  loss  in  this  conflict  was 
1500  men  ;  Sherman  estimated  that  of  the  Con¬ 
federates  at  not  less  than  5000  men.  Hood  left 
on  the  field  500  dead,  1000  severely  wounded, 
and  many  prisoners.  On  the  morning  of  the 
21st,  the  Confederates  had  abandoned  their  po¬ 
sition  on  the  south  side  of  Peach-tree  Creek, 
and  Sherman  believed  they  were  evacuating 
Atlanta.  He  pressed  on  towards  the  town  in  a 
narrow  semicircle,  when,  at  the  average  dis¬ 
tance  of  two  miles  from  it,  the  Nationals  were 
confronted  by  an  inner  line  of  intrenchments 
much  stronger  than  the  one  just  abandoned. 
Behind  these  swarmed  a  Confederate  host.  On 


THE  FORTIFICATIONS  AROUND  ATLANTA. 


77 


ATLANTA  TO  THE  SEA 


ATLANTA,  SIEGE  AND  CAPTURE  OF 

the  22d,  McPherson  moved  from  Decatur  to  as¬ 
sail  this  strong  line ;  Logan’s  corps  formed  his 
centre,  Dodge’s  his  right,  aud  Blair’s  his  left. 
The  latter  had  driven  the  Confederates  from  a 
commanding  eminence  the  evening  before,  and 
the  Nationals  proceeded  to  plant  a  battery  upon 
it.  Hood  had  left  a  sufficient  number  of  troops 
in  front  of  Sherman  to  hold  them,  and,  by  a 
night  march  to  the  flank  and  rear  of  the  Nation¬ 
als,  struck  them  a  severe  and  unexpected  blow. 
It  fell  with  heaviest  force  on  the  division  of 
General  G.  A.  Smith,  of  Blair’s  corps.  McPher¬ 
son  had  ridden  from  Sherman  to  Dodge’s  mov¬ 
ing  column,  and  had  entered  a  wood  almost 
alone,  for  observation,  in  the  rear  of  Smith’s  col¬ 
umn.  At  that  moment  Hardee  charged  upon 
the  Nationals,  and  his  men  were  pouring  iuto  a 
gap  betweeu  Blair  and  Dodge.  McPherson  had 
just  given  an  order  from  his  place  in  the  wood 
for  a  brigade  to  fill  that  gap,  when  the  bullet  of 
a  sharp-shooter  killed  him.  His  body  was  re¬ 
covered  during  the  heat  of  the  battle  that  en¬ 
sued.  Logan  immediately  took  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Tennessee.  At  that  moment  the 
battle  was  general  all  along  the  line,  and  raged 
fiercely  for  several  hours.  At  4  o’clock  P.M. 
there  was  a  brief  lull  in  the  contest.  Then  a 
charge  of  the  Confederates  broke  Logan’s  line, 
pushed  back  a  brigade  in  much  disorder,  and 
took  possession  of  two  important  batteries. 
Sherman  ordered  up  reinforcements,  and  Logan 
soon  recovered  the  ground  lost.  Very  soon  the 
Confederates  gave  way  and  fell  back  to  their  de¬ 
fences.  The  losses  on  both  sides  were  heavy. 
That  of  the  Nationals  was  3722,  of  whom  about 
1000  were  prisoners.  Generals  Thomas  and 
Schofield  having  well  closed  up,  Hood  was 
firmly  held  behind  his  inner  line  of  iutrench- 
ments.  Sherman  concluded  to  make  a  flank 
movement,  and  sent  Stoneman  with  about  5000 
cavalry,  and  McCook  with  another  mounted 
force,  including  Rousseau’s  cavalry,  to  destroy 
the  railways  in  Hood’s  rear.  McCook  performed 
his  part  well  (see  McCook's  Raid ) ;  but  Stone- 
man,  departing  from  Sherman’s  instructions,  did 
not  accomplish  much.  Simultaneously  with 
these  raids,  Slocum  began  (July  27)  a  flanking 
movement  from  Atlanta.  Hood  had  penetrated 
Sherman’s  design,  knew  of  changes  in  his  army, 
and  acted  promptly.  Under  cover  of  an  artil¬ 
lery  fire,  he  moved  out  with  the  larger  part 
of  his  army  (July  28),  with  the  expectation  of 
finding  Howard’s  forces  in  confusion.  He  was 
mistaken,  and  disastrous  consequences  followed. 
He  threw  heavy  masses  of  his  troops  upon  Lo¬ 
gan’s  corps  on  Howard’s  right,  and  was  met  by 
a  fire  that  made  fearful  havoc  in  their  ranks. 
They  recoiled,  but  returned  to  the  attack  again 
and  again.  The  battle  raged  fearfully  from 
noon  until  about  4  o’clock,  when  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  retired  to  their  intrencliments,  leaving  sev¬ 
eral  hundred  of  their  dead  on  the  field.  Hood’s 
entire  loss  in  this  struggle  was  about  5000  men  ; 
that  of  the  Nationals  did  not  exceed  600,  Lo¬ 
gan  captured  2000  muskets,  and  took  233  pris¬ 
oners.  Sherman  extended  his  right  along  an 
intrenched  line  to  the  junction  of  two  railways 
at  East  Point,  over  which  came  the  supplies  for 


Atlanta  and  Hood’s  army ;  and  the  latter,  ex-1 
tending  a  parallel  line  of  works,  stood  on  the 
defensive.  Sherman’s  long-range  guns  kindled 
destructive  fires  in  Atlanta.  At  length  Hood, 
who  had  lost  half  his  infantry  in  rash  encoun¬ 
ters,  iu  sheer  desperation  sent  out  Wheeler  with 
his  cavalry  to  break  up  Sherman’s  communica¬ 
tions  and  capture  supplies.  Kilpatrick  made  a 
successful  counter-movement.  On  the  25th  all 
of  Sherman’s  munitions  of  war,  supplies,  and 
sick  and  wounded  men  were  sent  to  his  in¬ 
trenched  position  on  the  Chattahoochee,  the 
siege  of  Atlanta  was  raised,  aud  the  Nationals 
began  a  grand  flauking  movement,  which  events 
had  delayed,  aud  which  finally  caused  Hood  to 
abandon  the  coveted  post,  cross  the  Chatta¬ 
hoochee,  aud  make  a  formidable  raid  upon 
Sherman’s  communications.  The  Nationals  en¬ 
tered  Atlanta  as  victors  on  Sept.  2,  1864,  and 
the  national  flag  was  unfurled  over  the  court¬ 
house. 

Atlanta  to  the  Sea.  When  General  Sher¬ 
man  had  resolved  to  inarch  through  the  heart 
of  Georgia  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea,  he  dele¬ 
gated  to  General  Thomas  full  power  over  all 
the  troops  under  his  (Sherman’s)  command  ex¬ 
cepting  four  corps.  He  also  gave  him  com¬ 
mand  of  two  divisions  of  A.  J.  Smith’s,  then  re¬ 
turning  from  the  expnlsiou  of  Price  from  Mis¬ 
souri,  also  of  all  the  garrisons  in  Tennessee,  and 
all  the  cavalry  of  the  Military  Division  except¬ 
ing  a  division  uuder  Kilpatrick,  which  he  re¬ 
served  for  operations  in  Georgia.  Geueral  Wil¬ 
son  had  just  arrived  from  Petersburg  to  take 
command  of  the  cavalry  of  the  army.  He  was 
sent  to  Nashville  to  gather  up  all  the  Union 
cavalry  iu  Kentucky  aud  Tennessee,  and  report 
to  Thomas.  It  was  believed  that  Thomas  now 
had  strength  sufficient  to  keep  Hood  out  of 
Tennessee,  whose  force  then  was  about  thirty- 
five  thousand  infantry  and  ten  thousand  caval¬ 
ry.  When,  on  Nov.  1,  Hood  was  laying  a  pon¬ 
toon  bridge  over  the  Tennessee  at  Florence  for 
the  invasion  of  Tennessee,  Sherman,  who  had 
pursued  him,  turned  his  forces  towards  Atlanta, 
liis  troops  destroying  all  the  mills  and  founderies 
at  Rome,  and  dismantling  the  railway  from  the 
Etowah  River  to  the  Chattahoochee.  The  rail¬ 
ways  around  Atlanta  were  destroyed,  aud  on 
Nov.  14  the  forces  destined  for  the  great  march 
were  concentrated  around  that  doomed  city. 
Those  forces  were  composed  of  four  army  corps, 
the  right  wing  commanded  by  General  O.  O. 
Howard,  and  the  left  wing  by  Geueral  H.  W. 
Slocum.  Howard’s  right  was  composed  of  the 
corps  of  Generals  Osterhaus  and  Blair,  and 
the  left  of  the  corps  of  Generals  J.  C.  Davis 
and  A.  S.  Williams.  General  Kilpatrick  com¬ 
manded  the  cavalry,  consisting  of  one  divi¬ 
sion.  Sherman’s  entire  force  numbered  sixty 
thousand  infantry  and  artillery  and  five  thou¬ 
sand  five  hundred  cavalry.  On  Nov.  11,  Sher¬ 
man  cut  the  telegraph  wires  that  connected 
Atlanta  with  Washington,  and  his  army  be¬ 
came  an  isolated  column  in  the  heart  of  an 
enemy’s  country.  It  began  its  march  for  the 
sea  on  the  morning  of  the  14th,  when  the 
entire  city  of  Atlanta  —  excepting  its  court- 


ATLANTA  TO  THE  SEA 


78 


ATLANTA  TO  THE  SEA 


house,  churches,  and  dwellings  —  was  commit¬ 
ted  to  the  flames.  The  buildings  in  the  heart 
of  the  city,  covering  two  hundred  acres  of 
ground,  formed  a  great  conflagration ;  and, 
while  the  fire  was  raging,  the  bands  played, 
and  the  soldiers  chanted  the  stirring  air  and 
words,  “  John  Brown’s  soul  goes  marching 
on  !”  (See  Brown’s  Baid.)  For  thirty-six  days 
that  army  moved  through  Georgia,  with  very 
little  opposition,  subsisting  oft'  the  country. 
It  was  a  sort  of  military  promenade,  requiring 
very  little  military  skill  in  the  performance, 
and  as  little  personal  prowess.  It  was  grand 
in  conception,  and  easily  executed.  Yet  on 
that  march  there  were  many  deeds  that  tested  ; 
the  prowess  and  daring  of  the  soldiers  on  both 
sides.  Kilpatrick’s  first  dash  across  the  Flint 
River  and  against  Wheeler’s  cavalry,  and  then  | 
towards  Macon,  burning  a  train  of  cars  and 
tearing  up  the  railway,  gave  the  Confederates 
a  suspicion  of  Sherman’s  intentions.  There 
was  wide-spread  consternation  in  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina,  for  the  invader’s  destination 
was  uncertain.  Beauregard  was  sent  from  the 
Appomattox  to  the  Savannah  to  confront  the 
Nationals.  He  sent  before  him  a  manifesto  in 
which  he  said,  “  Destroy  all  the  roads  in  Sher- 


soldiers.  But  the  people  did  none  of  these 
things,  and  only  about  one  hundred  convicts 
accepted  the  offer.  All  confidence  in  “  Presi¬ 
dent  Davis”  and  the  Confederate  government 
had  disappeared  in  Georgia,  and  a  great  por¬ 
tion  of  the  people  were  satisfied  that  it  was,  as 
they  expressed  it,  “the  rich  man’s  war,  and  the 
poor  man’s  fight,”  and  would  no  longer  lend 
themselves  to  the  authorities  at  Richmond. 
The  National  army  moved  steadily  forward. 
At  Griswoldsville  there  was  a  sharp  engage¬ 
ment  (Nov.  22,  1864)  with  a  portion  of  Har¬ 
dee’s  troops  sent  up  from  Savannah,  and  sev¬ 
eral  brigades  of  militia.  The  Confederates 
were  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  twenty-five  hun¬ 
dred  men.  Howard  could  have  taken  Macon 
after  this  blow  upon  its  defenders,  but  such 
was  not  a  part  of  Sherman’s  plan.  The  Na¬ 
tionals  were  attacked  at  the  Oconee  River 
while  laying  a  pontoon  bridge,  but  the  assail¬ 
ants,  largely  composed  of  Wheeler’s  cavalry, 
were  defeated.  Kilpatrick  made  a  feint  tow¬ 
ards  Augusta  to  mislead  the  Confederates  as 
to  Sherman’s  destination,  also  to  cover  the 
passage  of  the  army  over  the  Ogeechee  River, 
and,  if  possible,  to  release  Union  captives  in 
the  prison  -  pen  at  Milieu.  Kilpatrick  and 


THE  PRISON-PEN  AT  MILLEN. 


man’s  front,  flank,  and  rear,”  and,  “  be  trust¬ 
ful  in  Providence.”  Benjamin  H.  Hill,  of  Geor¬ 
gia,  in  the  Confederate  Congress  at  Richmond, 
wrote  to  the  people  of  his  state,  “  Every  citizen 
with  his  gun  and  every  negro  with  his  spade 
and  axe  can  do  the  work  of  a  soldier.  You 
can  destroy  the  enemy  by  retarding  his  march. 
Be  firm !”  The  representatives  of  Georgia  in 
the  Confederate  Congress  called  upon  their 
people  to  fly  to  arms.  “  Remove  your  negroes, 
horses,  cattle,  and  provisions  from  Sherman’s 
army,”  they  said,  “and  burn  what  yon  cannot 
carry  away.  Burn  all  bridges  and  block  up 
the  roads  in  his  route.  Assail  the  invader  in 
front,  flank,  and  rear,  by  night  and  by  day. 
Let  him  have  no  rest.”  And  Governor  Brown, 
before  he  fled  from  Milledgeville  on  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  the  Nationals,  issued  a  proclama¬ 
tion  ordering  a  levy  en  masse  of  the  whole 
white  population  of  the  state  between  the 
ages  of  sixteen  and  forty  -  five,  and  offering 
pardon  to  prisoners  in  the  penitentiary  if  they 
would  volunteer  and  prove  themselves  good 


Wheeler  had  several  skirmishes,  but  no  se¬ 
vere  battles.  On  Nov.  30,  Sherman’s  whole 
army,  excepting  one  corps,  had  passed  the 
Ogeechee.  This  was  a  most  skilful  manoeuvre ; 
and  now,  having  destroyed  the  principal  rail¬ 
ways  in  Georgia  over  long  distances,  Sherman 
was  prepared  to  make  a  final  conquest  of 
the  state.  Moving  on  seaward,  the  division 
of  Hazen  had  a  severe  skirmish  (Dec.  4)  at. 
Statesburg,  south  of  the  Ogeechee.  The  Con¬ 
federates  were  dispersed.  On  the  same  day 
Kilpatrick  fought  Wheeler  on  the  railway 
between  Millen  and  Augusta,  drove  him  from 
his  barricades  through  Waynesborougli,  and 
pushed  him  eight  miles,  while  a  support¬ 
ing  column  of  Union  infantry  under  Baird 
were  tearing  up  the  railway  and  destroying 
bridges.  When  Sherman  reached  Millen,  the 
Union  prisoners  had  been  removed ;  and  he 
pushed  on,  amid  swamps  and  sands,  with  the 
city  of  Savannah,  where  Hardee  was  in  com¬ 
mand,  as  his  chief  object.  Kilpatrick  and 
Baird  covered  the  rear  of  the  wing  columns 


ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH 


79 


ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH 


between  the  Ogeechee  and  Savannah  rivers. 
There  was  some  skirmishing,  but  no  Confed¬ 
erates  in  force  were  seen  until  within  fifteen 
miles  of  the  city  of  Savannah.  All  tiie  roads 
leading  into  that  city  were  obstructed  by  felled 
trees,  earthworks,  and  artillery.  These  were 
turned,  and  by  Dec.  10  the  Confederates  were  all 
driven  within  their  lines,  and  Savannah  was  com¬ 
pletely  beleaguered;  but  the  only  approaches 
to  it  were  by  five  narrow  causeways.  They 
had  broken  communications,  so  that  no  supplies 
could  be  received  in  Savannah.  Sherman  sought 
to  make  the  Ogeechee  an  avenue  of  supply, 
oceauward,  for  his  army,  and  to  communicate 
with  the  Union  fleet  outside.  The  latter  was 
soon  effected.  Fort  McAllister,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Ogeechee,  was  in  the  way,  and,  on  the 
13th,  Slocum  ordered  General  Hazen  to  carry  it 
by  assault.  It  was  a  strong  enclosed  redoubt, 
garrisoned  by  two  hundred  men.  It  was  car¬ 
ried  (see  McAllister,  Fort ) ;  and  this  was  the 
brilliant  ending  of  the  march  from  Atlanta  to 
the  sea.  It  opened  to  Sherman’s  army  a  new 
base  of  supplies.  Sherman  communicated  with 
the  officers  of  the  fleet,  and,  on  Dec.  17,  he  sum¬ 
moned  Hardee  to  surrender.  Hardee  refused. 
Perceiving  the  arrangements  made  to  cut  off 
his  retreat  to  Charleston,  Hardee  secretly  with¬ 
drew  on  the  dark  and  stormy  night  of  Dec.  20, 
and,  with  fifteen  thousand  men,  escaped  to  that 
city.  The  National  army  took  possession  of 
Savannah  on  Dec.  22, 1864.  On  the  26th  Sher¬ 
man  wrote  to  President  Lincoln  :  “  I  beg  to 
present  to  you,  as  a  Christmas  gift,  the  city 
of  Savannah,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  heavy 
guns  and  plenty  of  ammunition,  and  also  about 
twenty -five  thousand  bales  of  cotton.”  On 
his  march  Sherman  had  lived  generously  off 
the  country,  which  was  abundantly  filled  with 
provisions.  He  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the 
army  13,000  beeves,  160,000  bushels  of  corn, 
more  than  5000  tons  of  fodder,  besides  a 
large  number  of  sheep,  swine,  fowls,  and 
quantities  of  potatoes  aud  rice.  He  forced 
into  the  service  5000  horses  and  4000  mules. 
He  captured  1328  prisoners  aud  167  guns ; 
burned  20,000  bales  of  cotton,  and  captured 
and  secured  to  the  government  25,000  bales. 
Full  10,000  negroes  followed  the  flag  to  Savan¬ 
nah,  and  many  thousands  more,  chiefly  wom¬ 
en  and  children,  had  been  turned  back  at  the 
crossings  of  rivers.  So  families  were  sepa¬ 
rated. 

Atlantic  Telegraph.  In  1843  (Aug.  10), 
Professor  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  who  had  en¬ 
dowed  the  electro -magnetic  telegraph  (which 
see)  with  intellectual  power,  in  a  letter  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States, 
remarked,  after  alluding  to  recent  experiments, 
“The  practical  inference  from  this  law  is,  that 
a  telegraphic  communication  on  my  plan  may, 
with  certainty,  be  established  across  the  At¬ 
lantic.  Startling  as  this  may  now  seem,  the 
time  will  come  when  this  project  will  bo  re¬ 
alized.”  Almost  eleven  years  afterwards  an 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  telegraphic 
communication  between  America  and  Europe 
by  means  of  an  insulated  metallic  cable  un¬ 


der  the  sea.  Mr.  Cyrus  W.  Field,  a  New  York 
merchant,  was  applied  to  for  aid  in  complet¬ 
ing  a  "land  line  of  telegraph  on  the  Morse  plan, 
then  in  tho  course  of  construction  across  New¬ 
foundland— about  four  hundred  miles.  The 
question  occurred  to  him,  Why  not  carry  the 
line  across  the  ocean  ?  and  with  his  usual 
pluck  and  energy  he  proceeded  to  the  accom¬ 
plishment  of  such  an  enterprise.  On  March 
10,  1854,  five  gentlemen  met  at  the  house  of 
Mr.  Field,  on  Gramercy  Park,  New  York,  and 
signed  an  agreement  for  an  association  called 
“The  New  York,  Newfoundland,  and  Loudon 
Telegraph  Company.”  They  obtained  from 
the  Legislature  of  Newfoundland  a  charter 
guaranteeing  an  exclusive  right,  for  fifty  years, 
to  establish  a  telegraph  from  the  American 
continent  to  that  island,  and  thence  to  Eu¬ 
rope.  These  gentlemen  were  Peter  Cooper, 
Moses  Taylor,  Marshall  O.  Roberts,  Chandler 
White,  and  Cyrus  W.  Field.  Twenty  -  five 
years  afterwards,  all  but  one  ( Mr.  White ) 
were  living,  and  again  met  in  the  same  room, 
and  around  the  same  table  whereon  that  as¬ 
sociation  was  signed,  with  the  same  attorney 
of  the  association,  then  engaged,  David  Dud¬ 
ley  Field.  Mr.  Cooper  was  chosen  president 
of  the  company.  Mr.  Field  procured  a  cable 
in  England  to  span  the  waters  between  Cape 
Ray  aud  Cape  Breton  Island.  It  was  sent  out 
in  1855,  and  was  lost  in  an  attempt  to  lay  it. 
It  was  recovered,  and  was  successfully  laid  in 
1856.  The  same  year  Mr.  Field  organized  in 
London  the  “Atlantic  Telegraph  Company” 
to  carry  the  line  across  the  ocean.  Mr.  Field 
subscribed  for  one  fourth  of  the  stock  of  the 
company.  The  American  and  British  govern¬ 
ments  gave  them  aid  in  ships,  aud  during  1857 
and  1858  expeditious  were  at  sea  laying  a  ca¬ 
ble  across  the  ocean  to  Yalentia  on  the  west¬ 
ern  coast  of  Ireland.  Twice,  in  1857,  the  at¬ 
tempt  failed,  but  was  successful  the  following 
year.  Two  vessels,  with  portions  of  the  cable, 
met  in  mid-ocean,  July  28,  1858.  The  portions 
were  spliced,  and  they  sailed  for  Ireland  and 
Newfoundland  respectively,  and  succeeded  in 
laying  a  continuous  line  across  the  Atlantic.  It 
was  nineteen  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length, 
and  traversed  water  two  thirds  of  the  distance 
over  two  miles  in  depth.  These  wonderful 
facts  were  communicated  by  Mr.  Field,  by  tel¬ 
egram,  from  Trinity  Bay,  Newfoundland,  on 
Aug.  5,  1858,  aud  created  intense  interest  all 
over  the  country.  The  first  public  messages 
across  the  Atlantic  were  transmitted,  Aug.  16, 
1858,  by  Queen  Victoria  to  President  Buchanan, 
and  by  him  in  an  immediate  reply,  in  which 
they  congratulated  each  other  on  the  success 
of  the  enterprise  by  which  the  two  countries 
were  connected  by  such  a  mysterious  tie.  The 
queen  hoped  that  it  would  “  prove  an  addi¬ 
tional  link  between  the  nations,  whose  friend¬ 
ship  is  founded  upon  their  common  interest 
and  reciprocal  esteem.”  To  this  the  Presi¬ 
dent  cordially  responded,  and  asked:  “Will 
not  all  nations  of  Christendom  spontaneously 
unite  in  the  declaration  that  it  shall  be  for¬ 
ever  neutral,  and  that  its  communications  shall 


AT  LEE 


80 


AUDUBON 


De  held  sacred  in  passing  to  their  places  of  desti¬ 
nation  even  in  the  midst  of  hostilities.”  Bou¬ 
nces  and  illuminations  throughout  the  Union 
followed  these  communications.  The  London 
Times  said  (Aug.  6, 1858),  ‘‘Since  the  discovery 
of  Columbus,  nothing  has  been  done  in  any  de¬ 
gree  comparable  to  the  vast  enlargement  which 
has  thus  been  given  to  the  sphere  of  human 
activity.”  In  a  very  short  time  the  cable  ceased 
to  work,  .and  it  was  pronounced  a  failure.  It 
was  even  intimated  that  the  reputed  despatches 
were  only  part  of  a  huge  fraud.  Mr.  Field’s 
faith  never  faltered,  though  discouragements 
that  would  have  paralyzed  the* energies  of  most 
men  were  encountered.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic 
several  times  to  resuscitate  the  company.  The 
cable  had  cost  $1,256,250,  and  the  expenses  of 
the  company  up  to  Dec.  1,  1858,  amounted  to 
$1,834,500.  The  civil  war  in  America  broke  out 
in  1861,  and  it  was  not  until  1865  that  another 
expedition  to  lay  a  cable  was  fitted  out.  The 
Great  Eastern  then  carried  an  improved  cable. 
While  laying  it,  a  sudden  lurch  of  the  ship 
snapped  the  line,  and  it  was  lost.  The  company 
was  discouraged.  Mr.  Field  went  to  Thomas 
Brassey,  a  great  and  liberal  English  capital¬ 
ist,  and  told  him  that  the  Atlantic  Telegraph 
Company  had  suddenly  come  to  a  standstill. 
“  Mr.  Field,”  said  Mr.  Brassey,  “  don’t  be  dis¬ 
couraged  ;  go  down  to  the  company  and  tell 
them  to  go  ahead,  and,  whatever  tiie  cost,  I 
will  bear  one  tenth  of  the  whole.”  That  com¬ 
pany  and  the  “  Telegraph  Construction  and 
Maintenance  Company”  joined  in  forming  a 
new  association  known  as  the  “Anglo-Ameri¬ 
can  Telegraph  Company,”  with  a  capital  of 
$3,000,000.  Another  cable  was  laid,  and  per¬ 
manent  electric  communication  between  Eu¬ 
rope  and  America  was  established  July  27, 
1866.  After  twelve  years  of  hard  and  anxious 
labor,  during  which  time  Mr.  Field  crossed  the 
ocean  nearly  fifty  times,  he  saw  the  great  work 
accomplished.  He  had  been  nobly  aided  by 
men  in  Europe  and  America.  Congress  voted 
him  the  thanks  of  the  nation  and  a  gold  med¬ 
al,  while  the  Prime  -  minister  of  England  de¬ 
clared  that  it  was  only  the  fact  that  he  was 
a  citizen  of  another  country  that  prevented 
his  receiving  high  honors  from  the  British 
government.  The  glory  of  his  achievement 
transcends  all  that  man  could  bestow. 

At  Lee,  Samuel  John,  a  colonel  in  the  Con¬ 
tinental  army,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  in 
1738;  died  in  Philadelphia,  November,  1786.  He 
commanded  a  company  of  Pennsylvanians  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  Entering  the  Conti¬ 
nental  army,  Pennsylvania  line,  he  commanded 
a  battalion  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  Aug. 
27, 1776,  where  he  was  made  prisoner  and  re¬ 
mained  some  time  in  the  hands  of  the  British. 
Afterwards  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to 
treat  with  the  Indians.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1778  to  1782. 

Atlixco,  Battle  at.  General  Lane  marched 
from  Puebla  (Mexico)  in  October,  1847,  to  attack 
the  Mexican  general  Rea,  of  Santa  Ana’s  army, 
at  Atlixco,  thirty  miles  from  that  place.  Lane’s 


cavalry  first  encountered  Rea’s  advanced  guard, 
and  skirmished  until  the  arrival  of  his  infantry, 
when  the  Mexicans  fell  back  towards  Atlixco, 
keeping  up  a  running  fight.  Less  than  two 
miles  from  that  place  their  main  body  was  dis¬ 
covered  (Oct.  18,  1847).  Lane’s  cavalry  dashed 
in  among  them  and  drove  them  into  a  thick 
chaparral,  which  the  horses  could  not  enter. 
The  cavalry  dismounted,  entered  the  thicket, 
and  there  a  long  and  fierce  hand-to-hand  en¬ 
counter  ensued.  The  rest  of  the  Americans  com¬ 
ing  up,  the  Mexicans  were  forced  into  the  town, 
when  Lane’s  artillery,  posted  on  a  hill,  cannon¬ 
aded  the  place  most  severely  by  the  light  of  the 
moon.  The  Mexicans  were  driveu  away  with 
much  loss.  At  Atlixco  Santa  Ana’s  troops  final¬ 
ly  deserted  him,  and  he  fled  alone  towards  the 
coast.  So  ended  the  active  hostilities  of  the 
war. 

Attakappas.  This  was  a  tribe  of  Indians 
found  on  the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River  in  Southern  Louisiana 
and  Eastern  Texas.  The  Choctaws  named  them 
Attakappas,  or  Man-eaters.  The  French  were  the 
first  Europeans  who  discovered  them ;  and  the 
Attakappas  aided  the  latter  in  a  war  with  the 
Natchez  and  Chickasaws.  When  Louisiana  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1803,  there  were 
only  about  one  hundred  of  this  nation  on  their 
ancient  domain,  near  Vermilion  Bayou,  and  they 
had  almost  wholly  disappeared  about  fifty  years 
ago.  What  their  real  name  was,  or  whence 
they  came,  may  never  be  known.  Their  lan¬ 
guage  was  peculiar,  composed  of  harsh  mono¬ 
syllables. 

Attiwandaronk,  Indians  of  the  family  of  the 
Hurons  and  Iroquois,  named  by  the  French  the 
Neutral  Nation.  In  early  times  they  inhabited 
both  banks  of  the  Niagara  River,  but  were 
mostly  in  Canada.  They  were  first  visited  in 
1627  by  the  Recollect  father  Daillon,  and  by 
Brdbeuf  and  Chaumonot  in  1642.  The  Iroquois 
attacked  them  in  1651-53,  when  a  part  of  them 
submitted  and  joined  the  Senecas,  and  the  re¬ 
mainder  fled  westward  and  joined  the  remnant 
of  the  fallen  Hurons  on  the  borders  of  Lake 
Superior. 

Audubon,  John  James,  ornithologist,  was 
born  in  New  Orleans,  May  4,  1780 ;  died  in  New 
York  city,  Jan.  27,  1851.  He  was  the  sou  of 
a  French  admiral.  Educated  at  Paris,  he  ac¬ 
quired  much  skill  as  an  artist  under  the  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  celebrated  David.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen  years  he  began  to  make  a  collection 
of  drawings  of  the  birds  of  America,  and  be¬ 
came  a  most  devoted  student  of  the  feathered 
tribes  of  our  country.  So  early  as  1810  he  went 
down  the  Ohio  River  with  his  wife  and  child, 
in  an  open  boat,  to  a  congenial  spot  for  a  forest 
home.  He  visited  almost  every  region  of  the 
United  States.  In  some  of  his  Western  excur¬ 
sions,  Wilson,  the  ornithologist,  was  his  compan¬ 
ion.  In  1826  he  wrent  to  Europe  to  secure  sub¬ 
scriptions  to  his  great  work,  The  Birds  of  Amer¬ 
ica.  It  was  issued  in  numbers,  each  containing 
five  plates,  the  subjects  drawn  and  colored  the 
size  and  tints  of  life.  It  was  completed  in 


AUGER 


81 


AUTTOSE 


four  volumes,  in  1838.  Of  the  one  hundred  and 
seventy  subscribers  to  the  work,  at  $1000  each, 
nearly  one  half  came  from  England  and  France. 
He  also  prepared  a  work  entitled  Ornithological 
Biographies,  and  had  partly  completed  a  work 
entitled  Quadrupeds  of  America,  when  he  died. 
His  two  sons,  who  inherited  his  tastes  and  much 
of  his  genius,  finished  this  work,  which  was  pub- 


JOHN  JAMES  AUDUBON. 


lished  in  1850.  His  residence,  in  the  latter  years 
of  his  life,  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  on 
Manhattan  or  New  York  Island,  not  far  from 
Washington  Heights. 

Auger,  Christopher  Colon,  was  born  in  New 
York  about  1821,  and  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1843.  He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Generals 
Hopping  and  Cushing  in  the  war  with  Mexico, 
and  in  1861  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  vol¬ 
unteers,  after  serving  uuder  McDowell.  He  took 
command  of  a  division  under  Banks,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain  (which 
see).  In  November,  1862,  he  reported  to  Gen¬ 
eral  Banks  for  service  in  a  Southern  expedition, 
and  was  made  major-general  of  volunteers  in 
August,  1862.  General  Auger  was  very  active 
in  the  siege  and  capture  of  Port  Hudson.  From 
October,  1863,  to  August,  1866,  he  had  command 
of  the  Department  of  Washington,  and  in  1867 
he  was  assigned  to  the  Department  of  the  Platte. 
In  1869  he  was  made  brigadier- general  U.  S. 
Army. 

Augusta,  Siege  and  Capture  of  (1781). 
When  Cornwallis  proceeded  to  subjugate  South 
Carolina,  he  sent  Lieutenant-colonel  Brown,  a 
Tory  leader,  to  hold  Augusta.  Over  this  garri¬ 
son  Pickens  and  Clarke  had  kept  watch,  and 
when,  on  May  20,  1781,  they  were  joined  by  Lee 
and  his  legion,  they  proceeded  to  invest  the  fort 
there.  They  took  Fort  Galphin,  twelve  miles 
below,  on  the  21st,  and  then  an  officer  was  sent  to 
demand  the  surrender  of  Augusta.  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Brown  was  one  of  the  most  cruel  of  the 
Tories  in  that  region,  and  the  partisans  were 
anxious  to  make  him  a  prisoner.  He  refused  to 
surrender.  A  regular  siege  began  May  23,  and 
continued  until  June  4,  when  a  general  assault 
was  agreed  upon.  Hearing  of  this,  Brown  pro¬ 
posed  to  surrender,  and  the  town  was  given  up 
I.— 6 


the  next  day.  In  this  siege  the  Americans  lost 
fifty-one  men  killed  and  wounded  ;  and  the  Brit¬ 
ish  lost  fifty-two  killed,  and  three  hundred  and 
thirty-four,  including  the  wounded,  were  made 
prisoners. 

Austin,  Stephen  F.,  founder  of  the  first  col¬ 
ony  in  Texas.  His  father,  Moses  Austin,  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  was  at  Bexar,  Texas,  in  1820,  and  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  Mexican  commander  at  Monterey 
for  permission  to  colonize  three  hundred  families 
in  the  province.  His  son  Stephen  successfully 
carried  out  the  scheme.  The  latter  went  to  the 
city  of  Mexico  in  1821,  and  the  grant  given  to 
his  father  was'eoufirmed  in  February,  1823.  By 
it  he  was  invested  with  almost  absolute  power 
over  the  colonists,  whom  he  seated  where  the 
city  of  Austin  now  is,  the  site  selected  by  him 
for  the  capital  of  Texas.  Iu  March,  1833,  a  con¬ 
vention  formed  a  state  constitution,  which  Aus¬ 
tin  took  to  the  central  government  of  Mexico  to 
obtain  its  ratification.  There  were  delays;  and 
he  recommended  a  union  of  all  the  municipali¬ 
ties,  and  the  organization  of  a  state  under  a 
Mexican  law  of  1824.  He  was  arrested,  taken 
back  to  Mexico,  and  detained  until  September, 
1835.  On  his  return  he  found  the  country  iu 
confusion,  and  he  took  part  with  the  revolution¬ 
ary  party.  Ho  attempted,  with  a  small  force, 
to  drive  the  Mexicans  out  of  Texas,  but  failed. 
In  November  (1835)  General  Sam.  Houston  was 
chosen  to  command  the  little  Texan  army,  and 
Austin  was  made  commissioner  to  the  United 
States.  In  July,  1836,  he  returned  to  Texas  and 
was  engaged  in  negotiations  to  obtain  the  offi¬ 
cial  recognition  of  independence,  when  death 
closed  his  career.  (See  Texas.) 

Authority  of  Parliament.  Four  great  wars 
had  burdened  Great  Britain  with  a  debt  of  about 
$700,000,000  in  1763.  Her  treasury  was  low,  and 
she  looked  to  the  colonies  for  contributions  to 
her  revenues.  At  the  beginning  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  the  Board  of  Trade  had  contem¬ 
plated  a  scheme  of  colonial  taxation,  and  Pitt 
had  intimated  to  more  than  one  colonial  gov¬ 
ernor  that  at  the  end  of  the  war  the  govern¬ 
ment.  would  look  to  the  colonies  for  a  revenue ; 
yet  he  dared  not  undertake  a  scheme  which  the 
great  Walpole  had  timidly  evaded.  Pitt’s  suc¬ 
cessors,  more  reckless,  entered  upon  a  scheme  of 
taxation  under  the  authority  of  Parliament, 
boldly  asserting  the  absolute  right  and  power  of 
that  body  over  the  colonies  in  “all  cases  what¬ 
soever.”  Then  began  the  resistance  to  that 
fcl  aim  on  the  part  of  the  colonies  which  aroused 
the  government  to  a  more  vigorous  and  varied 
practical  assertion  of  it.  For  more  than  ten 
years, the  quarrel  raged  before  the  contestants 
came  to  blows.  The  great  question  involved 
was  the  extent  of  the  authority  of  the  British 
Parliament  over  the  English  American  colonies, 
which  had  no  representative  in  that  legislative 
body — a  question  in  the  settlement  of  which 
the  British  empire  was  dismembered.  The  col¬ 
onies  took  the  broad  ground  that  “  taxation 
without  representation  is  tyranny.” 

Auttose,  Battle  of.  Late  in  November, 
1813,  the  Creek  country  was  invaded  by  troops 


AUTUMN  ELECTIONS 


82 


AVERILL 


from  Georgia.  A  cry  for  help  from  the  settlers 
among  the  Creeks  had  come  to  the  ears  of  the 
Georgians,  when  General  John  Floyd,  at  the 
head  of  950  militia  of  that  state  and  450  friend¬ 
ly  Indians,  guided  by  Mordecai,  a  Jew  trader, 
entered  the  region  of  the  hostiles  from  the  east. 
Crossing  the  Chattahoochee,  he  pushed  on  tow¬ 
ards  the  Tallapoosa,  where  he  was  informed  that 
a  large  number  of  hostile  Indians  had  gathered 
at  the  village  of  Auttose,  on  the  “  Holy  Ground,” 
on  which  the  prophets  had  made  the  barbarians 
believe  no  white  man  could  set  foot  and  live. 
It  was  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tallapoosa,  about 
twenty  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Coosa.  Floyd  encamped  unobserved  near  the 
town  on  the  evening  of  Nov.  28,  and  at  dawn 
he  appeared  before  the  village  with  his  troops 
arrayed  for  battle  in  three  columns.  He  also 
had  two  or  three  field-pieces.  There  were  two 
towns,  one  below  the  other.  The  towns  were 
simultaneously  attacked,  and  a  general  battle 
ensued.  After  a  brief  contest,  the  roar  of  ar¬ 
tillery  and  a  furious  bayonet-charge  made  the 
Indians  fall  back  in  terror  to  whatever  shelter 
they  could  find.  Their  dwellings,  about  four 
hundred  in  number,  were  burned,  and  the  smit¬ 
ten  and  dismayed  barbarians  were  hunted  and 
butchered  with  fiendish  cruelty.  It  was  esti¬ 
mated  that  full  200  of  the  Indians  were  mur¬ 
dered.  Floyd  lost  11  men  killed  and  54  wound¬ 
ed.  He  had  marched  120  miles,  laid  waste  the 
town,  and  destroyed  the  inhabitants  in  the  space 
of  seven  days. 

Autumn  Elections  (1863).  To  the  appre¬ 
hensions  of  reflecting  men  the  Civil  War,  in  the 
fall  of  1863,  had  assumed  the  grander  feature  of 
a  war  for  free  institutions.  There  was  ample 
evidence  that  the  government  would  not  recede 
from  the  position  taken  by  the  President  in  his 
Emancipation  Proclamation,  and  the  great  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  people  seemed  ready  to  sustain  it. 
Thousands  of  the  opposition  party  refused  long¬ 
er  to  follow  the  leadings  of  the  peace  faction, 
and  at  the  elections  in  the  autumn  of  1863  they 
voted  with  the  friends  of  the  government.  There 
were  overwhelming  majorities  in  favor  of  gov¬ 
ernment  measures  everywhere.  The  State  of 
Ohio  gave  over  one  hundred  thousand  majority 
against  C.  L.  Vallandigham,  the  Democratic  can¬ 
didate  for  governor;  and  in  the  State  of  New 
York  Governor  Seymour’s  majority  of  ten  thou¬ 
sand  in  1862  was  annihilated,  and  a  majority  of 
nearly  thirty  thousand  appeared  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  political  balance-sheet.  Even  in 
Maryland,  where  the  emancipation  of  the  slave! 
was  made  a  distinct  issue  in  the  canvass,  there 
was  given  at  the  polls  a  very  large  Union  ma¬ 
jority.  This  political  reaction  and  the  recent 
successes  of  the  National  arms  encouraged  the 
government ;  and  appended  to  the  President’s 
first  message  (Dec.  8,  1863)  to  the  Thirty-eighth 
Congress  was  a  proclamation  in  which  he  offer¬ 
ed  full  pardon  and  restoration  of  all  rights  of 
property,  excepting  as  to  slaves,  to  all  persons 
(with  specified  exceptions)  who  had  participated 
in  the  rebellion  who  should  take  a  prescribed 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  government.  It.  also 
offered  a  prescription  for  reorganizing  civil  gov¬ 


ernments  in  states  in  which  rebellion  existed, 
by  which  the  people  might  be  restored  to  all 
the  political  privileges  guaranteed  by  the  Na¬ 
tional  Constitution.  This  proclamation  effected 
nothing. 

Averasborough,  Battle  of.  On  his  march 
from  Fayetteville  to  Goldsborongh,  Sherman’s 
forces  were  menaced  by  the  Confederates,  and 
Kilpatrick  had  several  skirmishes  with  Wheeler 
and  Hampton.  He  had  struck  the  rear  of  Hardee’s 
column  (March  8,  1865)  in  its  retreat  towards 
Fayetteville.  He  had  fought  Hampton,  and  was 
defeated,  losing  many  men  (who  were  made  pris¬ 
oners)  and  guns.  Kilpatrick  barely  escaped  on 
foot  in  a  swamp,  where  he  rallied  his  men. 
They  fell  upon  Hampton,  who  was  plundering 
their  camp,  routed  him,  and  retook  the  guns. 
Hampton  had  captured  103  Nationals  and  killed 
or  wounded  80.  At  Fayetteville,  Sherman  ut¬ 
terly  destroyed  the  arsenal,  with  all  the  valua¬ 
ble  public  property  of  the  Confederates  there. 
Moving  on,  Sherman,  in  accordance  with  his 
usual  plan,  made  movements  to  distract  his  ad¬ 
versary.  He  sent  Slocum  with  four  divisions 
of  the  left  wing,  preceded  by  cavalry,  towards 
Averasborough  and  the  main  road  to  Raleigh  ; 
while  two  divisions  of  that  wing,  with  the  train, 
took  the  direct  road  to  Goldsborough.  Howard 
moved  with  four  divisions  on  the  right,  ready 
to  assist  the  left  if  necessary.  It  was  a  ter¬ 
rible  march  over  quagmire  roads,  made  so  by 
incessant  rain.  They  had  to  be  corduroyed 
continually.  Slocum  found  Hardee  intrenched 
near  Averasborough  with  about  20,000  men. 
General  Williams,  with  the  20th  corps,  took  the 
lead  in  making  an  attack,  and  very  soon  he 
broke  the  Confederate  left  wing  into  fragments 
and  drove  it  back  upon  a  second  and  stronger 
line.  Ward’s  division  pushed  the  fugitives  and 
captured  3  guns  and  217  men;  and  the  Confed¬ 
erates  left  108  of  their  dead  on  the  field.  Kil¬ 
patrick  was  just  securing  a  footing  on  the  road 
to  Bentouville  (which  see)  when  he  was  furi¬ 
ously  attacked  by  McLaws’s  division,  and,  after 
a  hard  fight,  was  pushed  back.  Then  the  whole 
of  Slocum’s  line  advanced,  drove  Hardee  within 
his  intrencliments,  and  pressed  him  so  heavily 
that  on  the  dark  and  stormy  night  of  March  16, 
1865,  he  retreated  to  Smithfield.  Slocum  lost  in 
the  battle  77  killed  and  477  wounded.  Hardee’s 
loss  was  estimated  at  about  the  same.  Ward 
pursued  the  fugitives  through  Averasborough, 
but  soon  gave  up  the  chase. 

Averill,  William  W.,  is  a  native  of  New  York, 
and  was  born  in  1830.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1855.  Entering  the  mounted  rifles,  he 
distinguished  himself  in  New  Mexico  by  the 
surprise  and  capture  of  a  body  of  Indians.  In 
that  warfare  he  was  severely  wounded.  Soon 
after  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
chosen  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  Pennsylvania 
cavalry,  and  became  brigadier-general  of  volun¬ 
teers  in  September,  1862.  He  had  taken  an  ac¬ 
tive  part  in  the  battles  on  the  Peninsula  and  in 
Pope’s  campaign  in  July  and  August,  1862.  He 
reinforced  Pleasonton  in  the  advance  after  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  and  was  afterwards  very  ac- 


AVERILL’S  RAIDS 


83 


AYRES 


five  in  Virginia,  especially  in  the  mountain  re¬ 
gions,  in  1863.  (See  Averill's  Raida.)  He  per¬ 
formed  gallant  service  under  Hunter,  Sigel,  and 
Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  1864  ;  and 


he  was  breveted  major-general  in  March,  1865. 
After  the  war  he  became  consul-general  in  Can¬ 
ada. 

Averill’s  Raids  in  Western  Virginia  (1863). 
There  had  been  comparative  quiet  in  that  re¬ 
gion  after  the  close  of  1861  until  the  summer 
and  fall  of  1863,  when  General  W.  W.  Averill, 
with  a  cavalry  force,  made  extensive  raids  in 
'that  mountainous  country.  Before  the  close  of 
that  year  he  had  nearly  purged  Western  Virginia 
of  armed  Confederates,  and  seriously  interrupted 
railway  communication  between  the  armies  of 
Lee  and  Bragg.  Colonel  John  Tolland  had  led 
a  cavalry  raid  in  these  mountain  regions  in 
July,  1863.  He  made  a  descent  upon  Wythe- 
ville,  on  the  Virginia  and  Tennessee  Railway, 
where  his  force  was  roughly  handled  by  Con¬ 
federates.  Tolland  was  killed,  and  his  com¬ 
mand  returned  to  the  Kanawha.  In  a  ride  of 
about  four  hundred  miles,  during  eight  days, 
they  had  suffered  much,  and  lost  82  men  and 
300  horses.  A  little  later  General  Averill  start¬ 
ed  from  Tygart’s  Valley ;  passed  through  several 
counties  southward ;  drove  Confederates  over 
Warm  Spring  Mountains;  destroyed  saltpetre- 
works  ;  menaced  Staunton  ;  and  was  confronted 
by  a  large  force  of  General  S.  Jones’s  command, 
near  White  Sulphur  Springs,  where  a  conflict  for 
Rock  Gap  occurred,  and  lasted  a  greater  part  of 
August  26  and  27.  Averill  was  repulsed,  and 
made  liis  way  back  to  Tygart’s  Valley,  having 
lost  207  men  and  a  Parrott  gun,  which  burst 
during  the  fight.  The  Confederates  lost  156 
men.  Much  later  in  the  year  Averill  made  an¬ 
other  aggressive  movement.  He  left  Beverly 
early  in  November  with  5000  men  of  all  arms, 
and  moved  southward,  driving  Confederates  un¬ 
der  General  “  Miulwall”(W.  S.)  Jackson  to  a  post 
on  the  top  of  Droop  Mountain,  in  Greenbrier 
County;  stormed  them  (Nov.  6,  1863),  and  drove 
them  into  Monroe  County,  with  a  loss  of  over 
4  300  men,  3  guns,  and  700  small-arms.  Averill’s 
loss  was  about  100  men.  West  Virginia  was 


now  nearly  free  of  armed  Confederates,  and 
Averill  started,  in  December,  with  a  strong 
force  of  Virginia  mounted  infantry,  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  cavalry,  and  Ewing’s  battery,  to  destroy 
railway  communications  between  the  armies 
of  Lee  in  Virginia  and  Bragg  in  Tennessee. 
He  crossed  the  mountains  amid  ice  and  snow, 
and  first  struck  the  Virginia  and  Tennessee 
Railway  at  Salem,  on  the  headwaters  of  the 
Roanoke  River,  where  he  destroyed  the  station- 
house,  rolling-stock,  and  Confederate  supplies. 
Also,  in  the  course  of  six  hours  his  troops  tore 
up  the  track,  heated  and  ruined  the  rails,  burn¬ 
ed  five  bridges,  and  destroyed  several  culverts 
over  the  space  of  fifteen  miles.  This  raid  arous¬ 
ed  all  the  Confederates  of  the  mountain  region, 
and  seven  separate  commands  were  arranged  in 
a  line  extending  from  Staunton  to  Newport  to 
intercept  the  raider.  He  dashed  through  this 
line  at  Covington  in  the  face  of  some  opposition, 
destroyed  the  bridges  behind  him,  and  one  of  his 
regiments,  which  had  been  cut  oft’  from  the  rest, 
swam  the  stream  and  joined  the  others,  with 
the  loss  of  four  men  drowned.  Averill  captured 
during  the  raid  about  200  men.  “  My  com¬ 
mand,”  he  said  in  his  report  (Dec.  21, 1863),  “  has 
marched,  climbe4,  slid,  and  swam  three  hundred 
and  forty  miles  since  the  8th  inst.”  He  report¬ 
ed  a  loss  of  6  men  drowned,  5  wounded,  and  90 
missing. 

Avery,  Waightstill,  was  born  at  Groton, 
Conn.,  May  3, 1745 ;  died  in  Burke  County,  N.  C., 
March  15,  1821.  He  studied  law  in  Maryland, 
and  began  its  practice  in  Mecklenburg  Coun¬ 
ty,  N.  C.,  in  1769.  He  was  prominent  there 
among  the  opposers  of  the  obnoxious  measures 
of  the  British  Parliament  bearing  on  the  colo¬ 
nies,  and  was  one  of  the  promoters  and  signers 
of  the  famous  “  Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dependence”  (which  see).  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Provincial  Congress  at  Hillsborough  in 
1775  which  organized  the  military  forces  of  the 
state;  and  in  the  summer  of  1776  he  joined  the 
army,  under  General  Rutherford,  iu  the  Chero¬ 
kee  country.  He  was  a  commissioner  in  fram¬ 
ing  the  treaty  of  Holston,  which  effected  peace 
on  the  Western  frontier.  Mr.  Avery  was  active 
in  civil  affairs;  and  iu  1779  was  colonel  of  the 
county  militia,  serving  with  great  zeal  during 
the  British  invasion  of  North  Carolina.  He  re¬ 
moved  to  Burke  County  in  1781,  which  he  rep¬ 
resented  in  the  State  Legislature  many  years. 
Mr.  Avery  was  the  first  state  attorney -general 
of  North  Carolina. 

Ayres,  Romeyn  B.,  was  born  in  New  York, 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  He  served 
in  the  artillery  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  com¬ 
manded  a  battery  in  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run. 
In  October,  1861,  he  became  chief  of  artillery  of 
W.  F.  Smith’s  division,  and  soon  afterwards  of 
the  sixth  corps.  He  was  in  the  campaign  on 
the  Peninsula,  and  the  chief  battles  afterwards 
in  Virginia  and  Maryland.  He  served  with  dis¬ 
tinction  through  the  Richmond  campaign  of 
1864-65  ;  and  he  was  breveted  major-general  of 
A'olunteers  in  March,  1865. 


BABBITT 


84 


BACON'S  REBELLION 


B. 


Babbitt,  Isaac,  inventor  of  the  “  Babbitt  met¬ 
al”  nserl  on  railway  cars,  axle-boxes,  etc.,  was 
born  at  Taunton,  Mass.,  July  26,  1799;  died  in 
McLean  Asylum,  Mass.,  May  26,  1862.  About 
1831  he  made,  in  Taunton,  the  first  Britannia- 
ware  manufactured  in  this  country  ;  and  in  1839 
be  invented  the  anti-friction  metal  which  bears 
bis  name.  Congress  gave  him  $20,000  for  bis 
invention  ;  and  bo  took  out  patents  in  England 
(1844)  and  Russia  (1847).  A  few  years  before 
his  death  be  became  deranged. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas,  Superintendent 
of  the  Coast  Survey,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
July  19,  1806;  died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Feb.  17, 
1867.  lie  was  a  great-grandson  of  Dr.  Franklin. 


ALEXANDER  DALLAS  BACHE. 


Graduating  at  the  West  Point  Military  Academy 
with  high  honor  in  1825,  and  receiving  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  lieutenant  of  engineers,  be  re¬ 
mained  in  the  academy  a  while  as  assistant  pro¬ 
fessor.  Two  years  be  was  under  Colonel  Totten 
in  the  construction  of  military  works  at  New¬ 
port,  where  be  married  Miss  Fowler,  who,  as  bis 
wife,  was  bis  great  assistant  in  astronomical  ob¬ 
servations.  He  resigned  in  1827,  and  from  that 
time  until  1832  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Pennsylvania.  Ardently  devoted  to 
scientific  pursuits,  he  made  important  discov¬ 
eries.  In  1836  be  was  chosen  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  of  Girard  College,  and  he  was 
very  efficient  in  the  organization  of  that  insti¬ 
tution.  He  visited  Europe  to  study  various  in¬ 
stitutions  of  learning  there  ;  and  in  1839  be  pub¬ 
lished  a  Report  on  the  European  System  of  Educa¬ 
tion.  In  1841  be  became  the  first  principal  of  the 
Philadelphia  High  School ;  and  in  1843  be  was 
appointed  Superintendent  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey  (which  see).  His  services  in  this 
field  were  of  the  highest  importance.  Various 


universities  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  LL.D.  He  published  several  scientific 
!  essays;  was  a  member  of  the  Light-house  Board  ; 
a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  ac¬ 
tive  in  various  public  labors.  Dr.  Bache  be¬ 
queathed  $42,000  to  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Science  in  Philadelphia,  for  the  promotion  of 
researches  in  physical  and  natural  science,  by 
assisting  experimenters  and  observers. 

Backwoodsmen  of  the  Carolinas,  Gather¬ 
ing  OF  the  (1781).  Fugitives  from  their  dwell¬ 
ings  in  the  Carolinas,  east  of  the  mountains,  the 
backwoodsmen  there,  aroused  by  the  cry  of  dis¬ 
tress  that  came  from  the  region  of  their  homes, 
resolved  to  aid  their  brethren  in  driving  out  the 
British  invaders.  They  formed  themselves  into 
regiments,  under  Isaac  Shelby  and  John  Sevier. 
The  former  sent  a  messenger  to  William  Camp¬ 
bell,  on  the  Holston  River;  and  it  was  resolved 
that  he,  with  four  hundred  men,  should  join  an 
expedition  against  Major  Ferguson,  who  was 
embodying  the  Tory  militia  in  the  western  part 
of  the  Carolinas.  An  express  was  also  sent 
to  Colonel  Cleaveland,  of  North  Carolina.  The 
volunteers  all  met  on  the  Watauga,  Sept.  25  ;  and 
on  the  following  day  all,  mounted  on  their  own 
horses  and  carrying  rifles  and  provisions,  began 
a  ride  over  the  lofty  mountains,  where  there  was 
not  even  a  bridle-path,  nor  a  house  for  the  space 
of  forty  miles  between  the  Watauga  and  the 
Catawba.  They  asked  Gates  to  furnish  them 
with  a  general  officer.  Meanwhile  Ferguson, 
who  had  pursued  a  party  of  patriots  to  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  had  moved  eastward  towards 
Cornwallis,  and  reached  King’s  Mountain,  where 
he  formed  a  strong  encampment.  There  he  was 
attacked,  defeated,  and  killed.  (See  King's  Moun¬ 
tain,  Battle  of.) 

Bacon,  Nathaniel,  a  Virginia  patriot,  was 
born  in  Suffolk,  England,  about  1630;  died  Oc¬ 
tober,  1677.  He  was  educated  at  the  Inns  of 
Court,  London  ;  came  to  America  with  a  consid¬ 
erable  fortune;  settled  in  Gloucester  County, 
Va.,  and  owned  a  large  estate  high  up  on  the 
James  River.  A  lawyer  by  profession  and  elo¬ 
quent  in  speech,  he  easily  exercised  great  influ¬ 
ence  over  the  people.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  council  in  1672.  He  was  a  republican  in 
sentiment;  and,  strongly  opposing  the  views 
and  public  conduct  of  Governor  Berkeley,  the 
stanch  loyalist,  he  stirred  up  the  people  to  re¬ 
bellion.  (See  Bacon's  Rebellion.)  He  died  from 
malarial  fever,  while  conducting  military  opera¬ 
tions  against  the  governor,  at  Accomac. 

Bacon’s  Rebellion.  In  1670  Nathaniel  Ba¬ 
con,  a  wealthy  English  lawyer,  about  forty  years 
of  age,  emigrated  to  Virginia.  He  was  popu¬ 
lar  in  his  manners,  eloquent  and  persuasive  in 
speech,  and  well-informed  in  legal  science.  Ba¬ 
con  wielded  great  influence  in  the  colony  imme¬ 
diately,  and  was,  very  soon  after  his  arrival, 
chosen  a  member  of  the  governor’s  council.  Dis¬ 
contents  were  then  rife  in  the  colony.  Berkeley, 


BACON’S  REBELLION 


85 


BACON’S  REBELLION 


■who  was  very  popular  at  first,  had  become  ty¬ 
rannical  and  oppressive  as  an  uncompromising 
royalist  and  rigorous  executor  of  his  royal  mas¬ 
ter’s  will.  At  the  same  time  republicanism  had 
begun  a  vigorous  growth  among  the  people  of 
Virginia;  but  it  was  repressed  somewhat  by  a 
majority  of  royalists  in  the  House  of  Burgesses  ; 
and  the  council  were  as  pliant  tools  of  Berkeley 
as  any  courtiers  who  paid  homage  to  the  king. 
The  governor  rigidly  enforced  navigation  laws 
oppressive  to  colonial  commerce ;  and  the  mar¬ 
riage  laws,  and  the  elective  and  other  fran¬ 
chises  were  modified,  abridged,  or  abolished. 
The  Church  of  Englaud  was  made  supreme,  and 
was  an  instrument  of  persecution  in  the  hands 
of  the  dominant  party,  in  attempts  to  drive  Bap¬ 
tists,  Quakers,  and  Puritans  out  of  Virgiuia.  (See 
Berkeley.)  Stimulated  by  these  oppressions,  re¬ 
publicanism  grew  vigorously  in  Virginia,  and 
the  toilers  and  righteous  men  of  the  aristocracy 
soon  formed  a  powerful  republican  party  that 
threatened  ere  long  to  fill  the  House  of  Bur¬ 
gesses  with  men  of  their  creed.  Berkeley,  hav¬ 
ing  a  pliant  majority  of  the  cavalier  class  in  the 
Assembly,  sanctioned  unjust  and  arbitrary  de¬ 
crees  of  the  king,  who  gave  to  profligate  court 
favorites,  first  large  tracts  of  land,  some  of  it 
cultivated,  in  Virgiuia ;  and,  finally,  in  1673,  he 
gave  to  two  of  them  (Lord  Culpepper  and  Earl 
of  Arlington),  “  all  the  dominion  of  land  and  wa¬ 
ter  called  Virginia”  for  thirty  years.  The  best 
men  in  the  colony  of  both  parties,  alarmed  by 
this  proceeding,  sent  a  committee  with  a  remon¬ 
strance  to  the  kiug,  but  the  mission  was  fruit¬ 
less.  The  republicans  were  very  indignant.  Re¬ 
bellious  murmurs  were  heard  everywhere  in  the 
colony  ;  and  the  toiling  people  were  taught  to 
regard  the  aristocracy  as  their  enemies,  and  so 
the  majority  of  them  were.  Having  a  majority  in 
the  Legislat  ure  of  the  colony,  they  ruled  without 
any  regard  foy  the  happiness  of  the  people.  Ev¬ 
erything  for  the  public  good  was  neglected. 
There  were  no  roads  or  bridges  in  Virgiuia;  and 
the  people  were  compelled  to  travel  along  bridle¬ 
paths  on  land,  and  to  ford  or  swim  the  streams. 
They  journeyed  on  the  w  ater  in  canoes  or  boats, 
and  endured  many  hardships.  The  working  peo¬ 
ple  lived  in  log-cabins  with  unglazed  windows. 
There  were  no  villages.  At  the  time  we  are  con¬ 
sidering,  Jamestown,  the  capital,  consisted  of 
only  a  church,  a  state-house,  and  eighteen  dwell¬ 
ings  ;  and,  until  lately,  the  Assembly  had  met  in 
the  hall  of  an  ale-house.  This  was  about  seventy 
years  after  the  founding  of  the  colony,  w  hen  it 
contained  fifty  thousand  inhabitants.  The  large 
land-owners — the  aristocracy — meanwhile  were 
living  in  luxury  in  fine  mansions,  in  sight  of  some 
beautiful  river,  surrounded  by  negro  slaves  and 
other  dependents,  and  enjoying  a  sort  of  patri¬ 
archal  life.  The  governor  was  clamoring  for  an 
increase  of  his  salary,  while  his  stables  and  fields 
had  seventy  horses  in  them,  and  flocks  of  sheep 
were  on  his  great  plantation,  called  “  Green 
Spring.”  The  tendency  of  such  a  state  of  so¬ 
ciety  w  as  obvious  to  every  reflecting  mind.  It 
was  at  this  juncture  that  Bacon  arrived  in  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Republi¬ 
cans.  In  the  summer  of  1675,  the  Indians,  seeing 


their  domain  gradually  absorbed  by  the  en¬ 
croaching  white  people,  in  their  despair  struck 
a  heavy  blow.  As  they  swept  from  the  North 
through  Maryland,  John  Washington,  grandfa¬ 
ther  of  the  first  President  of  the  United  States, 
opposed  them  with  a  force  of  Virginians,  and  a 
fierce  border  wTar  ensued.  Berkeley,  who  had  the 
monopoly  of  the  fur-trade  with  the  barbarians, 
treated  the  latter  leniently.  Six  chiefs,  wTho  had 
come  to  camp  to  treat  for  peace,  were  treacher¬ 
ously  slain  by  Englishmen.  The  wrathful  sav¬ 
ages  strewed  their  pathway,  in  the  country 
between  the  Rappahannock  and  James  rivers, 
with  the  dead  bodies  of  ten  Englishmen  for 
every  chief  that  was  treacherously  murdered, 
and  blackened  its  face  with  fire.  The  supine- 
uess  of  the  governor  increased  the  sense  of  in¬ 
security  among  the  people,  and  a  deputation 
headed  by  Bacon  petitioned  him  for  leave  to 
arm  and  protect  themselves.  Berkeley,  having 
reason,  as  he  thought,  to  suspect  Bacon  of  am¬ 
bitious  rather  than  patriotic  motives  (for  he  had 
been  engaged  in  an  insurrection  before),  refused 
to  grant  this  prayer.  At  this  Bacon  took  fire.  He 
knew  the  hidden  cause  of  the  refusal,  and  he  at 
once  proclaimed  that  he  was  ready  to  lead  the 
people  against  the.  approaching  invaders  with¬ 
out  permission,  if  another  white  person  should  be 
mui’dered  by  them.  Very  soon  news  reached  him 
that  some  on  his  own  plantation,  near  (present) 
Richmond,  had  been  slain.  He  summoned  the 
people  to  a  consultation.  Mounting  a  stump, 
he  addressed  them  with  impassioned  eloquence, 
denounced  the  governor,  and  advised  his  hear¬ 
ers  to  take  up  arms  in  their  own  defence.  They 
were  soon  embodied  in  military  force,  and  chose 
Bacon  as  their  general.  He  asked  the  governor 
to  give  him  a  commission  as  such,  but  was  re¬ 
fused  ;  and  Bacon  marched  against  the  Indians 
without  it.  Before  he  had  reached  York  River, 
the  governor  proclaimed  him  a  rebel,  and  or¬ 
dered  his  followers  to  disperse.  A  greater  por¬ 
tion  of  them  followed  Bacon’s  standard,  and  the 
expedition  pushed  forward ;  while  the  lower 
settlements  arose  in  insurrection,  and  demanded 
an  immediate  dissolution  of  the  aristocratic  As¬ 
sembly.  The  Indians  were  driven  back  to  the 
Rappahannock,  a  new  assembly  was  chosen,  and 
Bacon  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Bur¬ 
gesses  from  Henrico  County.  The  new  House 
represented  the  popular  will.  They  gave  Bacon 
a  commission  as  general,  but  Berkeley  refused  to 
sign  it.  Some  of  the  Assembly  supported  the 
governor  in  the  matter,  when  Bacon,  fearing 
treachery,  retired  to  the  “Middle  Plantation” 
(now  Williamsburg),  where  live  hundred  follow¬ 
ers  proclaimed  him  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Virginia  forces.  With  these  he  appeared  at 
Jamestown,  and  demanded  his  commission.  Re¬ 
garding  the  movement  as  revolutionary,  the  gov¬ 
ernor  again  refused  to  sign  it.  The  sturdy  old 
cavalier  went  out  in  great  anger  before  the  in¬ 
surgent  chief,  and  baring  his  bosom,  exclaimed, 
“ Shoot !  shoot!  it  is  a  fair  mark !”  Bacon  said, 
respectfully,  “  Not  a  hair  of  your  head  shall  be 
hurt ;  we  have  come  for  our  commissions  to  save 
our  lives  from  the  Indians.”  The  governor,  in¬ 
fluenced  by  his  judgment  when  his  anger  had 


BACON’S  REBELLION 


86 


BACON’S  REBELLION 


cooled,  or  by  his  fears,  not  only  signed  the  com¬ 
mission,  but  joined  his  council  in  commending 
Bacou  to  the  king  as  a  zealous,  loyal,  and  patri¬ 
otic  citizen.  That  was  done  on  July  4,  1676, 
just  one  hundred  years  before  the  famous  Dec¬ 
laration  of  Independence,  written  by  a  Virginia 
“  rebel  ”  (Thomas  Jefferson),  proclaimed  the 
English-Ainericau  colonies  “  free  and  indepen¬ 
dent  states.”  Bacon,  so  encouraged,  immediately 
marched  against  the  Indians.  The  faithless  gov¬ 
ernor,  relieved  of  his  presence,  crossed  the  York 
River,  called  a  convention  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Gloucester  County,  and  proposed  to  proclaim 
Bacon  a  traitor.  The  convention  refused  to  do 
so,  when  the  haughty  baronet  issued  such  a  proc¬ 
lamation  on  his  own  responsibility,  in  spite  of 
their  remonstrances.  The  news  of  this  perfidy 
reached  Bacon  at  his  camp  on  the  Pamunky 
River.  He  addressed  his  followers  with  much 
warmth,  saying,  “  It  vexes  me  to  the  heart  that, 
while  I  am  hunting  the  wolves  and  tigers  that 
destroy  our  lands,  I  should  myself  be  pursued  as 
a  savage.  Shall  persons  wholly  devoted  to 
their  king  and  country — men  who  hazard 
their  lives  against  the  public  enemy, 
deserve  the  appellation  of  ‘  rebels’  and 
‘traitors?’  The  whole  country  is  wit¬ 
ness  to  our  peaceable  behavior.  But 
those  iu  authority,  how  have  they  ob¬ 
tained  their  estates  ?  Have  they  not  de¬ 
voured  the  common  treasury  ?  What 
arts,  what  sciences,  what  learning  have 
they  promoted  ?  I  appeal  to  the  king 
and  Parliament,  where  the  cause  of  the 
people  will  be  heard  impartially.”  Un¬ 
der  the  circumstances,  Bacon  felt  com¬ 
pelled  to  lead  in  a  revolution.  He  in¬ 
vited  the  Virginians  to  meet  in  conven¬ 
tion  at  the  Middle  Plantation.  The  best 
men  iu  the  colony  were  there.  They 
debated  and  deliberated  on  a  warm 
August  day  from  noon  until  midnight. 

Bacon’s  eloquence  and  logic  led  them  to 
take  an  oath  to  support  their  leader  iu 
subduing  the  Indians  and  iu  preventing 
civil  war ;  and  again  he  went  against 
the  barbarians.  The  governor,  alarmed 
by  the  proceedings  at  the  Middle  Plan¬ 
tation,  tied,  with  his  council,  to  the  east¬ 
ern  shore  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  where,  by 
promises  of  booty,  he  tried  to  raise 
an  army  among  the  inhabitants  and  the 
seamen  of  English  vessels  there.  William  Drum¬ 
mond,  who  had  been  the  first  governor  of  North 
Carolina,  with  liisbrave  and  patriotic  wife,  Sarah, 
was  then  with  Bacon.  (See  North  Carolina.)  Mrs. 
Drummond  did  much  to  incite  the  Virginians 
to  go  on  in  the  path  of  revolution,  and  she  was 
denounced  as  “  a  notorious,  wicked  rebel.”  Her 
husband  proposed  to  Bacon  to  proclaim  govern¬ 
ment  in  the  colony  abdicated  by  Berkeley  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  act.  It  was  suggested  that  a  power 
would  come  from  England  that  would  ruin  the 
republicans  iu  the  colony.  Sarah  snatched  up 
a  small  stick  from  the  ground,  and  exclaimed, 
“  I  fear  the  power  of  England  no  more  than  a 
broken  straw.  The  child  that  is  unborn  shall 
have  cause  to  rejoice  for  the  good  that  will  come 


by  the  rising  of  the  country.”  The  proclamation 
of  abdication  was  made,  on  the  ground  that  the 
governor  was  fomenting  civil  war;  and  writs 
were  issued  for  a  representative  convention. 
Meanwhile  Berkeley  had  gathered  a  motley  host 
of  followers  incited  by  promises  of  plunder ;  pro¬ 
claimed  the  freedom  of  the  slaves  of  “rebels;” 
was  joined  by  some  Indians  from  the  eastern 
shore,  and  the  English  ships  were  placed  at  bis 
service.  With  this  army,  commanded  by  Major 
Beverly,  the  governor  sailed  with  five  ships  and 
ten  sloops,  and  landed  at  Jamestown  early  in 
September,  1676,  where,  after  piously  offering 
thanksgiving  in  the  church,  he  proclaimed  Ba¬ 
con  a  traitor.  Bacon  was  surprised,  for  he  had 
then  few  followers  iu  camp ;  but  his  ranks 
swelled  rapidly  as  the  news  went  from  planta¬ 
tion  to  plantation.  At  the  head  of  a  consider¬ 
able  host  of  patriotic  Virginians,  he  marched  tow¬ 
ards  Jamestown,  seizing  by  the  way  as  hostages 
the  wives  of  loyalists  who  were  with  Berkeley. 
The  republicans  appeared  before  the  capital  on 
a  moonlit  evening,  aud  cast  up  intrenchmeuts. 
In  vain  the  governor  urged  his  motley  troops  to 


THE  OLD  CHURCH  TOWER  AT  JAMESTOWN,  IN  1850. 

attack  them  ;  they  were  not  made  of  stuff  for 
soldiers.  Finally,  the  royalists  stole  away  iu 
the  night,  and  compelled  the  indignant  governor 
to  follow  them,  when  Bacon  entered  Jamestown, 
and  assumed  the  reins  of  civil  power.  Very  soon 
he  was  startled  by  a  rumor  that  the  royalists 
of  the  upper  counties  were  coming  down  upon 
him.  In  a  council  of  war  it  was  agreed  to  burn 
the  capital.  The  torch  was  applied  at  the  twi¬ 
light  of  a  soft  September  day,  and  the  next 
morning  nothing  was  left  but  the  brick  tower 
of  the  church  and  a  few  chimneys.  (See  James¬ 
town.)  Then  Bacon  hastened  to  meet  the  ap¬ 
proaching  royalists,  who,  not  disposed  to  fight, 
deserted  their  leader  and  joined  the  “  rebels.” 
At  the  same  time  the  royalists  of  Gloucester 


BADEAU 


87 


BAILEY 


yielded  their  allegiance  to  Bacon,  and  he  re¬ 
solved  to  cross  the  Chesapeake  and  drive  the 
loyalists  and  Berkeley  from  Virginia.  His  plans 
were  suddenly  frustrated  by  a  foe  deadlier  than 
the  malignity  of  the  royalists  who  opposed  him. 
The  malaria  from  the  marshes  around  Jamestown 
in  September,  had  poisoned  his  blood,  and  on  the 
11th  of  October  (1676)  he  died  of  malignant  fe- 
A'er.  His  followers  made  but  feeble  resistance 
t  hereafter ;  and  before  November  Berkeley  re¬ 
turned  to  the  Peninsula  and  resumed  the  func¬ 
tions  of  government  at  the  Middle  Plantation, 
which  was  made  the  capital  of  Virginia.  (See 
Williamsburg.)  Bacon  had  failed  ;  yet  those  “  do 
not  fail  who  die  in  a  good  cause.”  His  name  is 
embalmed  in  history  as  a  rebel ;  had  he  succeed¬ 
ed,  he  would  have  been  immortalized  as  a  patriot. 
His  principal  followers  were  very  harshly  treat¬ 
ed  by  the  soured  governor,  and  for  a  while  ter¬ 
ror  reigned  in  Virginia.  (See  Berkeley.)  The 
rebellion  cost  the  colony  $500,000. 

Badeau,  Adam,  was  born  in  New  York,  and 
served  ou  the  staff  of  General  Sherman  early  in 
the  Civil  War.  He  was  severely  wounded  at 
Port  Hudson.  In  January,  1864,  he  joined  Gen¬ 
eral  Grant,  and  became  his  military  secretary, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In  March, 
1865,  he  was  made  aide-de-camp  to  the  general 
of  the  army,  with  the  title  of  colonel,  and  re¬ 
tired  in  1869,  when  he  was  made  secretary  of 
the  American  Legation  at  the  British  court. 

Badge  Designations  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  These  were  introduced  by  General 
Hooker  in  the  spring  of  1863.  The  idea  origi¬ 
nated  with  General  Kearney  at  the  battle  of 
Seven  Pines,  or  Fair  Oaks  (which  see).  At  that 
time  it  was  impossible  for  the  common  volun¬ 
teer  soldiers  to  renew  their  clothing  except  by 
drawing  from  the  quartermaster  the  same  as 
that  used  by  enlisted  men.  Officers  and  men 
were  thus  dressed  alike.  To  distinguish  them 
apart,  Kearney  issued  an  order  that  the  field  and 
staff  officers  of  his  division  should  wear  a  red 
patch  on  the  top  of  their  caps,  and  the  line-offi¬ 
cers  the  same  in  front.  Kearney’s  successor 
(General  Birney),  after  his  death,  ordered  this 
habit  to  be  continued,  in  memory  of  their  old 
commander;  and  also,  for  the  same  purpose,  the 
rank  and  file  should  wear  a  red  patch  on  the 
side  of  their  caps.  When  General  Hooker  took 
command  of  the  army,  he  ordered  each  of  the 
seven  corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  to  be 
distinguished  by  a  badge,  as  follows :  The  first 


by  colors.  The  badge  of  the  first  division  of 
each  corps  was  made  of  scarlet  cloth,  of  the  sec¬ 
ond  of  white,  and  the  third  of  blue.  These  were 
all  placed  on  the  top  of  the  cap.  Those  who 
wore  hats  placed  them  on  the  left  side. 

Badge  of  Military  Merit.  In  1782  Washing¬ 
ton  established  a  badge  of  military  merit,  to  be 
conferred  upon  non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers  who  had  served  three  years  with  brave¬ 
ry,  fidelity,  and  good  conduct,  and  upon  every 
one  who  should  perform  any  singularly  merita 
rious  action.  The  badge  entitled  the  recipient 
“  to  pass  and  repass  all  guards  and  military  posts 
as  fully  and  amply  as  any  commissioned  officer 
whatever.”  A  board  of  officers  for  making  such 
award  was  established,  and  upon  their  recom¬ 
mendation  the  commander-in -chief  presented 
the  badge.  It  was  the  American  order  of  the 
“  Legion  of  Honor.” 

Badger  State,  a  name  popularly  given  to  thp 
State  of  Wisconsin,  on  account  of  the  number 
of  badgers  found  there  by  the  early  settlers. 

Baffin,  William,  an  English  Arctic  explorer, 
was  born  in  1584;  died  in  1622.  He  made  voy¬ 
ages  to  West  Greenland  in  1612-15,  and  to  Spitz- 
bergen  in  1614.  Ju  1616  he  commanded  a  ves¬ 
sel  which  reached,  it  is  said,  eighty-one  and  a 
half  degrees  north  latitude.  He  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Ormuz,  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  ascertained  the  limits  of  the 
great  bay  that  bears  his  name. 

Bahama  Islands,  The,  were  granted  by 
Charles  II.  ( 1667 )  to  the  eight  courtiers  to 
whom  he  granted  the  Carolinas.  (See  Grantees 
of  Carolina.)  They  had  sent  William  Sayle  to 
bring  them  some  account  of  the  Carolina  coast. 
His  vessel  was  driven  by  a  storm  among  the  Ba¬ 
hama  islands,  lying  eastward  of  Florida.  There 
he  gained  much  knowledge  of  them,  especially 
of  New  Provideuce,  the  chief  among  them.  On 
his  return  to  England,  King  Charles  gave  a  pat¬ 
ent  for  the  Bahamas  to  the  proprietors  of  Caro¬ 
lina,  and  they  were  annexed.  At  that  time  these 
islauds  were  uninhabited,  and  the  group  was  a 
favorite  resort  for  the  buccaneers  (which  see), 
thus  becoming  notorious.  The  island  of  New 
Providence  had  a  good  harbor,  but  the  arid  soil 
did  not  invite  cultivation.  It  is  now  a  favorite 
resort  for  invalids. 

Bailey,  Guilford  Dudley,  was  born  at  Mar- 
tinsburg,  Lewis  Co.,  N.  Y.,  June  4,  1834;  killed 
in  battle,  May  31,  1862.  He  graduated  at  West 


1  2  3  5  6  11  12 

BADGES. 


by  a  disk  ;  the  second  by  a  trefoil ;  the  third  by  a 
lozenge;  the  fifth  by  a  Maltese  cross;  the  sixth 
by  a  plain  cross;  the  eleventh  by  a  crescent; 
and  the  twelfth  by  a  star.  Each  corps  had  three 
divisions,  and  the  badges,  whose  form  deter¬ 
mined.  the  corps,  also  designated  the  divisions 


Point  in  1856,  and  entered,  as  lieutenant,  the 
Second  Artillery,  then  stationed  at  Fort  Onta¬ 
rio,  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  where,  in  1858,  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Colonel  G.  W.  Patten,  U.  S.  A.  Ho 
was  afterwards  stationed  at  Fort  Leavenworth, 
Kansas;  and  when  the  Civil  War  began  ho  was 


BAILEY 


88 


BAINBRIDGE 


acting-adjutant  of  the  post  at  Fort  Brown,  Tex¬ 
as,  whose  commander,  Captain  Stoneman,  re¬ 
fused  to  surrender  to  the  insurgents  of  Texas 
in  obedience  to  the  orders  of  the  recreant  Gen¬ 
eral  Twiggs  (which  see).  Captain  Stoneman 
(  bartered  a  steamboat,  aud,  after  securing  the 
most  valuable  public  property  there,  evacuated 
the  fort,  and  sailed  for  New  York,  where  he  ar¬ 
rived  March  15,  1861.  Soon  afterwards  Lieuten¬ 
ant  Bailey  was  sent  with  reinforcements  for  Fort 
Pickens  (which  see).  His  mission  was  success¬ 
ful.  Sickness  dually  compelled  him  to  return 
to  New  York  to  recruit  his  strength.  Soon  after¬ 
wards  he  was  requested  by  Governor  Morgan  to 
organize  a  state  regiment  of  light  artillery,  of 
w  hich  he  was  made  colonel.  With  these  troops, 
which  he  had  well  disciplined  at  Elmira,  he  went 
to  Washington,  and  in  the  spring  of  1862  he 
joined  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  at  Fortress 
Monroe.  At  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven 
Pines  (which  see),  Colonel  Bailey  w  as  in  Gener¬ 
al  Casey’s  division.  When  the  sudden  and  furi¬ 
ous  attack  wras  made,  the  infantry  fell  back, 
leaving  Colouel  Bailey’s  battery  exposed.  In¬ 
stead  of  retreating  and  leaving  his  guns  in  the 
hands  of  the  Confederates,  he  determined  to 
make  their  spoils  useless  to  them.  Leaping 
from  his  horse,  he  was  in  the  act  of  spiking  one 
of  the  guns  with  his  own  hand,  when  the  bullet 
of  a  sharp-shooter  penetrated  his  brain,  and  he 
fell  dead.  His  remains  repose,  under  a  monu¬ 
ment  erected  by  his  widow,  in  the  beautiful  ru¬ 
ral  cemetery  of  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 

Bailey,  Joseph,  acquired  great  fame  by  his 
skill  in  damming  the  Red  River  at  Alexandria 
(May,  1864),  by  which  the  squadron  of  iron-clad 
gunboats,  under  Admiral  Porter,  were  enabled 
to  pass  down  the  rapids  there  when  the  water 
was  low.  He  had  been  a  lumberman  in  Wis¬ 
consin,  and  in  that  business  had  learned  the 
practical  part,  which  he  used  in  his  engineering 
at  Alexandria,  where  he  was  acting  chief-engi¬ 
neer  of  the  Nineteenth  Army  Corps.  Other  en¬ 
gineers  said  his  proposition  to  dam  the  river  was 
absurd,  but  in  eleven  days  the  boats,  by  his  meth¬ 
od,  passed  safely  down.  (See  Red  River  Dam.') 
For  this  achievement  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general.  He  settled  in  Missouri  after  the  war, 
where  he  was  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  “  bush¬ 
whackers,”  and  was  shot  by  them  in  Nevada,  in 
that  state,  on  March  21,  1867. 

Bailey,  Theodorus,  rear-admiral  U.  S.  Navy, 
was  born  at  Chateaugay,  Franklin  Co.,  N.  Y., 
April  13,  1805;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb. 
10,  1877.  He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman 
in  January,  1818,  and  was  captain  in  1855.  In 
July,  1862,  he  was  made  commodore,  aud  in  July, 
1866,  rear-admiral  on  the  retired  list.  In  1861 
Captain  Bailey  was  in  command  of  the  Colorado, 
in  the  Western  Gulf  squadron,  and  was  second 
in  command  of  the  expedition  under  Butler  and 
Farragut  up  the  Mississippi  to  capture  New  Or¬ 
leans,  in  the  spring  of  1862.  His  vessel  was  too 
large  to  pass  the  bar,  and  taking  what  men  and 
guns  he  could  spare,  he  went  up  the  river  iu  his 
boats  as  a  volunteer,  aud  assumed  the  command 
of  the  first  division.  He  led  in  the  desperate 


attack  on  Fort  St. Philip,  Fort  Jackson,  and  the 
Confederate  flotilla.  It  was  one  of  the  most 
gallant  naval  operations  of  the  war;  aud  Admi¬ 
ral  Farragut  specially  commended  Captain  Bai¬ 
ley  as  the  leader  in  that  attack,  lu  1862  he  was 


THEODORUS  BAILEY. 


in  command  of  the  Eastern  Gulf  squadron,  and 
was  successful  in  breaking  up  blockade-running 
on  the  Florida  coast.  He  captured  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  of  those  violators  of  the  neu¬ 
trality  laws  of  his  country  in  the  space  of  a  year 
and  a  half.  Iu  1865-67  he  was  in  command  of 
the  navy-yard  at  Portsmouth. 

Bainbridge,  William,  an  American  commo¬ 
dore,  was  born  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  May  7,  1774; 
died  in  Philadelphia,  July  28, 1833.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen  years  he  went  to  sea,  and  commanded 
a  ship  at  nineteen.  On  the  reorganization  of  the 
navy  in  1798  he  was  appointed  a  lieutenant. 


WILLIAM  BAINBRIDGE. 


He  and  his  vessel  aud  crew  were  captured  in  the 
West  Indies  by  a  French  cruiser  iu  September  of 
that  year,  but  were  released  in  December,  when, 
returning  home,  he  was  promoted  to  the  com¬ 
mand  of  a  brig.  Iu  May,  1800,  he  was  commis- 


BAINBRIDGE 


89 


BAIRD 


sioned  a  captain,  aud  in  the  ship  Washington  he 
carried  tribute  from  the  United  States  to  the 
Dey  of  Algiers,  by  whom  he  was  treated  with 
much  insolence.  By  threats  of  capture  aud  a 
declaration  of  war  by  the  Algerine  ruler,  he  was 
compelled  to  take  an  embassy  to  Constantinople 
for  that  petty  despot.  On  his  return,  with  pow¬ 
er  given  him  by  the  Sultan,  Bainbridge  fright- 


on  a  rock  near  Tripoli,  and  was  captured,  with 
her  commander  and  crew.  At  Tripoli  Bain¬ 
bridge  and  three  hundred  aud  fifteen  of  his  men 
remained  prisoners  about  nineteen  months.  On 
his  return  to  the  United  States,  he  was  received 
with  great  respect,  aud  in  the  reorganization 
of  the  navy,  in  1806,  he  became  the  seventh  in 
the  list  of  captains.  Having  obtained  the  rank 


BAINBRIDGE  MEDAL. 


ened  the  insolent  Dey,  compelling  him  to  release 
all  Christian  prisoners  then  in  his  possession. 
He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1801,  and 
he  was  again  sent  to  the  Mediterranean  with 
the  frigate  Essex.  Upon  the  declaration  of  war 


hainbriduk’b  monument. 


against  the  United  States  by  Tripoli,  in  1809 
(see  Tripoli ,  War  with),  Bainbridge  was  put  in 
command  of  the  Philadelphia,  one  of  Preble’s 
squadron.  On  October  11  the  Philadelphia  struck 


of  commodore,  Bainbridge  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  a  squadron  (September,  1812)  com¬ 
posed  of  the  Constitution  (flag-ship),  Essex,  aud 
Hornet,  and  sailed  from  Boston  in  October.  Oft’ 
the  coast  of  Brazil  the  Constitution  captured 
the  British  frigate  Java  (Dec.  26) ;  and  for  this 
exploit  the  commodore  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress  and  a  gold  medal.  (See  Constitution  aud 
Java.)  Other  honors  were  bestowed  upou  him. 
In  1815  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
squadron  of  twenty  sail,  destined  for  Algiers 
(see  Algiers,  Tribute  to),  but  peace  was  concluded 
before  it  reached  the  Mediterranean.  He  set¬ 
tled  disputes  with  the  Barbary  Powers  (which 
see);  and  he  again  commanded  in  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  in  1819-21.  From  that  time  he  was  al¬ 
most  constantly  employed  in  service  on  shore, 
being  at  one  time  President  of  the  Board  of 
Navy  Commissioners.  Commodore  Bainbridge 
was  buried  in  Christ-church-yard,  Philadelphia, 
and  over  his  grave  is  a  plain  white  marble  obe¬ 
lisk.  His  wife’s  remains  were  buried  near. 

Baird,  Absalom,  was  born  at  Washington, 
Penn.,  Aug.  20, 1824,  and  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1849,  having  studied  law  before  he  entered  the 
Military  Academy.  He  was  ordered  to  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.,  in  March,  1861,  aud  in  May  was  made 
assistant  adjutant-general.  He  became  aid  to 
General  Tyler  in  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run,  and  in 
November  was  made  assistant  inspector-general, 
with  the  rank  of  major.  In  March,  1862,  he  be¬ 
came  General  Keys’s  chief  of  staff;  and  in  April 
he  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  sent  to  Kentucky.  He  commanded  a  divi¬ 
sion  under  General  Granger  in  April,  1863,  and 
was  afterwards  active  in  northern  Georgia  and 
in  the  Atlanta  campaign.  In  Sherman’s  march 
to  the  sea  (which  see)  he  commanded  a  division 


BAKER 


90 


BALLOONS  IN  WAR 


of  tlie  14tli  Army  Corps,  and  also  in  the  advance 
through  the  Carolinas.  He  was  breveted  major- 
general  in  March,  1865. 

Baker,  Edward  Dickinson,  soldier  and  states¬ 
man,  was  born  in  Loudon,  Feb.  24,  1811;  hilled 
at  Ball’s  Bluff,  on  the  Potomac,  Oct.  21,  1861. 
His  family  came  to  America  when  he  was  a  young 


child,  and  settled  first  in  Philadelphia  and  af¬ 
terwards  (1825)  in  Illinois.  Young  Baker  chose 
the  law  for  a  vocation,  and  entered  upon  its 
practice  in  Green  Comity,  Ill.  In  1837,  while 
residing  in  Springfield,  he  was  elected  to  the 
Legislature.  He  was  state  senator  in  1840-44, 
and  then  a  member  of  Congress  until  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  war  with  Mexico.  In  that  war  (1846- 
47)  he  served  as  colonel  of  Illinois  volunteers, 
and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1848.  He  set¬ 
tled  in  California  in  1852,  where  he  became  dis¬ 
tinguished  in  his  profession,  and  as  an  orator  in 
the  ranks  of  the  Republicans.  In  1859  he  re¬ 
moved  to  Oregon,  where  he  was  elected  United 
States  senator  in  1860.  He  was  in  that  service 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  in  1861,  when  he 
raised  a  body  of  troops  in  New  York  and  Phila¬ 
delphia.  Those  of  Pennsylvania  were  called 
the  “  First  California  Regiment.”  Declining  to 
be  appointed  general,  he  went  into  the  field 
as  colonel  at  the  head  of  his  regiment.  While 
fighting  at  Ball’s  Bluff,  in  Virginia,  he  was  shot 
dead.  (See  Ball's  Bluff.) 

Baker,  Remember,  a  captain  of  “  Green 
Mountain  Boys”  (which  see),  was  born  at  Wood¬ 
bury,  Conn.,  about  1740;  killed  by  Indians  on 
the  Sorel,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Champlain,  in 
August,  1775.  He  went  to  the  New  Hampshire 
Grants  in  1764,  before  the  Allens  took  up  their 
abode  there.  (See  New  Hampshire  Grants.)  He 
was  a  soldier  in  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
and  was  in  the  fierce  battle  at  Ticonderoga 
in  1758.  He  settled  at  Arlington,  on  “  the 
Grants,”  and  was  very  active  with  Ethan  Allen 
in  resisting  the  claims  of  New  York  to  Vermont 
territory.  Baker  was  arrested,  and  was  cruelly 
treated  while  a  prisoner,  by  the  New-Yorkers. 
The  government  of  that  province  had  outlawed 
him  and  set  a  price  upon  his  head.  Captain 
Baker  was  with  Allen  when  he  took  Ticonde¬ 


roga,  in  May,  1775.  He  was  killed  while  on  a 
scout  in  the  Continental  service. 

Balboa.  (See  Nunez,  Vasco  de.) 

Balcarras  (Earl),  Alexander  Lindsay,  was 
born  in  Scotland  in  1752 ;  died  in  London,  March 
27, 1825.  He  served  three  years  in  America  un¬ 
der  Carleton  and  Burgoyne,  aud  was  captured 
with  the  latter  at  Saratoga.  At  the  battle  of 
Hubbardton  (which  see),  where  he  was  wound¬ 
ed,  thirteen  balls  passed  through  his  clothes. 
He  was  made  major-general  in  1793,  and  was 
lieuteuant-  governor  of  Jamaica  in  1794.  He 
was  made  general  in  1803,  and  was  one  of  the 
representative  peers  from  Scotland. 

Balch,  George  B.,  U.  S.  Navy,  was  born  in 
Tennessee,  Dec.  30,  1821.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1837 ;  engaged  in  the  war  against  Mexico, 
and  was  wounded  in  a  naval  engagement  at 
Shanghai,  China.  He  was  engaged  actively  and 
successfully  in  the  South  Atlantic  blockading 
squadron  and  in  other  naval  operations  on  the 
Southern  coasts  during  the  Civil  War. 

Balfour,  Nisbet,  a  British  officer  who  served 
in  America,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1743 ; 
died  at  Denbigh,  Fifesliire,  Scotland,  Oct.  10, 
1823.  He  was  a  son  of  an  auctioneer  and  book¬ 
seller  in  Edinburgh ;  entered  the  British  army 
as  an  ensign  in  1761;  commanded  a  company 
in  1770  ;  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Bunker's 
Hill  in  June,  1775,  and  again  in  the 
battle  of  Long  Island.  He  was  sent 
home  with  despatches  after  the 
capture  of  New  York  iu  1776,  and 
was  breveted  major  in  November 
following.  Served  under  Lord  Corn¬ 
wallis  in  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Carolinas;  and  was  in  command  at 
Charleston  in  1781,  when  he  re¬ 
luctantly  obeyed  the  command  of 
Lord  Rawdon  to  execute  Isaac 
Hayne  (which  see).  He  was  then 
lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  made 
colonel  and  aide-de-camp  to  his 
king  in  1782,  a  major-general  in 
1793,  lieutenant-general  in  1798, 
and  general  in  1803.  (See  Elliot, 

Mrs.) 

Balloons  in  War.  At 

the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  the  telegraphic  opera¬ 
tions  of  the  army  were  in¬ 
trusted  to  Major  Thomas 
T.  Eckert. 

In  this  con¬ 
nection,  T. 

S.  C.  Lowe, 
a  distin¬ 
guished 
aeronaut, 
was  e  m- 
ployed, 
for  so 
time  l 
loons  w 
used  w 
great  t 

ciency  in  wak  balloon. 


BALLOU 


91 


BALTIMORE 


reconnoitring,  but  later  in  the  progress  of  the 
war  they  fell  into  disuse.  At  the  height  of 
five  hundred  feet  above  Arlington  House,  op¬ 
posite  Washington  City,  Mr.  Lowe  telegraphed 
to  President  Lincoln  as  follows,  in  June,  1861 : 
“  Sir,  from  this  point  of  observation  we  command 
an  extent  of  country  nearly  fifty  miles  in  diam¬ 
eter.  I  have  pleasure  in  sending  you  the  first 
telegram  ever  despatched  from  an  aerial  station, 
and  acknowledging  indebtedness  to  your  en¬ 
couragement  for  the  opportunity  of  demonstrat¬ 
ing  the  availability  of  the  science  of  aeronautics 
in  the  ser  vice  of  the  country.”  After  sending  the 
above  despatch,  Mr.  Lowe  was  invited  to  the 
Executive  mansion  and  introduced  to  General 
Scott ;  and  he  was  soon  afterwards  employed  in 
the  military  service.  When  in  use,  the  balloon 
was  kept  under  control  by  strong  cords  in  the 
hands  of  men  on  the  ground,  who,  when  the  re- 
counoissance  was  ended,  drew  it  down  to  the 
place  of  departure. 

Ballou,  Hosea,  a  leading  clergyman  of  the  de¬ 
nomination  of  Universalists,  was  born  at  Rich¬ 
mond,  N.  H.,  April  30, 1771 ;  died  in  Boston,  June 
7,  1852.  He  was  one  of  six  sons  of  a  Baptist 
clergyman,  of  whom  three  became  Universalist 
ministers.  Self-taught  to  read  and  write  at  the 
age  of  sixteen,  he  began  to  preach  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  laboring  principally  in  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and  for  a  while,  and  afterwards  in  various  parts 
of  New  England.  About  1804  he  wrote  and 
published  Notes  on  the  Parables  and  Treatise  on 
the  Atonement.  He  was  made  pastor  of  a  con¬ 
gregation  iu  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1817,  where 
he  became  distinguished  as  a  controversialist 
writer,  and  in  1819  he  began  the  publication  of 
the  Universalist  Magazine.  Iu  1831  he  began, 
with  his  nephew  (Hosea  Ballou,  Jr.),  a  quarterly 
publicatiou  entitled  the  Universalist  Expositor. 

Ball’s  Bluff,  Battle  at.  Iu  October,  1861,  a 
National  force,  commanded  by  General  Charles 
P.  Stone,  was  encamped  between  Edwards’s  and 
Conrad’s  ferries,  on  the  Maryland  side  of  the 
Upper  Potomac,  while  the  left  wing  of  the  Con¬ 
federate  army,  under  General  Evans,  lay  at  Lees¬ 
burg,  in  Virginia.  Misinformation  had  caused  a 
belief  that  the  Confederates  had  left  Leesburg 
at  a  little  past  the  middle  of  October,  when 
General  McClellan  ordered  General  McCall,  who 
commanded  the  advance  of  the  right  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  forces  in  Virginia,  to  move  forward  and 
occupy  Draiuesville.  At  the  same  time  he  or¬ 
dered  General  Stone  to  co-operate  with  General 
McCall,  which  he  did  by  making  a  feint  of  cross¬ 
ing  the  river  at  the  two  ferries  above  named 
on  the  afternoon  of  Sunday,  Oct.  20.  At  the 
same  time  part  of  a  Massachusetts  regiment, 
under  Colouel  Devens,  was  ordered  to  take  post 
upon  Harrison’s  Island,  in  the  Potomac,  abreast 
of  Ball’s  Bluff.  Devens  went  to  the  island  with 
four  companies  in  flat-boats  taken  from  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal.  About  3000  men, 
under  Colouel  Edward  D.  Baker,  of  the  National 
Senate,  acting  as  brigadier,  were  held  in  readi¬ 
ness  as  a  reserve  in  case  of  a  battle.  With  that 
reserve  was  a  fine  body  of  Pennsylvanians 
known  as  the  “First  California  Regiment.” 


These  movements  of  the  Nationals  caused  an 
opposing  one  ou  the  part  of  the  Confederates, 
who  had  watched  their  antagonists  with  keen 
vigilance  at  a  point  of  concealment  not  far  off. 
Misinformed  as  to  the  position  of  the  insurgents, 
and  supposing  McCall  to  be  near  enough  to  give 
aid  if  necessary,  Stone,  on  the  morning  of  the 
21st,  ordered  some  Massachusetts  troops  under 
Colonels  Lee  and  Devens  to  cross  to  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  shore  from  Harrison’s  Island  to  reconnoi¬ 
tre.  They  did  not  find  the  foe  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood.  General  Evans,  unperceived,  lay  not  far 
off;  and  riflemen  and  cavalry  were  hovering 
near  and  waiting  a  favorable  opportunity  to 
strike  Devens,  who,  leaving  a  part  of  Lee’s  com¬ 
mand  near  the  Bluff,  had  advanced  to  near  Lees¬ 
burg.  After  a  skirmish,  in  which  he  lost  one 
man  killed  and  nine  wounded,  he  fell  back  tow¬ 
ards  the  Blulf.  While  halting  in  an  open  field, 
he  received  orders  from  Stone  to  remain  there 
until  support  could  be  sent  to  him.  His  entire 
force  consisted  of  only  600  men.  They  were  very 
soon  attacked  by  the  Confederates.  It  was  a 
little  past  noon.  Pressed  by  overwhelming 
numbers,  Devens  fell  back  to  avoid  being  flank¬ 
ed.  Meanwhile  Colonel  Baker  had  been  press¬ 
ing  forward  from -Con rad’s  Ferry  to  the  relief 
of  the  assailed  troops.  Ranking  Devens,  he  had 
been  ordered  to  Harrison’s  Island,  with  discre¬ 
tionary  powers  to  reinforce  the  party  on  the 
Virginia  main  or  to  withdraw  all  the  troops  to 
the  Maryland  side  of  the  river.  He  concluded 
to  go  forward,  supposing  the  forces  of  McCall 
and  others  to  be  near.  He  was  ignorant  of  the 
fact  that  General  McClellan  had  ordered  McCall 
to  fall  back  from  Drainesville.  On  reaching 
the  field  of  conflict,  Baker  took  the  chief  com¬ 
mand  of  all  the  forces  on  the  Bluff,  about  1700 
strong.  Very  soon  afterwards,  while  he  was  in 
the  thickest  of  the  fight  encouraging  his  men,  a 
bullet  pierced  his  brain  aud  he  fell  dead.  The 
battle  had  lasted  two  hours.  His  troops,  un¬ 
supported  by  others,  were  crushed  by  superior 
numbers.  Pressed  back  to  the  verge  of  the 
Bluff,  which  there  rises  more  than  one  hundred 
feet  above  the  river,  they  fought  desperately  for 
a  while  at  twilight,  for  they  had  no  meaus  for 
crossing  the  swollen  flood.  They  were  soon 
overpowered.  Some  had  been  pushed  down 
the  declivity.  Many  were  made  prisoners,  and 
many  perished  in  trying  to  escape  by  swimming 
in  the  dark.  Some  were  shot  in  the  water,  aud 
others  were  drowned.  A  flat-boat  laden  with 
the  wounded  was  riddled  with  bullets  and  sank. 
In  this  affair  the  Nationals  lost, in  killed,  wound¬ 
ed,  and  prisoners,  full  1000  men.  The  Confeder¬ 
ates  lost  153  killed.  The  number  of  their  wound¬ 
ed  is  unknown. 

Baltimore,  Adjournment  of  Congress  to 
(1776).  When  the  British  army  approached  the 
Delaware  River  ( December,  1776 ),  and  it  was 
feared  that  they  would  cross  into  Pennsylvania 
and  march  on  Philadelphia,  there  was  much 
anxiety  among  the  patriots.  The  Continental 
Congress,  of  the  courage  and  patriotism  of 
which  there  was  a  growing  distrust,  were  un¬ 
easy.  Leading  Republicans  hesitated  to  go  fur¬ 
ther,  aud  only  Washington  and  a  few  other 


BALTIMORE  CONVENTION 


92 


BALTIMORE  DEPUTATIONS 


choice  spirits  were  hopeful.  When  the  com¬ 
mander-in-chief  was  asked  what  he  would  do  if 
Philadelphia  should  be  taken,  he  replied,  “We 
will  retreat  beyond  the  Susquehanna  River,  and 
thence,  if  necessary,  to  the  Allegheny  Moun¬ 
tains.”  The  great  body  of  Quakers,  numerous 
and  influential  in  Pennsylvania,  were  opposed 
to  the  war,  and  loyalists  abounded  everywhere. 
Mifflin,  who  was  a  disowned  member  of  the  So¬ 
ciety  of  Friends,  and  had  witnessed  the  sudden 
growing  lukewarmness  of  the  Congress,  fearing 
the  effect  of  Howe’s  proclamation  (which  see) 
upon  both,  strongly  recommended  the  removal 
of  that  body  from  Philadelphia.  General  Put¬ 
nam,  who  had  been  sent  to  that  city  to  fortify 
it,  earnestly  seconded  Mifflin’s  proposition  ;  and 
the  Congress,  trembling  for  their  personal  safety, 
gladly  complied,  and  adjourned  (Dec.  12, 1776)  to 
meet  at  Baltimore,  December  20.  Putnam  was 
invested  with  almost  absolute  control  of  mili¬ 
tary  affairs  in  Philadelphia,  and  the  Congress 


delegated  its  executive  powers  to  a  resident 
committee  composed  of  Robert  Morris,  George 
Clymer,  and  George  Walton,  to  act  in  their  be¬ 
half  during  their  absence.  In  Baltimore,  the 
Congress  reassembled  (Dec.  20,  1776)  in  a  spa¬ 
cious  brick  building  that  stood  until  within  a 
few  years,  with  fronts  on  Baltimore,  Sharpe, 
and  Liberty  streets,  and  where,  on  the  23d,  Rev. 
Patrick  Allison,  first  minister  of  the  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  in  Baltimore,  and  Rev.  William 
White,  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  were  appointed  chaplains. 

Baltimore  Convention  (1860).  On  June  18 
the  adjourned  convention  of  Democratic  dele¬ 
gates  who  had  assembled  in  the  Front  Street 
Theatre  at  Charleston  met  at  Baltimore,  with 
Mr.  Cushing  in  the  chair.  (See  Charleston  Con¬ 
vention.)  The  seceders  from  the  Charleston  Con¬ 
vention,  who  had  been  in  session  at  Richmond 
(see  Seceders'1  Convention  at  Richmond),  had- ad¬ 
journed  to  Baltimore,  and  claimed  the  right  to 
sit  in  the  convention  from  which  they  had  with¬ 
drawn.  Mr.  Cushing  declined  to  decide  the  del¬ 
icate  question  which  arose,  and  referred  the 


whole  matter  to  the  convention.  It  was  de¬ 
bated  for  some  time,  when  it  was  proposed  that 
no  delegate  should  be  admitted  unless  he  would 
pledge  himself  to  abide  by  the  action  of  a  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  convention  and  support  its  nomi¬ 
nees.  The  debates  were  hot  and  acrimonious, 
and  at  evening  there  were  two  mass-meetings 
of  the  Democracy  in  Baltimore,  attended  by  tens 
of  thousands  of  citizens  and  strangers.  On  the 
morning  of  June  19  the  subject  of  contesting 
delegates  was  referred  to  the  committee  on  cre¬ 
dentials,  and  on  the  21st,  the  committee  not 
agreeing,  two  reports  were  submitted.  Then  a 
very  warm  debate  was  had,  in  which  free  rein 
was  given  to  the  expression  of  opinion,  and  the 
reopening  of  the  slave-trade  was  advocated. 
Finally,  on  Friday,  the  22d,  the  majority  report 
was  adopted,  and  the  places  of  most  of  the  se¬ 
ceders,  who  were  unseated,  were  tilled  by  Doug¬ 
las  men.  Theu  there  was  another  secession  of 
delegates  from  the  slave  -  labor  states,  and  on 
the  following  morning  Mr.  Cush¬ 
ing  and  a  majority  of  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  delegation  also  with¬ 
drew.  “We  put  our  withdraw¬ 
al  before  you,”  said  Mr.  Butler 
(Benjamin  F.),  of  that  delega¬ 
tion,  “  upon  the  simple  ground, 
among  others,  that  there  has 
been  a  withdrawal,  in  part,  of 
a  majority  of  the  states,  and, 
further  (and  that,  perhaps,  more 
personal  to  myself),  upon  the 
ground  that  I  will  not  sit  in 
a  convention  where  the  African 
slave-trade  —  which  is  piracy 
by  the  laws  of  my  country  — 
is  approvingly  advocated.”  Gov¬ 
ernor  David  Tod,  of  Ohio,  was 
then  called  to  the  chair  in 
place  of  ret  ired  Cushing,  and  the 
convention  proceeded  to  ballot 
for  a  Presidential  candidate. 
Some  of  the  Southern  members 
remained  in  the  convention  ;  and  the  speech  of 
a  delegate  from  Arkansas  (Mr.  Flournoy),  a  slave¬ 
holder  and  friend  of  the  system,  was  so  liberal 
that  it  had  a  powerful  effect  upon  delegates  from 
the  free-labor  states  in  favor  of  Mr.  Douglas.  Of 
194  votes  cast  on  the  second  ballot,  Mr.  Douglas 
received  181,  and  he  was  declared  duly  nomi¬ 
nated.  Mr.  Fitzpatrick,  of  Alabama,  nominated 
for  Vice-President,  declined  two  days  afterwards, 
and  Herschel  V.  Johnson,  of  Georgia,  was  substi¬ 
tuted.  The  convention  adjourned  June  23, 1860. 

Baltimore  Deputations  in  Washington. 
Governor  Hicks  passed  the  night  of  April  19, 
1861,  at  the  house  of  Mayor  Brown  in  Baltimore. 
It  was  the  night  after  the  attack  on  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  troops  there.  At  11  o’clock  the  mayor, 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  governor,  sent  a 
committee  of  three  persons  to  President  Lincoln 
with  a  letter  in  which  he  assured  the  chief  mas- 
istrate  that  the  people  of  Baltimore  were  exas¬ 
perated  to  the  highest  degree  by  the  passage  of 
troops  through  that  city,  and  that  the  citizens 
were  “  universally  decided  in  the  opinion  that 
no  more  should  be  ordered  to  come.”  He  gave 


MEETING-PLACE  OF  CONGRESS  IN  BALTIMORE  IN  1776. 


BALTIMORE  DEPUTATIONS 


93 


BALTIMORE  EXCITED 


notice  of  the  fearful  riot  the  day  before,  and  he 
requested  the  President  not  to  order  or  permit 
any  more  troops  to  pass  through  the  city,  add¬ 
ing,  “  If  they  should  attempt  it  the  responsibili¬ 
ty  for  the  bloodshed  will  not  rest  on  me.”  The 
committee  saw  the  President  early  in  the  morn¬ 
ing  (April  20,  1861).  The  President  told  them 
that  no  more  should  come  through  the  city  if 
they  could  pass  peaceably  around  it.  This  an¬ 
swer  did  not  satisfy  the  Secessionists,  and  they 
pushed  forward  military  preparations,  making 
the  capital  more  isolated  from  the  loyal  people 
every  hour.  The  excitement  in  Washington  was 
now  becoming  fearful,  and  at  3  o’clock  on  Sun¬ 
day  morning  (April  21)  the  President  sent  for 
Governor  Hicks  and  Mayor  Brown.  The  former, 
with  two  others,  hastened  to  Washington.  At 
an  interview  with  the  President  and  General 
Scott,  the  latter  proposed  to  bring  troops  by 
water  to  Annapolis,  and  march  them  across 
Maryland  to  the  capital,  a  distance  of  about 
forty  miles.  The  Baltimore  Secessionists  were 
not  satisfied.  The  “  soil  of  Maryland  must  not 
be  polluted  by  the  feet  of  National  troops  any¬ 
where On  the  22d,  Governor  Hicks  was  induced 
to  send  a  message  to  the  President,  advising  him 
not  to  order  any  more  troops  across  the  soil  of 
Maryland,  and  to  send  away  some  who  were  al¬ 
ready  at  Annapolis.  The  President  replied  kind¬ 
ly  but  firmly.  He  reminded  his  Excellency  that 
the  route  of  the  troops  across  that  state  chosen  by 
the  general-in-chief  wras  farthest  removed  from 
populous  towns,  and  said,  “The  President  can¬ 
not  but  remember  that  there  has  been  a  time  in 
the  history  of  our  country  [1814]  when  a  gen¬ 
eral  [Winder,  of  Maryland]  of  the  American 
Union,  with  forces  designed  for  the  defence  of 
the  capital,  was  not  unwelcome  anywhere  in 
the  State  of  Maryland,  and  certainly  not  at  An¬ 
napolis,  then,  as  now,  the  capital  of  that  patri¬ 
otic  state;  and  then,  also,  one  of  the  capitals  of 
the  Union.”  Governor  Hicks  had  also  unwisely 
recommended  the  President  to  refer  the  matter 
in  dispute  between  the  National  Government 
and  Maryland  to  Lord  Lyons,  the  British  Min¬ 
ister  at  Washington.  To  this  proposition  Mr. 
Lincoln  replied :  “  If  eighty  years  could  have  ob¬ 
literated  all  other  noble  sentiments  of  that  age 
from  Maryland,  the  President  would  be  hopeful, 
nevertheless,  that  there  is  one  that  would  ever 
remain  there,  as  elsewhere.  That  sentiment  is, 
that  no  domestic  contention  whatever  that  may 
arise  among  the  parties  of  this  republic  ought, 
in  any  case,  to  be  referred  to  any  foreign  arbit¬ 
rament,  least  of  all  to  the  arbitrament  of  a  Eu¬ 
ropean  monarchy.”  This  rebuke  was  keenly 
felt.  Yet  still  another  embassy  in  the  interest 
of  the  Baltimore  Secessionists  visited  the  Presi¬ 
dent.  Five  members  of  the  Young  Men’s  Chris¬ 
tian  Association  of  Baltimore,  with  Rev.  Dr. 
Fulton,  of  the  Baptist  Church,  at  their  head, 
waited  on  the  President,  and  assured  him  that 
if  he  would  let  the  country  know  that  he  was 
disposed  “to  recognize  the  independence  of  the 
Southern  States,  that  they  had  formed  a  gov¬ 
ernment  of  their  own,  and  that  they  would 
never  again  unite  with  the  North,”  he  could 
produce  peace.  When  the  Doctor  expressed  a 


hope  that  no  more  troops  would  be  allowed  to 
cross  Maryland,  the  President  replied,  substan¬ 
tially,  “  I  must  have  troops  for  the  defence  of  the 
capital.  The  Carolinians  are  now  marching 
across  Virginia  to  seize  the  capital  and  hang  me. 
What  am  I  to  do  ?  I  must  have  troops,  I  say ; 
and,  as  they  can  neither  crawl  under  Maryland 
nor  fly  over  it,  they  must  come  across  it.”  With 
this  significant  intimation  of  the  President  that 
he  should  take  measures  to  defend  the  Republic 
without  asking  the  consent  of  the  authorities  or 
inhabitants  of  any  state,  the  deputation  retired, 
and  none  other  was  afterwards  sent  by  the  ene¬ 
mies  of  the  Union  in  Baltimore. 

Baltimore  Excited.  When  news  of  the  “  Se¬ 
cession  of  Virginia”  reached  Baltimore,  the  dis- 
unionists  in  that  city  ventured  to  take  a  cannon 
to  Federal  Hill,  raise  a  Secession  flag,  and  fire  a 
salute  on  April  18,  1861.  The  workmen  in  the 
iron-founderies  near  turned  out,  captured  the 
gun,  and  cast  it  into  the  Patapsco  River;  and 
they  tore  the  Secession  flag  into  shreds,  and  dis¬ 
persed  the  disunionists.  On  the  same  day  some 
leading  Virginians  from  Winchester  came  down 
to  Baltimore,  and  demanded  from  the  managers 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railway  guarantees 
that  no  National  troops  or  munitions  of  war 
should  be  permitted  to  pass  over  it.  This  de¬ 
mand  was  accompanied  with  a  threat  that  if  it 
was  not  complied  with,  the  Virginians  would 
destroy  the  bridge  of  the  road  at  Harper’s  Ferry. 
In  the  afternoon,  after  the  Pennsylvanians  had 
passed  through  the  city  (see  Pennsylvania  Troops 
at  the  Capital),  the  “National  Volunteer  As¬ 
sociation,”  which  had  attempted  to  fire  a  .salute 
on  Federal  Hill,  held  a  meeting  in  Monument 
Square.  T.  P.  Scott  presided.  The  excited 
citizens  were  gathered  there  by  thousands,  and 
were  harangued  in  vehement  language.  “Co¬ 
ercion  ”  was  denounced,  and  the  people  were 
exhorted  to  drill  and  prepare  for  conflict.  “  I 
do  not  care,”  said  one  of  the  speakers,  “  how 
many  Federal  troops  are  sent  to  Washington, # 
they  will  soon  find  themselves  surrounded  by 
such  an  army  from  Virginia  and  Maryland  that 
escape  to  their  homes  will  be  impossible ;  and 
when  the  seventy-five  thousand  [called  for  by 
the  President]  who  are  intended  to  invade  the 
South  shall  have  polluted  that  soil  with  their 
touch,  the  South  will  exterminate  and  sweep 
them  from  the  earth.”  This  meeting  prepared 
the  mob  that  attacked  the  Massachusetts  troops 
the  next  day.  (See  Massachusetts  Troops  in  Balti¬ 
more.)  After  the  events  of  that  day,  when  the 
troops  from  Massachusetts  and  Philadelphia  had 
passed  on  to  Washington,  a  meeting  was  con¬ 
vened  at  Monument  Square,  by  the  dominant 
party.  George  H.  Stuart  (afterwards  a  leader  of 
Confederate  troops)  had  the  First  Light  Division 
there  with  ball-cartridges,  and  over  the  platform 
waved  the  flag  of  Maryland.  Mayor  Brown, 
S.  Teakle  Wallis,  W.  P.  Preston,  and  others  ad¬ 
dressed  the  excited  multitude,  and  assured  them 
that  no  more  National  troops  should  pass  through 
the  city.  The  populace  were  requested  to  dis¬ 
perse  quietly  to  their  homes.  Governor  Hicks, 
moved  by  the  caution  which  old  age  brings, 
yielded  to  the  storm.  He  and  the  mayor  joined 


BALTIMORE,  POSSESSION  OF  94  BALTIMORE,  POSSESSION  OF 


in  a  despatch  to  President  Lincoln,  telling  him 
of  the  fearful  excitement,  and  saying,  “  Send  no 
more  troops  here.”  (See  Baltimore  Deputations  in 
Washington.)  A  committee  of  the  meeting  in¬ 
vited  Hicks  to  the  stand.  After  Mayor  Brown 
had  said  to  the  people,  “  It  is  folly  and  madness 
for  one  portion  of  the  nation  to  attempt  the  sub¬ 
jugation  of  another  portion  ;  it  can  never  be 
done,”  Hicks  arose  and  declared  that  he  coin¬ 
cided  in  the  sentiment  of  the  mayor.  “  I  bow 
in  submission  to  the  people,”  he  said.  “I  am  a 
Marylander ;  I  love  my  state,  and  I  love  the 
Union  ;  but  I  will  suffer  my  right  arm  to  be  torn 
from  my  body  before  I  will  raise  it  to  strike  a 
sister  state.”  The  populace  were  not  quieted. 
They  paraded  the  streets  threatening  violence 
to  Union  men.  That  eveuing  (April  19,  1861) 
Marshal  Kane,  at  the  head  of  the  Baltimore  po¬ 
lice,  and  an  earnest  disuuionist,  received  an  offer 
of  troops  from  Frederick,  which  he  accepted, 
and  urged  them  to  come  immediately.  “  Send  ex¬ 
presses  over  the  mountains  and  valleys  of  Mary¬ 
land  and  Virginia,”  he  said,  “for  the  riflemen  to 
come  without  delay.”  The  events  of  the  two 
days  in  Baltimore  (April  18  and  19)  filled  the 
loyal  people  of  the  country  with  indignation, 
and  they  determined  that  that  city  should  not 
present  a  barrier  to  troops  hastening  to  the  re¬ 
lief  of  the  menaced  capital. 

Baltimore  in  Possession  of  National  Troops 
(1861).  The  authorities  of  Baltimore,  civil  and 
military,  took  measures  to  prevent  any  more 
National  troops  from  passing  through  the  city. 
Armed  men  flocked  into  the  town  from  the  coun¬ 
try  with  all  sorts  of  weapons.  Cannons  were 
exercised  openly  in  the  streets.  Marshal  Kane, 
under  the  direction  of  the  city  authorities,  for¬ 
bade  the  display  of  the  national  flag  for  thirty 
days,  that  it  might  not  “  disturb  the  public 
peace.”  The  exasperated  people  of  the  free- 
labor  states  could  hardly  be  restrained  from 
marching  on  Baltimore  and  laying  it  in  ashes. 
Measures  were  soon  used  to  subdue  that  city  by 
force.  Steps  were  taken  to  repair  the  burned 
railway  bridges,  and  a  singular  railway  battery 
was  constructed  in  Philadelphia  for  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  the  men  engaged  in  the  work — a  car 
made  of  boiler- iron,  musket -proof,  with  a  24- 
pound  cannon  mounted  at  one  end  to  fire  grape 
and  chain  shot.  General  Scott  planned  a  grand 
campaign  against  Baltimore.  He  proposed  to 
move  simultaneously  upon  the  city  four  columns 
of  troops  of  three  t  housand  men  each — one  from 
Washington,  a  second  from  New  York,  a  third 
from  Perrysville,  or  Elkton,  by  land  or  water, 
or  both,  and  a  fourth  from  Annapolis.  It  was 
thought  twelve  thousand  men  would  be  needed 
for  the  enterprise.  They  were  not  at  hand,  for 
ten  thousand  troops  were  yet  needed  at  the  cap¬ 
ital  for  its  perfect  security.  The  time  for  the 
execution  of  the  plan  seemed  somewhat  remote. 
General  B.  F.  Butler  conceived  a  more  expedi¬ 
tious  and  less  cumbersome  plan.  He  was  satis¬ 
fied  that  the  Secessionists  in  Baltimore  were 
numerically  weak,  and  that  the  Unionists,  with 
a  little  help,  could  easily  reverse  the  order  of 
things  there.  He  hastened  to  Washington  to 
consult  with  General  Scott,  and  simply  asked 


permission  to  take  a  regiment  or  two  from  An¬ 
napolis,  march  them  to  the  Relay  House  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railway  (nine  miles  from 
Baltimore)  and  hold  it,  so  as  to  cut  the  Seces¬ 
sionists  off  from  facile  communication  with 
Harper’s  Ferry.  The  permission  was  granted. 
“  What  are  the  powers  of  a  general  commanding 
a  Department?”  asked  Butler.  “Absolute,” 
responded  Scott.  Butler  ascertained  that  Bal¬ 
timore  was  in  his  “Department,”  and  he  went 
back  to  Annapolis  to  execute  a  bold  plan  which 
he  had  conceived.  At  the  close  of  April,  1861, 
he  had  full  ten  thousand  men  under  his  com¬ 
mand,  and  an  equal  number  were  guarding  the 
seat  of  government.  The  Unionists  of  Maryland 
were  already  asserting  their  rights  openly.  Gov¬ 
ernor  Hicks  had  just  cast  a  damper  on  the  Seces¬ 
sionists  by  recommending,  in  a  message  to  the 
Legislature,  a  neutral  policy  for  Maryland.  On 
the  evening  of  May  4,  an  immense  Union  meet¬ 
ing  was  held  in  Baltimore.  These  proofs  of  the 
latent  force  of  the  Unionists  of  Maryland  gave 
Butler  every  encouragement.  He  had  proposed 
to  do  himself,  with  a  few  men,  at  once,  what 
Scott  proposed  to  do  with  twelve  thousand  men 
iu  an  indefinite  time.  On  the  afternoon  of  May 
4,  he  issued  orders  for  the  Eighth  New  York 
and  Sixth  Massachusetts  regiments,  with  a  bat¬ 
tery  of  the  Boston  Light  Artillery,  to  proceed 
from  Washington  City  to  the  Relay  House  on 
the  morning  of  the  5th.  They  did  so,  in  thirty 
cars.  They  seized  the  railway  station  at  the 
Relay  House.  Butler  accompanied  them,  and 
remained  there  a  little  more  than  a  week.  From 
Unionists  of  Baltimore  he  obtained  all  desired 
information.  Through  Colonel  Schuyler  Hamil¬ 
ton,  on  Scott’s  staff,  he  received  permission  to 
arrest  Secessionists  in  and  out  of  Baltimore,  to 
prevent  armed  insurgents  joining  those  at  Har¬ 
per’s  Ferry,  and  to  look  after  a  quantity  of  gun¬ 
powder  said  to  be  stored  in  a  church  in  Balti¬ 
more.  Towards  the  evening  of  the  13th,  the  en¬ 
tire  Sixth  Massachusetts  regiment,  a  part  of  the 
New  York  Eighth,  with  the  Boston  Light  Artil¬ 
lery  with  two  cannons — about  one  thousand  men 
in  all — were  put  on  cars  headed  towards  Har¬ 
per’s  Ferry.  Tbe  train  moved  up  the  Patapsco 
Valley  about  two  miles,  and  then  backed  slowly 
to  the  Relay  House  and  past  it.  At  dark  it  was 
in  the  Camden  Street  Station  in  Baltimore.  A 
heavy  thunder-storm  was  about  to  burst  upon 
the  city,  and,  few  persons  being  about,  little 
was  known  of  this  portentous  arrival.  Butler 
marched  his  troops  from  the  station  to  Federal 
Hill  in  a  drenching  shower.  He  sat  down  iu 
his  wet  garments  at  past  midnight  and  w  rote  a 
proclamation,  dated  “Federal  Hill,  Baltimore, 
May  14, 1861,”  in  which  it  was  announced  that 
troops  under  his  command  occupied  the  city  for 
the  purpose  of  enforcing  respect  and  obedience 
to  the  laws,  as  well  of  the  state  as  of  the  United 
States,  wrhich  were  being  “  violated  within  its 
limits  by  some  malignant  and  traitorous  men.” 
This  proclamation,  published  in  the  Baltimore 
Clipper  iu  the  morning,  was  the  first  intimation 
to  the  citizens  that  National  troops  wrere  in  pos¬ 
session  of  their  town.  The  conquest  was  com¬ 
plete,  and  the  hold  thus  taken  on  Baltimore  was 


BALTIMOEE,  LOEDS  95  BALTIMOEE.  LOEDS 


never  relinquished.  General  Scott  was  offended 
because  of  Butler’s  unauthorized  act,  and  re¬ 
quested  President  Lincoln  to  remove  him  from 
the  Department.  The  President  did  so,  but 
gave  Butler  the  commission  of  a  major-general 
and  the  command  of  a  much  more  extended  mili¬ 
tary  district — the  “Department  of  Virginia,” 
which  included  Fortress  Monroe. 

Baltimore,  Lords.  I.  George  Calvert,  born 
about  1580,  at  Kipling,  Yorkshire,  Eng. ;  died  in 
London  April  15,  1632.  He  was  graduated  at 
Oxford ;  travelled  on  the  Continent ;  became 
secretary  of  Eobert  Cecil ;  married  Anne  Minne 
in  1604 ;  was  a  clerk  of  the  privy  council ;  was 
knighted  in  1617 ;  became  a  secretary  of  state 
soon  afterwards,  and  in  1620  was  granted  a  pen¬ 
sion  of  $5000  a  year.  When,  in  1624,  he  publicly 
avowed  himself  a  Eomau  Catholic,  he  resigned 
his  office,  but  King  James  retained  him  in  the 
privy  council;  and  a  few  days  before  that  mon¬ 
arch’s  death  he  was  created  Baron  of  Baltimore 
in  the  Irish  peerage.  Calvert  had  already  en¬ 
tered  upon  a  colonizing  scheme.  In  1620  he 
purchased  a  part  of  Newfoundland,  and  was  in¬ 
vested  with  the  privileges  and  honors  of  a 
Count-Palatine.  He  called  his  new  domain  Ava¬ 
lon,  and,  after  spending  about  $100,000  in  build¬ 
ing  warehouses  there,  and  a  mansion  for  him¬ 
self,  he  went  thither  in  1627.  He  returned  to 
England  the  following  spring.  In  the  spring 
of  1629  he  went  again  to  Avalon,  taking  with 
him  his  wife  and  unmarried  children.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  winter  was  a  severe  one,  and  he  began  to 
contemplate  a  desertion  of  the  domain  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  rigorous  climate.  He  sent  his  chil¬ 
dren  home.  In  the  autumn  he  actually  aban¬ 
doned  Newfoundland,  and  with  his  wife  and  re¬ 
tainers  sailed  to  Virginia,  where,  because  he  re¬ 
fused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  he  was 
ordered  away  by  Governor  Harvey.  His  wife 
and  retainers  remained  there  during  the  winter. 
Going  from  there  in  the  spring,  it  is  supposed 
he  explored  the  shores  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and 
chose  that  region  for  a  settlement.  In  1632, 
Lord  Baltimore  obtained  a  charter  from  Charles 
I.  of  the  territory  on  the  Chesapeake  now  form¬ 
ing  the  State  of  Maryland.  “  What  will  you 
call  the  country?”  asked  the  king.  Baltimore 
referred  the  matter  to  his  majesty.  “  Then  let 
us  name  it  after  the  queen”  (Henrietta  Maria), 
said  Charles,  “and  call  it  Mariana."  The  ex¬ 
pert  courtier  dissented,  because  that  was  the 
name  of  a  Spanish  historian  who  taught  that 
“  the  will  of  the  people  is  higher  than  the  law 
of  tyrants.”  Still  disposed  to  compliment  the 
queen,  the  king  said,  “Let  it  be  Terra  Maria — 
Mary's  Land."  And  it  was  named  Maryland. 
Before  the  great  seal  of  England  was  affixed  to 
the  charter,  Lord  Baltimore  died,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  his  son  Cecil  II.  Cecilius  or  Cecil 
Calvert,  second  Lord  Baltimore,  was  born  about 
1605.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  early  life. 
When  he  was  about  twenty  years  of  age  he  mar¬ 
ried  Anne,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Arundel,  who  was  one  of  the  most  influential 
Eoman  Catholics  in  the  realm.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  the  charter  for  Maryland  was  is¬ 
sued  to  Cecilius,  his  eldest  son  and  heir,  June, 


1632 ;  and  he  immediately  prepared  to  sail  for 
the  Chesapeake  with  a  colony.  When  he  was 
about  ready  to  depart,  he  changed  his  mind,  and 
sent  his  brother  Leonard,  as  governor,  with  his 
brother  George,  and  two  assistants  and  counsel¬ 
lors,  Jeremy  Hawley  and  Thomas  Cornwallis, 
both  Protestants.  The  whole  company,  who 
sailed  in  two  vessels — the  Ark  and  Dove — num¬ 
bered  over  three  hundred,  according  to  Lord 
Baltimore,  who  wrote  to  his  friend  Wentworth 
(afterwards  the  unfortunate  Earl  of  Strafford), 


“By  the  help  of  some  of  your  lordship’s  good 
friends  and  mine,  I  have  sent  a  hopeful  colony 
into  Maryland,  with  a  fair  and  favorable  expec¬ 
tation  of  good  success,  without  any  great  preju¬ 
dice  to  myself,  in  respect  that  many  others  are 
joined  with  me  in  the  adventure.  There  are 
two  of  my  brothers,  with  very  near  twenty  other 
gentlemen  of  very  good  fashion,  and  three  hun¬ 
dred  laboring  men.”  As  most  of  the  latter  took 
the  oath  of  allegiance  before  sailing,  they  were 
probably  Protestants.  Father  Andrew  White, 
a  Jesuit  priest,  accompanied  the  expedition. 
They  sailed  from  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  took 
the  tedious  southern  route  by  way  of  the  Cana¬ 
ries.  The  vessels  were  separated  by  a  furious 
gale,  but  met  at  Bermuda,  whence  the  emigrants 
went  to  the  Chesapeake,  founded  a  settlement, 
and  established  a  government  under  the  charter, 
which  was  nearly  the  same  in  form  as  all  char¬ 
ters  then  granted.  (See  Maryland.)  It  conferred 
on  the  proprietor  absolute  ownership  of  the  ter¬ 
ritory,  and  also  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  power 
of  a  feudal  nature.  Entire  exemption  from  tax¬ 
ation  was  conceded  to  the  colonists.  As  an  ac¬ 
knowledgment  that  the  original  title  to  the 
land  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  crown,  the 
proprietor  was  required  to  pay  to  the  king  the 
tribute  of  two  Indian  arrows.  Cecil  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  Parliament  in  1634,  but  mingled  very  lit¬ 
tle  in  public  affairs  afterwards.  He  never  came 
to  America,  but  managed  his  province  by  depu¬ 
ties  forty-three  years.  His  course  towards  the 


BALTIMORE,  LORDS 


96 


colonists  was  generally  wise  and  conciliatory, 
because  it  was  profitable  to  be  so.  In  religion 
and  politics  be  was  very  flexible,  being  quite  in¬ 
different  to  either,  and  be  did  very  little  for  the 
religious  and  intellectual  cultivation  of  the  col¬ 
onists.  Negatively  good,  he  was  regarded  with 
great  respect  by  all  parties,  even  by  the  Indians. 
He  died  in  London,  Nov.  30, 1675.  III.  Charles 
Calvert,  third  Lord  Baltimore,  succeeded  his 
father  as  Lord-proprietor  of  Maryland  in  1675. 
He  was  born  in  London  in  1629;  died  there  Feb. 
24,  1714.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  Mary¬ 
land  in  1661,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Hon. 
Heury  Sewall,  whose  seat  was  on  the  Patuxent 
River.  After  the  death  of  his  father  he  visited 
England,  but  soon  returned.  In  1684  he  again 
went  to  England,  and  never  came  back.  He  was 
suspected  of  favoring  King  James  II.  after  the 
Revolution,  and  was  outlawed  for  treason  in 
Ireland,  although  he  was  never  in  that  coun¬ 
try.  The  outlawry  was  reversed  by  William 
and  Mary  in  1691.  Charles  Lord  Baltimore  was 
thrice  married.  IV.  Benedict  Leonard  Cal¬ 
vert,  fourth  Lord  Baltimore,  succeeded  his  fa¬ 
ther,  Charles,  in  1714.  In  1698  he  married  Lady 
Charlotte  Lee,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lichfield 
(granddaughter  of  the  notorious  Duchess  of 
Cleveland,  the  favorite  mistress  of  Charles  II.), 
from  whom  he  was  divorced  in  1705.  Benedict 
publicly  abjured  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in 
1713,  and  died  in  1715,  only  thirteen  months  af¬ 
ter  the  death  of  his  father.  V.  Charles  Cal¬ 
vert  II.,  son  of  Benedict,  and  the  fifth  Lord  Bal¬ 
timore,  was  born  Sept.  29,  1699,  and  was  au  in¬ 
fant  in  law  when  he  succeeded  to  his  father’s 
title.  In  July,  1730,  he  married  the  widow  Mary 
Janssen,  youngest  daughter  of  General  Theodore 
Janssen.  His  life  was  spent  chiefly  in  England. 
In  1731  he  was  appointed  Gentleman  of  the  Bed¬ 
chamber  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  soon  after¬ 
wards  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  in  Parliament  in  1734,  and  in  1741  was 
appointed  Junior  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  In  the 
spring  of  1741  he  was  appointed  cofferer  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales  and  Surveyor-general  of  the 
Duchy  lands  in  Cornwall.  After  having  ruled 
Maryland  in  person  and  by  deputy  more  than 
thirty  years,  he  died  April  24,  1751,  at  his  home 
in  London.  VI.  Frederick  Calvert,  sixth  and 
last  Lord  Baltimore,  was  born  in  1731,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  title  of  his  father,  Charles  II.,  in 
1751.  He  married  Lady  Diana  Egerton,  young¬ 
est  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater,  in 
1753.  He  led  a  disreputable  life,  and  died  at  the 
age  of  forty,  at  Naples,  Sept.  14,  1771.  Yet  he 
was  a  patron  of  literature  and  a  friend  and  com¬ 
panion  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham  (Pitt).  In  1767  he 
published  an  account  of  his  “Tour  in  the  East.” 
He  was  a  pretentious  author  of  several  other 
works,  mostly  of  a  weak  character.  Lord  Fred¬ 
erick  bequeathed  the  province  of  Maryland  in 
tail  male,  to  Henry  Harford,  then  a  child,  and 
the  remainder,  in  fee,  to  his  sister,  the  Hon. 
Mrs.  Norton.  He  left  an  estate  valued  at  $5000. 
The  last  representative  of  the  Balfimore  family 
was  found  in  a  debtor’s  prison  in  England,  in 
1860,  by  Colonel  Angus  McDonald,  of  Virginia, 
where  he  had  been  confined  for  twenty  years. 


BALTIMORE  POLICE 

Henry  Harford  was  the  last  proprietor  of  Mary¬ 
land. 

Baltimore,  Origin  of  the  City  of.  David 
Jones,  the  first  settler  on  the  site  of  Baltimore, 
in  1682,  gave  his  name  to  a  small  stream  that 
runs  through  the  city.  In  January,  1730,  a  town 
was  laid  out  on  the  west  of  this  stream,  con¬ 
tained  in  a  plot  of  sixty  acres,  and  wras  called 
Baltimore,  in  honor  of  Cecil,  Lord  Baltimore.  In 
the  same  year  William  Fell,  a  ship-carpenter, 
purchased  a  tract  east  of  the  stream  and  called 
it  Fell’s  Point,  on  the  extremity  of  which  Fort 
McHenry  now  stands.  In  1732  a  new  town  of 
ten  acres  was  laid  out  on  the  east  side  of  the 
stream,  and  called  Jonestown.  It  was  united  to 
Baltimore  in  1745,  dropping  its  own  name.  In 
1767  Baltimore  became  the  county  town. 

Baltimore,  Patriotic  Movements  in  (1774). 
The  inhabitants  of  Baltimore  warmly  seconded 
the  recommendation  of  the  New  York  com¬ 
mittee  for  a  general  congress,  and,  after  adopt¬ 
ing  a  non-importation  agreement  (May,  1774), 
appointed  delegates  to  a  Continental  Congress, 
and  chose  a  numerous  committee  of  correspond¬ 
ence.  This  example  kindled  new  life  in  New 
York,  where  the  Tory  element  was  then  making 
the  spirit  of  the  colony  appear  lukewarm. 

Baltimore  Police  (1861).  The  Chief  of  Police 
in  Baltimore  was  George  P.  Kane,  with  the  title 
of  “  Marshal.”  He  was  a  leading  Secessionist  in 
that  city  and  an  active  opposer  of  the  government 
in  Maryland.  In  Baltimore  he  was  the  head  of  the 
Secession  movements  in  Maryland  ;  and  early  in 
June,  1861,  the  National  governmeut  was  satis¬ 
fied  that  a  powerful  combination  was  forming 
there,  whose  purpose  was  to  assist  the  army  of 
insurgents  at  Manassas,  under  Beauregard,  io 
seize  the  National  capital,  by  preventing  loyal 
soldiers  passing  through  that  state,  and  aiding 
Marylanders  to  cross  into  Virginia  and  swell  the 
ranks  of  the  Confederate  forces.  The  govern¬ 
ment  took  energetic  steps  to  avert  this  threat¬ 
ened  danger.  N.  P.  Banks,  ex-Governor  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  lately  commissioned  major-general 
of  volunteers,  w^as  assigned  to  the  command  of 
the  Department  of  Annapolis,  as  Butler’s  suc¬ 
cessor,  with  his  headquarters  at  Baltimore.  It 
was  evident  to  Banks  that  the  Board  of  Police 
and  Marshal  Kane  were  in  active  sympathy,  if 
not  in  actual  league,  with  the  leading  Secession¬ 
ists  of  Maryland.  After  satisfying  himself  of 
the  complicity  of  certain  officials  in  the  move¬ 
ment,  he  ordered  a  large  body  of  soldiers,  armed 
and  equipped  with  ball  cartridges,  to  march  into 
Baltimore  from  Fort  McHenry  before  daybreak 
on  June  27,  and  to  arrest  Marshal  Kane  and 
place  him  a  prisoner  in  that  fortress.  At  the 
same  time  Banks  issued  a  proclamation,  giving 
his  reasons  for  the  act.  He  did  not  intend  to  in¬ 
terfere  with  the  lawful  acts  of  the  civil  author¬ 
ity,  he  said,  but  as  it  was  well  known  that  a  dis¬ 
loyal  combination  existed  in  his  Department, 
and  that  the  chief  of  police,  “  in  contraveution 
of  his  duty  and  in  violation  of  law,”  was  “  by 
direction  or  indirection  both  witness  and  pro¬ 
tector  in  the  transactions  of  armed  parties  en¬ 
gaged  therein,”  the  governmeut  could  not  “  re- 


BANCROFT 


97 


BANCROFT 


gard  him  otherwise  than  as  the  head  of  an  armed 
force  hostile  to  its  authority,  and  acting  in  con¬ 
cert  with  its  avowed  enemies.”  He  appointed 
Brigadier  John  R.  Kenly,  a  citizen  of  Baltimore, 
provost-marshal  in  and  for  that  city,  to  “  super¬ 
intend  and  cause  to  he  executed  the  police  laws” 
of  Baltimore,  “  with  the  aid  and  assistance  of 
the  subordinate  officers  of  the  police  depart¬ 
ment,”  assuring  the  citizens  that  when  a  loyal 
man  should  be  appointed  chief  of  police  the 
military  would  at  once  yield  to  the  civil  author¬ 
ity.  The  police  commissioners  met  and  protest¬ 
ed  against  this  act  as  illegal,  and  disbanded  the 
police.  Banks  soon  regulated  the  matter  so  as 
to  quiet  the  citizens,  and  Kenly,  organizing  a 
police  force  of  loyal  men,  whom  he  could  trust, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  strong,  took  possession  of 
the  quarters  of  the  late  marshal  and  police  com¬ 
missioners.  There  he  found  ample  evidence  of 
treacherous  designs.  Concealed  beneath  the 
floors  in  several  rooms  he  found  a  large  number 
of  small-arms,  of  every  description  ;  and  in  a 
wood-yard  in  the  rear,  in  a  position  to  command 
an  alley,  were  four  iron  cannon  with  suitable 
cartridges  and  balls.  The  old  police  commis¬ 
sioners  continuing  to  hold  meetings,  they  were 
arrested  and  sent  to  Fort  Warren,  in  Boston 
Harbor,  as  prisoners  of  state.  At  the  suggestion 
of  many  Union  citizens  of  Baltimore,  George  R. 
Dodge,  a  civilian  and  citizen,  was  appointed 
chief  of  police,  and  Colonel  Kenly  joined  his 
regiment — the  First  Maryland  Volunteers. 

Bancroft,  Edward,  apolitical  and  philosoph¬ 
ical  writer,  was  born  at  Westfield,  Mass.,  Jan.  9, 
1744 ;  died  in  England,  Sept.  8, 1820.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Silas  Deane  (which  see),  when  the  lat¬ 
ter  was  a  schoolmaster.  His  early  education 
was  not  extensive.  Apprenticed  to  a  mechanic, 
he  ran  away,  in  debt  to  his  master,  and  went  to 
sea;  but  returning  with  means,  he  compensated 
his  employer.  Again  he  went  to  sea;  settled  in 
Guiana,  South  America,  as  a  physician,  in  1763, 
and  afterwards  made  his  residence  in  London, 
where,  in  1769,  he  published  a  Natural  History  of 
Guiana.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Col¬ 
lege  of  Physicians,  and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So¬ 
ciety.  While  Franklin  was  in  England  on  a 
diplomatic  mission,  Dr.  Bancroft  became  inti¬ 
mate  with  him;  and  through  the  influence  of 
the  philosopher  became  a  contributor  to  the 
Monthly  Review.  He  was  suspected  by  the  Brit¬ 
ish  government  of  participation  in  the  attempt 
to  burn  the  Portsmouth  dock-yards  (see  John  the 
Painter ),  and  he  fled  to  Passy,  France.  Soon  af¬ 
terwards  he  met  Silas  Deane,  his  old  teacher,  in 
Paris,  and  offered  to  assist  him  in  his  labors  as 
agent  of  the  Continental  Congress.  His  ways 
were  sometimes  devious,  and  Mr.  Bancroft,  the 
historian,  accuses  him  of  being  a  spy  in  the  pay 
of  the  British  government,  and  of  making  a  dupe 
of  Deane.  After  the  peace,  Dr.  Bancroft  obtained, 
in  France,  a  patent  for  the  exclusive  importation 
of  the  bark  of  the  yellow  oak,  for  the  dyers,  and 
afterwards  he  obtained  a  similar  patent  in  Eng¬ 
land.  Dr  Bancroft  never  returned  to  America. 

Bancroft,  George,  LL.D.,  historian,  was  born 
at  Worcester,  Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1800;  sou  of  Rev. 

I.— 7 


Aaron  Bancroft,  a  distinguished  Unitarian  cler¬ 
gyman  and  pioneer  in  “liberal  Christianity.” 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1817 ;  studied  at 
the  German  universities,  and  received,  at  vao- 
tiugen,  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Phi¬ 
losophy  when  he  was  only  twenty  years  of  age. 


GEORGE  BANCROFT,  LL.D. 


He  resided  some  time  in  Berlin  in  the  society 
of  distinguished  scholars,  and  on  his  return 
home,  in  1822,  he  became  a  tutor  of  Greek  in 
Harvard  University.  He  published  a  volume 
of  poems  in  1823,  and  in  1824  a  translation  of 
Heeren’s  Politics  of  Ancient  Greece.  In  1823,  in 
conjunction  with  J.  G.  Cogswell,  he  established 
the  celebrated  “  Round  Hill  School,”  at  North¬ 
ampton,  Mass.  While  in  the  German  universi¬ 
ties,  Mr.  Bancroft  studied  with  avidity  whatever 
was  taught  in  them,  but  made  history  a  spe¬ 
cialty.  His  chief  tutors  there  were  Heeren, 
Eichhorn,  and  Blumenbach.  At  Berlin  he  be¬ 
came  intimate  with  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  and 
other  eminent  scholars  and  philosophers.  At 
Heidelberg  he  spent  some  time  in  the  study  of 
history  with  Schlosser;  and  in  Paris  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt, 
Cousin,  and  others.  At  Rome  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  Chevalier  Biinsen ;  he  also  knew 
Niebuhr.  While  engaged  in  the  Round  Hill 
School,  Mr.  Bancroft  completed  the  first  volume 
of  his  History  of  the  United  States,  which  was 
published  in  1834.  Ten  volumes  of  this  great 
work  were  completed  and  published  in  1874,  or 
forty  years  from  the  commencement  of  the  work. 
The  tenth  volume  brings  the  narrative  down  to 
the  conclusion  of  the  Preliminary  Treaty  of 
Peace  in  1782.  In  1838  President  Van  Buren 
appointed  Mr.  Bancroft  collector  of  the  port  of 
Boston.  He  was  then  engaged  in  delivering  fre¬ 
quent  political  addresses,  and  took  a  deep  inter¬ 
est  in  the  philosophical  movement  now  known 
as  “  transcendentalism.”  He  was  a  Democrat 


BANISHMENT  OF  QUAKERS 


98  BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


in  politics,  and  in  1840  received  tlie  nomina¬ 
tion  for  governor  of  Massachusetts,  but  was 
not  elected.  In  1845  President  Polk  called 
Mr.  Bancroft  to  his  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  and  he  signalized  his  administration  by 
the  establishment  of  the  Naval  Academy  at  An¬ 
napolis.  While  Secretary  of  the  Navy  he  gave 
the  order  to  take  possession  of  California,  which 
was  done  by  the  navy ;  and  while  acting  tem¬ 
porarily  as  Secretary  of  War  he  gave  the  order 
for  General  Taylor  to  cross  the  Rio  Grande  and 
invade  the  territory  of  Mexico.  In  184G  Mr. 
Bancroft  was  sent  as  U.  S.  Minister-plenipoten¬ 
tiary  to  England,  and  in  1849  the  University  of 
Oxford  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Civil  Law.  During  this  residence 
in  Europe  he  perfected  his  collection  of  mate¬ 
rials  for  his  history,  visiting  the  public  archives 
and  libraries  at  Paris.  Returning  to  America 
in  1849,  he  ma.le  his  residence  in  New  York  city, 
where  he  prosecuted  his  historical  labors.  He 
was  engaged  in  these  labors  until  1867,  when  he 
was  appointed,  by  President  vlohnson  (May  14), 
Minister  to  Prussia,  and  accepted  the  office.  In 
1868  he  was  accredited  to  the  North  German 
Confederation,  and  in  1871  to  the  German  em¬ 
pire.  In  August,  1868,  Mr.  Bancroft  received 
from  the  University  of  Bonn  the  honorary  de¬ 
gree  of  “Doctor  Juris;”  and  in  1870  he  cele¬ 
brated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  reception 
of  his  first  degree  at  Gottingen,  receiving  the 
congratulations  of  many  German  faculties  and 
societies.  Mr.  Bancroft  has  been  a  contributor 
of  numerous  essays  to  the  North  American  Re¬ 
view.  His  History  of  the  United  States  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  In  1882,  he 
published  a  History  of  the  Formation  of  the  Con¬ 
stitution.  This  completed  his  great  work,  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  his  original  plan. 

Banishment  of  Quakers.  The  “  Testimony  ” 
of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  at  their  yearly  meeting 
in  Philadelphia  in  May,  1775,  against  the  move¬ 
ments  of  the  American  patriots  attracted  special 
attention  to  that  body.  The  papers  and  rec¬ 
ords  of  their  yearly  meeting  in  New  Jersey,  capt¬ 
ured  by  Sullivan  in  his  expedition  against  the 
loyalist  regiments  on  Staten  Island,  gave  Con¬ 
gress  the  first  proof  of  the  general  disaffection 
of  the  society.  The  Congress  recommended  the 
executives  of  the  several  colonies  or  states  to 
watch  their  movements ;  and  the  Executive 
Council  of  Pennsylvania  were  earnestly  exhort¬ 
ed  to  arrest  and  secure  the  persons  of  eleven  of 
the  leading  men  of  that  society  in  Philadelphia, 
whose  names  were  given.  It  was  done  (Aug. 
28,  1777),  and  John  Fisher,  Abel  James,  James 
Pemberton,  Henry  Drinker,  Israel  Pemberton, 
John  Pemberton,  John  James,  Samuel  Pleasants, 
Thomas  Wharton,  Sr.,  Thomas  Fisher,  and  Sam¬ 
uel  Fisher,  leading  members,  were  banished  to 
Fredericksburg,  Va.  The  reason  given  by  Con¬ 
gress  for  this  act  was  that  when  the  enemy 
were  pressing  on  towards  Philadelphia  in  De¬ 
cember,  1777,  a  certain  seditious  publication,  ad¬ 
dressed  “To  our  Friends  and  Brethren  in  Relig¬ 
ious  Profession  in  these  and  the  adjacent  Prov¬ 
inces,”  signed  John  Pemberton,  in  and  on  behalf 
of  the  “Meeting  of  Sufferings,”  held  in  Philadel¬ 


phia,  Dec.  26,  1776,  had  been  widely  circulated 
among  Friends  throughout  the  states.  At  the 
cinie  time  the  Congress  instructed  the  Board  of 
War  to  send  to  Fredericksburg  John  Penn,  the 
governor,  and  Benjamin  Chew,  chief-justice  of 
Pennsylvania,  for  safe  custody. 

Bank  in  Pennsylvania,  First.  In  the  great 
emergency  of  the  half-starved  Continental  army 
in  the  spring  of  1780,  the  Cougress  resorted  te 
the  expedient  of  selling  bills  on  John  Jay,  who 
had  been  sent  to  the  Spanish  court  to  negotiate 
for  a  subsidy  or  a  loan.  These  bills,  amounting 
in  the  aggregate  to  more  than  $500,000,  were 
made  payable  in  six  months  after  sight,  in  the 
hope  that  before  they  should  mature  Mr.  Jay 
would  obtain  the  desired  subsidy.  This  pro¬ 
ceeding  shows  the  desperate  situation  of  the 
finances  of  Congress.  At  this  time  of  need  on 
the  part  of  the  army,  Robert  Morris,  George  Cly- 
mer,  and  other  leading  citizens  of  Philadelphia, 
having  received  on  deposit  some  of  the  bills 
drawn  on  Jay  as  a  support  to  their  credit  and 
an  indemnity  in  case  of  loss,  established  a  joint* 
stock  company,  or  bank,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  transport  to  the  camp  a  supply  of  provisions 
without  any  profit  to  themselves.  There  were, 
at  that  time,  two  political  parties  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania — one,  calling  themselves  “Republicans,” 
were  radical ;  the  other,  called  the  “  Constitu¬ 
tional  party,”  were  conservative.  Those  con¬ 
cerned  in  the  establishment  of  the  bank  were 
of  the  Republican  party;  and  the  Constitution¬ 
al  party,  not  to  be  outdone  by  the  other  in  zeal 
for  the  cause,  obtained,  by  their  majority  in  the 
Assembly,  authority  for  President  Reed  to  pro¬ 
claim  martial  law,  should  such  a  step  become 
necessary  in  order  to  carry  out  the  requisitions 
of  Congress. 

Bank  of  North  America.  It  was  soon  per¬ 
ceived  that  under  the  new  government  ( Articles 
of  Confederation,  which  see)  the  Congress  had 
no  power,  independent  of  the  several  states,  to 
enforce  taxation.  Robert  Morris,  then  Superin¬ 
tendent  of  Finance  (Secretary  of  the  Treasury), 
proposed  the  establishment  of  a  bank  at  Phila¬ 
delphia,  to  supply  the  government  with  money, 
with  a  capital  of  $400,000.  The  promissory 
notes  of  the  bank  were  to  be  a  legal-tender  cur¬ 
rency,  to  be  received  in  payment  of  all  taxes, 
duties,  and  debts  due  the  United  States.  The 
plan  was  approved  by  the  Congress  (May  26, 
1781),  and  this  financial  agent  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  was  chartered  by  the  Congress  Dec.  31. 
The  capital  stock  was  divided  into  shares  of 
$400  each,  in  money  of  gold  and  silver,  to  be  pro¬ 
cured  by  subscriptions.  Twelve  directors  were 
appointed  to  manage  the  alfairs  of  the  bank, 
which  was  entitled  by  the  Cougress  “The  Pres¬ 
ident,  Directors,  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of 
North  America.”  That  corporation  furnished 
adequate  means  for  saving  the  Continental 
army  from  disbanding. 

Bank  of  the  United  States.  ( See  United 
States  Bank.) 

Banking  in  the  United  States.  (See  Unit¬ 
ed  States  Bank.)  With  the  expiration  of  the 
charter  of  the  U.  S.  Bank  in  1811,  and  of  the  ex- 


BANKING  IN  MASSACHUSETTS 


99 


BANKS 


istence  of  the  institution,  a  large  number  of 
state  banks  were  created.  In  the  course  of  four 
years  (1811-15)  one  hundred  and  twenty-three 
state  banks  were  created,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $40,000,000,  and  an  estimated  emission 
of  notes  to  the  amount  of  $200,000,000,  a  large 
portion  of  wThich,  in  the  Middle  States,  were  is¬ 
sued  as  loans  to  the  government.  The  re-crea¬ 
tion  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  in  1816 
compelled  the  state  banks  to  resume  specie  pay¬ 
ment  (which  had  been  suspended  during  the 
•war)  or  wind  up.  Of  the  446  state  banks  then 
in  existence,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  about 
$90,000,000,  a  very  large  number  were  compelled 
to  liquidate.  From  1811  to  1830  165  banks,  with 
a  capital  of  $30,000,000,  closed  business,  wTith  a 
loss  to  government  and  individuals  of  about 
$5,000,000.  The  United  States  Bank  became  a 
powerful  financial  machine,  and  the  state  banks 
complained  loudly  of  the  tyrauny  exercised  over 
them  by  it  and  its  branches.  It  ceased  to  exist 
in  1836.  The  number  of  state  banks  had  then 
largely  increased,  being  634  in  1837,  with  a  cap¬ 
ital  of  nearly  $291,000,000.  This  number  was 
increased  in  1840  to  901,  with  a  capital  of  over 
$358,000,000.  In  1860  the  number  of  banks  in 
the  Union  was  1562,  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  about  $422,000,000  and  a  circulation  of  about 
$207,000,000.  At  that  time  they  held  $83,594,537 
in  specie,  and  their  deposits  were  nearly  $254,- 
000,000.  A  national  bank  currency  system  of 
the  United  States  was  organized  by  act  of  Con¬ 
gress  early  in  1863;  and  under  an  act  of  June  3, 
1864,  national  banks  were  organized  and  a  uni¬ 
form  national  currency  was  established.  (See 
National  Currency.)  Early  in  the  late  Civil  War 
all  the  banks  in  the  United  States  suspended 
specie  payments.  In  January,  1875,  Congress 
passed  an  act  providing  for  their  resumption  of 
specie  payments  on  the  first  of  January,  1879. 
As  that  time  approached  there  were  preliminary 
movements  towards  that  end,  such  as  redeeming 
the  fractional  currency  with  silver  (1876),  by 
which  a  large  amount  of  the  latter  coin  was  put 
into  circulation.  There  was  very  strong  oppo¬ 
sition  to  resumption  at  that  time,  and  prophets 
of  evil  foretold  infinite  disasters  to  the  business 
of  the  country.  It  was  declared  that  the  de¬ 
mand  for  gold  would  be  greater  than  the  sup¬ 
ply;  but  when  the  day  came,  and  the  clerical 
force  of  the  Subtreasury  in  New  York  was  in¬ 
creased  in  order  to  facilitate  the  paying  out  of 
gold  for  “greenbacks”  (which  see)  presented, 
they  had  nothing  to  do.  There  was  actually 
more  gold  paid  in  than  was  paid  out.  From 
that  hour  the  business  of  the  country  perma¬ 
nently  revived  for  the  first  time  since  the  great 
revulsion  of  1873. 

Banking  Schemes  in  Massachusetts.  In 
1740  the  colonies  were  called  upon  to  furnish 
men  and  means  in  a  war  against  the  Spanish- 
American  colonics.  The  call  found  the  people 
of  Massachusetts  engaged  in  bitter  strife  with 
Governor  Belcher.  The  laws  authorizing  the 
circulation  of  a  paper  currency  would  soon  ex¬ 
pire.  The  rapid  withdrawal  of  that  paper 
would  act  like  a  bank  contraction  in  our  day, 
but  with  more  stringency.  Belcher  resolutely 


refused  to  sanction  laws  for  the  extension  of 
the  period  of  redemption,  and  schemes  for  joint- 
stock  banking  were  revived.  Two  companies 
were  organized  —  one,  known  as  the  “Silver 
Scheme,”  proposed  to  issue  £150,000  in  notes 
redeemable  in  silver  at  the  end  of  fifteen  years ; 
another,  called  the  “Manufactory  Scheme,”  or 
“  Land  Bank,”  undertook  to  circulate  double 
that  amount,  to  be  redeemed,  at  the  end  of 
twenty  years,  in  colonial  produce.  The  Silver 
Scheme  was  patronized  by  the  merchants  and 
traders,  the  Land  Bank  by  the  farmers  and 
mechanics.  Belcher  opposed  both,  and  took 
away  the  commissions  of  all  officers  of  the  mili¬ 
tia  and  justices  of  the  peace  who  had  anything 
to  do  with  either.  The  people,  in  spite  of  him, 
established  the  “Land  Bank,”  with  eight  hun¬ 
dred  stockholders,  who  controlled  the  Assembly. 
The  governor  issued  a  proclamation  against  the 
scheme.  The  leaders  in  the  scheme  retaliated 
by  plotting  for  his  removal.  This  was  accom¬ 
plished  by  downright  lying;  and  William  Shir¬ 
ley  was  appointed  his  successor.  The  bank 
was  speedily  wound  up  by  an  act  of  Parliament 
which  prohibited  the  formation  of  unincorpo¬ 
rated  stock  companies  with  more  than  six  part¬ 
ners.  This  act  was  denounced  in  Massachusetts 
and  South  Carolina  as  an  illegal  interference 
with  the  chartered  rights  of  the  people. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  was  born  at 
Waltham,  Mass.,  Jan.  30,  1816.  His  early  edu¬ 
cation  was  obtained  at  a  common  school.  He 
became  a  lawyer  and  Democratic  orator;  edited 
a  newspaper  in  Waltham  and  Lowell ;  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  administration  of  President  Polk  he  held 
office  in  the  Boston  Custom-house.  In  1849  he 


NATHANIEL  PRENTISS  BANKS. 


was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature, 
and  Speaker  of  the  Lower  House  in  1851-52.  He 
was  President  of  the  State  Constitutional  Con¬ 
vention  in  1853,  and  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1853-57,  separating  from  the  Democratic  party 
on  the  question  of  slavery;  and,  after,  a  long 
contest,  was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  1855.  Mr.  Banks  was  chosen 
Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1858,  and  served 
until  1861.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  ho 
was  President  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad. 


BANNEKER 


100  BAPTISTS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Offering  his  services  to  President  Lincoln,  he 
was  made  a  major-general  of  volunteers  May  16, 
1861,  and  appointed  to  command  the  Annapolis 
military  district.  General  Banks  was  an  active 
and  skilful  leader  in  various  battles  during  the 
war  in  Virginia  and  in  the  region  of  the  Lower 
Mississippi  and  Red  rivers.  In  1865  he  was 
elected  to  Congress. 

Banneker,  Benjamin,  a  negro  mathematician, 
was  born  in  Maryland,  Nov.  9,  1731 ;  died  in 
Baltimore,  October,  1806.  His  maternal  grand¬ 
mother,  who  had  charge  of  him  in  his  early 
childhood,  taught  him  to  read  and  write.  He 
taught  himself  mathematics  and  astronomy ; 
and  for  many  years,  while  engaged  in  daily  la¬ 
bor,  made  the  necessary  calculations  for  and 
published  an  almanac  for  Maryland  and  the  ad¬ 
joining  states.  Mr.  Jefferson  presented  one  of 
his  almanacs  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sci¬ 
ences,  where  it  excited  wonder  and  admiration, 
and  the  “African  Almanac”  became  well  known 
to  the  scientific  circles  of  Europe.  In  1790  he 
was  employed  by  the  commissioners  in  the  sur¬ 
vey  of  the  boundaries  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Banneker  was  also  a  poet.  His  grandmother 
was  an  Englishwoman,  who  purchased  a  small 
plantation  in  Maryland,  bought  two  slaves  from 
a  ship  just  from  Africa,  and  married  one  of  them. 

Banquets  to  Naval  Heroes.  On  Dec.  29, 1812, 
a  banquet  was  given  by  the  corporation  and  cit¬ 
izens  of  New  York  to  Hull,  Jones,  and  Decatur, 
who  had  gained  naval  victories.  Hull  and  De¬ 
catur  were  present ;  Jones  was  absent.  The  cor¬ 
poration  of  New  York  also  gave  a  banquet  to  the 
gallant  crew  of  the  frigate  United  States,  Deca¬ 
tur’s  victorious  vessel,  which  captured  the  Mace¬ 
donian.  It  was  given  at  the  City  Hotel,  Jan.  7, 
1813.  The  sailors  present  numbered  about  four 
hundred ;  and  as  they  marched  to  the  hotel  they 
were  greeted  by  crowds  of  men,  women,  and 
children  in  the  streets,  and  the  waving  of  hand¬ 
kerchiefs  from  the  windows.  In  the  evening 
they  went  to  the  Park  Theatre,  by  invitation 
of  the  manager.  The  drop-curtain  had  on  it  a 
representation  of  the  fight  between  the  United 
States  and  Macedonian.  Children  dancing  on  the 
stage  bore  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  their  hands, 
which,  being  joined  in  the  course  of  the  dance, 
produced  in  transparency  the  names  of  Hull, 
Jones,  and  Decatur.  McFarland,  an  Irish 
clown,  then  sang  a  comic  song  of  seven  stanzas 
written  for  the  occasion,  beginning  : 

“No  more  of  your  blathering  nonsense 
’Bout  Nelsons  of  old  Johnny  Bull ; 

I’ll  sing  you  a  song,  by  my  conscience, 

’Bout  Jones  and  Decatur  and  Hull. 

Dad  Neptune  has  long,  with  vexation, 

Beheld  with  what  insolent  pride 
The  turbulent,  billow-washed  nation, 

Has  aimed  to  control  the  salt  tide. 

“Chorus. — Sing  lather  away,  genteel  and  aisy, 

By  my  soul,  at  the  game,  hob-or  nob, 

In  a  very  few  minutes  we’ll  plaise  ye, 
Because  we  take  work  by  the  job.  ” 

Such  banquets  occurred  several  times  during 
the  Second  War  for  Independence — 1812-15 — in 
honor  of  the  unexpected  and  complete  victories 
of  the  Americau  ships  and  seamen  over  those  of 
Great  Britain.  For  these  occasions  songs  were 


composed,  and  became  very  popular;  and  they 
continued  to  be  sung  at  social  gatherings  for 
ten  years  afterwards. 

Baptist  Church,  The  First,  in  America. 
Roger  Williams,  before  he  left  England,  had 
been  under  the  teachings  of  Baptists  there, 
some  of  whom  had  been  refugees  from  persecu¬ 
tion  in  Holland.  These  had  instituted  bap¬ 
tism  among  themselves  by  authorizing  certain 
of  their  members  to  be  administrators  of  the 
rite.  Cast  out  from  the  Congregational  church¬ 
es  in  Massachusetts,  Williams  conceived  the  idea 
of  forming  a  Baptist  church  in  his  new  home  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  after  the  manner  of  the  refu¬ 
gees  in  Holland,  but  in  a  more  simple  form.  In 
March,  1639,  Ezekiel  Holliman,  a  layman,  first 
baptized  Williams,  and  then  Williams  baptized 
Holliman  and  “  some  ten  more.”  These  meu 
then  formed  a  Baptist  church  at  Providence. 
But  Williams  did  not  remain  a  Baptist  long. 
He  very  early  doubted  the  validity  of  Holli¬ 
man’s  baptism,  and  consequently  of  his  own. 
He  believed  “a  visible  succession  of  authorized 
administrators  of  baptism  ”  to  be  necessary  to 
insure  its  validity,  and  in  the  course  of  two 
months  he  withdrew  from  the  church,  and  nev¬ 
er  rejoined  it ;  but  that  first  Baptist  church  in 
America  still  exists  in  Providence. 

Baptists  in  the  United  States  :  a  flourishing 
denomination  of  evangelical  Christians  who  dif¬ 
fer  from  others  in  respect  to  the  mode  of  admin¬ 
istering  the  rite  of  baptism.  They  reject  sprink¬ 
ling,  and  hold  that  immersion  of  the  whole  body 
is  the  only  valid  mode  of  baptism,  and  essential 
to  its  specific  spiritual  purpose ;  a  mode,  they 
claim,  that  was  universally  practised  through¬ 
out  Christendom  for  thirteen  hundred  years. 
Their  Church  government  is  democratic.  Their 
writers  trace  their  origin  to  the  third  century ; 
and  they  have  ever  been  the  champions  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty.  Until  the  Quakers  arose, 
at  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  they 
stood  alone  in  the  advocacy  of  “  soul-liberty.” 
(See  Quakers.)  There  were  none  in  America  when 
Roger  Williams  founded  Providence.  That  ear¬ 
nest  man  of  unstable  ecclesiastical  views,  be¬ 
lieving  the  Anabaptists — those  who  believe  iu 
adult  baptism  only — were  right  in  their  view, 
caused  one  of  the  settlers  to  immerse  him  (Will¬ 
iams),  when  the  latter  immersed  the  layman  and 
others  iu  return,  and  they  established  a  church  at 
Providence,  the  first  Baptist  church  in  America. 
Within  two  months  Williams,  doubting  the  va¬ 
lidity  of  the  baptism  he  had  received  and  given, 
for  lack  of  constituted  authority,  left  the  Bap¬ 
tist  church  forever.  But  the  Church  and  its 
principles  remained,  and  the  colony  embodied  in 
its  first  code  of  laws  (1637)  a  provision  for  per¬ 
fect  toleration  in  matters  of  religion.  In  1764, 
when  numbering  only  about  5000  members  in 
all  America,  the  Baptists  established  their  first 
college  in  Rhode  Island.  (See  Brown  University.) 
With  one  exception,  the  Baptists  are  the  largest 
denomination  of  evangelical  Christians  in  the 
United  States,  having  (1876)  about  1,600,000 
members.  It  is  said  that  the  first  article  of 
the  Amendments  to  our  National  Constitution, 


BARBARIAN  MONARCH 


101 


BARBER 


guaranteeing  religious  liberty  (offered  in  1789), 
was  introduced  chiefly  through  the  iuflueuce  of 
the  Baptist  denomination. 

Barbarian  Monarch,  Reception  at  the 
Court  of  a.  The  authorities  at  Plymouth  had 
made  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  Massasoit,  Kiug 
of  the  Wampanoags.  (See  Massasoit.)  In  the 
summer  of  1621,  Governor  Bradford  sent  two 
envoys  (Winslow  and  Hopkins)  to  the  court  of 
that  monarch,  at  Pokanoket,  near  Narragauset 
Bay,  forty  miles  from  Plymouth.  They  were 
kindly  received  by  the  king,  who  renewed  the 
covenant  with  the  English.  When  he  had  taken 
the  ambassadors  into  his  dwelling,  heard  their 
message,  and  received  presents  from  them,  he 
put  on  the  horseman’s  scarlet  coat  which  they 
had  given  him,  and  a  chain  about  his  neck, 
which  made  his  people  “  proud  to  behold  their 
king  so  bravely  attired.”  Having  given  a  friend¬ 
ly  answer  to  their  message,  he  addressed  his 
people  who  had  gathered  around  him,  saying, 
“Am  not  I  Massasoit,  commander  of  the  country 
around  you  ?  Is  not  such  a  town  mine,  and  the 
people  of  it  ?  Will  you  not  bring  your  skins  to 
the  English?”  After  this  manner  he  named  at 
least  thirty  places,  and  all  gave  their  assent  and 
applause.  At  the  close  of  his  speech  he  lighted 
tobacco  for  the  envoys,  and  proceeded  to  dis¬ 
course  about  England,  declaring  that  he  was 
“  King  James’s  man,”  and  expressing  his  won¬ 
der  how  the  kiug  could  live  without  a  wife  (for 
the  queen  was  then  dead).  Massasoit  had  just 
returned  home,  and  had  no  food  to  offer  the  en¬ 
voys,  who  craved  rest  by  sleep.  “  He  laid  us,” 
wrote  one  of  them,  “  on  a  bed  with  himself  and 
his  wife— they  at  the  one  end  and  we  at  the  oth¬ 
er;  it  being  only  planks  laid  a  foot  from  the 
ground,  and  a  thin  mat  upon  them.  Two  more 
of  his  chief  men,  for  want  of  room,  pressed  by 
and  upon  us,  so  that  we  were  more  wearied  of 
our  lodging  than  of  our  journey.” 

Barbary  Powers,  Humbling  of  the.  On 
the  southern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
in  Northern  Africa,  were  the  independent  states 
of  Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Morocco,  known 
as  the  “Barbary  Powers,”  a  name  derived  from 
the  Berbers,  an  ancient  race  who  peopled  the 
whole  northern  part  of  Africa.  They  employed 
piratical  vessels  in  plundering  those  of  other 
nations  engaged  in  commerce  in  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean.  To  secure  immunity  from  these  depreda¬ 
tors,  the  United  States  and  other  nations  paid 
tribute  to  their  rulers.  Just  as  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  broke  out,  in  1812,  the  Dey  of  Al¬ 
giers,  taking  offence  at  not  having  received  from 
the  United  States  the  precise  articles  in  the  way 
of  tribute  demanded,  unceremoniously  dismissed 
Tobias  Lear,  the  American  consul,  declared  war, 
and  captured  an  American  vessel  and  reduced  her 
crew  to  slavery.  Mr.  Lear  was  compelled  to  pay 
the  Dey  $27,000  for  the  safety  of  himself  and 
family  and  a  few  Americans  who  were  there,  to 
save  them  all  from  being  made  slaves.  Believ¬ 
ing  that  Great  Britain  had  almost  annihilated 
the  American  navy,  this  African  robber  renewed 
his  depredations  upon  American  commerce,  in 
violation  of  treaty  obligations.  Determined  no 


longer  to  submit  to  the  demands  and  hostile 
conduct  of  this  insolent  ruler,  the  United  States 
accepted  his  war -challenge,  and  in  May,  1815, 
sent  Commodore  Decatur  to  the  Mediterranean 
with  a  squadron  to  humble  the  Dey.  As  soon 
as  Decatur  had  passed  through  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar  he  found  the  Algerine  corsairs  cruis¬ 
ing  in  search  of  American  shipping.  On  June 
17  the  commodore  met  the  Algerine  flag-ship, 
of  forty -four  guns  (the  largest  in  the  Algerine 
navy),  and  after  a  brief  engagement  captured 
her.  He  also  captured  another  vessel  of  the 
Dey,  with  about  six  hundred  men.  With  these 
prizes  Decatur  sailed  with  all  his  vessels  for  Al¬ 
giers.  His  squadron  consisted  of  the  frigates 
Guei-riere,  Macedonian,  and  Constellation,  the  On¬ 
tario  sloop  of  war,  four  brigs,  and  one  schooner. 
On  June  28  Decatur  demanded  of  the  Dey  the 
instant  surrender  of  all  the  American  prisoners, 
full  indemnification  for  all  property  destroyed, 
and  absolute  relinquishment  of  all  claims  to  trib¬ 
ute  from  the  United  States  thereafter.  When 
the  Dey  was  assured  of  the  fate  of  a  part  of  his 
fleet,  the  terrified  robber  hastened  to  comply 
with  Decatur’s  demands.  The  commodore  or¬ 
dered  the  Algerine  ruler  to  appear  before  him  on 
the  quarter-deck  of  his  flag-ship,  the  Guerriere, 
to  make  his  submission  and  restitution.  He 
appeared  with  some  of  his  officers  of  state  and 
the  captives  to  be  released.  There,  on  June  30, 
he  signed  a  treaty,  in  accordance  with  Decatur’s 
demands,  and  departed  deeply  humiliated.  Af¬ 
ter  this  triumph  at  Algiers,  Decatur  sailed  for 
Tunis,  and  demanded  and  received  from  the 
Bashaw,  or  ruler  of  that  state,  $46,000,  in  pay¬ 
ment  for  American  vessels  which  he  had  allowed 
the  British  to  capture  in  his  harbor.  Then  the 
commodore  proceeded  to  Tripoli,  the  capital  of 
another  of  the  Barbary  States,  and  demauded 
(August,  1815)  from  the  Bey,  its  ruler,  $25,000, 
for  the  same  kind  of  injury  to  property,  and  the 
release  of  prisoners.  The  treasury  of  the  Bey 
being  nearly  empty,  Decatur  accepted,  in  lieu 
of  cash,  the  release  from  captivity  of  eight  Danish 
and  two  Neapolitan  seamen.  This  cruise  gave 
full  security  to  American  commerce  in  the  Med¬ 
iterranean.  It  elevated  the  American  character 
in  the  opinion  of  Europeans,  for  in  the  course  of 
two  months  Decatur  had  accomplished,  with  a 
small  squadron,  in  the  way  of  humbling  the 
pirates  of  Northern  Africa,  what  the  combined 
powers  of  the  Christian  world  had  not  dared  to 
attempt. 

Barber,  Francis,  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution, 
was  born  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1751 ;  died  April 
19,  1783.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  (Princeton)  in  1767,  and  in  1769  became 
rector  of  an  academy  at  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  and 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  there.  Leav¬ 
ing  these  positions,  he  joined  the  New  Jersey 
line  in  the  Continental  army  as  major,  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1776.  In  November  he  was  made  a  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel,  and  was  afterwards  assistant- 
inspector  -  general  under  Baron  Steuben.  He 
was  active  in  several  battles  until  1779,  when 
he  was  adjutant-general  in  Sullivan’s  campaign, 
and  was  wounded  in  the  battle  at  Newtown. 
(See  Sullivan's  Campaign.)  In  1781  ho  was  sue- 


BARCLAY 


102 


BARLOW 


cessful  in  quelling  tlie  mutiny  of  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey  troops.  He  was  with  the  army  at 
Newburgh,  in  1783,  and  on  the  day  when  Wash¬ 
ington  announced  to  the  troops  the  preliminary 
treaty  of  peace  he  was  killed  by  the  falling  of  a 
tree  while  he  was  riding  in  the  edge  of  a  wood. 

Barclay,  Robert,  of  Ury,  was  born  at  Gor- 
donston,  Scotland,  Dec.  23,  1648;  died  at  Ury, 
Oct.  13, 1690.  Entering  a  Scotch  college  in  Par¬ 
is,  efforts  were  made  to  convert  him  to  Roman 
Catholicism,  when  he  returned  home  (1664),  and 
three  years  afterwards,  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
he  embraced  the  principles  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  or  Quakers.  In  1670  he  vindicated 
them  from  false  charges  in  a  pamphlet  entitled 
Truth  Cleared  of  Calumnies.  He  also  published, 
in  Latin  and  English,  An  Apology  for  the  True 
Christian  Divinity,  as  the  same  is  held  forth  and 
preached  by  the  people  called,  in  scorn,  Quakers. 
Barclay  dedicated  it  to  King  Charles,  with  great 
modesty  and  independence,  and  it  was  one  of  the 
ablest  defences  of  the  doctrines  of  his  sect.  His 
writings  attracted  public  sympathy  to  his  co¬ 
religionists.  The  first,  remonstrance  of  Friends 
against  war  was  put  forth  by  Barclay,  in  1677, 
entitled  a  Treatise  on  Universal  Love.  Barclay 
made  many  religious  journeys  in  England,  Hol¬ 
land,  and  Germany  with  William  Penn,  and  was 
several  times  imprisoned  on  account  of  the  pro¬ 
mulgation  of  his  doctrines.  Charles  II.  was 
Barclay’s  friend  through  the  influence  of  Penn, 
and  made  his  estate  at  Ury  a  free  barony  in  1679, 
with  the  privilege  of  criminal  jurisdiction.  He 
was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  East  Jersey,  and 
in  1682  he  was  appointed  its  governor  (see  New 
Jersey ) ;  but  he  exercised  the  office  by  a  deputy. 

Bard,  John,  M.D.,  was  born  at  Burlington, 
N.  J.,  Feb.  1,  1716;  died  at  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y., 
March  30,  1799.  He  was  of  a  Huguenot  family, 
and  was  for  seven  years  a  surgeon’s  apprentice 
in  Philadelphia.  Establishing  himself  in  New 
York,  he  soon  ranked  among  the  first  physi¬ 
cians  and  surgeons  in  America.  In  1750  he 
assisted  Dr.  Middleton  in  the  first  recorded 
dissection  in  America.  In  1788  he  became  the 
first  president  of  the  New  York  Medical  Society  ; 
and  when,  in  1795,  the  yellow  fever  raged  in  New 
York,  he  remained  at  his  post,  though  then  nearly 
eighty  years  of  age.  Died  in  1782. 

Bard,  Samuel,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  son  of  Dr.  John, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  April  1,1742;  died 
May  24,  1821.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  passed  about  three  years, 
and  was  an  inmate  of  the  family  of  Dr.  Robert¬ 
son,  the  historian.  Having  graduated  as  M.D. 
in  1765,  he  returned  home,  and  began  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  medicine  in  New  York  city  with  his  fa¬ 
ther.  He  organized  a  medical  school,  which 
was  connected  with  King’s  (Columbia)  College, 
in  which  he  took  the  chair  of  Physic  in  1769. 
In  1772  he  purchased  his  father’s  business. 
He  caused  the  establishment  of  a  public  hos¬ 
pital  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1791,  and, 
while  the  seat  of  the  National  government 
was  at  New  York,  he  was  the  physician  of 
President  Washington.  He  was  also  appoint¬ 
ed  President  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  j 


Surgeons  in  1813.  While  combating  yellow 
fever  in  New  York  in  1798,  he  took  the  disease, 
but  by  the  faithful  nursing  of  his  wife  he  re¬ 
covered.  Dr.  Bard  was  a  skilful  horticulturist 
as  well  as  an  eminent  physician. 

Barker,  Jacob,  financier,  was  born  in  Kene- 
bec  County,  Me.,  Dec.  7,  1779 ;  died  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Dec.  27,  1871.  He  was  of  a  Quaker 
family,  and  related  by  blood  to  the  mother  of 
Dr.  Franklin.  He  began  trade  in  New  York 


JACOB  BARKER. 


when  quite  young,  and  at  twenty -one  he 
owned  four  ships  and  a  brig,  and  was  large¬ 
ly  engaged  in  commercial  transactions.  As  a 
state  senator,  and  while  sitting  in  the  Court 
of  Errors,  he  gave  an  opinion  in  an  insurance 
case  in  opposition  to  Judge  Kent,  and  was  sus¬ 
tained  by  the  court.  During  the  war  of  1812 
his  ships  were  all  captured.  Being  in  Wash¬ 
ington  city  during  its  sack  by  the  British  (Au¬ 
gust,  1814)  he  assisted  Mrs.  Madison  in  saving 
Stuart’s  portrait  of  Washington  then  hanging 
in  the  President’s  house,  which  was  set  on 
fire  a  few  hours  later.  (See  Madison,  Mrs.) 
Barker  was  a  banker,  a  dealer  in  stocks,  and 
a  general  and  shrewd  financier  for  many  years. 
He  finally  established  himself  in  New  Orleans 
in  1834,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  as 
a  lawyer,  and  soon  became  a  political  and  bus¬ 
iness  leader  there.  He  made  and  lost  several 
fortunes  during  his  long  life.  The  Civil  War 
wrought  his  financial  ruin,  and  late  in  1867  he 
was  again  in  bankruptcy  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
eight  years. 

Barlow,  Francis  Channing,  was  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  19,  1834,  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1855.  After  serving 
as  a  three  months’  man,  he  became  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  a  New  York  regiment,  and  as  colo¬ 
nel  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  on 
the  Peninsula  in  1862.  In  the  battle  of  Antie- 
tam  he  captured  two  stands  of  colors  and  three 
hundred  men,  and  was  soon  afterwards  wound- 


BARLOW 


103 


BARNARD 


ed  and  carried  off  tlie  field  for  dead.  He  was 
made  brigadier  -  general  in  September,  and  be 
commanded  a  division  in  the  battle  of  Chan- 
cellorsville  in  May,  1863.  He  was  wounded  at 
Gettysburg,  and  was  also  distinguished  in  the 
Richmond  campaign  in  1864.  He  rendered  es¬ 
sential  service  in  the  final  struggle  that  ended 
with  the  surrender  of  Lee. 

Barlow,  Joel,  poet,  was  born  at  Reading, 
Conn.,  March  24,  1755 ;  died  near  Cracow,  Po¬ 
land,  Dec.  22,  1812.  He  graduated  at  Yale  Col¬ 
lege  in  1778 ;  studied  theology  and  was  li- 


JOEL  BARLOW. 

censed  a  Congregational  minister;  and  from 
1778  to  1783  was  a  chaplain  in  the  army,  writ¬ 
ing  patriotic  songs  and  addresses  to  keep  up 
the  spirits  of  the  sftldiers.  When  the  army 
was  disbanded  (1783)  he  settled  at  Hartford, 
where  he  began  to  study  law,  and  was  admit¬ 
ted  to  the  bar  in  1785.  He  had  tried  book¬ 
selling  ;  and,  in  1783,  he  established  a  weekly 
newspaper,  entitled  the  American  Mercury,  pub¬ 
lished  at  Westford.  His  poetic  talents  becom¬ 
ing  widely  known,  he  was  requested  by  several 
Congregational  ministers  to  revise  the  phrase¬ 
ology  of  Watts’s  Hymns.  He  also  attempted  to 
revise  the  Bible  in  the  same  way.  A  cousin 
of  Benedict  Arnold,  who  would  talk  in  dog¬ 
gerel  rhyme,  was  asked  by  Barlow  to  give 
him  a  specimen  of  his  poetic  talent.  Arnold 
looked  the  poet  sharply  in  the  face,  and  said, 
instantly, 

“You’ve  proved  yourself  a  sinful  cretur, 

You’ve  murdered  Watts  and  spiled  the  metre, 

You’ve  tried  the  Word  of  God  to  alter, 

And  for  your  pains  deserve  a  halter.” 

With  Trumbull,  Dwight,  Humphreys,  and  oth¬ 
ers,  Barlow  published  a  satirical  poem  enti¬ 
tled  The  Anarckiad.  In  1787  he  published  his 
Vision  of  Columbus,  a  poem  which  obtained 
great  popularity.  Visiting  Europe  in  1788  as 
agent  for  the  “Scioto  Land  Company”  (which 
see),  he  published,  in  aid  of  the  French  Revo¬ 
lution,  Advice  to  the  Privileged  Orders.  To  this 
he  added,  in  1791,  a  Letter  to  the  National  Con¬ 
vention,  and  the  Conspiracy  of  Kings.  As  dep¬ 
uty  of  the  London  Constitutional  Society,  he 
presented  an  address  to  the  French  National 
Convention,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  French  citizen.  Barlow 


was  given  employment  in  Savoy,  where  he 
wrote  his  mock  -  heroic  poem,  Hasty  Pudding. 
He  was  United  States  consul  at  Algiers  in 
1795-97,  where  he  negotiated  treaties  with  the 
ruler  of  that  state,  and  also  with  the  Bey  of 
Tunis.  He  took  sides  with  the  French  Di¬ 
rectory  in  their  controversy  with  the  Ameri¬ 
can  envoys.  (See  Directory,  The  French.)  Hav¬ 
ing  made  a  large  fortune  by  speculations  in 
France,  Mr.  Barlow  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1805,  and  built  himself  an  elegant 
mansion  in  the  vicinity  of  Washington,  and 
called  his  seat  there  “  Kalorama.”  (See  Deca¬ 
tur.)  In  1807  he  published  the  Columbiad,  an 
epic  poem.  It  was  illustrated  with  engrav¬ 
ings,  some  of  them  from  designs  by  Robert 
Fulton,  and  published  in  a  quarto  volume  in  a 
style  more  sumptuous  than  any  book  that  had 
then  been  issued  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
an  enlargement  of  his  Vision  of  Columbus.  In 
1811  he  commenced  the  preparation  of  a  His¬ 
tory  of  the  United  States,  when  President  Madi¬ 
son  appointed  him  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
the  French  court.  The  next  year  he  was  in¬ 
vited  to  a  conference  with  Napoleon  at  Wilna. 
His  journey  into  Poland  was  fatal  to  his  life. 
It  was  made  in  such  haste  and  with  so  much 
exposure  to  cold  and  fatigue  that  he  perished  be¬ 
fore  reaching  Wilna.  (See  Song  of  the  Guillotine.) 

Barlow’s  Journey  to  Wilna.  Joel  Barlow, 
who,  as  American  minister  in  France,  had  la¬ 
bored  incessantly  to  induce  Napoleon  to  estab¬ 
lish  a  good  understanding  with  the  United 
States,  suddenly  received  a  request  from  the 
emperor,  through  the  Duke  of  Bassano  (Octo¬ 
ber,  1812),  to  come  to  his  camp  at  Wilna  in  Po¬ 
land  for  the 'nominal  object  of  completing  a 
commercial  treaty  with  the  United  States.  It 
was  believed  by  the  war  party  that  some  ar¬ 
rangements  would  be  made  by  which  French 
ships,  manned  by  Americans,  might  be  em¬ 
ployed  against  Great  Britain.  But  such  hopes 
were  soon  extinguished.  Barlow  set  out  from 
Paris  immediately,  and,  as  the  call  was  urgent, 
he  travelled  day  and  night,  without  rest.  The 
fatigue  and  exposure  brought  on  a  disease  of 
the  lungs,  and,  in  the  cottage  of  a  Polish  Jew 
at  Zarnowice,  near  Cracow,  he  suddenly  ex¬ 
pired  (Dec.  4, 1812),  from  the  effects  of  a  violent 
congestion  of  the  pulmonary  organs.  What 
the  real  object  of  Napoleon’s  call  was  may 
never  be  known. 

Barnard,  Henry,  LL.D.,  promoter  of  educa¬ 
tion,  was  horn  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Jan.  24,  1811. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1830 ;  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1835,  and  in  1837  was 
elected  to  a  seat  in  the  state  Legislature.  He 
was  twice  re-elected.  In  that  body  he  effect¬ 
ed  a  reorganization  of  the  Connecticut  State 
School  System,  and  was  for  four  years  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Board  of  School  Commissioners, 
during  which  he  wrote  a  number  of  able  re¬ 
ports  on  the  public  schools.  His  first  report 
(1839)  was  pronounced  by  Chancellor  Kent  a 
“  hold  and  startling  document,  founded  on  the 
most  painstaking  and  critical  inquiry.”  He 
edited  and  published  the  Connecticut  School 


BARNARD 


104 


BARNEY 


Journal.  From  1843  to  1849  he  had  charge 
of  the  public  schools  of  Rhode  Island,  where 
he  established  a  model  system  of  popular  edu¬ 
cation.  Mr.  Barnard  took  great  interest  in  the 
subject  of  school-house  architecture;  and  from 
1850  to  1854  he  was  state  superintendent  of 
public  schools  of  Connecticut.  In  1855  he 
began  the  publication  of  the  American  Journal 
of  Education.  The  same  jTear  he  became  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  “  American  Association  for  the  Ad¬ 
vancement  of  Education,”  and  was  offered  the 
presidency  of  two  state  universities.  When 
the  Bureau  of  Education  was  established  at 
Washington,  he  was  appointed  the  first  com¬ 
missioner  (March,  1867).  Dr.  Barnard  has  writ¬ 
ten  much  and  well  on  the  subject  of  popu¬ 
lar  education.  A  Loudon  review,  speaking 
of  his  work  on  National  Education  in  Europe 
(1854),  said,  “He  has  collected  and  arranged 
more  valuable  information  and  statistics  than 
can  be  found  in  any  one  volume  in  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language.”  Mr.  Barnard  received  the  de¬ 
gree  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard,  Yale,  and  Union 
colleges. 

Barnard,  John  Gross,  LL.D.,  was  born  in 
Essex  County,  Mass.,  May  19,  1815.  He  grad¬ 
uated  at  the  West  Point  Military  Academy  in 
1833,  and  entered  the  engineer  corps.  He  was 
made  captain  in  1838;  major  in  1858;  brevet 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861 ;  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel  of  x’egulars  in  1863;  brevet  ma¬ 
jor-general  of  volunteers  in  1864  ;  brevet  brig¬ 
adier-general  and  brevet  major-general  of  reg¬ 
ulars,  March,  1865 ;  and  colonel  of  the  corps 
of  engineers,  regular  army,  Dee.  28,  the  same 
year.  During  the  war  with  Mexico  he  forti¬ 
fied  Tampico,  and  made  surveys  of  the  battle¬ 
fields  around  the  capital.  In  1850-51  he  was 
chief- engineer  of  the  projected  Tehuantepec 
railroad ;  and  in  1855-56  he  was  superintend¬ 
ent  of  the  West  Point  Military  Academy.  He 
was  chief-engineer  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
1861-62;  also  chief -engineer  of  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  the  defences  of  the  national  capital 
from  September,  1862,  to  May,  1864.  He  was 
chief-engineer  of  the  “armies  in  the  field,”  on 
General  Grant’s  staff,  from  May,  1864,  until 
Lee’s  surrender  at  Appomattox  (which  see)  in 
✓April,  1865.  General  Barnard  was  mustered 
out  of  the  volunteer  service  in  1866.  He  has 
published  The  Gyroscope  and  Problems  in  Botary 
Motions ,  which  evince  profound  mathematical 
investigation;  also  other  works  concerning  the 
Civil  War  and  its  operations.  The  degree  of 
LL.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  Yale  Col¬ 
lege.  Died  in  1882. 

Barnburners,  a  name  given  to  radical  or  pro¬ 
gressive  politicians  in  the  United  States,  and 
opposed  to  Hunkers  (which  see).  It  was  giv¬ 
en  to  the  anti-slavery  section  of  the  Democrat¬ 
ic  party,  especially  in  New  York,  which  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  rest  of  the  Democratic  National 
Convention  in  1846.  They  were  opposed  to 
certain  corporations,  and  they  desired  to  do 
away  with  all  corporations.  They  received 
their  name  from  the  story  of  the  man  whose 
house  was  infested  with  rats,  and  who  burned 


it  to  the  grouud  to  get  rid  of  the  vermin.  At 
about  that  time  anti-rent  outrages  were  com¬ 
mitted,  such  as  burning  barns,  etc.  The  rad¬ 
ical  Democrats  sympathized  with  the  Anti- 
renters,  and  the  Hunkers  called  them  “  barn¬ 
burners.”  (See  Free-soil  Party.) 

Barnes,  Albert,  Rev.,  was  horn  at  Rome, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  1, 1798;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  24, 
1870.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in 
1820 ;  studied  theology  at  Princeton ;  and  was 
pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Morristowu, 
N.  J.,  from  1823  to  1830.  He  then  settled  as 
pastor  of  a  church  of  the  New  School  Presbyte¬ 
rians  in  Philadelphia,  which  connection  contin¬ 
ued  more  than  thirty  years.  He  early  took  a 
decided  stand  against  slavery.  As  a  commen¬ 
tator  on  the  Scriptures,  Mr.  Barnes  has  a  high 
reputation,  and  his  writings  are  greatly  prized 
by  the  religious  world  on  both  sides  of  the  At¬ 
lantic.  It  is  estimated  that  the  circulation 
of  his  Notes  on  the  New  Testament,  in  eleven 
volumes,  up  to  1876,  was  about  1,500,000  vol¬ 
umes.  He  published  two  works  ou  slavery, 
entitled,  respectively,  Inquiry  into  the  Scriptur¬ 
al  Views  of  Slavery  and  The  Church  and  Slav¬ 
ery.  His  contributions  to  periodicals,  chiefly 
on  religious  subjects,  were  many  and  highly 
esteemed. 

Barnes,  James,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass. ; 
died  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  12,  1869.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  and  resigned 
in  1836.  He  became  colonel  of  a  Massachu¬ 
setts  volunteer  regiment  in  1861,  and  in  No¬ 
vember  of  that  year  was,  made  brigadier-gen¬ 
eral  in  the  Army  of  the  P’otomac,  participating 
in  its  most  exciting  operations.  He  command¬ 
ed  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  and 
was  severely  wounded.  General  Barnes  was 
breveted  major-general  in  March,  1865. 

Barney,  Joshua,  was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
July  6,  1759;  died  at  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  Dec.  1, 
1818.  Inclined  to  a  seafaring  life,  he  went  to 
sea  in  his  early  youth ;  and  when  he  was  only 
sixteen  years  of  age,  an  accident  caused  the 
care  of  his  ship  to  devolve  upon  him.  He  met 
the  exigency  with  courage  and  skill.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  Continental  navy,  at  its  first  organiza¬ 
tion  in  1775,  as  master’s  mate,  in  the  sloop  Hor¬ 
net,  and  joined  Commodore  Hopkins.  In  an  ac¬ 
tion  between  the  Continental  schooner  Wasp 
and  British  brig  Tender,  in  Delaware  Bay,  be¬ 
fore  he  was  seventeen  years  of  age,  his  conduct 
was  so  gallant  that  he  was  made  a  lieutenant. 
In  that  capacity  he  served  in  the  Sachem  (Cap¬ 
tain  I.  Robinson),  and  after  a  severe  action  wfith 
a  British  brig,  in  which  his  commander  was 
wounded,  young  Barney  brought  her  into  port. 
Soon  afterwards  he  was  made  a  prisoner,  but 
was  speedily  released,  and  in  the  Andrea  Doria 
he  was  engaged  in  the  defence  of  the  Delaware 
River  in  1777.  He  was  again  made  prisoner, 
and  was  exchanged  in  August,  1778.  A  third 
time  he  was  made  captive  (1779),  and  after  his 
exchange  was  a  fourth  time  made  a  prisoner, 
while  serving  in  the  Saratoga,  16,  was  sent  to 
England,  and  confined  in  the  famous  Mill  prison, 
from  which  he  escaped  in  May,  1781.  He  was 


BARNEY 


105 


BARRE 


retaken,  and  again  escaped,  and  arrived  in  Phila¬ 
delphia  in  March,  1782,  where  he  took  command 
of  the  Hyder  Ali,  16,  in  which  he  captured  the 
General  Monk,  of  heavier  force  and  metal.  For 
this  exploit  the  Legislature  of  Maryland  pre¬ 
sented  him  with  a  sword.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  engaged  in  business  on  shore,  but  very 
soon  took  to  the  sea  again.  At  Cape  Frangois, 
W.  I.,  he  received  on  his  ship  (1792)  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  women  and  children  who  had  escaped 
massacre  by  the  blacks.  His  vessel  was  capt¬ 
ured  by  an  English  cruiser,  but  Barney  recapt¬ 
ured  her  from  the  prize  crew.  He  was  again 
captured  by  an  English  cruiser  (1793),  and  im¬ 
prisoned  as  a  pirate.  His  ship  and  cargo  were 
condemned.  In  1794  he  went  with  Monroe  to 
France,  and  bore  the  American  flag  to  the  Na¬ 
tional  Convention.  (See  Monroe,  Reception  of.) 
He  was  a  warm  partisan  of  the  French,  and  en¬ 
tered  their  navy  as  commander  of  a  squadron, 
but  resigned  his  commission  in  1802.  When 
the  war  of  1812-15  broke  out,  he  engaged  in 
privateering  with  much  success.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  captain  in  the  U.  S.  Navy  in  April,  1814, 
and  placed  in  command  of  a  flotilla  of  small  ves¬ 
sels  for  the  defence  of  the  coasts  of  the  Chesa¬ 
peake.  Driven  up  the  Patuxent  by  a  British 
fleet,  he  destroyed  his  vessels,  and  with  over 
five  hundred  men  he  joined  General  Winder  in 
the  defence  of  Washington.  (See  Bladensburg, 
Battle  at.)  Barney  was  severely  wounded  (Aug. 
24, 1814)  near  Bladensburg,  and  made  a  prisoner. 
Too  much  hurt  to  be  removed  as  a  prisoner,  he 
was  paroled  and  sent  to  Bladen  sbui’g,  near  by, 
on  a  litter.  There  he  was  joined  by  his  wife 
and  son  and  his  own  surgeon,  and  was  con- 


JOSHUA  BARNEY. 


veyed  to  his  farm  at  Elkridge,  Md.  The  bul¬ 
let  that  gave  him  the  wound,  from  which  he 
never  fairly  recovered,  is  preserved  in  the  Navy 
Department.  The  Corporation  of  Washington 


voted  him  a  sword,  and  the  Legislature  of  Geor¬ 
gia  their  thanks.  In  May,  1815,  Barney  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Europe,  but  suffering  from 
his  wouud  caused  him  to  return  in  the  fall. 
The  bullet  was  never  extracted  during  his  life. 
Just  as  he  was  about  to  depart  from  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.,  with  his  family,  to  Kentucky,  where  he 
had  bought  land,  he  died.  His  remains  repose 
in  the  Allegheny  Cemetery. 

Barre,  Colonel  Isaac,  was  born  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  1726;  died  in  London,  July  20,  1802. 
His  parents  were  French,  his  father  being  a 


COLONEL  BARRE. 


small  tradesman  in  Dublin.  Isaac  entered  the 
British  army  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  par¬ 
ticipated  in  the  expedition  against  Louisburg 
in  1758.  Wolfe  was  his  friend,  and  appointed 
him  major  of  brigade  ;  and  in  May,  1759,  he  was 
made  adjutant-general  of  Wolfe’s  army  that  as¬ 
sailed  Quebec.  He  was  severely  wounded  in 
the  battle  oil  the  Plains  of  Abraham  (which 
see),  by  which  he  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye.  Barr6 
served  under  Amherst  in  1760 ;  and  was  the  of¬ 
ficial  bearer  of  the  news  of  the  surrender  of 
Montreal  to  England.  In  1761  he  was  promoted 
to  lieutenant-colonel,  and  the  same  year  he  ob¬ 
tained  a  seat  in  Parliament,  where  he  found 
himself  in  opposition  to  the  ministry.  For  this 
offence  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices,  given  him 
as  a  reward  for  his  services  in  America.  He 
was  the  warm  friend  of  the  colonies,  and  made 
able  speeches  in  Parliament  in  their  favor. 
Barrd  was  one  of  the  supposed  authors  of  the 
Letters  of  Junius.  Strong  in  person,  vigorous 
in  mind,  independent  in  thought  and  action,  he 
was  a  dreaded  opponent.  During  the  last 
twenty  years  of  his  life  he  was  blind. 

Barre  (M.  de  la),  Expedition  of.  In  1684 
M.  de  la  Barrd  prepared  for  an  expedition 
from  Canada  to  the  country  of  the  Five  Nations 
(which  see).  His  forces  consisted  of  700  Cana¬ 
dians,  130  regular  soldiers,  and  200  Indians. 
Detained,  by  an  epidemic  disease  among  the 
French  soldiers,  at  Fort  Froutenac  for  six  weeks, 


BARRON 


103 


BARRY 


he  was  compelled  to  conclude  the  campaign 
with  a  treaty.  He  crossed  Lake  Ontario  for 
that  purpose,  and  at  a  designated  place  was 
met  by  Oueidas,  Onondagas,  and  Cayugas,  the 
Mohawks  and  Senecas  refusing  to  attend.  Barr6 
assumed  much  dignity.  Seated  on  a  chair  of 
state,  with  his  French  and  Indian  officers  forming 
a  circle  around  him,  he  addressed  himself  to  Gar- 
angula,  the  Onondaga  chief,  in  a  very  haughty 
speech,  which  he  concluded  with  a  threat  of 
burning  the  castles  of  the  Five  Nations,  and 
destroying  the  Indians  themselves,  unless  the 
satisfaction  which  he  demanded  was  given.  To 
this  address  Garangula  made  a  cool  but  bold  and 
decisive  speech  in  reply.  It  made  the  haughty 
Barrfi  very  angry,  and  he  retired  to  his  tent, 
where,  after  deliberation,  he  prudently  suspend¬ 
ed  his  menaces.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  con¬ 
cluded;  and  two  days  afterwards  Bar  re  and  his 
retinue  departed  for  Canada.  Garangula  had 
said,  while  holding  a  calumet  in  his  hand,  as 
he  answered  the  arrogant  speech  of  the  French¬ 
man,  “  Onnunteo,  I  honor  you,  and  all  the  war¬ 
riors  who  are  with  me  honor  you.  Your  inter¬ 
preter  has  finished  your  speech;  I  now  begin 
mine.  My  words  make  haste  to  reach  your 
ears;  hearken  to  them,  Onnunteo.  In  setting 
out  from  Quebec  you  must  have  imagined  that 
the  scorching  beams  of  the  sun  had  burned  down 
the  forests  which  render  our  country  inaccessi¬ 
ble  to  the  French,  or  that  the  inundations  of 
the  lakes  had  shut  us  up  in  our  castles.  But 
now  you  are  undeceived ;  for  I  and  my  war¬ 
riors  have  come  to  assure  you  that  the  Senecas, 
Cayugas,  Onondagas,  Oneidas,  and  Mohawks  are 
yet  alive.”  After  ascribing  Barr6’s  pacific  over¬ 
tures  to  the  impotency  of  the  French,  and  re¬ 
pelling  the  charges  brought  against  his  coun¬ 
trymen,  he  added,  “We  are  born  free;  we  have 
no  dependence  on  the  Onnunteo  or  the  Corlear.” 
(These  names  signify  respectively  the  governors 
of  Canada  and  of  New  York.)  Garangula  con¬ 
cluded  his  defiant  speech  by  saying  his  voice 
was  that  of  the  Five  Nations ;  and  that  when 
they  buried  the  hatchet  at  a  former  treaty,  in 
the  presence  of  his  predecessors,  they  planted  a 
tree  of  peace  in  the  same  place,  and  that  peace¬ 
ful  relations  were  then  pledged  to  each  other. 
“I  do  assure  you,”  he  said,  “that  our  warriors 
shall  dance  to  the  calumet  of  peace  under  its 
branches,  and  that  we  shall  never  dig  up  the 
axe  to  cut  it  down  until  the  Onnunteo  (the 
French)  or  the  Corlear  (the  English)  shall  either 
jointly  or  separately  endeavor  to  invade  the 
country  which  the  Great  Spirit  has  given  to 
our  ancestors.” 

Barron,  James,  commodore  U.  S.  Navy,  was 
boru  in  Virginia  in  1768;  died  at  Norfolk,  Va., 
April  21,  1851.  On  the  formation  of  the  U.  S. 
Navy  in  1798,  Barron  (who  had  begun  his  naval 
career  under  his  father,  commander  of  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  Navy  during  the  war  for  independence) 
was  made  a  lieutenant,  and  served  under  Barry 
in  the  brief  naval  war  with  France.  In  1799 
he  was  made  a  captain  and  sent  to  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  under  the  command  of  his  elder  brother, 
Commodore  Samuel  Barron,  one  of  the  best  dis¬ 
ciplinarians  in  the  service.  James  was  in  com¬ 


mand  of  the  frigate  Chesapeake  in  1807,  and  sur¬ 
rendered  her  to  the  Leopard ,  a  British  ship  of  war, 
for  which  he  was  court-martialled  and  sentenced 
to  be  suspended  from  service  for  five  years  with¬ 
out  pay  or  emoluments.  (See  Chesapeake  and 
Leopard.)  During  that  suspension  he  entered 
the  merchant  service,  and  remained  abroad  un¬ 
til  1818,  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore 


Decatur  and  other  officers  resisted  this,  and  a 


bitter  correspondence  between  Barron  and  De¬ 
catur  ensued.  Barron  challenged  his  antago¬ 
nist  to  fight  a  duel.  They  met  near  Bladeusbnrg 
(March  22,  1820),  and  Decatur  was  mortally 
wounded.  Barron  was  severely  hurt,  but  recov¬ 
ered  after  several  months  of  suffering.  During 
the  latter  years  of  his  long  life  Barron  held  sev¬ 
eral  important  commands  on  shore. 

Barron,  Samuel,  was  a  brother  of  Commo¬ 
dore  James  Barron,  and  was  born  at  Hampton, 
Va.,  about  1763;  died  Oct.  29,  1810.  He,  like 
his  brother,  had  a  training  iu  the  navy  under 
his  father.  Iu  1798  he  commanded  the  Augusta, 
prepared  by  the  citizens  of  Norfolk  to  resist  the 
aggressions  of  the  French.  He  took  a  conspic¬ 
uous  part  in  the  war  with  Tripoli  (which  see) ; 
and  in  1805  he  commanded  a  squadron  of  ten 
vessels,  with  the  President  as  the  flag-ship.  He 
assisted  in  the  capture  of  the  Tripolitan  town 
of  Dern6,  April  27,  1805.  Barron  soon  after¬ 
wards  relinquished  his  command  to  Captain  John 
Rodgers,  and  on  account  of  ill-health  returned 
to  the  United  States. 

Barry,  John,  a  commodore  of  the  U.  S.  Navy, 
was  boru  at  Tacumshane,  Wexford  Co.,  Ireland, 
in  1745;  died  iu  Philadelphia,  Sept.  13,  1803. 
He  went  to  sea  while  he  was  very  young,  be¬ 
came  the  commander  of  a  ship,  and  gained  con¬ 
siderable  wealth.  In  February,  1776,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  by  Congress  to  command  the  Lexington, 
fourteen  guns,  which,  after  a  sharp  actiou,  capt- 


BARRY 


107 


BARTLETT 


ured  the  tender  Edward.  This  was  the  first  vessel 
captured  by  a  commissioned  officer  of  the  U.  S. 
Navy.  Barry  was  transferred  to  the  frigate 
Effingham  ;  and  in  the  Delaware,  at  the  head  of 
four  boats,  he  captured  au  English  schooner,  in 


1777,  without  the  loss  of  a  man.  He  was  public¬ 
ly  thanked  by  Washington.  When  Howe  took 
Philadelphia,  late  in  1777,  Barry  took  the  Effing¬ 
ham  up  the  Delaware  with  the  hope  of  saving 
her,  but  she  was  burned  by  the  British.  Howe 
had  offered  him  a  large  bribe  if  he  would  de¬ 
liver  the  ship  to  him  at  Philadelphia,  but  it  was 
scornfully  rejected.  Barry  took  command  of 
the  Baleigli,  32,  in  September,  1778,  but  British 
cruisers  compelled  him  to  ruu  her  ashore  in 
Penobscot  Bay.  In  the  frigate  Alliance,  in  1781, 
he  sailed  for  Frauce  with  Colonel  John  Laurens, 
Avho  was  sent  on  a  special  mission  ;  aud  after¬ 
wards  he  cruised  successfully  with  that  ship. 


COMMODORE  BARRY’S  MONUMENT. 


At  the  close  of  May  ho  captured  the  Atlanta  and 
Trespass,  after  a  severe  fight.  Returning  in  Oc¬ 
tober,  the  Alliance  was  refitted,  and,  after  tak¬ 
ing  Lafayette  and  the  Count  de  Noailles  to 
France,  Barry  cruised  in  the  West  Indies  very 


successfully  until  May,  1782.  After  the  reorgan¬ 
ization  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  in  1794,  Barry  was 
named  the  senior  officer.  He  superintended 
the  building  of  the  frigate  United  States,  to  the 
command  of  which  he  was  assigned,  but  never 
entered  upon  the  duty.  Commodore  Barry  was 
buried  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Mary’s  Roman 
Catholic  Church  on  Fourth  Street,  Philadelphia. 
The  large  recumbent  slab  of  white  marble  over 
his  grave  contains  a  long  inscription. 

Bartlett,  John  Russell,  author,  was  born  in 
Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct.  23, 1805.  He  was  for  six 
years  of  his  early  manhood  cashier  of  the  Globe 
Bank  in  Providence,  and  an  active  member  of 
the  “Franklin  Society  for  the  Cultivation  of 
Science.”  He  was  also  one  of  the  projectors  of 
the  Atheneum  at  Providence.  In  1837  he  en¬ 
gaged  in  business  in  New  York  City,  and  was 
for  some  time  an  efficient  corresponding  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society.  Mr. 
Bartlett  was  associated  with  Albert  Gallatin  as 
a  projector  and  founder  of  the  American  Eth¬ 
nological  Society.  Iu  1850,  in  company  with 
Mr.  Welford,  he  established  a  foreign  book-store 
in  New  York ;  and  in  that  year  he  was  appoint¬ 
ed  by  President  Taylor  a  commissioner,  under 
the  treaty  of  peacQ  with  Mexico  in  1848,  to  settle 
the  boundary-line  between  that  country  and  the 
United  States.  He  w7as  engaged  iu  that  ser¬ 
vice  until  Jan. 7, 1853,  making  extensive  surveys 
and  explorations,  with  elaborate  scientific  obser¬ 
vations  ;  but,  owing  to  a  failure  of  Congress  to 
make  the  necessary  appropriations,  he  did  not 
complete  his  work.  He  published  a  personal 
narrative  of  his  experience  in  that  region  in  1854. 
Iu  May,  1855,  he  was  chosen  Secretary  of  State 
of  Rhode  Island,  which  office  he  held  until  1872, 
a  period  of  seventeen  years.  He  edited  and 
published  the  Records  of  the  Colony  of  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and  and  Providence  Plantations,  in  ten  volumes ; 
also  an  Index  to  the  Acts  and  Resolves  of  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Assembly  of  Rhode  Island  from  1758  to  1862. 
Iu  1847  Mr.  Bartlett  published  a  little  volume 
on  the  Progress  of  Ethnology  ;  and  in  1848  a  Dic¬ 
tionary  of  Americanisms,  since  revised  and  en¬ 
larged.  He  also  published  a  Bibliography  of 
Rhode  Island,  Literature  of  the  Rebellion,  Memoirs 
of  Rhode  Island  Men,  Primeval  Man,  and  several 
other  works.  Died  May  28,  1886. 

Bartlett,  Josiah,  M.D.,  a  signer  of  the  Decla¬ 
ration  of  Independence,  was  born  at  Amesbury, 
Mass.,  Nov.  21,  1729;  died  May  19,  1795.  Edu¬ 
cated  in  a  common  school  and  taught  the  sci¬ 
ence  of  medicine  by  a  practitioner  iu  his  native 
town,  young  Bartlett  began  the  business  of  a 
healer  at  Kingston,  N.  H.,  in  1750,  aud  soon  be¬ 
came  quite  eminent  by  his  success.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  New  Hampshire  Legislature  from 
1765  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  the 
Revolution.  In  1770  he  was  appointed  by  the 
royal  governor  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  militia, 
but  on  account  of  his  patriotic  tendencies  he 
was  deprived  of  the  office  in  1775.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Safety,  upon  whom 
for  a  time  devolved  the  whole  executive  power 
of  the  government  of  the  state.  A  delegate  to 
Congress  iu  1775-76,  he  was  the  first  to  give  his 


BARTLETT 


108 


BATTLE  OF  THE  KEGS 


rote  for  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
its  first  signer  after  the  President  of  Congress. 
He  was  with  Stark  in  the  Bennington  campaign 
(see  Bennington ,  Battle  of),  in  1777,  as  agent  of  the 
state  to  provide  medicine  and  other  necessaries 
for  the  New  Hampshire  troops.  In  Congress 
again  in  1778,  he  was  very  active  in  committee 
duties;  and  in  1779  lie  was  appointed  chief-jus¬ 
tice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in  his  state.  In  1782 
he  was  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  New 
Hampshire,  and  chief- justice  in  1788.  Judge 
Bartlett  retired  from  public  life  in  1794,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  feeble  health,  having  been  president  of 
the  state  from  1790  to  1793,  and,  under  the  new 
constitution,  governor  in  1793.  He  was  the 
chief  founder  and  the  president  of  the  New 
Hampshire  Medical  Society,  and  received  the 
honorary  degree  of  M.D.  from  Dartmouth  Col¬ 
lege. 

Bartlett,  William  Francis,  was  born  at  Hav¬ 
erhill,  Mass.,  June  6,  1840,  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1862.  He  entered  the  army  of  vol¬ 
unteers  as  captain  in  the  summer  of  1861 ;  was 
engaged  iu  the  battle  of  Ball’s  Bluff  (which  see), 
and  lost  a  leg  iu  the  siege  of  Yorktown  in  1862. 
He  was  made  colonel  of  a  Massachusetts  regi¬ 
ment  in  November,  1862,  and  took  part  in  the 
capture  of  Port  Hudson  in  1863.  Iu  the  siege 
of  Petersburg  (1864)  he  commanded  a  division 
of  the  Ninth  Corps,  and  at  the  explosion  of  the 
mine  there  he  was  made  prisoner,  but  exchanged 
in  September.  Iu  1865  he  was  breveted  major- 
general  of  volunteers. 

Barton,  William,  was  born  in  Providence, 
R.  I.,  in  1747  ;  died  there  Oct.  22, 1831.  Holding 
the  rank  of  lieutenant- colonel  in  the  Rhode 
Island  militia,  he,  with  a  small  party,  crossed 


Narraganset  Bay  in  the  night  (July  10, 1777)  and 
seized  and  carried  away  the  British  general, 
Prescott.  (  See  Prescott,  Capture  of.)  For  this 
service  Congress  gave  him  a  sword  and  a  c®m- 
mission  of  colonel  in  the  Continental  army.  He 
was  wounded  in  an  action  at  Bristol  Ferry  in 
August,  1778,  and  was  disabled  from  further  ser¬ 


vice  in  the  war.  Colonel  Barton  was  a  member 
of  the  Rhode  Island  Convention  which  finally 
adopted  the  National  Constitution. 

Bartram,  William,  naturalist,  was  born  at 
Kingsessing,  Penu.,  Feb.  9,  1739  ;  died  July  22, 
1823.  He  began  business  in  North  Carolina  in 
1761,  aud  became  a  devoted  student  of  natural 
history.  His  father,  John,  a  native  of  Chester 
County,  Penn.,  was  the  founder  of  the  first  bo¬ 
tanical  garden  in  America.  It  was  on  the 
banks  of  the  Schuylkill.  William  accompanied 
his  father,  when  the  latter  was  seventy  years 
of  age,  iu  a  botanical  excursion  and  exploration 
of  East  Florida,  aud  resided  some  time  on  the 
banks  of  the  St.John’s  River,  returning  home  in 
1771.  He  was  employed  by  Dr.  Fothergill  of 
London,  in  1773-78,  in  botanical  explorations 
aud  collections  in  Florida,  Georgia,  and  South 
Carolina.  Mr.  Bartram  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society  and  other  sci¬ 
entific  associations  in  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  In  1790  he  published  an  account  of 
his  travels  in  the  Gulf  region,  in  which  he  gave 
an  account  of  the  Creek,  Chocktaw,  and  Chero¬ 
kee  Indians.  Mr.  Bartram  made  the  most  com¬ 
plete  table  of  American  Ornithology  previous  to 
the  work  of  Wilson,  aud  to  him  we  are  indebted 
for  a  knowledge  of  many  curious  and  beautiful 
plants  peculiar  to  North  America. 

Bastidas,  Roderigo  de,  with  Juan  de  la 
Cosa,  sailed  towards  the  Western  Continent 
with  two  ships  in  1502,  and  discovered  the  coast 
of  South  America  from  Cape  de  Vela  to  the 
Gulf  of  Darien.  Ojeda,  with  Americas  Vespu- 
cius,  went  in  the  same  course  soon  afterwards, 
ignorant  of  this  expedition  of  Bastidas,  touched 
at  the  same  places,  aud  proceeded  to  Hispaniola, 
or  Santo  Domiugo. 

Baton  Rouge,  Battle  at.  General  Williams 
was  iu  command  at  Baton  Rouge  in  August, 
1862.  General  Van  Dorn  sent  General  J.  C. 
Breckinridge  to  seize  the  post.  He  expected 
to  be  aided  by  the  “  ram”  Arkansas  (which  see). 
He  attacked  the  Nationals  vigorously  on  the 
morning  of  Aug.  5.  Williams  had  only  about 
2500  men  to  oppose  the  assailants ;  Breckin¬ 
ridge  had  5000.  The  first  blow  struck  fell  upon 
Maine,  Indiana,  aud  Michigan  troops,  who  were 
pushed  back ;  when  others  from  Connecticut, 
Massachusetts,  aud  Wisconsin,  with  two  sec¬ 
tions  of  a  battery,  hastened  to  their  relief.  The 
battle  raged  about  two  hours.  The  Twenty- 
first  Indiana  lost  all  its  field  officers.  General 
Williams  then  took  command  of  the  regiment, 
aud  was  leading  them  on,  when  he  was  killed 
by  a  bullet  that  passed  through  his  breast. 
The  Nationals  fell  back.  The  Confederates, 
dreadfully  smitten,  did  likewise,  and  retreated. 
Baton  Rouge  was  soon  afterwards  evacuated 
by  the  Nationals. 

Battle  of  the  Kegs.  In  January,  1778,  while 
the  channel  of  the  Delaware  River  was  nearly 
free  of  ice,  some  Whigs  at  Borden  town,  N.  J.,  sent 
floating  down  the  stream  some  torpedoes  in  the 
form  of  kegs  filled  with  gunpowder,  and  so  ar¬ 
ranged  with  machinery  that  on  rubbing  against 
an  object  they  would  explode.  It  was  hoped 


BATTLE  OF  THE  KEGS 


BATTLES 


109 


that  some  of  these  torpedoes  might  touch  a  Brit¬ 
ish  war-vessel,  explode,  and  sink  her.  One  of 
them,  touching  a  piece  of  floating  ice  in  front  of 
the  city,  blew  up,  and  created  intense  alarm. 
For  twenty-four  hours  afterwards  not  a  thing 
was  seeu  floating  on  the  bosom  of  the  river  with¬ 
out  being  fired  at  by  musket  or  cannon.  This 
event  greatly  amused  the  Americans,  and  Fran¬ 
cis  Hopkinson,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla¬ 
ration  of  Independence,  wrote  a  satirical  poem 
entitled  the  “  Battle  of  the  Kegs.”  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  a  copy  of  this  famous  poem  : 

BATTLE  OF  THE  KEGS. 

Gallants  attend,  and  hear  a  friend 
Trill  forth  harmonious  ditty; 

Strange  things  I’ll  tell,  which  late  befell 
In  Philadelphia  city. 

’Twas  early  day,  as  poets  say, 

Just  when  the  sun  was  rising, 

A  soldier  stood  on  log  of  wood, 

And  saw  a  thing  surprising. 

As  in  amaze  he  stood  to  gaze 
(The  truth  can’t  be  denied,  sir), 

He  spied  a  score  of  kegs,  or  more, 

Come  floating  down  the  tide,  sir. 

A  sailor,  too,  in  jerkin  blue, 

The  strange  appearance  viewing, 

First  d — d  his  eyes,  in  great  surprise, 

Then  said,  “Some  mischief’s  brewing. 


The  cannons  roar  from  shore  to  shore, 

The  small-arms  loud  did  rattle ; 

Since  wars  began  I’m  sure  no  man 
E’er  saw  so  strange  a  battle. 

The  rebel  dales,  the  rebel  vales, 

With  rebel  trees  surrounded, 

The  distant  woods,  the  hills  and  floods, 

With  rebel  echoes  sounded. 

The  fish  below  swam  to  and  fro, 

Attack’d  from  every  quarter; 

Why  sure  (thought  they),  the  devil’s  to  pay 
’Along  folks  above  the  water. 

The  kegs,  ’t.is  said,  though  strongly  made 
Of  rebel  staves  and-hoops,  sir. 

Could  not  oppose  their  powerful  foes, 

The  conq’ring  British  troops,  sir. 

From  morn  to  night  these  men  of  might 
Display’d  amazing  courage, 

And  when  the  sun  was  fairly  down, 

Retired  to  sup  their  porridge. 

A  hundred  men,  with  each  a  pen, 

Or  more,  upon  my  word,  sir, 

It  is  most  true,  would  be  too  few, 

Their  valor  to  record,  sir. 

Such  feats  did  they  perform  that  day 
Against  these  wicked  kegs,  sir, 

That,  years  to  come,  if  they  get  home, 

They’ll  make  their  boasts  and  brags,  sir. 

Battles.  The  priucipal  battles  in  which  the 
people  of  the  United  States  have  been  engaged, 
as  colonists  and  as  a  nation,  are  as  follows : 


“These  kegs,  I’m  told,  the  rebels  hold, 
Pack’d  up  like  pickled  herring ; 

And  they’ve  come  down  t’  attack  the  town 
In  this  new  way  of  ferry’ng.” 

The  soldier  flew,  the  sailor  too. 

And.  scared  almost  to  death,  sir, 

Wore  out  their  shoes  to  spread  the  news, 
And  ran  till  out  of  breath,  sir. 

Now  up  and  down,  throughout  the  town, 
Most  frantic  scenes  were  acted  ; 

And  some  ran  here,  and  others  there, 

Like  men  almost  distracted. 

Some  fire  cried,  which  some  denied, 

But  said  the  earth  had  quaked ; 

And  girls  and  boys,  with  hideous  noise, 

Ran  through  the  streets  half  naked. 

Sir  William*  he,  snug  as  a  flea, 

Lay  all  this  time  a  snoring  ; 

Nor  dream’d  of  harm  as  he  lay  warm 
In  bed  with  Mrs.  L— ng.t 

Now,  in  a  fright,  he  starts  upright, 

Awaked  by  such  a  clatter ; 

He  rubs  both  eyes,  and  boldly  cries, 

“For  God’s  sake,  what’s  the  matter?” 

At  his  bedside  he  then  espied 
Sir  Erskine, t  at  command,  sir; 

Upon  one  foot  he  had  one  boot, 

And  t’other  in  his  hand,  sir. 

“Arise!  arise!”  Sir  Erskine  cries  ; 

“The  rebels— more’s  the  pity — 

Without  a  boat,  are  all  afloat, 

And  ranged  before  the  city. 

“The  motley  crew,  in  vessels  new, 

With  Satan  for  their  guide,  sir. 

Pack’d  up  in  bags,  or  wooden  kegs, 

Come  driving  down  the  tide,  sir. 

“Therefore  prepare  for  bloody  war; 

These  kegs  must  all  be  routed  ; 

Or  surely  we  despised  shall  be. 

And  British  courage  doubted.” 

The  royal  band  now  ready  stand. 

All  ranged  in  dread  array,  sir, 

With  stomach  stout  to  see  it  out, 

And  make  a  bloody  day,  sir. 


*  Sir  William  Howe. 

t  The  wife  of  a  Boston  refugee,  who  was  then  a  commissary 
of  prisoners  in  Philadelphia.  He  is  represented  by  some  as 
being  second  only  to  Cunningham  in  cruelty,  while  others 
speak  of  him  as  an  honorable  man. 

$  Sir  William  Erskine. 


FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR. 


Great  Meadows, . 

Fort  Necessity. . 

Fort  Beau  Sejour, . 

Fort  Gaspereaux, . 

Monongahela, . 

Bloody  Pond  (near  Lake  George),  . 
Head  of  Lake  George,  .... 

Oswego, . 

Fort  William  Henry, . 

Near  Ticonderoga, . 

Ticonderoga, . 

Louisburg . 

Fort  Frontenac . 

Allegheny  Mountains, . 

Fort  Niagara, . 

Montmorenci, . 

Plains  of  Abraham, . 

Sillery, . 


May  28, 1754 
July  4,  “ 
June  16, 1755 
“  17,  “ 

July  9,  “ 
Sept.  8,  “ 

“  8,  “ 
Aug.  14, 1756 
July  6, 1757 
“  6, 1758 

“  8  “ 

“  26’  “ 
Aug.  27,  “ 
Sept.  21,  “ 
July  25, 1759 

u  31  u 

Sept.  13^  “ 
April  28, 1760 


OLD  WAR  FOR  INDEPENDENCE. 

Lexington, . April  19, 1775 

Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill . June  17,  “ 

Near  Montreal  (Ethan  Allen  captured), .  .  Sept.  25,  “ 

St.  John’s,  Siege  and  Capture  of,  .  .  .  Oct.  &  Nov.  “ 

Great  Bridge, . Dec.  9,  “ 

Quebec, . “  31,  “ 

Moore’s  Creek  Bridge . Feb.  27, 1776 

Boston  (Evacuation  of),  ......  .Mar.  17,  “ 

Cedar  Rapids, . May  9,  “ 

Three  Rivers, . .  June  8,  “ 

Fort  Sullivan  (Charleston  harbor),  ...  “  28,  “ 

Long  Island, . Aug.  27,  “ 

Harlem  Plains, . Sept.  16,  “ 

White  Plains . Oct.  28,  “ 

Fort  Washington, . .  Nov.  16,  “ 

Trenton . Dec.  26,  “ 

Princeton . Jan.  3, 1777 

Hubbardton, .  July  7,  “ 

Oriskauy, .  Aug.  6,  “ 

Bennington, . “  16,  “ 

Brandywine, .  Sept.  11,  “ 

Bemis’s  Heights  (first),  Sept.  19;  (second)..  Oct.  7,  “ 

Paoli, . Sept.  20,  “ 

Germantown . Oct.  4,  “ 

Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery,  .  ...  “  0*  “ 

Fort  Mercer . “  22,  “ 

Fort  Mifflin, . Nov.  16,  “ 

Monmouth, . June  28, 1778 

Wyoming, . July  4,  “ 

Quaker  Hill  (R.  1.), . Aug.  29,  “ 

Savannah . Dec.  29,  “ 

Kettle  Creek . Feb.  14, 1779 

Brier  Creek . Mar.  3,  “ 

Stono  Ferry,  . . Juno  20,  “ 

Stony  Point . July  16,  “ 


BATTLES 


110 


BATTLES 


Paulus’s  Hook, . Aug.  19, 1779 

Chemung  (near  Elmira,  N.Y.),  ....  -‘29,  “ 

Savannah, . Oct.  9,  “ 

Charleston  (Siege  and  Surrender  of),  .  •  May  12,  1780 

Springfield  (N.  J.), . June  23,  “ 

Kooky  Mount  (N.  C. ), . July  30,  “ 

Hanging  Hock  (N.  C. ), . Aug.  6,  “ 

Sanders  s  Creek  (near  Camden,  S.  C. ),  .  .  “  16,  “ 

King's  Mountain  (S.  C. ), . Oct.  7,  “ 

Fish  Dam  Ford, . Nov.  18,  “ 

Blackstocks, . “  20,  “ 

Cowpens, . Jan.  17, 1781 

Guilford, . Mar.  16,  “ 

Hobkirk’s  Hill . April  25,  “ 

Ninety-six  (Siege  of), . May  &  June,  “ 

Augusta  (Siege of),.  .......  “  “ 

Jamestown, . July  9,  “ 

Eutaw  Spring, . Sept.  8,  “ 

Yorktown  (Siege  of), . Sept.  &  Oct.  “ 

WAR  WITH  THE  INDIANS. 

Miami  River, . Oct.  19  &  22, 1790 

St.  Clair’s  Defeat, . Nov.  4, 1791 

Fort  St.  Clair, .  “  6, 1792 

Near  Fort  St.  Clair, . Oct.  17, 1793 

Fort  Recovery, . June  30, 1794 

Maumee  Rapids  (Fallen  Timber),  ....  Aug.  20,  “ 
Tippecanoe, . Nov.  7, 1811 

SECOND  WAR  FOR  INDEPENDENCE — 1812-15. 

Fort  Mackinaw, . July  17, 1812 

Brownstown, . Aug.  4, 

Maguaga, .  •*  9, 

Chicago  (Massacre  at), . “16, 

Detroit  (Surrendered), .  “16, 

Fort  Harrison, . Sept.  4  &  5, 

Fort  Madison, . Sept.  4-6, 

Ganauoqui, . Sept.  21, 

Queenstown  Heights, . Oct.  13, 

St.  Regis, . “23, 

Fort  Niagara, . Nov.  21, 

Black  Rock,  .  . . “28, 

French  Town  (River  Raisin),  ....  Jan.  18-22, 1813 

Elizabethtown  (Canada), . Feb.  7, 

Ogdensburg, .  “22, 

York  (Toronto), . .  .  .April  27, 

Fort  Meigs, . May  5, 

Fort  George . “27, 

Sackett’s  Harbor, .  “29, 

Stony  Creek, . June  6, 

Hampton  (Defence  of) .  “13, 

Craney  Island, . “22, 

Beaver  Dams .  “23, 

Near  Fort  George, . July  8, 

Black  Rock, .  “  11, 

Fort  George  (Defence  of  Outworks),  .  .  .  “  17, 

Fort  Stephenson, . Aug.  2, 

Stonington  (Bombardment  of),  ....  Aug.  9-11, 

Fort  Mims, . Aug.  30, 

Thames . Oct.  5, 

French  Creek, . Nov.  1  &  2, 

Tallasehatche, . Nov.  3, 

Talladega, .  “  9, 

Chrysler’s  Field, . “11, 

Hillabee  Town, .  “18, 

Auttose, . “29, 

Fort  Niagara, . Dec.  19, 

Econochaca, . . “23, 

Black  Rock, .  “30,. 

Emucfau  (Ala.), . Jan.  22,  1814 

Enotochopco  (Ala.), .  “24, 

Camp  Defiance, . “27, 

Longwoods . Mar.  4, 

Horseshoe  Bend, . “27, 

La  Colle  Mills .  “30, 

Fort  Oswego, . May  4  &  5, 

Sandy  Creek, . May  30, 

Odell  Town, . June  28, 

Fort  Erie, . July  3, 

Chippewa, . “  5, 

Champlain, . July  18  &  19, 

Lundy’s  Lane  (Niagara  Falls), . July  25, 

Fort  Mackinack  (Mackinaw), . Aug.  4, 

Fort  Erie, . Aug.  13-15, 

Bladensburg, . Aug.  24, 

Plattsburg, . Sept.  11, 

North  Point, .  “12, 

Fort  McHenry  (Bombardment  of), .  .  .  .  “  13, 

Fort  Bower, .  “15, 

Fort  Erie  (Sortie  from), . “17, 

Chippewa, . Oct.  15, 

Lyon’s  Creek, . “19, 

Pensacola, . Nov.  7, 

Villere’s  Plantation  (New  Orleans!,  .  .  .  Dec.  23, 

Rodriguez’s  Canal  (New  Orleans), .  .  .  .  Jan.  1,1815 


New  Orleans, . Jan.  8, 1815 

Fort  St.  Philip, .  “  9,  “ 

Point  Petre  (La.), . “  13,  “ 

BLACK  HAWK  WAR  (which  See). 

May  to  August,  1832. 

SEMINOLE  WAR — 1835-42. 

Micanopy, . June  9,1836 

Fort  Drane, . Aug.  21,  “ 

Wahoo  Swamp . Nov.  17, 18,  &  21,  “ 

Okeechobee  Lake, . Dec.  25,  1837 

Carloosahatchee . July  23,  1839 

Fort  King, . April  28,  1840 

Near  Fort  Brooke, . Mar.  2,  1841 

Big  Hammock, . April  19,  1842 

WAR  AGAINST  MEXICO. 

Fort  Brown, . May  3, 1846 

Palo  Alto, . “  8, 

Resaca  de  la  Palma, .  “  9, 

Sonoma  and  Sonoma  Pass, . June  15, 

Monterey. . Sept.  21-23, 

Braceta,  . . Dec.  25, 

San  Gabriel, . Jan.  8,  1847 

The  Mesa, . “  9, 

Encarnacion, .  “23, 

Buena  Vista, . Feb.  22  &  23, 

Chihuahua, . Feb.  28, 

VeraCruz  (Surrendered),- . Mar.  20, 

Alvarado, . April  2, 

Cerro  Gordo, . “18, 

Contreras, . Aug.  20, 

Churubusco, . “20, 

El  Molino  del  Rey, . Sept.  8, 

Chapultepec, . Sept.  12-14, 

Puebla, . Sept.  &  Oct. 

Huamantla, . Oct.  9, 

Atlixco, .  “18, 

CIVIL  WAR. 

Fort  Sumter  (Evacuated), . April  14, 1861 

Big  Bethel  (Va.), . June  10, 

Booneville  (Mo.), .  “17, 

Carthage  (Mo.), . July  6, 

Rich  Mountain  (Va.), .  “10, 

Bull’s  Run  (Va.)  (first), . “21, 

Wilson’s  Creek  (Mo.), . Aug.  10, 

Hatteras  Forts  Captured, . Aug.  26-30, 

Carnifex  Ferry  (Va.),  .  . . Sept.  10, 

Lexington  (Mo.), . “  20, 

Santa  Rosa  Island, . Oct.  9, 

Ball's  Bluff1  (Va.), . “21, 

Port  Royal  Expedition  (S.  C. ),  .  .  .  .  Oct.  to  Nov. 

Belmont  (Mo.), . Nov.  7, 

Middle  Creek  (Ky.), . Jan.  10,  1862 

Fort  Henry  (Tenn.), . Feb.  6, 

Roanoke  Island  (N.  C.) . Feb.  7  &  8, 

Fort  Donelson, . Feb.  16, 

Valvend  (New  Mexico), .  “21, 

Pea  Ridge  (Ark.), . Mar.  7 &  8, 

Hampton  Roads  (Monitor  aDd  Alerrimac), .  .Mar.  9, 

Shiloh  (Tenn.), . April  6  &  7, 

Island  Number  Ten  (Surrendered),  .  .  .  April  7, 

Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  ....  April  18-27, 

New  Orleans  (Captured),  .  .  .  April  25  to  May  1, 

Yorktown  (Siege  of) . April  and  May, 

Williamsburg, . May  5, 

Winchester, . “25, 

Hanover  Court-house, .  “27, 

Seven  Pines,  or  Fair  Oaks,  .  .  .  May  31  &  June  1, 

Memphis  (Tenn.), . June  6, 

Cross  Keys  and  Port  Republic,  ....  June  8  &  9, 
Seven  Days  before  Richmond,  .  .  .  June  &  July, 

Baton  Rouge  (La.) . Aug.  5, 

Cedar  Mountain  (Va.), .  “  9, 

Bull’s  Run  (second) . “30, 

South  Mountain  (Md. ), . Sept.  14, 

Harper’s  Ferry  (10,000  Nationals  surrend’d),  “  15, 

Antietam  (Md. ), .  “17, 

Iuka  (Miss.), . Sept.  19&20, 

Corinth  (Miss.), . Oct.  3, 

Perryville  (Ky.), . “  8, 

Prairie  Grove  (Ark.), . Dec.  7, 

Fredericksburg  (Va.) . “13, 

Holly  Springs  (Miss.) .  “20, 

Chickasaw  Bayou  (Miss.) . Dec.  27-29, 

Stone  River  (Murfreesboro’,  Tenn.),  .  .  .  Dec.  31, 

and  Jan.  3,  1863 

Arkansas  Post  (Ark  ), . Jan.  11, 

Grierson’s  Raid, . April  11  to  May  5, 

Port  Gibson  (Miss.), . May  1, 

Chancellorsville  (Va.), .  “  1-4, 

Raymond  (Miss.), . “  12, 


BAYARD 


111 


Jackson  (Miss.), . May  14, 1803 

Champion  Hill  (Miss.), . “  16,  “ 

Big  Black  River  (Miss.), .  “  17,  “ 

Vicksburg  (Miss.), . May  19-22,  “ 

Port  Hudson  (La.), . May  27,  “ 

Hanover  Junction  (Pa. ), . June  30,  “ 

Gettysburg  (Pa.) . July  1-4,  “ 

Vicksburg  (Surrendered), . “  4,  “ 

Helena  (Ark.) .  “  4,  “ 

Port  Hudson  (Surrendered), . “  9,  “ 

Jackson  (Miss.), .  “  16,  “ 

Fort  Wagner  (S.  C.), . July  10-18,  “ 

Morgan’s  Great  Raid  (Tnd.  and  0.),  June  24  to  J uly  26,  “ 

Chickamauga . Sept.  19  &  20,  “ 

Campbell’s  Station  (Tenn.), . Nov.  16,  “ 

Knoxville  (Tenn. ;  Besieged),  .  .  Nov.  17  to  Dec.  4,  “ 

Lookout  Mountain  (Tenn. ), . Nov.  24,  “ 

Missionaries’ Ridge  (Tenn.), . “  25,  “ 

Olustee  (Fla.) . Feb.  20,  1864 

Sabine  Cross  Roads  (La.), . April  8,  “ 

Pleasant  Hill  (La.), .  “  9,  “ 

Fort  Pillow  (Tenn. ;  Massacre  at),  .  .  .  .  “  12,  “ 

Wilderness  (Va. ), . May  5  &  6,  “ 

Resaca(Ga  ), . May  14  &  15,  “ 

Spottsylvania  Court-house  (Va.),  .  .  .  .  May  7-12,  “ 

Bermuda  Hundred, . May  10,  “ 

New  Hope  Church  (Ga.), .  “  25,  “ 

Cool  Arbor  (Va.), . June  1-3,  “ 

Petersburg  (Va. ;  Smith’s  Attack),  ...  “  16,  “ 

Weldon  Road  ( Va. ), . June  21  &  22,  “ 

Kenesaw  (Ga. ), . June  27,  “ 

Peach-tree  Creek  (Ga.), . July  20,  “ 

Decatur  (Ga.), .  “  22,  “ 

Atlanta  (Ga.) . “  28,  “ 

Petersburg  (Va. ;  Mine  Explosion),  ...  “  30,  “ 

Mobile  Bay . Aug.  5,  “ 

Jonesborough  (Ga.), . Aug.  31  &  Sept.  1,  “ 

Atlanta  (Ga. ;  Captured), . Sept.  2,  “ 

Winchester  (Va.), .  “  19,  “ 

Fisher’s  Hill  (Va.), . “  22,  “ 

Allatoona  Pass  (Ga. ), . Oct.  6,  “ 

Hatcher’s  Run  (Va.), . “  27,  “ 

Franklin  (Tenn.), . Nov.  30,  “ 

Fort  McAllister  (Ga.), . Dec  14,  “ 

Nashville  (Tenn. ) . Dec.  15  &  16,  “ 

Fort  Fisher  (N.  C. ;  First  Attack  on),  .  “  24&25,  “ 

Fort  Fisher  (N.  C. ;  Capture  of),  ....  Jan.  15,  1865 

Hatcher’s  Run  (Va.), . Feb.  5,  “ 

Five  Forks  (Va. ), . Mar.  31  &  Apr.  1,  “ 

Averasborough  (N.  C. ), . Mar.  16,  “ 

Bentonville  (N.  C. ), .  “  18,  “ 

Petersburg  (Carried  by  Assault),  .  .  .  .April  2,  “ 

Appomattox  Court-house  (near),  ....  “  9,  “ 

Mobile  (Capture  of), . “  8-12,  “ 


There  has  been,  from  colonial  times,  desultory 
warfare  quite  frequently  between  the  English- 
Amcrican  colonists  and  the  Indian  tribes.  The 
most  formidable  of  these  encounters  were  the 
Pequod  war,  the  Esopus  war,  King  Philip’s  war, 
Poutiac’s  war,  the  Creek  and  Seminole  war,  and 
wars  with  the  Sioux.  (See  all  of  these  uuder 
the  respective  titles.) 

Bayard,  George  D.,  was  born  in  New  York 
in  1835;  killed  at  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Dec.  14, 
1862.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1856,  and 
entered  the  cavalry  corps.  Early  in  April,  1861, 
he  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteer  cav¬ 
alry,  and  was  attached  to  the  Pennsylvania  Re¬ 
serves  (which  see).  He  participated  in  the  bat¬ 
tles  fought  by  that  eminent  body  of  soldiers. 
General  Bayard  served  under  McDowell  and 
Pope  in  Virginia;  and,  after  the  battle  of  An- 
tietam  Creek,  he  commanded  a  cavalry  brigade, 
making  frequent  attacks  on  the  retreating  Con¬ 
federates,  and  driving  them  from  the  gaps  of 
the  Blue  Ridge.  He  was  chief  of  cavalry  of 
the  Third  Army  Corps,  and  was  engaged  in  the 
battles  of  Cedar  Mountain,  Manassas,  and  in 
the  defence  of  Washington  City.  In  the  bat¬ 
tle  of  Fredericksburg,  where  he  fell,  he  was 
attached  to  Franklin’s  corps. 


Bayard,  James  Ashton,  statesman,  was  born 


BAYLIS’S  CREEK,  BATTLE  AT 

in  Philadelphia,  July  28, 1767 ;  died  in  Wilming¬ 
ton,  Del.,  Aug.  6, 1815.  He  was  of  Huguenot  de¬ 
scent  ;  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1784 ;  studied 
law  uuder  General  Joseph  Reed;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1787,  and,  settling  in  Delaware, 
soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  lawyer. 
Mr.  Bayard  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1797 
to  1803,  and  a  conspicuous  leader  of  the  Federal 
party.  In  1804  he  was  elected  to  the  United 


JAMES  ASHTON  BAYARD. 


States  Senate,  in  which  he  distinguished  him¬ 
self  iu  couducting  the  impeachment  of  Senator 
Blount.  He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  secur¬ 
ing  the  election  of  Jefferson  over  Burr  in  1800 ; 
and  made,  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  iu 
1802,  a  powerful  defence  of  the  existing  judiciary 
system,  but  which  was  overthrown.  He  was 
in  the  Senate  when  war  was  declared  against 
Great  Britain  iu  1812.  In  May,  1813,  he  left  the 
United  States  on  a  mission  to  St.  Petersburg,  to 
treat  for  peace  with  Great  Britain  under  Russian 
mediation  (which  see).  The  mission  was  fruit¬ 
less.  In  January,  1814,  he  went  to  Holland,  and 
thence  to  England.  At  Ghent,  during  that  year, 
he,  with  J.  Q.  Adams,  Clay,  Gallatin,  and  Rus¬ 
sell,  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  with  England 
(which  see).  He  was  preparing  to  go  to  Eng¬ 
land  as  a  commissioner  under  the  treaty,  when 
an  alarming  illness  seized  him,  and  he  returned 
home  early  iu  1815.  He  died  soon  after  his  ar¬ 
rival. 

Baylis’s  Creek,  Battle  at  (1864).  General 
Hancock  proceeded  to  attack  the  Confederates 
in  front  of  Deep  Bottom  on  the  James  River 
Aug.  12,  1864.  His  whole  force  was  placed  on 
transports  at  City  Point,  and  its  destination  re¬ 
ported  to  be  Washington.  This  was  to  deceive 
the  Confederates.  That  night  it  went  up  the 
James  River;  but  so  tardy  was  the  debarkation 
that  the  intended  surprise  of  the  Confederates 
was  not  effected.  Hancock  pushed  some  of  his 
troops  by  Malvern  Hill  to  flank  the  Confeder- 


BAYLOR 


112 


BEAUMARCHAIS 


ates’  defence  behind  Baylis’s  Creek,  while  ten 
thousand  men  were  sent,  under  General  Barlow, 
to  assail  their  flank  and  rear.  There  were  other 
dispositions  for  attack  ;  but  the  delay  had  al¬ 
lowed  Lee  to  send  reinforcements,  for  the  move¬ 
ment  seemed  to  threaten  Richmond.  On  the 
morning  of  the  16th,  General  Birney,  with  Gen¬ 
eral  Terry’s  division,  attacked  and  carried  the 
Confederate  lines,  and  captured  three  hundred 
men.  The  Confederates  soon  rallied  and  drove 
him  back.  Another  part  of  the  attacking  force 
was  driven  back,  and  the  attempt  failed. 

Baylor,  George,  a  cavalry  officer  in  the  Rev¬ 
olution,  was  born  in  Hanover  County,  Ya. ;  died 
in  Barbadoes  in  1784.  Soon  after  Washington’s 
arrival  at  Cambridge  iu  1778,  he  appointed  (Aug. 
15)  young  Baylor  as  his  aid.  He  was  a  partici¬ 
pant  in  the  battle  at  Trenton  (which  see),  and 
carried  the  newrs  of  the  victory  to  Congress, 
when  that  body  presented  him  with  a  horse  ca¬ 
parisoned  for  service,  and  made  him  colonel  of 
dragoons  (Jan.  8,  1777).  A  portion  of  his  com¬ 
mand  were  taken  by  surprise  and  massacred 
(see  Baylor’s  Regiment  Surprised )  in  September, 
1778.  Colonel  Baylor  served  until  the  close  of 
the  war. 

Baylor’s  Regiment  Surprised.  On  the  night 
of  Sept.  27,  1778,  Lieutenant- colonel  Baylor’s 
troop  of  horse,  lying  iu  barns,  unarmed,  near 
old  Tappan,  were  surprised  at  midnight  by  the 
British  general  Grey,  while  asleep.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  had  silently  cut  oft'  a  sergeant’s  patrol  and 
fell  suddenly  upon  the  sleeping  troopers.  The 
latter,  without  arms  and  powerless,  asked  for 
quarter.  Grey  had  given  special  orders  not  to 
grant  quarter,  and  out  of  one  hundred  and  four 
prisoners  sixty-seven  were  killed  or  wounded. 
Some  of  the  men  were  bayoneted  in  cold  blood. 
Lieutenant  -  colonel  Baylor  was  wounded  and 
made  prisoner,  and  seventy  horses  were  butch¬ 
ered. 

Bayonne  Decree.  Bonaparte’s  response  to 
the  Embargo  Act  of  1807  (which  see)  w  as  issued 
from  Bayonne,  April  17, 1808.  He  was  there  to 
dethrone  his  Spanish  ally  to  make  place  for  one 
of  his  own  family.  His  decree  authorized  the 
seizure  and  confiscation  of  all  American  vessels 
in  France,  or  which  might  arrive  in  France.  It 
was  craftily  answered,  when  Armstrong  remon¬ 
strated  that,  as  no  American  vessels  could  be 
lawfully  abroad  after  the  passage  of  the  Em¬ 
bargo  Act,  those  pretending  to  be  such  must  be 
British  vessels  in  disguise. 

Bayous  in  the  Yazoo  River.  After  the  re¬ 
pulse  of  Sherman  at  Chickasaw  Bayou  (which 
see),  other  efforts  were  made  by  troops  and  gun¬ 
boats  to  gain  the  rear  of  Vicksburg.  About  five 
hundred  troops  under  General  Ross,  with  two 
of  Porter’s  gunboats  and  two  mortars,  made  an 
expedition  for  the  purpose.  Passing  through 
bayous,  they  got  into  the  Tallahatchie,  and  not 
far  from  its  junction  with  the  Yalabnsha,  near 
the  village  of  Greenwood,  they  encountered 
a  strong  work  called  Fort  Pemberton  (March 
11,  1863).  After  a  severe  struggle  for  several 
days  the  Nationals  were  compelled  to  withdraw. 
Other  expeditions  wrere  undertaken  iu  the  same 


region  ;  and  the  story  of  the  campaign  among 
these  side  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  for  some 
time  in  the  spring  of  1863,  forms  one  of  the  most 
stirring  and  romantic  chapters  in  the  history 
of  the  Civil  War. 

Bay  State,  the  popular  name  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  the  colonial  corporate  title  of  which  was 
“  The  Massachusetts  Bay.”  This  name  it  bore 
until  the  adoption  of  the  National  Constitution 
in  1788. 

Beatty,  John,  M.D.,  was  born  in  Bucks  County, 
Penn.,  Dec.  10, 1749 ;  died  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  May 
30,  1826.  He  graduated  at  Priuceton  in  1769 ; 
studied  medicine  with  Dr.  Rush  ;  took  up  arms, 
and  became  a  colonel  in  the  Pennsylvania  line. 
He  was  made  prisoner  at  Fort  Washington 
(which  see),  and  suffered  much.  In  1778  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  Elias  Boudinot  as  commissary-general  of 
prisoners,  but  resigned  in  1780.  He  was  a  dele¬ 
gate  iu  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation,  1783- 
85,  and  of  the  National  Congress,  1793-95.  He 
was  Secretary  of  State  for  New  Jersey  for  ten 
years — 1795-1805. 

Beauharnais,  Charles,  Marquis  de,  a  nat¬ 
ural  son  of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  governor  of  New 
France  (Canada)  from  1726  to  1746,  and  held  the 
rank  of  commodore  iu  the  French  navy.  On  the 
breaking-out  of  war  writh  England .  (1745),  he 
built  the  fortress  of  Crown  Point,  which  was 
afterwards  enlarged  and  strengthened  by  Am¬ 
herst.  (See  Crown  Point.') 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Augustin  Caron  de, 
born  iu  Paris,  Jan.  24, 1732;  died  May  19,1799. 
In  his  extreme  youth  he  evinced  great  mechan¬ 
ical  and  musical  talents.  He  assisted  his  fa¬ 
ther  in  watch-making,  and  afterwards  became 
teacher  of  the  harp  to  the  daughters  of  Louis 
XV.  By  a  marriage  with  the  young  widow  of 
an  old  government  officer,  Caron  obtained  a 
profitable  situation.  She  soou  died.  In  1761 
he  purchased  a  commission  as  secretary  to  the 
king,  a  sinecure  which  conferred  noble  rank  on 
its  possessor,  and  the  name  of  Beaumarchais, 
which  he  had  assumed,  was  legally  confirmed. 
Entering  into  mercantile  speculations,  he  soon 
acquired  a  large  fortune  and  lucrative  offices. 
In  April,  1768,  having  acquired  some  fame  as  a 
dramatic  critic,  he  married  a  rich  widow.  His 
literary  ventures  did  not  succeed  at  first.  In 
1770  a  wealthy  financier,  with  whom  he  had 
made  a  valuable  contract,  died.  His  heirs  con¬ 
tested  the  contract,  aud  for  seven  years  Beau¬ 
marchais  carried  on  the  suit,  aud  won,  after 
making  wonderful  displays  of  oratorical  pow¬ 
ers.  Just  afterwards  appeared  his  famous  play, 
the  Barber  of  Seville.  He  was  engaged  in  some 
scandalous  trials.  Iu  September,  1775,  he  sub¬ 
mitted  a  memorial  to  the  French  monarch,  iu 
which  he  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  the 
French  government’s  secretly  aiding  the  English- 
American  colonies ;  and  as  agent  of  his  govern¬ 
ment  he  passed  some  time  in  England,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  Arthur  Lee,  which  ac¬ 
quaintance  led  to  diplomatic  and  commercial 
relations  with  the  Continental  Congress.  (See 
France ,  Relations  ivith.)  He  conducted  the  busi¬ 
ness  of  supplying  the  Americans  with  munitions 


BEAUMONT 


113 


of  war  with  great  ability,  and  afterwards  be¬ 
came  involved  in  a  lawsuit  with  them.  In  1784 
be  produced  bis  Marriage  of  Figaro ,  which  was 
violently  opposed  by  the  court.  His  political 
tendencies  were  republican,  aud  he  sympathized 
with  the  French  revolutionists,  but  did  not  en¬ 
ter  with  his  usual  enthusiasm  into  their  meas¬ 
ures.  Suspected  by  the  Jacobins,  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  leave  the  country,  aud  his  property 
was  confiscated.  He  was  finally  permitted  to  re¬ 
turn  to  France,  but  could  not  recover  his  wealth. 
Beaumarchais  lived  in  comparative  poverty  un¬ 
til  May,  1799,  when  he  was  found  dead  in  his 
bed,  having  died  of  apoplexy.  A  suit  which 
he  had  commenced  against  the  United  States 
for  payment  for  supplies  furnished  to  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress,  between  1776  and  1779,  under 
the  mercantile  firm  name  of  Roderique  Hor- 
tales,  &  Co.,  continued  about  fifty  years,  and 
resulted  in  1835  in  the  payment  to  his  heirs  by 
the  United  States  of  the  sum  of  about  two  hun¬ 
dred  thousand  dollars. 

Beaumont,  William,  M.D.,  was  born  at  Leb¬ 
anon,  Conn.,  in  1785;  died  in  St.  Louis,  April  25, 
1853.  In  1812  he  was  made  assistant-engineer  in 
the  United  States  Army,  and  served  until  1837. 
While  stationed  at  Michilimackiuac  (Mackinaw) 
in  1825,  he  treated  Alexis  St.  Martin,  a  Canadian, 
who  had  a  gunshot  wound  in  his  side ;  the  wound 
healed  without  closing  up,  exposing  to  view  the 
operations  of  the  stomach  in  its  digestive  func¬ 
tions.  Dr.  Beaumont  made  careful  experiments 
with  this  man,  for  several  years,  upon  the  proc¬ 
ess  of  digestion,  aud  published  the  result  of  his 
researches.  St.  Martin  was  yet  living  in  July, 
1879,  or  fifty-four  years  after  the  accident.  The 
orifice  exposing  the  stomach  had  never  closed. 
He  was  living  in  Canada,  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
seven  years,  too  poor,  it  was  said,  to  permit  him 
to  join  his  aged  wife  in  Massachusetts,  by  whom 
he  had  had  fourteen  children. 

Beauregard,  Peter  Gustavus  Toutant,  a 
Confederate  general,  was  born  on  a  plantation 
near  New  Orleans  in  1817.  He  graduated  at 


West  Point  Military  Academy  in  1838,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  artillery  service,  but  was  transferred 
to  the  engineer  corps.  He  won  the  brevets  of 
captain  and  major  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  aud 
I.— 8 


BEAVER  DAMS,  AFFAIR  AT  THE 

was  wounded  at  Chapultepec  (which  see) ;  also 
at  the  taking  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  He  left  the 
service  of  the  United  States  in  1861,  aud  joined 
the  Confederates  in  February.  He  conducted 
the  siege  of  Fort  Sumter,  and  was  afterwards 
active  as  a  leader  in  Virginia  and  other  parts  of 
the  late  slave -labor  states.  Beauregard  was 
made  brigadier-general  in  the  insurgent  army 
Feb.  20,  1861,  and  major-general  after  the  battle 
of  Bull’s  Run  (which  see)  in  July.  He  took  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi,  under  Gen¬ 
eral  A.  S.  Johnston,  and  directed  the  battle  of 
Shiloh  in  April,  1862,  after  the  death  of  Johnston. 
(See  Shiloh.)  He  successfully  defended  Charles¬ 
ton  in  1862-63,  and  in  May,  1864,  he  joined  Lee 
in  defence  of  Petersburg  aud  Richmond.  As 
commander  of  the  forces  in  the  Carolinas  in 
1865,  he  joined  them  with  those  of  General  J. 
E.  Johnston,  and  surrendered  them  to  Sher¬ 
man.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  with  the.  full 
rank  of  general  in  the  Confederate  service,  he 
took  up  his  abode  in  New  Orleans. 

Beauregard’s  Proclamation.  P.  G.  T.  Beau¬ 
regard,  a  native  of  Louisiana,  who  was  commis¬ 
sioned  a  brigadier-general  by  President  Davis, 
was  placed  in  comjuand  of  the  gathering  army 
of  Confederates  at  Manassas  Junction — the 
“  Department  of  Alexandria.”  He  took  the  com¬ 
mand  at  the  beginning  of  June,  1861,  and  issued 
a  proclamation  which  was  calculated  and  in¬ 
tended  to  “  fire  the  Southern  heart.”  He  said  : 
“A  reckless  and  unprincipled  tyrant  has  in¬ 
vaded  your  soil.  Abraham  Lincoln,  regardless 
of  all  moral,  legal,  and  constitutional  restraints, 
has  thrown  his  abolition  hosts  among  us,  who 
are  murdering  and  imprisoning  your  citizens, 
confiscating  and  destroying  your  property,  and 
committing  other  acts  of  violence  and  outrage 
too  shocking  atid  revolting  to  humanity  to  be 
enumerated.  All  rules  of  civilized  warfare  are 
abandoned,  and  they  proclaim  by  their  acts,  if 
not  on  their  banners,  that  their  war-cry  is  ‘  Beau¬ 
ty  and  Booty.’  All  that  is  dear  to  man — your 
honor,  and  that  of  your  wives  and  daughters, 
your  fortunes,  and  your  lives — are  involved  in 
this  monstrous  contest.”  He  then,  as  “General 
of  the  Confederate  States,  commanding  at  Camp 
Pickens,  Manassas  Junction,”  invited  the  people 
of  Virginia  to  a  vindication  of  their  patriotism, 
“  by  the  name  and  memory  of  their  revolutionary 
fathers,  and  by  the  purity  and  sanctity  of  their 
domestic  firesides,  to  rally  to  the  standard  of 
their  state  and  country,”  and  by  every  means  in 
their  power  “compatible  with  honorable  war¬ 
fare,  to  drive  back  and  expel  the  invaders  from 
the  land.”  The  speech  of  President  Davis  at 
Richmond  (see  Davis ,  Deception  of,  at  Richmond) 
and  this  proclamation  of  Beauregard’s  were 
lauded  by  the  Secessionists  at  Washington  and 
Baltimore  as  having  the  ring  of  true  metal. 

Beaver  Dams,  Affair  at  the.  After  leav¬ 
ing  Fort  George  (see  Fort  George,  Capture  of)  the 
British  established  a  strong  post  and  depot  of 
supplies  at  the  Beaver  Dams,  among  the  hills 
eighteen  miles  west  of  Queeustown,  and  made  a 
stone  house  belonging  to  De  Con  a  sort  of  cita¬ 
del  for  the  garrison.  Dearborn  determined  to  at- 


BECK 


114 


BEECHER 


tempt  the  capture  of  this  post  and  its  stores, 
and  for  that  purpose  he  detached  five  hundred 
and  seventy  infantry,  some  cavalry  under  Major 
Chapin,  a  few  artillerymen,  and  two  field-pieces, 
all  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant -colonel 
Charles  G.  Bcerstler.  They  marched  up  the  Ni¬ 
agara  River  to  Queenstown  (June  23,  1813),  and 
the  next  morning  pushed  off  westward.  Their 
march  appears  to  have  been  discovered  by  the 
British,  for  while  Chapin’s  mounted  men  were 
in  the  advance  and  marching  among  the  hills, 
Bcerstler’s  rear  was  attacked  by  John  Brant,  at 
the  head  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  Mohawk  and 
Caughnawaga  Indians,  who  lay  in  ambush.  Cha¬ 
pin  was  instantly  called  back,  and  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  in  a  body  charged  upon  the  Indians  and 
drove  them  almost  a  mile.  Then  Bcerstler  hesi¬ 
tated,  and  the  Indians,  rallying,  bore  upon  his 
flank  and  rear,  and  kept  up  a  galling  fire  at  ev¬ 
ery  exposed  situation.  The  Americans  pushed 
forward  over  the  Beaver  Dam  Creek,  fighting 
the  dusky  foe  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and  made 
conscious  that  they  were  almost  surrounded  by 
them.  After  keeping  up  this  contest  for  about 
three  hours,  Bcerstler  determined  to  abandon 
the  expedition,  when  he  found  himself  confront¬ 
ed  by  an  unexpected  force.  Mrs.  Laura  Secord, 
a  slight  and  delicate  woman,  living  at  Queens¬ 
town,  became  acquainted  with  Dearborn’s  plans, 
and  at  the  time  when  Bcerstler  and  his  forces 
left  Fort  George — a  hot  summer  evening — she 
made  a  circuitous  journey  of  nineteen  miles  on 
foot  to  the  quarters  of  Lieutenant-colonel  Fitz- 
gibbou  (who  was  in  command  of  some  regulars 
at  the  Beaver  Dams)  and  warned  him  of  his  dan¬ 
ger.  Thus  forewarned,  he  had  ordered  the  In¬ 
dian  ambush,  and,  displaying  his  men  to  the  best 
advantage  after  Bcerstler  had  crossed  the  creek, 
he  boldly  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  Amer¬ 
icans  to  Major  De  Haven,  commander  of  the  dis¬ 
trict.  For  this  purpose  Fitzgibbon  bore  a  flag 
himself.  He  falsely  assured  Bcerstler  that  his 
party  was  only  the  advance  of  fifteen  hundred 
British  troops  and  seven  hundred  Indians,  under 
Lieutenant-colonel  Bisshopp,  and  that  the  bar¬ 
barians  were  so  exasperated  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  restrain  them  from  massacring  the 
Americans.  Bcerstler,  deceived  and  alarmed, 
agreed  to  surrender  on  certain  conditions.  De 
Haven,  whom  Fitzgibbon  had  sent  for,  came  up 
with  two  hundred  men,  and  Bcerstler  and  five 
hundred  soldiers  were  made  prisoners.  It  had 
been  agreed  that  the  captives  should  be  pro¬ 
tected  and  sent  back  on  parole.  This  promise 
was  broken.  The  Indians  plundered  the  cap¬ 
tive  troops,  and  the  latter  were  sent  to  Burling¬ 
ton  Heights  and  kept  prisoners  of  war.  When 
Bcerstler  was  first  attacked  by  the  Indians,  he 
sent  a  courier  back  to  Dearborn  for  aid,  and 
that  commander  sent  Colonel  Christie  with  three 
hundred  men  to  reinforce  him.  When  they 
reached  Queenstown,  they  heard  of  the  surren¬ 
der,  and  hastened  back  to  camp  with  the  sad  in¬ 
telligence.  The  British  advanced  upon  Queens¬ 
town,  and,  occupying  that  place,  soon  invested 
Fort  George. 

Beck,  Thkodoric  Romeyn,  was  born  at 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  11, 1791 ;  died  at  Utica, 


N.  Y.,  Nov.  19,  1855.  He  was  graduated  at  Union 
College  in  1807 ;  studied  medicine  under  Dr. 
Hosack,  and  began  the  practice  of  it  in  Albany. 
In  1813  he  prepared  a  report  of  American  min¬ 
erals  (believed  to  be  the  first  public  systematic 
account  of  the  mineral  deposits  of  the  United 
States)  for  the  Albany  Society  of  Arts.  In  1815 
he  was  appointed  Professor  of  the  Institutes  of 
Medicine  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur¬ 
geons  in  western  New  York,  and  from  1826  to 
1836  he  was  Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence 
at  Fairfield  Medical  College.  From  1836  to  1840 
he  was  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  there,  and 
held  the  same  professorship  in  the  Albany  Medi¬ 
cal  College  from  1840  to  1854.  Dr.  Beck  was 
President  of  the  State  Medical  Society  in  1829, 
a  manager  of  the  New  York  State  Lunatic  Asy¬ 
lum,  and  a  founder  and  active  supporter  of  the 
Albany  Institute.  Dr.  Beck  gave  such  statistics 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb  that  the  Legislature  of 
New  York  adopted  measures  for  their  education. 
For  many  years  he  edited  the  Amei'ican  Journal 
of  Insanity.  So  early  as  1823  he  published  his 
famous  work  on  Medical  Jurisprudence— a  stand¬ 
ard  book  in  America  and  EuYope. 

Bedel,  Timothy,  was  a  native  of  New  Hamp¬ 
shire.  He  was  a  brave  and  faithful  officer  in 
the  war  for  independence,  and  died  at  Haver¬ 
hill,  N.  H.,  in  February,  1787.  He  was  attached 
to  the  Northern  Army,  and  had  the  full  confi¬ 
dence  and  esteem  of  General  Schuyler,  its  com¬ 
mander.  He  was  captaiu  of  rangers  in  1775, 
and  early  in  1776  was  made  colonel  of  a  New 
Hampshire  regiment.  He  was  with  Montgomery 
at  the  capture  of  St.  John’s  on  the  Sorel,  and 
was  afterwards  in  command  at  the  Cedars 
(which  see),  not  far  from  Montreal,  where  a  cow¬ 
ardly  surrender  by  a  subordinate,  in  Bedel’s  ab¬ 
sence,  caused  the  latter  to  be  tried  by  a  court- 
martial,  on  a  false  charge,  made  by  General  Ar¬ 
nold.  He  was  deprived  of  command  for  a  while, 
but  was  reinstated. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  son  of  Rev.  Lyman 
Beecher,  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  24, 
1813,  aud  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1834. 
He  afterwards  studied  theology  in  Lane  Semi¬ 
nary.  For  a  few  years  he  was  pastor  of.  a  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church  in  Indiana,  first  at  Lawreuce- 
burg  and  then  at  Indianapolis.  In  1847  he  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  of  a  new  Congregational- 
ist  organization  in  Brooklyn,  called  Plymouth 
Church,  over  which  he  still  presides  as  pastor. 
From  the  beginning  of  his  ministry  Mr.  Beecher 
held  a  high  rank  as  a  public  teacher  and  pul¬ 
pit  orator,  with  a  constantly  increasing  repu¬ 
tation.  Laying  aside  the  conventionalities  of 
his  sacred  profession,  and  regarding  the  Gospel 
minister  as  peculiarly  a  leader  in  social  life, 
his  sermons  were  always  marked  by  practical 
good  sense,  and  embraced  in  their  topics  the 
whole  field  of  human  society.  They  were  largely 
made  up  of  illustrations  drawn  from  every  phase 
of  life  and  the  instructions  of  nature.  He  had 
an  abiding  love  of  music,  the  fine  arts,  flowers, 
and  animals  ;  and  believing  Christianity  to  be, 
not  a  philosophical  system,  but  an  exalted  rule 
of  conduct,  he  never  hesitated  to  discuss  in 


BEHRING 


115 


BELLIGERENT  ACT 


the  pulpit  the  great  problems  of  the  times  in 
politics  and  social  life  - —  slavery,  temperance, 
social  evils,  and  the  lust  for  power  and  gain. 
Mr.  Beecher  led  a  most  active  life  as  preacher, 
editor,  lyceum  lecturer,  and  author  of  numerous 
hooks.  He  began  editorial  labors  before  he 
began  to  preach,  conducting  for  a  year  (1836) 
The  Cincinnati  Journal;  and  for  nearly  twenty 
years  he  was  aii  editorial  contributor  to  the  New 
York  Independent,  a  weekly  newspaper.  From 
1870  he  was  editor  several  years  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Union,  a  weekly  paper  published  in  New 
York,  and  was  a  constant  contributor  to  other 
publications.  The  intellectual  labors  of  Mr. 
Beecher  were  marvellous.  He  died  March  8,1887. 

Behring,  Vitus,  a  Danish  navigator,  was  born 
at  Horsen,  in  Jutland,  in  1680;  died  Dec.  8, 
1741.  In  his  youth  he  made  several  voyages  to 
the  East  and  West  Indies.  He  entered  the  Rus¬ 
sian  navy,  and  served  with  distinction  against 
the  Swedes  ;  and  in  1725  he  commanded  a  scien¬ 
tific  expedition  to  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka.  He 
ascertained  that  Asia  and  America  were  sepa¬ 
rated  by  water — a  strait  which  now  bears  his 
name.  This  problem  Peter  the  Great  had  been 
very  desirous  of  having  solved.  Behring  was 
appointed  captain  commandant  in  1732,  and  in 
1741  set  out  on  a  second  voyage  to  the  same  re¬ 
gion,  when  he  discovered  a  part  of  the  North 
American  continent  supposed  to  have  been  New 
Norfolk.  He  and  his  crew,  being  disabled  by 
sickness,  attempted  to  return  to  Kamtchatka, 
but  were  wrecked  on  an  island  that  now  bears 
his  name,  where  Behring  died  soon  afterwards. 
His  discoveries  were  the  foundation  of  the  claim 
of  Russia  to  a  large  region  in  the  far  northwest 
of  the  American  continent.  (See  Alaska.) 

Belcher  and  the  General  Court  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts.  Governor  Belcher  was  authorized  to 
accept  from  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  a 
standing  salary  of  $5000  a  year,  to  be  paid  first 
out  of  the  annual  grants.  When  he  first  met 
the  Legislature  (September,  1730),  he  tried  to 
bring  about  a  settlement  for  a  standing  salary, 
but  could  not,  and  the  Assembly  was  dissolved. 
To  secure  a  majority  in  the  next  House,  the  gov¬ 
ernor  tried  to  gain  the  influence  of  certain  lead¬ 
ers  by  gifts  of  office;  but  their  acceptance  di¬ 
minished  their  popularity,  and  he  gained  noth¬ 
ing.  The  people  had  been  encouraged  by  the 
English  press,  which  had  commended  the  Bos¬ 
tonians  for  their  “noble  stand”  against  the  de¬ 
mands  of  Burnet,  which  had  “endeared  them  to 
all  lovers  and  asserters  of  liberty.”  The  new 
court  was  unmanageable  by  the  governor,  and 
he  accepted  of  a  grant  of  a  salary  for  one  year. 
This  was  a  popular  and  significant  triumph. 

Belcher,  Jonathan,  a  colonial  governor,  was 
horn  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  January,  1682; 
died  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Aug.  31,  1757.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1699.  He 
visited  Europe,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  Princess  Sophia  and  her  son  (after¬ 
wards  George  I.  of  England),  which  led  to  his 
future  honors.  After  a  six-years’  sojourn  he  re¬ 
turned  to  America,  engaged  in  mercantile  busi¬ 
ness  in  Boston,  became  a  member  of  the  Provin¬ 


cial  Assembly,  and  in  1729  was  sent  as  agent  of 
the  provinces  to  England.  In  1730  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  governor  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
Hampshire,  which  office  ho  held  eleven  years. 
In  consequence  of  a  clamor  against  him,  he  was 
superseded  in  1741,  but  succeeded  in  vindicating 
himself  before  the  British  court.  Belcher  was 
made  governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  arrived  in 
1747,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
He  extended  the  charter  of  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,  and  was  its  chief  patron  and  benefactor. 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Boston, 
June  4,  1744  ;  died  there  June  20,  1798.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1762  ;  stud¬ 
ied  theology ;  taught  school  four  years ;  was 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  from  1767  to 
1786,  and  of  the  Federal  Street  Church,  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  from  April  4,  1787,  until  his  death.  He 
founded  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society ; 
was  an  overseer  of  Harvard  University ;  was  a 
patriot  during  the  war  for  independence,  an  op¬ 
ponent  of  African  slavery,  and  a  promoter  of  lit¬ 
erature  and  science.  He  published  a  History  of 
New  Hampshire,  3  vols.  (1784-92) ;  a  collection  of 
Psalms  and  Hymns  (1795);  The  Foresters,  a  work 
of  wit  and  humor  (1792);  American  Biography, 
2  vols.  (1794—98),  besides  sermons  and  other  re¬ 
ligious  writings. 

Bell  and  Breckinridge.  John  Bell  was  the 
candidate  of  the  “National  Constitutional  Union 
Party”  (which  see)  for  President  of  the  United 
States,  in  1860.  John  C.  Breckinridge  was  the 
candidate  of  the  Secessionists  of  the  Charleston 
Convention  (which  see)  for  the  same  office,  in 
1860.  The  former  was  a  native  of  Tennessee ; 
the  latter  of  Kentucky — both  slave-labor  states. 
On  April  23,  1861,  Bell,  in  a  speech  at  Nash¬ 
ville,  declared  that  Tennessee  was  virtually 
“  out  of  the  Union,”  and  urged  the  people  of 
his  state  to  prepare  for  vigorous  war  upon 
the  government.  On  April  17,  Breckiuridge 
wrote  to  a  friend  at  Louisville,  saying,  “  Ken¬ 
tucky  should  call  a  convention  without  delay, 
and  Lincoln’s  extra  session  of  Congress  should 
be  confronted  by  fifteen  states.”  In  that  Con¬ 
gress  Breckinridge,  as  a  professed  Unionist,  took 
his  seat  as  senator  in  July  ensuing,  where  he 
remained  some  time,  and  then  joined  the  Con¬ 
federates  in  making  war  upon  the  Republic. 
He  held  the  commission  of  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  Confederate  Army. 

Bell,  Charles  H.,  was  born  in  New  York, 
Aug.  15,  1798;  died  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
Feb.  19,  1875.  He  entered  the  naval  service  in 
June,  1812;  served  with  Decatur  in  1813-14; 
with  Chauncey,  on  Lake  Ontario,  in  1814,  and 
with  Decatur  again,  in  the  Mediterranean,  in 
1815.  He  was  with  the  squadron  in  the  West 
Indies  (1824-29)  operating  against  the  pirates 
there.  In  1860  he  was  in  command  of  the  Nor¬ 
folk  navy-yard ;  commanded  the  Pacific  squad¬ 
ron  in  1862-64,  and  the  navy-yard  at  Brooklyn 
1865-68.  In  July,  1866,  he  was  made  rear-ad¬ 
miral. 

Belligerent  Act  towards  Prance.  On  July 
fi,  1798,  Congress  passed  an  act  authorizing  the 
President  to  give  instructions  to  the  command- 


BELLINGHAM 


116 


BELMONT 


era  of  American  public  armed  vessels,  and  to 
grant  commissions  to  the  commanders  of  private 
armed  vessels,  to  capture  any  French  armed  ves¬ 
sel  anywhere  met  with,  but  not  unarmed  ves¬ 
sels.  The  three  vessels  so  long  building — the 
Constitution,  Constellation,  and  United  States — 
were  now  completed  and  sent  to  sea. 

Bellingham,  Richard,  Governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  was  born  in  England  in  1592;  died  Dec. 
7,  1672.  Bred  a  lawyer,  he  came  to  America  in 
1634,  and  was  chosen  deputy-governor  the  next 
year.  He  was  elected  governor,  in  opposition  to 
Wiuthrop,  in  1641.  He  was  recliosen  in  1654, 
and  in  1666,  after  the  death  of  Governor  Eudi- 
cott,  continuing  in  office  the  rest  of  his  life. 
His  administration  was  a  somewhat  stormy  one. 
Bellingham  was  so  opposed  to  all  innovations 
in  religious  matters,  that  he  was  severe  in  his 
conduct  towards  the  Friends,  or  Quakers. 

Bellomont  (Richard  Coote),  Earl  of,  was 
born  in  1636;  died  in  New  York,  March  5,  1701. 
He  was  of  the  Irish  peerage,  and  was  among  the 
first  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Prince  of  Or¬ 
ange  when  he  invaded  England.  (See  English 
Revolution .)  He  was  created  earl  in  1689,  and 
made  treasurer  and  receiver-general  of  Queen 
Mary.  In  May,  1695,  he  was  appointed  Govern¬ 
or  of  New  York,  but  did  not  arrive  there  until 
May,  1698.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  commis¬ 
sioned  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  inclndingNew 
Hampshire  ;  and  on  going  to  Boston,  in  1699,  he 
was  well  received,  and  his  administration  was 
popular.  Bellomont  had  been  one  of  the  Par¬ 
liamentary  committee  appointed  to  investigate 
the  affair  of  LeisleFs  trial  and  execution,  and 
had  taken  a  warm  interest  in  the  reversal  of  the 
attainder  of  that  unfortunate  leader.  On  his 
arrival  in  New  York,  he  naturally  connected 
himself  with  the  Leisler  party,  whom  Governor 
Fletcher  had  strongly  opposed.  Bellomont  came 
with  power  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  Gov¬ 
ernor  Fletcher,  and  he  was  so  well  satisfied  of 
his  malfeasance  in  office  that  he  sent  him  to 
England  under  arrest.  (See  Fletcher.')  The  re¬ 
mains  of  Leisler  and  Milborne  were  taken  up, 
and  after  lying  in  state  several  days  were  re¬ 
buried  in  the  Dutch  Church.  (See  Leisler.)  Bel¬ 
lomont  chose  for  his  council  a  majority  of  “  Leis- 
lerians  ;”  and  that  party  soon  obtained  a  major¬ 
ity  in  the  Assembly  also.  One  of  their  first  acts 
was  to  vote  an  indemnity  to  the  heirs  of  Leisler. 
Bellomont  used  every  means  to  gain  the  good¬ 
will  of  the  people  in  both  provinces,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded.  The  earl  was  a  shareholder  in  the  pri¬ 
vateer  ship  commanded  by  Captain  Kidd ;  and 
when  that  seaman  was  accused  of  piracy  (see 
Kidd)  Bellomont  procured  his  arrest  in  Boston, 
and  sent  him  to  England  for  trial.  The  Bello¬ 
mont  earldom  finally  expired  in  the  year  1800. 

Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  D.D.,  a  Unitari¬ 
an  clergyman,  was  born  in  Boston,  June  11, 1814. 
Educated  at  Harvard  and  the  Divinity  School 
at  Cambridge,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  first 
Unitarian  Church  in  New  York  city  in  Janua¬ 
ry,  1838.  It  was  and  still  is  called  “All-Souls’ 
Church.”  He  remaiued  its  pastor  until  his  death. 
He  was  the  projector  of  the  Christian  Inquirer,  in 


1846,  and  he  occupied  from  the  beginning  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  pulpit,  in  letters,  and 
in  social  life,  wielding  great  influence  for  good. 
Dr.  Bellows  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the 
“United  States  Sanitary  Commission,”  which 
performed  such  prodigious  benevolent  work 
during  the  late  civil  war.  He  was  president 


HENRY  WHITNEY  BELLOWS,  D.D. 


of  the  Commission  from  the  beginning.  (See 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission.)  Besides  nu¬ 
merous  pamphlets  and  published  discourses,  Dr. 
Bellows  was  the  author  of  a  thoughtful  work — 
a  collection  of  sermons— on  Christian  Doctrine, 
published  in  1869;  and  later  he  gave  a  pictur¬ 
esque  account  of  a  European  tour  in  1868-69, 
in  two  volumes,  entitled  The  Old  World  in  its 
New  Face.  He  died  Jan.  30,  1882. 

Belmont,  Battle  at  (1861).  Just  before  Fre¬ 
mont  was  deprived  of  his  command  (see  Fre¬ 
mont's  Embarrassments)  he  ordered  General  Grant 
to  move  a  co-operative  force  along  the  line  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  It  wTas  promptly  done. 
A  column  about  three  thousand  strong,  chief¬ 
ly  Illinois  volunteers,  under  General  John  A. 
McCleruand,  went  down  from  Cairo  in  transports 
and  wooden  gunboats  ( Tyler  and  Lexington)  to 
menace  Columbus  by  attacking  Belmont,  oppo¬ 
site.  At  the  same  time  another  column,  under 
General  C.  F.  Smith,  marched  from  Padncali  to 
menace  Columbus  in  the  rear.  Grant  went  with 
McClernaud.  The  troops  landed  three  miles 
above  Belmont,  Nov.  7, 1861,  and  while  they  were 
pushing  on  the  gunboats  opened  fire  upon  Co¬ 
lumbus.  General  (Bishop)  Polk,  the  command¬ 
er,  sent  General  Pillow  over  the  river  to  rein¬ 
force  the  little  garrison  at  Belmont.  A  sharp 
battle  ensued,  and  the  Nationals  were  victori¬ 
ous  ;  but,  exposed  to  the  heavy  artillery  at  Co¬ 
lumbus,  the  post  was  untenable.  Giving  three 
cheers  for  the  Union,  the' Nationals  set  fire  to 
the  Confederate  camp,  and  hastened  back  tow- 
arils  their  boats  with  captured  men,  horses,  and 
artillery.  Polk  opened  seven  of  his  heaviest 
gnus  upon  them,  and  at  the  same  time  sent 
over  some  fresh  troops  under  General  Cheat¬ 
ham.  Then  he  crossed  over  himself,  with  two 
regiments,  making  the  whole  Confederate  force 
about  five  thousand  men.  They  fell  upon  Grant, 
and  a  desperate  struggle  ensued.  Grant  fought 


BEMIS’S  HEIGHTS 


117 


BEMIS’S  HEIGHTS 


his  way  hack  to  the  transports  under  cover  of  a  ' 
fire  from  the  gunboats,  and  escaped.  The  Na¬ 
tionals  lost  about  five  hundred  men,  and  the 
Coufederates  over  six  hundred,  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing. 

Bemis’s  Heights,  First  Battle  of  (1777). 
General  Schuyler,  with  his  feeble  army,  had  so 
successfully  opposed  the  march  of  Burgoyne 
down  the  valley  of  the  Hudson  that  he  had 
not  passed  Saratoga  the  first  week  in  August, 
1777.  When  the  expedition  of  St.  Leger  from 
the  Mohawk  and  the  defeat  of  the  Germans  at 
Hoosick,  near  Bennington,  had  crippled  and  dis¬ 
couraged  the  invaders,  and  Schuyler  was  about 
to  turn  upon  them,  and  strike  for  the  victory  for 
which  he  had  so  well  prepared,  he  was  super¬ 
seded  by  General  Gates  in  the  command  of  the 
Northern  Army.  Yet  his  patriotism  was  not 
cooled  by  the  ungenerous  act,  the  result  of  in¬ 
trigue,  and  he  offered  Gates  every  assistance  in 
his  power.  Had  the  latter  acted  promptly,  he 
might  have  gained  a  victory  at  once;  but  he 
did  not.  At  the  end  of  twenty  days  he  moved 
the  army  to  a  strong  position  on  Bemis’s  Heights, 


wing,  with  the  immense  artillery  train,  com¬ 
manded  by  Generals  Phillips  and  Riedesel,  kept 
upon  the  plain  near  the  river.  The  centre,  com¬ 
posed  largely  of  German  troops,  led  by  Burgoyne 
in  person,  extended  to  a  range  of  hills  that  were 
touched  by  the  American  left,  and  upon  these 
hills  General  Fraser  and  Lieutenant  -  colonel 
Breyman,  with  grenadiers  and  infantry,  were 
posted.  The  front  and  flank  of  Burgoyne’s 
army  wTere  covered  by  the  Canadians,  Tories, 
and  Indians  who  yet  remained  in  camp.  Gen¬ 
eral  Gates,  who  lacked  personal  courage  and 
the  skill  of  a  good  commander,  resolved  to  act 
on  the  defensive.  General  Arnold  and  others, 
who  observed  the  movements  of  the  British, 
urged  Gates  to  attack  them,  but  he  would  give 
no  order  to  fight.  Even  at  eleven  o’clock,  when 
the  booming  of  a  cannon  gave  the  signal  for  the 
general  advance  of  Burgoyne’s  army,  he  remain¬ 
ed  in  his  tent,  apparently  indifferent.  Arnold, 
as  well  as  others,  became  extremely  impatient  as 
peril  drew  near.  He  was  finally  permitted  to 
order  Colonel  Daniel  Morgan  with  his  riflemen, 
and  Dearborn  with  infantry,  to  attack  the  Cana- 


NEILSON  HOUSE  ON  BEMIS’S  HEIGHTS.* 


where  his  camp  was  fortified  by  Kosciusko,  a 
Polish  patriot  and  engineer.  Burgoyne  called 
in  his  outposts,  and  with  his  shattered  forces 
and  splendid  train  of  artillery  he  crossed  the 
Hudson  on  a  bridge  of  boats  (Sept.  13,  1777), 
and  encamped  on  the  Heights  of  Saratoga, 
now  Scliuylerville.  New  courage  had  been  in¬ 
fused  into  the  hearts  of  the  Americans  by  the 
events  near  Bennington  and  on  the  Upper  Mo¬ 
hawk,  and  Gates’s  army  was  rapidly  increasing 
in  numbers.  Burgoyne  felt  compelled  to  move( 
forward  speedily.  Some  American  troops,  un¬ 
der  Colonel  John  Brown,  had  got  in  liis  rear, 
and  surprised  a  British  post  at  the  foot  of 
Lake  George  (Sept.  18).  They  also  attempted 
to  capture  Ticonderoga.  Burgoyne  had  moved 
slowly  southward,  and  on  the  morning  of  Sep¬ 
tember  19  he  offered  battle  to  Gates.  His  left 


*  The  mansion  of  Mr.  Noilson,  an  activo  Whig  at  the  time 
of  the  battle.  It  was  the  headquarters  of  General  1’oor  and 
Colonel  Morgan.  To  It  the  wounded  Major  Acland  was 
conveyed,  and  there  was  joined  by  his  wife.  (See  Lady 
A  eland.) 


dians  and  Indians,  who  were  swarming  on  the 
hills  in  advance  of  Burgoyne’s  right.  These 
were  driven  back  and  pursued.  Morgan’s  troops, 
becoming  scattered,  were  recalled,  and  with  New 
England  troops,  under  Dearborn,  Scammel,  and 
Cilley,  another  furious  charge  was  made.  After 
a  sharp  engagement,  in  which  Morgan’s  horse 
was  shot  under  him,  the  combatants  withdrew 
to  their  respective  lines.  Meanwhile  Burgoyne 
had  moved  rapidly  upon  the  American  cen¬ 
tre  and  left.  At  the  same  time  the  vigilant 
Arnold  attempted  to  turn  the  British  right. 
Gates  denied  him  reinforcements,  and  restrain¬ 
ed  him  in  every  way  in  his  power,  and  he  failed. 
Masked  by  thick  woods,  neither  party  was  now 
certain  of  the  movements  of  the  other,  and  they 
suddenly  and  •unexpectedly  met  in  a  ravine  at 
Freeman’s  farm,  at  which  Burgoyne  had  halted. 
There  they  fought  desperately  for  a  while.  Ar¬ 
nold  was  pressed  back,  when  Fraser,  by  a  quick 
movement,  called  up  some  German  troops  from 
the  British  centre  to  his  aid.  Arnold  rallied  his 
men,  and  with  New  England  troops,  led  by  Colo- 


BEMIS’S  HEIGHTS 


118 


BEMIS’S  HEIGHTS 


nels  Brooks,  Dearborn,  Scammel,  Cilley,  anti  Ma¬ 
jor  Hull,  be  struck  the  enemy  such  heavy  blows 
that  his  line  began  to  waver  and  fall  into  confu- 
siou.  General  Phillips,  below  the  Heights,  heard 
through  the  woods  the  din  of  battle,  and  hurried 
over  the  hills  with  fresh  English  troops  and 
some  artillery,  followed  by  a  portion  of  the  Ger¬ 
mans  under  Riedesel,  and  appeared  on  the  bat¬ 
tle-field  just  as  victory  seemed  about  to  be  yield¬ 
ed  to  the  Americans.  The  battle  continued.  The 
British  ranks  were  becoming  fearfully  thinned, 
when  Riedesel  fell  heavily  upon  the  American 
flank  with  infantry  and  artillery,  and  they  gave 
way.  The  Germans  saved  the  British  army  from 
ruin.  A  lull  in  the  battle  succeeded,  but  at  the 
middle  of  the  afternoon  the  contest  was  renewed 
with  greater  fury.  At  length  the  British,  fear¬ 
fully  assailed  by  bullet  and  bayonet,  recoiled 
and  fell  back.  At  that  moment  Arnold  was 
at  headquarters,  seated  upon  a  powerful  black 
horse,  and  in  vain  urging  Gates  to  give  him  re¬ 
inforcements.  Hearing  the  roar  of  the  renewed 
battle,  he  could  no  longer  brook  delay,  and  turn¬ 
ing  his  horse’s  head  towards  the  field  of  strife, 
and  exclaiming,  “I’ll  soon  put  an  end  to  it!” 
went  off  on  a  full  gallop,  followed  by  one  of 
Gates’s  staff,  with  directions  to  order  him  back. 
The  subaltern  could  not  overtake  the  general, 
who,  by  words  and  acts,  animated  the  Ameri¬ 
cans.  For  three  hours  the  battle  raged.  Like 
an  ocean -tide  the  warriors  surged  backwards 
and  forwards,  winning  and  losing  victory  alter¬ 
nately.  When  it  was  too  late,  Gates  sent  out 
the  New  York  regiments  of  Livingston  and  Van 
Cortlandt  and  the  whble  brigade  of  General 
Learned.  Had  Gates  complied  with  Arnold’s 
wishes,  the  capture  of  Burgoyne’s  army  might 
have  been  easily  accomplished.  Night  closed 
the  contest,  and  both  parties  slept  on  their  arms 
until  morning.  But  for  Arnold  and  Morgan,  no 
doubt  Burgoyne  would  have  been  marching  tri¬ 
umphantly  on  Albany  before  noon  that  day. 
So  jealous  was  Gates  because  the  army  praised 
those  gallant  leaders,  that  he  omitted  their 
names  in  his  official  report.  The  number  of 
Americans  killed  and  wounded  in  this  action 
was  about  three  hundred ;  of  the  British  about 
six  hundred. 

Bemis’s  Heights,  Second  Battle  of.  Bur¬ 
goyne  found  his  broken  army  utterly  dispirit¬ 
ed  on  the  morning  after  the  first  battle,  ou 
Sept.  19,  1777,  and  he  withdrew  to  a  point 
two  miles  from  the  American  lines.  Arnold 
urged  Gates  to  attack  him  at  dawn,  but  that 
officer  would  not  consent.  Burgoyne  was 
hoping  to  receive  good  news  from  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  who  was  preparing  to  ascend  the  Hud¬ 
son  with  a  strong  force.  So  he  intrenched  his 
camp,  put  his  troops  in  better  spirits  by  a 
cheerful  harangue,  and  resolved  to  wait  for 
Clinton.  The  next  morning  he  was  himself 
cheered  by  a  message  from  Clinton,  who  prom¬ 
ised  to  make  a  diversion  in  his  favor  immedi¬ 
ately  ;  also  by  a  despatch  from  Howe,  an¬ 
nouncing  a  victory  over  Washington  on  the 
Brandywine.  (See  Brandywine ,  Battle  of.)  Bur¬ 
goyne  gave  the  glad  tidings  to  his  army,  and 
wrote  to  Clinton  that  he  could  sustain  his 


position  until  Oct.  12.  But  his  condition  rap¬ 
idly  grew  worse.  The  American  army  hourly 
increased  in  numbers,  and  the  militia  were 
swarming  on  his  flanks  and  rear.  His  forag¬ 
ing-parties  could  get  very  little  food  for  the 
starving  horses,  the  militia  so  annoyed  them. 
Iu  his  hospitals  were  eight  hundred  sick  and 
wounded  men,  and  his  effective  soldiers  were 
fed  on  diminished  rations.  His  Indian  allies 
deserted  him,  while,  through  the  exertions  of 
Schuyler,  Oneida  warriors  joined  the  forces  of 
Gates.  Lincoln,  with  two  thousand  men,  also 
joined  him  on  the  22d ;  still  Gates  remained  in¬ 
active.  His  officers  were  impatient,  and  Ar¬ 
nold  plainly  told  him  that  the  army  was  clam¬ 
orous  for  action,  and  the  militia  were  threaten¬ 
ing  to  go  home.  He  told  him  that  he  had 
reason  to  think  that  if  they  had  “improved  the 
20th  of  September  it  might  have  ruined  the 
enemy.  That  is  past,”  he  said;  “let  me  entreat 
you  to  improve  the  present  time.”  Gates  was 
offended,  and,  treating  the  brave  Arnold  with 
silent  contempt,  sat  still.  A  long  time  Bur¬ 
goyne  waited  for  further  tidings  from  Clinton. 
On  Oct.  4,  he  called  a  council  of  officers.  It  was 
decided  to  fight  their  way  through  the  Amer¬ 
ican  lines,  and,  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  7,  1777, 
the  whole  army  moved.  Towards  the  Amer¬ 
ican  left  wing  Burgoyne  pressed  with  fifteen 
hundred  picked  men,  eight  brass  cannons,  and 
two  howitzers,  leaving  the  main  army  on  the 
heights  in  command  of  Brigadiers  Specht  and 
Hamilton,  and  the  redoubts  near  the  river  with 
Brigadier- general  Gall.  Phillips,  Fraser,  and 
Riedesel  were  with  Burgoyne.  Canadian  ran¬ 
gers,  loyalists,  and  Indians  were  sent  to  hang 
ou  the  American  rear,  while  Burgoyne  should 
attack  their  front.  This  movement  was  dis¬ 
cerned  before  the  British  were  ready  for  bat¬ 
tle.  The  drums  of  the  American  advanced 
guard  beat  to  arms.  The  alarm  ran  all  along 
the  lines.  Gates  had  ten  thousand  troops  — 
enough  to  have  crushed  the  weakened  foe  if 
properly  handled.  He  inquired  the  cause  of 
the  disturbance,  and  then  permitted  Colonel 
Morgan  to  “  begin  the  game.”  Morgan  soon 
gained  a  good  position  on  the  British  right, 
while  General  Poor,  with  his  New  Hampshire 
brigade,  followed  by  General  Ten  Broeck,  with 
New  -  Yorkers,  advanced  against  their  left. 
Meanwhile,  the  Canadian  rangers  and  their 
companions  had  gained  the  American  rear, 
and  attacked  their-  pickets.  They  were  soon 
joined  by  grenadiers.  The  Americans  were 
driven  back  to  their  lines,  when  a  sharp  fight 
ensued.  By  this  time  the  whole  British  line 
was  in  battle  order,  the  grenadiers  under  Ma¬ 
jor  Acland,  with  artillery  under  Major  Will¬ 
iams,  forming  the  left ;  the  centre  composed 
of  British  and  grenadiers  under  Phillips  and 
Riedesel,  and  the  right  of  infantry  under  Earl 
Balcarras.  General  Fraser,  with  five  hundred 
picked  men,  was  in  advance  of  the  British  right 
ready  to  fall  upon  the  left  flank  of  the  Amer¬ 
icans  when  the  action  should  begin  on  the 
front.  It  was  now  between  three  and  four 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon.  As  Burgoyne  was 
about  to  advance,  he  was  astonished  by  the 


BEMIS’S  HEIGHTS 


119 


BEMIS’S  HEIGHTS 


thunder  of  cannon  on  his  left,  and  the  crack 
of  rifles  on  his  right.  Poor  had  pressed  up  the 
thick -wooded  slope  on  which  Majors  Acland 
and  Williams  were  posted,  unobserved,  until 
he  was  near  the  batteries,  which  were  captured 
after  a  desperate  struggle,  in  which  the  leader 
of  the  British  grenadiers  was  severely  wound¬ 
ed,  and  Major  Williams,  of  the  artillery,  was 
made  prisoner.  Five  times  one  of  the  can¬ 
nons  was  taken  and  retaken.  When  the  Brit¬ 
ish  fell  back,  and  the  gun  remained  with 
the  Americans,  Colouel  Cilley  leaped  upon  it, 
waved  his  sword  over  his  head,  dedicated  the 
piece  to  the  “American  cause,”  and,  turning  it 
upon  \fhe  foe,  he  opened  its  destructive  ener¬ 
gies  upon  them  with  their  own  ammunition. 
Sir  Francis  Clarke,  Burgoyne’s  chief  aid,  who 
was  sent  to  secure  the  cannons,  was  mortally 
wounded,  made  a  prisoner,  and  sent  to  Gates’s 
tent.  The  whole  eight  cannons  and  the  pos¬ 
session  of  the  field  remained  with  the  Ameri¬ 
cans.  Meanwhile  Colouel  Morgan  had  assailed 
Fraser’s  flanking  corps  so  furiously  that  they 
were  driven  back  to  their  lines.  There  Mor¬ 
gan  fell  upon  the  British  right  so  fiercely  that 
it  was  thrown  into  confusion.  A  panic  pre¬ 
vailed.  It  was  followed  by  an  onslaught  in 
front  by  Dearborn,  with  fresh  troops,  when 
the  British  broke  and  fled  in  terror.  Balcar- 


ras  soon  rallied  them,  while  the  centre,  com¬ 
posed  chiefly  of  Germans,  though  convulsed, 
stood  firm.  Now  Arnold  came  upon  the  scene. 
Gates,  offended  by  what  he  called  Arnold’s 
“impertinence,”  had  deprived  him  of  all  com¬ 
mand,  and  he  was  an  impatient  spectator  of 
the  battle.  When  he  could  no  longer  restrain 
himself,  lie  sprang  upon  his  charger  and  start¬ 
ed  on  full  gallop  for  the  field  of  action,  pur¬ 


sued  by  a  subaltern  to  call  him  back.  He 
dashed  into  the  vortex  of  danger,  where  the 
pursuer  dared  not  follow.  He  was  received 
with  cheers  by  his  old  troops,  and  he  led  them 
against  the  British  centre.  With  the  despera¬ 
tion  of  a  madman  he  rushed  into  the  thick¬ 
est  of  the  fight.  When,  at  the  head  of  his  men, 
he  dashed  into  the  firm  German  lines,  they 
broke  and  fled  in  dismay.  The  battle  was 
now  general.  Arnold  aud  Morgan  were  the 
ruling  spirits  on  the  American  side.  Fraser 
was  the  soul  that  directed  the  most  potent 
energies  of  the  British.  One  of  Morgan’s  ri¬ 
flemen  singled  him  out  by  his  brilliant  uni¬ 
form,  and  shot  him  through  the  body,  wound¬ 
ing  him  mortally.  Then  a  panic  ran  along  the 
British  line.  At  the  sight  of  three  thousand 
fresh  New  York  militia,  under  General  Ten 
Broeck,  approaching,  the  wavering  line  gave 
way,  and  the  troops  retreated  to  their  iutrench- 
ments,  leaving  their  artillery  behind.  Up  to 
their  iutrenchments,  the  Americans,  with  Ar¬ 
nold  at  their  head,  eagerly  pressed,  in  the  face 
of  a  terrible  storm  of  grapeshot  and  bullets. 
The  works  were  assailed  w'ith  small  arms. 
Balcarras  defended  them  bravely  until  he 
could  resist  no  longer.  The  voice  of  Arnold 
was  heard  above  the  din  of  battle,  and  his 
form  was  seen,  in  the  midst  of  the  smoke, 
dashing  from  point  to  point.  With  the 
troops  first  of  Generals  Paterson  and 
Glover,  and  then  of  Learned,  he  assailed 
the  enemy’s  right,  which  was  defended 
by  Canadians  and  loyalists.  The  English 
gave  way,  leaving  the  Germans  exposed. 
Then  Arnold  ordered  up  the  troops  of 
Livingston  aud  Wesson,  with  Morgan’s 
riflemen,  to  make  a  general  assault,  while 
Colonel  Brooks,  with  his  Massachusetts 
regiment,  accompanied  by  Arnold,  attack¬ 
ed  the  troops  commanded  by  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Breyman.  Arnold  rushed  into 
the  sally  -  port  on  his  powerful  black 
horse,  and  spread  such  terror  among  the 
Germans  that  they  fled,  giving  a  parting 
volley  of  bullets,  one  of  which  gave 
Arnold  a  severe  wound  in  the  same  leg 
that  was  badly  hurt  at  Quebec.  At  that 
moment  he  was  overtaken  by  the  sub- 
.  altern,  who  had  been  sent  by  Gates  to 
recall  him,  “  lest  he  should  do  some 
rash  thing.”  He  had  done  it.  He  had 
achieved  a  victory  for  which  Gates  re¬ 
ceived  the  honor.  The  Germans  had 
thrown  down  their  weapons.  Breyman 
was  mortally  wounded.  The  fight  ended 
at  twilight,  and  before  the  dawn,  Bur- 
goyne,  who  had  resolved  to  retreat,  re¬ 
moved  his  whole  army  a  mile  or  two 
north  of  his  iutrenchments.  In  this  remarkable 
battle — won  by  au  officer  who  had  been  deprived 
of  his  command — the  Americans  lost,  in  killed 
and  wounded,  one  hundred  aud  fifty  men  ;  that 
of  the  British,  including  prisoners,  was  about 
seven  hundred.  Arnold  was  the  only  American 
commanding  officer  who  received  a  wound.  It 
is  said  that  Gates  did  not  leave  his  tent  all  that 
day,  not  having  recovered  from  a  debauch  in 


BENEDICT 


120 


BENNINGTON 


which  he  had  indulged  the  night  Before.  (See 
Surrender  of  Burgoyne.) 

Benedict,  Lewis,  was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  2,  1817 ;  killed  in  the  battle  of  Pleasant 
Hill,  La.,  April  9,  1864.  He  was  a  graduate  of 
Williams  College;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1841 ;  was  surrogate  of  Albany  County  in  1848, 
and  member  of  Assembly  in  1861.  He  entered 
the  military  service  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  vol¬ 
unteers  in  1861 ;  served  in  the  campaign  on  the 
Peninsula  in  1862;  was  captured,  and  coufined 
in  Libby  and  Salisbury  prisons  several  months, 
and  when  exchanged  was  sent  to  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Gulf,  where  he  was  distinguished  for 
his  wisdom  and  bravery.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Red  River  campaign,  in  which  he 
lost  his  life.  (See  Pleasant  Hill,  Battle  of.) 

Benezet,  Anthony,  was  born  in  France,  Jan. 
31, 1713  ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  May  3, 1784.  He 
emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in  1731,  and  taught 
school  there  nearly  all  his  life.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends;  and  his  life 
was  conspicuous  for  acts  of  benevolence.  He 
wrote  much  against  war  and  African  slavery, 
and  bequeathed  his  estate,  on  the  death  of  his 
wife,  to  the  African  school  in  Philadelphia. 

Benham,  Henry  W.,  was  born  at  Cheshire, 
Conn.,  in  1816,  and  graduated  at  West  Point, 
first  in  his  class,  in  1837,  entering  the  engi¬ 
neer  corps.  He  served  under  General  Taylor 
in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  was  wounded  in 
the  battle  of  Buena  Vista  (which  see).  Early 
in  the  Civil  War  he  was  active  in  Western  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  afterwards  on  the  South  Carolina 
coast.  He  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Fort  Pu¬ 
laski  ;  and  iu  1863—64  he  commanded  an  engi¬ 
neer  brigade  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He 
was  breveted  brigadier-general  for  services  in 
the  campaigns  ending  with  the  surrender  of 
Lee,  and  major-general  (March,  1865)  for  “mer¬ 
itorious  services  iu  the  rebellion.” 

Benjamin,  Judah  Peter,  was  born  iu  St. 
Domingo,  of  Jewish  parents,  in  1812,  and  iu 
1816  his  family  settled  in  Savannah,  Ga.  Ju¬ 


dah  entered  Yale  College,  but  left  it,  in  1827, 
without  graduating,  and  became  a  lawyer  in 
New  Orleans.  He  taught  school  for  a  while, 
married  one  of  his  pupils,  and  became  a  leader 


of  his  profession  in  Louisiana.  From  1853  to 
1861,  he  was  United  States  Senator.  Mr.  Benja¬ 
min  was  regarded,  for  several  years,  as  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Southern  wing  of  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  party;  and,  when  the  question  of  seces¬ 
sion  divided  the  people,  he  withdrew  from  the 
Senate,  and,  with  his  coadjutor,  John  Slidell, 
he  promoted  the  great  insurrection.  He  be¬ 
came  Attorney-general  of  the  Southern  Confed¬ 
eracy,  acting  Secretary  of  War,  and  Secretary 
of  State.  After  the  war  he  went  to  Loudon, 
where  he  practised  his  profession  with  success. 
He  died  in  Paris,  May  7,  1884. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  founder  of  the 
New  York  Herald,  was  born  in  Banffshire,  Scot¬ 
land,  in  1795;  died  in  New  York,  Juue  1,  1872. 
Intending  to  enter  upon  the  ministry  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  he  studied  theology 
in  Aberdeen  some  time,  but,  abandoning  the 
intention,  he  came  to  British  America,  arriv¬ 
ing  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  in  1819,  where  he  taught 
school.  He  made  his  way  to  Boston,  where  he 
became  a  proof-reader,  and  in  1822  he  went  to 
New  York,  and  thence  to  Charleston,  where  he 
made  translations  from  the  Spanish  for  the 
Charleston  Courier.  Returning  to  New  York, 
he  became  proprietor  (1825)  of  the  New  York 
(Sunday)  Courier,  but  did  not  succeed.  After 
various  editorial  and  journalistic  adventures 
in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  Mr.  Bennett, 
in  May,  1835,  began  the  publication  of  the  New 
York  Herald.  His  method  was  a  “new  depart¬ 
ure  ”  iu  journalism.  The  Hei'ald  obtained  an 
immense  circulation  and  advertising  patron¬ 
age.  The  profits  of  the  establishment,  at  the 
time  of  Mr.  Bennett’s  death,  were  estimated  at 
from  $500,000  to  $700,000  a  year.  He  died  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  bequeathed  the 
Herald  to  his  only  son,  James  Gordon  Bennett, 
Jr. 

Bennington,  Battle  near  (1777).  Falling 
short  of  provisions,  Burgoyne  sent  out  an  ex¬ 
pedition  from  his  camp  on  the  Hudson  River 
to  procure  cattle,  horses  to  mount  Riedesel’s 
dragoons,  to  “  try  the  affections  of  the  coun¬ 
try,”  and  to  complete  a  corps  of  loyalists.  Col¬ 
onel  Baume  led  the  expedition,  which  consisted 
of  eight  hundred  men,  comprising  German  dra¬ 
goons  and  British  marksmen,  a  body  of  Cana¬ 
dians  and  Indians,  some  loyalists  as  guides,  and 
two  pieces  of  artillery.  They  penetrated  the 
country  eastward  of  the  Hudson  towards  Ben¬ 
nington,  Vt.,  where  the  Americans  had  gath¬ 
ered  a  considerable  quautity  of  supplies.  At 
that  time  (August,  1777),  General  Stark,  dis¬ 
gusted  because  he  had  not  been  made  a  Conti¬ 
nental  brigadier,  had  resigned  his  colonelcy, 
taken  the  leadership  of  the  New  Hampshire 
militia,  with  the  stipulation  that  he  was  to 
have  an  independent  command,  and  was  at 
Bennington  with  part  of  a  brigade.  He  had 
lately  refused  to  obey  a  command  of  General 
Lincoln  to  join  the  main  army  opposing  Bur¬ 
goyne.  It  was  a  fortunate  circumstance,  for 
he  did  better  service  when  Baume  approached 
and  began  to  cast  up  intrenchments  (Aug. 
14,  1777)  in  the  township  of  Hoosick,  N.  Y., 


BENSON 


121 


BENTON’S  PROPHECY 


within  about  five  miles  of  Bennington.  In¬ 
formed  of  that  approach,  Stark  had  sent  ex¬ 
presses  for  Warner’s  shattered  regiment,  and 
for  militia,  and  he  soon  gathered  many  fugi¬ 
tives  from  the  disaster  at  Hubbardton.  (See 
Hubbardton,  Battle  at.)  The  15th  was  rainy. 
Baume  had  sent  back  to  Burgoyne  for  rein¬ 
forcements,  and  Stark  was  waiting  for  the  ar¬ 
rival  of  more  expected  troops  from  Berkshire. 
Warner  joined  Stark  on  the  morning  of  the 
15th— he  and  his  men  drenched  during  a  night 
march  in  the  rain.  The  16th  dawned  bright  and 
hot,  and  Stark  proceeded  to  execute  a  plan  of 
attack  on  Baume’s  intrenched  position  by  divid¬ 
ing  his  force,  and  making  a  simultaneous  attack 
at  different  points.  The  frightened  Indians  with 
Baume  dashed  through  the  encircling  lines  of 
the  Americans,  and  fled  to  the  shelter  of  the 
woods.  After  a  severe  contest  of  two  hours’ 
duration,  the  ammunition  of  the  Germans  failed, 
and  they  attempted  to  break  through  the  line 
of  besiegers  with  bayonets  and  sabres.  In  that 
attempt  Baume  was  slain  and  his.  veterans  were 
made  prisoners.  At  that  moment  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Breyman  appeared  with  the  jaded  re¬ 
inforcements  which  Burgoyne  had  sent,  and 
Stark  was  joined  by  some  fresh  troops  fur¬ 
nished  by  Warner.  The  battle  was  iustantly 
renewed.  The  cannons  which  had  been  taken 
from  the  Germans  were  immediately  turned 
upon  Breyinan’s  men.  A  fierce  battle  contin¬ 
ued  until  sunset,  when  Breyman  retreated, 
leaving  all  his  artillery,  and  nearly  all  of  his 
wounded,  behind.  The  Germans  lost,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  nearly  one  thousand 
men.  Over  seven  hundred  were  prisoners. 
The  Americans  lost  less  than  one  hundred. 

Benson,  Egbert,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  New 
York  city,  June  21,  1746;  died  at  Jamaica, 
L.  I.,  Aug.  24,  1833.  He  graduated  at  King’s 
(now  Columbia)  College  in  1765 ;  took  an  ac¬ 
tive  part  in  political  events  preliminary  to  the 
war  for  independence ;  was  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Safety,  and,  in  1777,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  the  first  attorney-general  of  the  State 
of  New  York.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the 
first  State  Legislature ;  and  was  one  of  the 
three  commissioners  appointed  to  superintend 
the  embarkation  of  the  Tories  for  Nova  Scotia 
from  New  York  in  June,  1783.  He  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1784  to 
1789,  and  of  the  new  Congress  from  1789  to  1793, 
also  from  1813  to  1815.  From  1789  to  1802,  he  was 
a  regent  of  the  New  York  University,  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  New  York  (1794-1801), 
and  of  the  United  States  Circuit  Court.  He 
was  the  first  president  of  the  New  York  His¬ 
torical  Society.  Judge  Benson  was  the  author 
of  a  Vindication  of  the  Captors  of  Major  Andre, 
and  a  Memoir  on  Dutch  Names  of  Places. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  statesman,  was  born 
near  Hillsboro’,  N.  C.,  March  14,  1782;  died  in 
Washington,  April  10,  1858.  Before  finishing  his 
studies  at  Chapel  Hill  University,  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  he  removed  to  Tennessee,  studied  law,  and 
obtained  great  eminence  in  his  profession.  In 
the  Legislature  of  that  state  he  procured  the 


enactment  of  a  law  giving  to  slaves  the  benefit 
of  a  jury  trial.  He  had  been  on  intimate  terms 
with  General  Jackson  at  Nashville  (1813),  when 
a  quarrel  ensued,  and  in  a  personal  encounter  in 
that  town  with  deadly  weapons  both  parties 
gave  and  received  severe  wounds.  He  was  colo- 


THOMAS  HART  BENTON. 


nel  of  a  Tennessee  regiment  from  December, 
1812,  to  April,  1813, 'and  lieutenant -colonel  of 
regulars  from  1813  to  1815.  Removing  to  St. 
Louis  in  1813,  he  established  the  Missouri  In¬ 
quirer  there,  and  practised  his  profession.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  favoring  the  admission  of 
Missouri  as  a  state  of  the  Union,  and  was  one  of 
its  first  representatives  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  which  position  he  held  thirty  consecu¬ 
tive  years,  where  he  was  ever  the  peculiar  expo¬ 
nent  and  guardian  of  “The  West.”  He  was  an 
early  and  untiring  advocate  of  a  railway  from 
the  Mississippi  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  warmly 
opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise 
(which  see)  in  1854.  His  free-labor  sentiments 
caused  his  defeat  as  a  candidate  for  the  Senate 
by  the  ultra-slavery  men  of  his  party  in  1850, 
and  in  1852  he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Rep¬ 
resentatives.  By  a  combination  of  his  old  oppo¬ 
nents  with  the  American  party  (which  see),  he 
was  defeated  in  1854,  and  failed  of  an  election 
for  governor  in  1856.  He  had  then  begun  to  de¬ 
vote  himself  to  literary  pursuits;  and  he  com¬ 
pleted  his  Thirty  Years’  View  of  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1854.  He  prepared  an  Abridgment  of 
the  Debates  of  Congress ,  from  1789  to  1856,  in  six¬ 
teen  volumes  8vo.  They  contain  a  complete 
political  history  of  the  country  during  that  pe¬ 
riod,  so  far  as  the  National  Legislature  is  con¬ 
cerned. 

Benton’s  Prophecy.  Not  long  before  his 
death,  in  1857,  Senator  Benton  said  to  Senator 
Wilson,  “So  long  as  the  people  of  the  North 
shall  be  content  to  attend  to  commerce  and 
manufactures,  and  accept  the  policy  and  rule  of 
the  disunionists,  they  will  condescend  to  remain 
in  the  Union  ;  but  should  the  Northern  people 
attempt  to  exercise  their  just  influence  in  the 
nation,  they  will  attempt  to  seize  the  govern¬ 
ment  or  disrupt  the  Union  ;  but,”  ho  said,  with 
great  emphasis,  “  God  and  their  own  crimes  will 
put  them  in  the  hands  of  the  people !”  Benton 


122 


BERKELEY 


BENTONVILLE,  BATTLE  OF 

was  a  senator  from  a  slave-labor  state,  and  knew 
the  plans  of  the  disunionists,  for  they  had  long 
endeavoi'ed  to  enlist  him  in  their  schemes. 

Bentonville,  Battle  of.  After  the  defeat  of 
Hardee  at  Averasborongh  (which  see),  Sherman 
believed  he  would  meet  with  no  more  serious  op¬ 
position  in  his  march  to  Goldsborough.  He  issued 
orders  accordingly.  This  sense  of  security  proved 
almost  fatal  to  Sherman’s  army,  for  at  that  mo¬ 
ment,  Johnston,  who  had  come  down  from  Smith- 
field  (N.  C.),  on  a  rapid  but  stealthy  march,  un¬ 
der  cover  of  night,  was  hoveriug  near  in  full 
force.  He  found  the  Nationals  in  a  favorable 
position  for  him  to  attack  them.  General  J.  C. 
Davis’s  corps  was  encamped  (March  18, 1865)  on 
the  Goldsborough  road,  at  a  point  where  it  was 
crossed  by  one  from  Cliuton  to  Smithfield.  Two 
divisions  of  Williams’s  wTere  encamped  ten  or 
twelve  miles  in  the  rear  of  this,  in  charge  of 
Slocum’s  wagon-trains.  The  remainder  of  the 
forces  were  scattered  to  the  south  and  east,  in 
fancied  security.  On  the  morning  of  the  16th, 
Sherman  left  Slocum,  nearest  the  Confederates, 
to  join  Howard’s  troops,  which  were  scattered 
and  moving  on  over  the  wretched,  muddy  road. 
On  March  19,  Sherman,  while  on  his  way  to 
Howard,  heard  cannonading  on  his  left  wing, 
but  did  not  think  there  was  anything  serious 
in  it.  It  proved,  however,  to  be  a  complete  sur¬ 
prise.  The  Confederates,  in  overwhelming  num¬ 
bers,  were  found  pressing  Slocum.  A  very  se¬ 
vere  battle  ensued,  in  a  densely  wooded  swamp, 
dark  and  wet  and  dismal.  In  this  encounter, 
General  J.  C.  Davis  conducted  much  of  the  bat¬ 
tle  with  great  skill  and  courage,  continually 
cheering  his  men  with  assurances  of  victory. 
Johnston  had  assured  his  men  that  he  was  con¬ 
fident  of  victory,  and  the  troops  on  both  sides 
fought  desperately.  Davis  had  formed  General 
Fearing’s  brigade  to  the  left  and  hurled  them 
upon  the  flank  of  the  Confederates.  The  latter 
w  ere  staggered  and  paralyzed  by  this  unexpect¬ 
ed  and  stunning  blow  from  a  force  hitherto  un¬ 
seen  by  them,  for  Fearing’s  troops  were  iu  re¬ 
serve.  They  reeled  and  fell  back  in  amazement, 
and  the  attack  was  not  renewed  on  that  part  of 
the  field  for  more  than  an  hour  afterwards.  The 
army  was  saved.  The  young  general  (Fearing; 
was  disabled  by  a  bullet,  and  hundreds  of  bis 
brigade,  dead  and  wounded,  strewed  the  field 
of  conflict.  Davis  re-formed  the  disordered  left 
and  centre  of  his  line  in  open  fields  half  a  mile 
in  the  rear  of  the  old  line.  The  artillery  was 
moved  to  a  commanding  knoll,  and  Kilpatrick 
massed  his  cavalry  on  the  left.  Meanwhile  an 
attack  upon  Morgan’s  division  of  the  Fourteenth 
Corps  had  been  very  severe  and  unceasing.  The 
National  forces  received  six  distinct  assaults  by 
the  combined  troops  of  Hardee,  Hoke,  and  Cheat¬ 
ham,  under  the  immediate  command  of  General 
Johnston,  without  yielding  an  inch  of  ground, 
and  all  the  while  doing  much  execution  on  the 
Confederate  ranks,  especially  with  the  artil¬ 
lery.  With  darkness  this  conflict,  known  as 
the  battle  of  Bentonville,  ended.  “Soldiers  of 
that  command,”  wTrites  Brevet  Brigadier-general 
McClurg,  to  the  writer,  “  will  tell  you  they  never 
saw  anything  like  the  fighting  at  Bentonville.” 


It  was  one  of  the  most  notable  battles  of  the 
Civil  War.  The  main  forces  of  the  Union  and  of 
its  enemies  were  then  concentrating  at  one  point 
for  a  desperate  last  struggle  —  Shermau  and 
Johnston  in  North  Carolina,  and  Grant  and  Lee 
in  Virginia.  Had  Johnston  won  at  that  time 
the  consequence  probably  would  have  been  the 
loss  of  the  whole  of  Sherman’s  army  and  the 
quick  and  fatal  dispersion  or  capture  of  Grant’s 
before  Petersburg  and  Richmond.  On  the  night 
after  the  battle  reinforcements  came  to  the  left 
of  the  Nationals.  The  Confederates  prepared 
for  another  onset,  but  when  Johnston  heard  of 
the  act  ual  connection  of  three  National  armies  in 
the  vicinity  of  Goldsborough  (which  see),  he  per¬ 
ceived  that  all  chance  for  success  agaiust  Sher¬ 
man  had  vanished.  There  had  been  hard  fight¬ 
ing  all  day  (March  20, 1865),  and  that  night,  after 
having  his  only  liue  of  retreat  severely  menaced 
by  a  flank  movement  under  General  Mower, 
Johnston  withdrew  and  went  towards  Smith- 
field  in  such  haste  that  he  left  his  pickets,  wound¬ 
ed  in  hospitals,  and  dead  behind.  The  aggregate 
loss  of  the  Nationals  near  Bentonville  was  1648. 
The  loss  of  the  Confederates  was  never  reported. 
The  Nationals  captured  1625  of  their  men,  and 
buried  267  of  their  dead. 

Berkeley,  Admiral,  Circular  of  (1807). 
Berkeley,  iu  command  of  the  British  North  Amer¬ 
ican  naval  station,  issued  a  circular  (June  1, 1807) 
at  Halifax,  addressed  to  all  commanders  on  his 
station,  reciting  that  many  seamen,  subjects  of 
his  Britannic  Majesty,  and  serving  in  vessels  of 
the  royal  fleet  (naming  them),  had  deserted  those 
vessels,  enlisted  on  board  the  Americau  frigate 
Chesapeake,  and  had  openly  paraded  the  streets 
of  New  York,  in  sight  of  their  officers,  under 
American  colors,  and  protected  by  the  magis¬ 
trates  of  the  town  and  the  recruiting  officer, 
who  refused  to  give  them  up  on  demand  of  the 
commanders  of  the  ships  to  which  they  belonged, 
or  on  that  of  the  British  consul.  The  command¬ 
ers  to  w'hom  this  circular  was  addressed  were 
directed,  in  case  of  meeting  the  Chesapeake  at 
sea,  without  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  to 
show  this  order  and  to  search  the  vessel  for  de¬ 
serters.  It  was  done,  and  four  deserters  were 
seized  and  carried  to  Halifax.  (See  Chesapeake 
and  Leopard.) 

Berkeley,  George,  Bishop  of  Cloyne,  was 
born  in  Kilkenny  County,  Ireland,  March  12, 
1684;  died  at  Oxford,  Jan.  14,  1753.  Educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  became  a  Fellow 
there,  and  at  an  early  age  wrote  on  scientific 
subjects.  Between  1710  and  1713,  his  two  fa¬ 
mous  works  appeared,  in  which  he  denies  the 
existence  of  matter,  and  argues  that  it  is  not 
without  the  mind,  but  within  it,  and  that  that 
which  is  called  matter  is  only  an  impression 
produced  by  divine  power  on  the  mind  by  the 
invariable  laws  of  nature.  On  a  tour  in  France 
he  visited  the  French  philosopher  Malebrauche, 
who  became  so  excited  by  a  discussion  with 
Berkeley  on  the  non-existence  of  matter,  that, 
being  ill  at  the  time,  he  died  a  few  days  after¬ 
wards.  Miss  Vanliomrigh  (Swift’s  “Vanessa”) 
bequeathed  to  Berkeley  $20,000 ;  and  in  1728  his 


BERKELEY 


123 


BERKELEY 


income  was  increased  $5500  a  year  by  being 
made  Dean  of  Derry.  Berkeley  conceived  a  plan 
for  establishing  a  college  in  the  Bermudas  for 
the  instruction  of  pastors  for  the  colonial  church¬ 
es  and  missionaries  for  the  Indians.  He  resigned 
his  offices  to  become  rector  of  the  projected  col¬ 
lege  at  a  salary  of  $500  a  year.  The  House  of 
Commons  authorized  the  appropriation  of  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  money  to  be  obtained  from  the  sale 
of  lands  in  St.  Kitt’s  (St.  Christopher’s),  which 
had  been  ceded  to  England  for  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  institution.  With  these  assurances 
Berkeley  went  to  Newport,  R.  I.  (1729),  bought 
a  farm  and  built  a  house,  intending  to  invest 
the  college  funds,  when  received,  in  American 
lands,  and  then  to  make  arrangements  for  a 
supply  of  pupils.  He  had  just  married,  and 
brought  his  bride  with  him.  The  scheme  for 
the  college  failed  for  lack  of  government  co¬ 
operation  after  the  death  of  the  king,  who  fa¬ 
vored  it.  In  1734  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Cloyne, 
which  place  he  held  for  almost  tweuty  years. 
He  gave  to  Yale  College  his  estate  in  Rhode 
Island,  known  as  “  White  Hall,”  and  also  eight 
hundred  and  eighty  volumes  for  its  library. 
Wishing  to  be  near  his  son,  who  was  in  college 
at  Oxford,  he  removed  thither  in  1752,  where  he 
died.  Pope  ascribed  to  him  “every  virtue  un¬ 
der  the  sun.”  It  was  in  view  of  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  college  that  he  wrote  his  famous 
lines  “On  the  Prospect  of  Planting  Arts  and 
Learning  in  America,”  in  which  occurs  this  often- 
quoted  line, 

“  Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way. n 

Berkeley,  Sir  John,  was  born  in  1607,  and 
was  in  the  military  service  of  Charles  I.  when 
the  king  knighted  him  at  Berwick  on  the  Tweed. 
In  the  civil  war  that  afterwards  ensued,  he  bore 
a  conspicuous  part,  and  he  remained  in  exile  with 
the  royal  family  many  years.  In  1653  Berkeley 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Duke  of  York’s  es¬ 
tablishment;  and  two  years  before  the  Restora¬ 
tion  (1660),  of  that  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  who, 
when  crowned  king  (Charles  II.),  raised  Berkeley 
to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Berkeley  of  Stratton,  in 
the  county  of  Somerset.  On  the  Restoration  he 
became  one  of  the  privy  council,  and  late  in 
1669  he  was  appointed  Lord-lieutenant  of  Ire¬ 
land.  He  was  then  one  of  the  proprietors  of 
New  Jersey  (see  New  Jersey),  and  was  not  above 
suspicion  of  engaging  in  the  corrupt  practice  of 
selling  offices.  Samuel  Pepys,  who  was  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Admiralty  (1664),  speaks  of  him  in 
his  Diary  as  “  the  most  hot,  fiery  man  in  his  dis¬ 
course,  without  any  cause,”  he  ever  saw.  Lord 
Berkeley  was  appointed  Ambassador  Extraordi¬ 
nary  to  the  Court  of  Versailles  in  1675,  and  died 
Aug.  28,  1678. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  was  born  near  Lon¬ 
don  ;  died  at  Twickenham,  England,  July  13, 
1677.  He  was  brother  of  Lord  John  Berkeley, 
one  of  the  early  English  proprietors  of  New 
Jersey.  Appointed  governor  of  Virginia,  he 
arrived  there  in  February,  1642.  Berkeley  was 
a  fine  specimen  of  a  young  English  courtier. 
He  was  then  thirty-two  years  of  age,  well  edu¬ 
cated  at  Oxford,  handsome  in  person,  polished 


by  foreign  travel,  and  possessing  exquisite  taste 
in  dress.  He  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
cavaliers  of  the  day.  He  adopted  some  salutary 
measures  iu  Virginia  which  made  him  popular; 
and  at  his  mansion  at  “Green  Spring,”  not  far 
from  Jamestown,  he  dispensed  generous  hospi¬ 
tality  for  many  years.  Berkeley  was  a  stanch 
but  not  a  bigoted  royalist  at  first ;  and  during 
the  civil  war  in  England  he  managed  public  af¬ 
fairs  in  Virginia  with  so  much  prudence  that  a 
greater  proportion  of  the  colonists  were  in  sym¬ 
pathy  with  him.  In  religious  matters  there  was 
soon  perceived  the  spirit  of  persecution  in  the 
character  of  the  governor.  The  Puritans  were 
then  not  only  tolerated  in  Virginia,  but  had 
been  invited  to  settle  there.  The  civil  war 
drew  a  line  of  clear  demarcation  between 
churchmen  and  non-conformists.  A  large  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  people  of  Virginia  were  attach¬ 
ed  to  the  Church  of  England ;  so  was  the  gov¬ 
ernor.  In  England  the  Puritans  were  identified 
with  the  republicans,  and  Berkeley  thought  it 
to  be  his  duty  to  suppress  them  in  his  colony  as 
enemies  to  royalty.  So  he  first  decreed  that  no 
Puritan  minister  should  preach  except  in  con¬ 
formity  to  the  rules  of  the.  Church  of  England; 
and,  finally,  all  non-conformists  were  banished 
from  Virginia.  In  the  war  with  the  Indians  in 
1644,  iu  which  Opechancanough  led  the  savages, 
the  governor  behaved  with  promptness  and  ef¬ 
ficiency,  and  soon  crushed  the  invaders.  (See 
Opechancanough.)  Then  the  colonists  had  peace 
and  prosperity  for  some  years.  In  1648  they 
numbered  twenty  thousand.  “  The  cottages 
were  filled  with  children,  as  the  ports  with 
ships  and  emigrants.”  The  people  were  loyal 
to  the  king ;  and  when  the  latter  lost  his  head, 
and  royalty  was  abolished  in  England,  they 
opened  wide  their  arms  to  receive  the  cavaliers 
(many  of  them  of  the  gentry,  nobility,  and  cler¬ 
gy  of  the  realm)  who  fled  in  horror  from  the 
wrath  of  republicans.  They  brought  refine¬ 
ment  in  manners  and  intellectual  culture  to 
Virginia,  aud  strengthened  the  loyalty  of  the 
colonists.  When  the  king  was  slain  they  rec¬ 
ognized  his  exiled  son  as  their  sovereign,  and 
Berkeley  proclaimed  him  King  of  Virginia.  Sir 
William  administered  the  government  under  a 
commission  sent  by  Charles  from  his  place  of 
exile  (Breda,  in  Flanders).  Virginia  was  the 
last  country  belonging  to  England  that  submit¬ 
ted  to  the  government  of  the  republicans  on  the 
downfall  of  monarchy.  This  persistent  attach¬ 
ment  to  the  Stuarts  offended  the  republican 
Parliament,  and  they  sent  Sir  George  Ayscue 
with  a  strong  fleet,  early  in  the  spring  of  1652, 
to  reduce  the  Virginians  to  submission.  The 
fleet  bore  commissioners  authorized  to  use  harsh 
or  conciliatory  measures  — to  make  a  compro¬ 
mise,  or  to  declaro  the  freedom  of  the  slaves  of 
the  royalists,  put  arms  in  their  hands,  and  make 
war.  The  commissioners  were  met  with  firm¬ 
ness  by  Berkeley.  Astonished  by  the  boldness 
of  the  governor  and  his  adherents,  they  deemed 
it  more  prudent  to  compromise  than  to  attempt 
coercion.  The  result  was,  the  political  freedom 
of  the  colonists  was  guaranteed.  Berkeley  re¬ 
garding  those  whom  the  commissioners  repre- 


BERKELEY 


124 


BERMUDA  HUNDRED 


seated  as  usurpers,  he  would  make  uo  stipula¬ 
tions  with  them  for  himself,  aud  he  withdrew 
from  the  governorship  and  lived  in  retirement 
on  his  plantation  at  Green  Spring  until  the  res¬ 
toration  of  monarchy  in  England  in  1660,  when 
the  loyalty  of  the  Virginians  was  not  forgotten 
by  the  new  monarch.  (See  Old  Dominion.)  The 
people  elected  Richard  Bennett  governor;  and 
he  was  succeeded  by  two  others — Edward  Diggs 
(1655)  aud  Samuel  Matthews  (1656),  the  latter 
appointed  by  Oliver  Cromwell.  At  his  death 
(1660)  the  people  elected  Berkeley,  but  he  re¬ 
fused  to  serve  excepting  under  a  royal  commis¬ 
sion,  and  he  went  to  England  to  congratulate 
Charles  II.  on  his  restoration  to  the  throne. 
Charles  gave  Berkeley  a  commission,  and  he  re¬ 
turned  to  Virginia  to  execute  his  master’s  will 
with  vigor.  He  enforced  various  oppressive 
laws,  for  he  was  less  tolerant  than  when  he 
was  younger  and  political^'  weaker,  aud,  with 
the  cavaliers  around  him,  he  hated  everything 
that  marked  the  character  of  the  Puritans. 
These  cavaliers  despised  the  “ common  people” 
of  New  England,  and  opposed  the  ideas  of  popu¬ 
lar  education.  Berkeley  wrote  to  his  govern¬ 
ment  in  1665,  “I  thank  God  there  are  no  free 

'  0 

schools  nor  printing  in  Virginia,  and  I  hope  we 
shall  not  have  them  these  hundred  years;  for 
learning  has  brought  heresy  and  disobedience 
and  sects  into  the  world,  and  printing  hath  di¬ 
vulged  them,  and  libels  against  the  best  govern¬ 
ment;  God  keep  us  from  both  !”  Oppression  of 
the  people  finally  produced  civil  war  in  1676,  the 
events  of  which  soured  Berkeley,  who  had  then 
grown  old  (  see  Bacon’s  Bcbellion ) ;  and  after  it 
was  over,  and  he  was  firmly  seated  in  power,  he 
treated  the  principal  abettors  of  the  insurrec¬ 
tion  with  harshness  and  cruelty.  His  king  had 
proclaimed  Bacon  (the  leader  of  the  insurrec¬ 
tion)  a  traitor,  and  sent  an  armament  under  Sir 
John  Berry  to  assist  in  crushing  the  rebellion. 
This  was  the  first  time  royal  troops  were  sent 
to  America  to  suppress  the  aspirations  of  the 
people  for  freedom.  The  act  was  repeated  one 
hundred  years  afterwards  without  success.  (See 
Independence,  War  for.)  Feeling  strong,  Berke¬ 
ley  pursued  the  adherents  of  Bacon  with  malig¬ 
nant  severity  until  twenty-two  of  them  were 
hanged.  The  first  martyr  was  Thomas  Hanford, 
a  gallant  young  native  of  Virginia.  Standing 
before  the  governor,  he  boldly  avowed  his  re¬ 
publicanism  ;  aud  when  sentenced  to  be  hanged, 
he  said,  “  I  ask  no  favor  but  that  I  may  be  shot 
like  a  soldier,  aud  not  hanged  like  a  dog.”  At 
the  gallows  he  said,  “Take  notice  that  I  die  a 
loyal  subject  and  a  lover  of  my  country.”  Ed¬ 
mund  Clieesemau,  when  arraigned  before  the 
governor,  was  asked  why  he  engaged  in  the 
wicked  rebellion,  and  before  he  could  answer 
his  young  wife  stepped  forward  and  said,  “  My 
provocations  made  my  husband  join  in  the  cause 
for  which  Bacon  contended  ;  but  for  me,  he  had 
never  done  what  he  has  done.  Since  what  is 
done,”  she  said,  as  she  knelt  before  the  gov¬ 
ernor,  with  her  bowed  head  covered  with  her 
hands,  “  was  done  by  my  means,  I  am  most 
guilty;  let  me  bear  the  punishment;  let  me  be 
hanged ;  let  my  husband  be  pardoned.”  The 


governor  cried  out  angrily,  “Away  with  you!” 
and  brutally  added  a  coarse  insinuation  against 
her  chastity.  The  poor  young  wife  swooned, 
and  her  husband  was  led  to  the  gallows.  When 
the  brave  Drummond  was  brought  before  the 
governor,  Berkeley,  with  wicked  satire,  made  a 
low  bow  and  said,  “  You  are  very  welcome ;  I 
am  more  glad  to  see  you  than  any  man  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  ;  you  shall  be  hanged  in  half  an  hour.” 
Drummond  replied,  with  dignity,  “I  expect  uo 
mercy  from  you.  I  have  followed  the  lead  of 
my  conscience,  and  done  what  I  might  to  free 
my  country  from  oppression.”  He  was  con¬ 
demned  at  one  o’clock  aud  hanged  at  four ;  and 
his  brave  wife,  Sarah,  was  denounced  as  a  “  trai¬ 
tor”  aud  banished,  with  her  children,  to  the  wil¬ 
derness,  there  to  subsist  on  the  bounty  of  friends. 
(See  Bacon's  Rebellion.)  When  these  things  were 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  profligate  monarch, 
even  he  was  disgusted  with  Berkeley’s  cruelties, 
and  said,  “  The  old  fool  has  taken  more  lives  in 
that  naked  country  than  I  have  taken  for  the 
murder  of  my  father ;”  and  Berkeley  was  ordered 
to  desist.  But  he  continued  to  fine  and  impris¬ 
on  the  followers  of  Bacon  until  he  was  recalled 
in  the  spring  of  1677,  and  went  to  England  with 
the  returning  fleet  of  Sir  John  Berry.  The  col¬ 
onists  fired  great  guns  and  lighted  bonfires  in 
token  of  their  joy  at  his  departure.  In  England 
his  cruelties  were  severely  censured,  and  he  died 
of  grief  aud  mortified  pride  before  he  had  a 
chance  to  staud  before  his  king. 

Berlin  Decree.  (See  Orders  and  Decrees.) 

Bermuda  Hundred,  Operations  near  (1864). 
General  Butler  had  intrenched  a  greater  portion 
of  the  Army  of  the  James  at  Bermuda  Hundred, 
at  the  junction  of  the  James  aud  Appomattox 
rivers,  early  in  May,  1864,  to  co-operate  with  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  approaching  from  the 
north.  His  chief  care  at  first  was  to  prevent 
reinforcements  being  sent  to  Lee  from  Peters¬ 
burg  and  the  South.  For  this  purpose  Butler 
proceeded  to  destroy  the  railway  between  Pe¬ 
tersburg  aud  Richmond,  and  so  to  cut  off  direct 
communication  between  the  Confederate  capital 
aud  the  South.  When  it  was  known  that  General 
Gillmore  had  withdrawn  his  troops  from  before 
Charleston  to  join  Butler,  Beauregard  was  or¬ 
dered  to  hasten  northward  to  confront  the  Army 
of  the  James.  He  had  arrived  at  Petersburg, 
aud  was  hourly  reinforced.  Some  of  these  troops 
he  massed  in  front  of  Butler,  under  General  D. 
H.  Hill ;  and  finally,  on  the  morning  of  May  16, 
under  cover  of  a  dense  fog,  they  attempted  to 
turn  Butler’s  right  flank.  A  sharp  conflict  en¬ 
sued  between  about  four  thousand  Nationals 
and  three  thousand  Confederates,  which  result¬ 
ed  in  the  retirement  of  Butler’s  forces  within 
their  intrencliments.  For  several  days  after¬ 
wards  there  was  much  skirmishing  in  front  of 
Butler’s  lines,  when  he  received  orders  to  send 
nearly  two  thirds  of  his  effective  force  to  the 
north  side  of  the  James  to  assist  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  then  contending  with  Lee’s  Army 
of  Northern  Virginia.  Butler  complied  with  the 
requisition,  which  deprived  him  of  all  power  to 
make  any  further  offensive  movements.  “The 


BERMUDAS 


125 


BIDDLE 


necessities  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,”  he  said, 
“  have  bottled  me  up  at  Bermuda  Hundred.” 
This  expression  was  afterwards  used  to  his  dis¬ 
advantage. 

Bermudas,  First  English  in  the.  Henry 
May,  an  English  mariner,  returning  from  a  voy¬ 
age  to  the  West  Indies  in  a  French  ship,  was 
wrecked  (Dec.  17,  1593)  on  one  of  the  islands. 
He  and  his  companions,  in  distress  remained 
there  five  months,  when  they  rigged  a  small 
vessel  of  eighteen  tons  from  the  material  of  the 
ship,  put  in  thirteen  live  turtles  for  provisions, 
sailed  to  Newfoundland,  and  thence  returned  to 
England.  These  islands  were  named  in  honor 
of  Juan  Bermudez,  a  Spaniard  who  was  wrecked 
there  in  1522.  May  was  the  first  Englishman 
who  set  foot  upon  them.  (See  Somers's  Isles.) 

Bernard,  Francis,  was  horn  in  Lincoln  Coun¬ 
ty,  England,  in  1714;  died  in  London,  June  16, 
1769.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  in  1736.  The  law  was  his  chosen 
profession.  In  1758  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  New  Jersey ;  and  in  1760  he  was  transferred 
to  the  chief  magistracy  of  Massachusetts,  where 
he  was  a  most  obedient  servant  of  the  crown 
and  ministry  in  the  support  of  measures  obnox¬ 
ious  to  the  colonists.  After  a  stormy  adminis¬ 
tration  of  nearly  nine  years  Bernard  was  re¬ 
called,  when  he  was  created  a  baronet,  chiefly 
because  of  his  recommendation  to  transfer  the 
right  of  selecting  the  governor’s  council  from 
the  Colonial  Legislature  to  the  crown.  Ber¬ 
nard  was  a  friend  of  learning,  and  gave  a  part 
of  his  library  to  Harvard  College.  He  had  be¬ 
come  so  thoroughly  unpopular  that  when  he 
left  Boston  the  bells  were  rung,  cannon  were 
fired,  and  “  Liberty- tree  ”  was  hung  with  flags, 
in  token  of  the  joy  of  the  people. 

Berry,  Hiram  George,  was  born  at  Thomas- 
ton,  Me.,  Aug.  27, 1824;  killed  in  battle  at  Chan- 
cellorsville,  Va.,  May  3, 1863.  He  was  first  a  car¬ 
penter,  then  a  navigator,  and  finally  became  a 
state  legislator  and  mayor  of  Rockland,  Me.  He 
was  colonel  of  Maine  volunteers  in  the  battle  of 
Bull’s  Run;  became  brigadier -general  in  May, 
1862 ;  and  was  active  in  the  Army  of  the  Poto¬ 
mac  throughout  the  campaign  on  the  Peninsula 
in  1862  and  until  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville 
iu  1863,  where  he  perished.  His  brigade  was 
especially  distinguished  in  the  battle  of  Freder¬ 
icksburg,  in  December,  1862.  In  March,  1863,  he 
was  made  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  com¬ 
manded  a  division  in  the  Third  Corps  at  Chan¬ 
cellorsville  when  he  fell.  (See  Chancellorsville.) 

Beyond  the  Penobscot.  (See  Castine ,  Capt¬ 
ure  of.)  In  the  country  beyond  the  Penobscot, 
which  the  British  held  in  1814,  the  inhabit¬ 
ants,  forty  thousand  strong,  rather  enjoyed  the 
change  ;  for,  while  few  of  their  privileges  were 
abridged,  they  were  relieved  from  drafts  for 
military  service,  alarms,  and  taxes.  They  had 
access  to  good  markets,  and  enjoyed  freedom 
of  trade.  The  national  government  was  anx¬ 
ious  for  the  reconquest  of  that  territory,  which 
had  one  hundred  miles  of  sea-coast  full  of  har¬ 
bors  and  inlets  easily  accessible  to  British  ships, 
and  where  naval  stores  abounded.  It  offered, 


if  Massachusetts  would  undertake  to  furnish, 
feed,  aud  pay  a  corps  of  five  thousand  men,  to 
undertake  the  recouquest.  But  Governor  Strong 
declined  the  offer;  for  he  saw  iu  the  proposed 
movement,  without  the  aid  of  a  strong  naval 
force,  another  evidence  of  the  military  folly  of 
the  administration.  He  feared  the  now  com¬ 
fortable  inhabitants  would,  in  case  of  such  an 
attempt,  meet  the  fiery  fate  of  the  Niagara  fron¬ 
tiersmen.  (See  Niagara  Frontier,  Desolation  of.) 

Bible,  First  Editions  of  the,  Printed  in 
the  United  States.  A  German  edition  of  the 
Bible,  in  quarto,  was  printed  at  Germantown, 
near  Philadelphia,  in  1743,  by  Christopher  Sau¬ 
er.  In  1782  Robert  Aitkin,  printer  and  book¬ 
seller  in  Philadelphia,  published  the  first  Amer¬ 
ican  edition  of  the  Bible  in  English,  also  in 
quarto  form ;  and  iu  1791  Isaiah  Thomas  print¬ 
ed  the  Bible  in  English,  in  folio  form,  at  Wor¬ 
cester,  Mass.  This  was  the  first  in  that  form 
issued  from  the  press  in  the  United  States.  The 
same  year  Isaac  Collins  printed  the  English  ver¬ 
sion,  iu  quarto  form,  at  Trenton,  N.  J. 

Bible  Society,  The  American.  The  first 
Bible  Society  in  the  United  States  was  formed 
iu  Philadelphia  in  1802.  When,  in  1816,  the 
American  Bible  Society  was  organized,  there 
were  between  fifty  and  sixty  societies  in  the 
Union.  Delegates  from  these  met  in  New  York 
in  May,  1816,  and  founded  the  “  American  Bible 
Society.”  Elias  Boudinot  (which  see)  was  chos¬ 
en  president,  and  thirty- six  managers  were  ap¬ 
pointed,  all  of  whom  were  laymen  of  seven  dif¬ 
ferent  denominations.  The  avowed  object  of 
the  society  was  to  “  encourage  a  wider  circula¬ 
tion  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  without  note  or  com¬ 
ment.”  In  the  fii’st  year  of  its  existence  it  is¬ 
sued  6410  copies  of  the  Scriptures.  It  has  since 
issued,  in  one  year,  1,900,000  copies.  It  has 
printed  the  Bible  iu  twenty- seven  new  trans¬ 
lations,  aud  printed  and  published  the  entire 
Scriptures  iu  raised  letters  for  the  use  of  the 
blind.  In  1836  the  Baptists  seceded  from  the 
American  Bible  Society,  aud  founded  the  “Amer¬ 
ican  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,”  conducted  en¬ 
tirely  by  that  denomination.  In  1870  it  had 
published  the  Scriptures  in  forty  different  lan¬ 
guages  and  circulated  over  4,000,000  copies  in 
foreign  lands.  A  secession  from  this  Baptist 
Bible  Society  occurred  in  1850,  when  the  “Amer¬ 
ican  Bible  Union”  was  formed. 

Biddle,  Clement,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
May  10,  1740;  died  there  July  14,  1814.  He  was 
descended  from  one  of  the  early  Quaker  settlers 
in  Western  New  Jersey,  and  when  the  war  for 
independence  broke  out  he  assisted  in  raising  a 
company  of  soldiers  in  Philadelphia.  Ho  was 
deputy  quartermaster-general  of  Pennsylvania 
militia  iu  1776,  and  commissary  of  forage  under 
General  Greene.  On  the  organization  of  the  na¬ 
tional  government,  he  was  appointed  United 
States  marshal  for  Pennsylvania. 

Biddle,  James,  naval  commander,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  29, 1783;  died  there  Oct.  1, 
1848.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  (which  see),  and  entered  the  navy, 
as  midshipman,  Feb.  12,  I860.  He  was  wrecked 


BIDDLE 


126 


BIENVILLE 


in  the  frigate  Philadelphia  (which  see),  off  Trip¬ 
oli,  iu  October,  1803,  and  was  a  prisoner  nine¬ 
teen  months.  As  first  lieutenant  of  the  Wasp, 
he  led  the  boarders  in  the  action  with  the  Frolic 


Biddle,  Nicholas,  naval  commander,  was 
born  iu  Philadelphia,  Sept.  10,  1750 ;  killed 
March  7,  1778.  He  made  a  voyage  to  Quebec 
before  he  was  fourteen  years  of  age.  Iu  a  voy- 


[  age  to  the  West  Indies  he  was  cast  away  on  an 
uninhabited  island,  where  he  remained  two 
months.  He  entered  the  British  navy  in  1770. 
While  a  midshipman,  he  absconded,  and  became 
a  sailor  before  the  mast  iu  The  Carcass,  in  the 
exploring  expedition  of  Captain  Phipps  in  which 
Horatio  Nelson  served.  Keturning  to  Philadel¬ 
phia  after  the  commencement  of  the  Devolution, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  brig  An¬ 
drea  Doria,  under  Commodore  Hopkins.  Iu  1776 
he  captured  two  transports  from  Scotland,  with 
four  hundred  Highland  troops  bound  for  Amer¬ 
ica.  Iu  February,  1777,  he  sailed  from  Philadel¬ 
phia  in  the  frigate  Randolph,  and  soon  carried 
four  valuable  prizes  into  Charleston.  Then  he 
cruised  iu  the  West  India  waters  with  a  small 
squadron;  and  in  an  action  with  a  British  64- 
gun  ship,  in  March,  1778,  Biddle  was  wounded. 
A  few  minutes  afterwards  the  Randolph  was 
blown  up  ;  and  of  the  entire  crew,  consisting  of 
three  hundred  and  fifteen  men,  only  four  es¬ 
caped  to  tell  the  dreadful  tale. 

I  Bienville,  Jean  Baptist  Le  Moyne,  brother 


NICHOLAS  BIDDLE. 


(see  Wasp  and  Frolic'),  Oct.  18,  1812.  Captured 
by  the  Poictiers,  he  was  exchanged  in  March, 
1813 ;  and  was  made  master  commander  in 
charge  of  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  iu  the  Delaware 
Diver  soon  afterwards.  In  command  of  the  Hor¬ 
net  he  captured  the  Penguin  (see  Hornet  and  Pen¬ 
guin),  March  23, 1813.  For  this  victory  Congress 
voted  him  a  gold  medal,  and  other  honors  were 
bestowed  upon  him.  Made  captain  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  1815,  he  held  important  commands  in  dif¬ 
ferent  parts  of  the  world.  While  in  command 
of  a  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean  (1830-32), 
he  was  given  a  commission  to  negotiate  a  com¬ 
mercial  treaty  with  the  Turkish  government.  In 
1845  he  performed  diplomatic  service  in  China, 
and  visited  Japan. 


JAMES  BIDDLE. 


BIDDLE’S  MEDAL. 


BIG  BETHEL.  BATTLE  AT  127  BIG  BETHEL.  BATTLE  AT 


of  Le  Moyne  Iberville,  who  founded  a  French 
settlement  at  Biloxi,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  in  1698.  (See  Louisiana.)  He  was  born 
in  Montreal,  Feb.  23,  1680;  died  in  France  in 
1768.  For  several  years  he  was  in  the  French 
naval  service  with  Iberville,  and  accompanied 
him,  with  his  brother  Sauville,  to  Louisiana. 
In  1699  Bienville  explored  the  country  around 
Biloxi.  Sauville  was  appointed  governor  of 
Louisiana  in  1699,  and  the  next  year  Bienville 
constructed  a  fort  fifty-four  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  Sauville  died  in  1701,  when 
Bienville  took  charge  of  the  colony,  transfer¬ 
ring  the  seat  of  government  to  Mobile.  In  1704 
he  was  joined  by  his  brother  Chateaugay,  who 
brought  seventeen  settlers  from  France.  Soon 
afterwards  a  ship  brought  twenty  young  women 
as  wives  for  settlers  at  Mobile.  Iberville  soon 
afterwards  died,  and  Bienville,  charged  with 
misconduct,  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1707. 
His  successor  dying  on  his  way  from  France,  Bi¬ 
enville  retained  the  office.  Having  tried  un¬ 
successfully  to  cultivate  the  laud  by  Indian  la¬ 
bor,  Bienville  proposed  to  the  government  to 
exchange  Indians  for  negroes  in  the  West  In¬ 
dies,  at  the  rate  of  three  Indians  for  one  negro. 
Bienville  remained  at  the  head  of  the  colony 
until  1713,  when  Codillac  arrived,  as  governor, 
with  a  commission  for  the  former  as  lieutenant- 
governor.  Quarrels  between  them  ensued.  Co¬ 
dillac  was  superseded  in  1717  by  Epinay,  and 
Bienville  received  the  decoration  of  the  Cross 
of  St.  Louis.  In  1718  he  founded  the  city  of 
New  Orleans ;  and  war  breaking  out  betweeu 
France  and  Spain,  he  seized  Pensacola  and  put 
his  brother,  Chateaugay,  in  command  there.  He 
was  summoned  to  France  in  1724  to  answer 
charges,  where  he  remained  until  1733,  when  he 
was  sent  back  to  Louisiana  as  governor,  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  Having  made 
unsuccessful  expeditions  against  the  Chickasaws 
(which  see),  he  was  superseded  in  1743,  aud  re¬ 
turned  to  France. 

Big  Bethel,  Battle  at.  When  General  But¬ 
ler  arrived  at  his  headquarters  at  Fortress  Mon¬ 
roe  (May,  1861),  he  first  established  Camp  Ham¬ 
ilton,  near  the  fort,  as  a  rendezvous  for  troops 
gathering  there.  There  were  first  gathered 
Phelps’s  Vermont  regiment,  aud  another  from 
Troy,  N.  Y. ;  and  Boon  afterwards  they  were 
joined  by  a  well-disciplined  regiment  of  Zou¬ 
aves,  under  Colonel  Abraham  Dury6e,  of  New 
York  city.  Duryde  was  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  camp  as  acting  brigadier-general.  Butler 
conceived  a  plan  of  taking  possession  of  the  coun¬ 
try  between  Suffolk  and  Petersburg  and  Nor¬ 
folk,  aud  so  threatening  the  Weldon  Railroad, 
the  great  highway  between  Virginia  and  the 
Carolinas.  But,  lacking  troops,  he  contented 
himself  with  taking  possession  of  and  fortifying 
the  important  strategic  point  of  Newport-Ne wee. 
He  sent  (May  27,  1861)  Colonel  Phelps  thither 
in  a  steamer  with  a  detachment  to  fortify  that 
promontory.  He  was  accompanied  by  Lieuten¬ 
ant  John  Trout  Greble,  an  accomplished  young 
graduate  of  West  Point,  whom  he  appointed 
master  of  ordnance,  to  superintend  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  fortifications  there  which  commanded  the 


ship-channel  of  the  James  River  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Nausemond.  The  forced  inaction  of  the 
National  troops  at  Fortress  Monroe,  and  the 
threatening  aspect  of  affairs  at  Newport-Newce, 
made  the  armed  insurgents  under  Colonel  J.  B. 
Magruder  bold,  active,  and  vigilant.  Their  prin¬ 
cipal  rendezvous  was  at  Yorktown  (see  Surren¬ 
der  of  Cornwallis),  on  the  York  River,  which  they 
were  fortifying.  They  pushed  down  the  Pen¬ 
insula  to  impress  slaves  into  their  service,  and 
to  force  Union  men  into  their  ranks.  At  Big 
and  Little  Bethel  (two  churches  on  the  road  be¬ 
tween  Yorktown  and  Hampton)  they  made  for¬ 
tified  outposts.  It  was  evident  that  Magru- 
der  was  preparing  to  seize  Newport-Newce  and 
Hampton,  and  confine  Butler  to  Fortress  Mon¬ 
roe.  The  latter  determined  on  a  countervailing 
movement  by  an  attack  on  these  outposts.  Gen¬ 
eral  E.  W.  Pearce,  of  Massachusetts,  was  placed 
in  command  of  an  expedition  for  that  purpose, 
composed  of  Dury6e’s  Zouaves  and  the  Troy 
troops  at  Camp  Hamilton,  Vermont  and  Massa¬ 
chusetts  troops,  some  German  New  York  troops, 
under  Colonel  Bendix,  and  two  6-pounders  (field- 
pieces),  under  Lieutenant  Greble,  from  Newport- 
Newce.  The  latter  had  under  him  eleven  regu¬ 
lar  artillerymen.  The  troops  from  the  two  points 
of  departure  were  to  be  joined,  in  the  night,  near 
Little  Bethel.  The  soldiers  wore  on  their  left 
arms  a  white  rag  or  handkerchief,  so  that  they 
might  recognize  each  other  in  the  dai’k.  Their 
watchword  was  “  Boston.”  Lieutenant-colonel 
Washburne  led  the  column  from  Newport-Newce, 
followed  by  Bendix  with  his  Germans.  Dury^e 
pushed  forward,  followed  by  Colonel  Townsend 
with  the  Troy  troops.  The  latter  and  Bendix 
approached  each  other  in  the  gloom,  near  Little 
Bethel,  the  appointed  place  of  junction.  Bendix 
and  his  men,  ignorant  of  the  order  to  wear  a 
white  badge,  were  without  it,  and  the  two  col¬ 
umns  mistook  each  other  for  enemies.  The  Ger¬ 
mans  opened  fire  on  Townsend’s  column.  After 
a  short  skirmish,  in  which  two  men  were  killed 
and  several  wounded,  the  mistake  was  discov¬ 
ered.  Dury6e  and  Washburne,  hearing  the  fir¬ 
ing,  hastened  their  march,  and  soon  joined  the 
confused  regiments.  The  insurgents  had  been 
warned  of  the  approaching  troops  by  the  firing, 
aud  Brigadier-general  Pearce,  in  chief  command, 
sent  back  for  reinforcements,  as  a  surprise  was 
then  out  of  the  question.  The  insurgents  at 
Little  Bethel  fell  back  to  Big  Bethel,  four  or 
five  miles  distant,  and  all  of  them  at  the  latter 
place  were  on  the  alert.  There  were  about 
eighteen  hundred  insurgents  behind  works,  with 
several  pieces  of  cannon  in  battery.  The  Na¬ 
tionals,  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  strong, 
attacked  them  between  nine  and  ten  o’clock  on 
the  morning  of  June  10,  1861.  Troops  under 
Captains  Kilpatrick,  Bartlett,  and  Winslow  (all 
of  which  were  under  Lieutenaut-colonel  G.  K. 
Warren,  of  the  Zouaves)  were  thrown  out  on 
each  side  of  the  road,  while  Lieutenant  Greble, 
with  his  two  little  field-pieces,  kept  the  road. 
The  troops  on  each  side  of  the  road  were  finally 
driven  to  the  shelter  of  the  woods  by  a  storm  of 
shot  and  shell ;  but  Greble  continued  advancing, 
aud  poured  a  rapid  and  effective  storm  of  grape 


123 


BIG  BLACK  RIVER,  BATTLE  AT 

and  canister  shot  from  his  battery.  He  held  his 
position  while  the  rest  of  the  army  was  prepar¬ 
ing  for  a  general  assault.  At  about  noon  a  charge 
was  sounded,  with  instructions  to  dash  across 
a  morass,  Hank  the  works  of  the  insurgents,  and 
drive  out  the  occupants  at  the  point  of  the  bay¬ 
onet.  The  Nationals  were  nearly  successful, 
when  a  portion  of  them  were  driven  back  by  a 
murderous  tire  from  the  insurgents.  This  and 
other  adverse  circumstances  caused  Pearce  to 
order  a  retreat.  All  of  Greble’s  men  had  been 
disabled  hut  live,  and  he  could  only  work  one 
gun.  He  was  just  limbering  them  up,  when  a 
shot  from  the  insurgents  struck  a  glancing  blow 
on  his  head,  and  he  fell  dead.  Major  Theodore 
Winthrop,  one  of  General  Butler's  aids,  was 
also  instantly  killed  by  a  bullet  from  a  North 
Carolina  drummer-hoy.  Young  Greble’s  body 
was  taken  to  Philadelphia,  where  it  lay  in  state 
in  Independence  Hall,  and  was  buried  by  a  pub¬ 
lic  funeral  under  the  direction  of  the  councils 
of  the  corporation.  Lieutenant  Greble  was  the 
first  officer  of  the  regular  army  of  the  United 
States  who  fell  in  the  Civil  War.  The  result 
of  the  expedition  to  Big  Bethel  was  national 
exasperation  and  mortification.  The  Unionists 
lost,  sixteen  killed,  thirty-four  wounded,  and 
five  missing.  The  loss  of  the  insurgents  was 
trifling. 

Big  Black  River,  Battle  at  (1863).  From 
Champion  Hills  (which  see)  the  Confederates 
were  pursued,  and  bivouacked  that  night  on 
the  hill  overlooking  Edwards’s  Station  and  the 
fertile  plain  between  it  and  the  Big  Black  Riv¬ 
er.  The  pursuit  was  renewed  in  the  morning 
(May  17,  1863),  but  the  Confederates  were  soon 


BIG  BLUE  LICK,  BATTLE  AT 

Iowa  and  Wisconsin  troops,  to  charge.  They 
sprang  forward  with  cheers,  and  drove  the 
Confederates  to  their  iutrenchments,  but  suf¬ 
fered  fearfully  from  an  enfilading  fire  from  a 
curtain  of  the  insurgents’  breastworks,  which 
prostrated  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  their  num¬ 
ber.  The  assailants  waded  a  shallow  bayou, 
and  charged  on  the  works  before  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  had  time  to  reload.  Meanwhile,  many  of 
those  within  fled  across  the  river,  and  commu¬ 
nicated  their  own  panic  to  the  troops  there. 
They  expected  the  Nationals  would  immedi¬ 
ately  cross  the  stream ;  so  they  burned  both 
bridges — cutting  off  the  retreat  of  their  com¬ 
rades,  who  were  yet  fighting.  They  fled  pell- 
mell  towards  the  defences  around  Vicksburg. 
The  assailed  garrison,  about  fifteen  hundred 
strong,  was  captured,  with  seventeen  guns, 
several  thousand  small  -  arms,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  stores.  They  lost,  in  killed  and 
wounded,  twro  hundred  and  sixty  -  two  men. 
General  Osterhaus  of  the  Nationals  was  wound¬ 
ed,  and  the  command  of  his  troops  devolved 
upon  Brigadier  -  general  A.  L.  Lee.  Sharp¬ 
shooters  in  the  works  on  the  high  banks 
across  the  river  covered  the  retreat  of  the 
Confederates,  and  for  hours  kept  the  Nationals 
from  constructing  floating  bridges.  Grant’s 
pontoon  train  was  with  Sherman,  who  had 
been  making  his  way  from  Jackson  to  anoth¬ 
er  point  (above)  on  the  Big  Black  River.  The 
Confederates  at  the  bridge  fled  to  Vicksburg. 
A  floating  bridge  was  constructed,  and  at  the 
same  time  ( May  18,  1863  )  the  three  corps 
crossed  the  river,  and  began  the  siege  of 
Vicksburg  (which  see). 


TOE  PASSAGE  OF  THE  BIG  BLACK  RIYEK. 


found  well  posted  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
near  the  railway  bridge,  and  were  strongly 
fortified.  Behind  their  defences  on  the  east¬ 
ern  side  of  the  river  wei-e  several  brigades ; 
and  above  the  bridge  Pemberton  had  con¬ 
structed  a  passage-way  for  troops,  composed 
of  the  hulks  of  steamboats.  General  Carr’s 
division  led  the  Nationals,  and  first  engaged 
in  battle;  and  very  soon  there  was  a  fierce 
struggle  between  the  two  armies  in  the  thick 
forest  for  about,  three  hours,  when  General 
Lawler,  commanding  Carr’s  extreme  right, 
gave  an  order  for  his  brigade,  composed  of 


Big  Blue  Lick,  Battle  at  (1782).  Parties 
of  Indians  and  Tories,  from  north  of  the  Ohio, 
continued  to  harass  the  settlements  in  Ken¬ 
tucky.  A  large  body  of  these,  headed  by  Si¬ 
mon  Girty,  a  cruel  white  miscreant,  entered 
these  settlements  in  August,  1782.  They  were 
pursued  by  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  men 
under  Colonels  Todd,  Trigg,  and  Boone,  who 
rashly  attacked  them  (Aug.  19)  at  the  Big 
Bine  Lick,  wrhere  the  road  from  Maysville  to 
Lexington  crosses  the  Licking  River  in  Nicho¬ 
las  County.  One  of  the  most  sanguinary  bat¬ 
tles  ever  fought  in  Kentucky  then  and  there 


BIGELOW 


129 


BILLS  OF  CREDIT 


occurred.  The  Kentuckiaus  lost  sixty -seven 
men,  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners ;  and,  af¬ 
ter  a  severe  struggle,  the  rest  escaped.  The 
slaughter  in  the  river  was  great,  the  ford  be¬ 
ing  crowded  with  white  people  and  Indians, 
all  fighting  in  horrid  confusion.  The  fugi¬ 
tives  were  keeuly  pursued  for  twenty  miles. 
This  was  the  last  incursion  south  of  the  Ohio 
by  any  large  body  of  barbarians. 

Bigelow,  Erastus  Brigham,  inventor,  was 
born  at  West  Boyleston,  Mass.,  April,  1814. 
His  father  was  a  cotton  manufacturer ;  and 
this  son,  before  he  was  eighteen  years  of  age, 
had  invented  a  hand-loom  for  weaving  suspen¬ 
der  webbing.  In  1838  he  obtained  a  patent 
for  an  automatic  loom  for  weaving  knotted 
counterpanes,  but  soon  made  great  improve¬ 
ments.  In  1839  he  entered  into  a  contract 
with  a  Lowell  manufacturing  company  to  con¬ 
struct  a  power-loom  for  weaving  two-ply  in¬ 
grain  carpets  ( that  were  before  woven  ex¬ 
clusively  by  the  hand-loom,  which  could  pro¬ 
duce  only  eight  yards  a  day).  The  new  power- 


loom  first  produced  ten  or  twelve  yards  a  day. 
Its  capacity  has  since  been  doubled  by  improve¬ 
ments.  Mr.  Bigelow  died  Dec.  6, 1879. 

Bigelow,  Timothy,  was  born  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Aug.  12,  1739;  died  there,  March  31, 
1790.  He  was  a  blacksmith  and  a  zealous  pa¬ 
triot  ;  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress ;  led 
minute-men  to  Cambridge  ;  and  accompanied 
Arnold  in  his  notable  expedition  to  Quebec  in 
1775,  where  he  was  made  a  prisoner.  As  colo¬ 
nel,  he  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Burgoyne, 
and  was  active  in  some  of  the  stirring  scenes 
of  the  war  afterwards.  Colonel  Bigelow  was 
in  charge  of  the  Springfield  Arsenal  after  the 
war,  and  was  one  of  the  original  grantees  of 
Montpelier,  Yt. 

Bill  of  Rights.  (See  Colonial  Policy  of  Will¬ 
iam  III.) 

Bills  of  Credit,  First,  in  America.  The 
first  bills  of  credit,  or  paper- money,  issued  in 
the  English  American  colonies  were  put  forth 
by  Massachusetts,  in  1690,  to  pay  the  troops  who 

went  on  an  expe¬ 
dition  against  Que¬ 
bec,  under  Sir  Will¬ 
iam  Phipps.  The 
expedition  was  un¬ 
successful.  The  men 
had  suffered  from 
sickness  ;  had  not 
gained  expected 
plunder;  ami  when 
they  arrived  at  Bos¬ 
ton  (Dec.,  1690),  dis¬ 
gusted  and  out  of 
temper,  the  treasury 
of  the  colony  had 
become  exhausted, 
and  there  was  no 
money  to  pay  them. 
They  threatened  a 
riot.  The  General 
Court  resolved  to 
issue  bills  of  credit, 
or  treasury  notes, 
varying  from  five 
shillings  to  five 
pounds,  receivable 
in  payment  of  taxes, 
and  redeemable  out 
of  any  money  in 
the  treasury.  The 
total  amount  of  this 
paper  currency  is¬ 
sued  was  a  little 
more  than  $133,000; 
but  long  before  that 
limit  was  reached 
the  hi  1  Is  de preci  a  te<  1 
one  half.  The  Gen¬ 
eral  Court  revived 
their  credit  in  1691, 
by  making  them  a 
legal  tender  in  all 
payments.  The  first 
issue  was  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1691,  though 


on™  u  /  n 

THf  S  I riderttecL  Bull  of  Twe/n  t y 

ShtJLU/n.  g  r  due.  from,  ike  MaflaAufefrv? 
Co lc my  to  tkeuToiTellor  Ihall  t  eup*b  valued 
equal  to  &lkaUke^cccrrcLhnglyvo 

acce/p tedby  tkehteafu/rer  a/n.  <AR  ec  eiyer  A 
fub  o  r  cL  urate,  to  kvm  iTLalllubltck  p  ay  tty  ; 
a/rccilor  a >ny  ^todc.  at  a/ny tcrrue,  i/rutke^O?© 
Tr  ea  111 /try  -  B  olt  oru  Lty-  iVewrE  nglaffYcU 
f^bruary  the  third?  l6^C)0<-oEy  Order  of 
the-,  Gerrer  alGLo  u/r 


omito 


FAC-SIMILE  OF  THU  FIRST  AMERICAN  PAPER  MONEY. 


J.-9 


BILLS  OF  CREDIT 


130 


BIRNEY 


the  hills  were  dated  1690 — the  year,  according 
to  the  calendar  then  in  use,  not  beginning  until 
March.  (See  Style,  Old  and  New.) 

Bills  of  Credit,  First,  in  Virginia.  In  1755, 
the  Virginia  Assembly  voted  $100,000  towards 
the  support  of  the  colonial  s.ervice  in  the  im¬ 
pending  French  and  Indian  War.  In  antici¬ 
pation  of  the  taxes  imposed  to  meet  this 
amount,  the  Assembly  authorized  the  issue  of 
treasury  notes  —  the  first  paper  -  money  put 
forth  in  Virginia. 

Bills  of  Credit,  in  Massachusetts.  When 
an  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Canada  was 
determined  on  in  1711,  the  credit  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  treasury,  exhausted  by  costly  wars,  was 
so  low  at  Boston  that  nobody  would  purchase 
bills  upon  it  without  an  endorsement,  which 
Massachusetts  furnished  in  the  form  of  bills  of 
credit  to  the  amouut  of  about  $200,000,  ad¬ 


vanced  to  the  merchants  who  supplied  the 
fleet  with  provisions.  The  proviuce  issued 
paper -money  to  the  amount  of  about  $50,000 
to  meet  its  share  of  the  expenses  of  the  pro¬ 
posed  expedition.  After  the  affair  at  Lexing¬ 
ton  and  Concord,  the  patriots  of  Massachusetts 
made  vigorous  preparations  for  war.  On  May 
5,  1775,  the  Provincial  Congress  formally  re¬ 
nounced  allegiance  to  the  British  power,  and 
prepared  for  the  payment  of  an  army  to  resist 
all  encroachments  upon  their  liberties.  They 
also  authorized  (in  August)  the  issue  of  bills  of 
credit,  or  paper-money,  in  the  form  of  treasury 
notes,  to  the  amount  of  $375,000,  making  them 


a  legal  tender,  the  back  of  which  is  shown  in 
the  engraving.  The  literal  translation  of  the 
words  is,  “  He  seeks  by  the  sword  calm  repose 
under  the  auspices  of  freedom.” 

Bills  of  Credit,  Indian.  During  the  war  in 
1763  (see  Pontiac's  War),  Pontiac  established  a 
commissary  department  with  a  careful  head ; 
and  during  the  siege  of  Detroit  (1763-64)  he 
issued  promissory  notes,  or  bills  of  credit,  to 
purchase  food  for  his  warriors.  These  bills 
were  written  upon  birch  bark,  and  signed  with 
his  totem — the  figure  of  au  otter;  and  so  high¬ 
ly  was  that  chief  esteemed  by  the  French  in¬ 
habitants  for  his  integrity  that  these  bills  were 
received  by  them  without  hesitation,  liulike 
our  Continental  bills  of  credit,  these  Indian 
notes  were  all  redeemed. 

Bird’s  Point,  opposite  Cairo  (which  see), 
was  early  fortified  by  the  National  troops.  It 
was  on  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  a  few  feet  higher  than  Cairo,  so 
that  a  battery  upon  it  would  completely 
command  the  latter-named  place.  The 
Confederates  were  anxious  to  secure  this 
point,  and  to  that  end  General  Pillow, 
who  was  collecting  Confederate  troops 
in  western  Tennessee,  worked  with  great 
energy.  When  Governor  Jackson,  of 
Missouri,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt 
at  Jefferson  City,  with  Sterling  Price  as 
military  commander,  General  Lyon,  in 
command  of  the  department,  moved 
more  vigorously  in  the  work  already 
begun  in  the  fortification  of  Bird’s  Point. 
His  attention  had  been  called  to  the  im¬ 
portance  of  the  spot  by  Captain  Benham 
of  the  engineers,  who  constructed  the 
works.  They  were  made  so  strong  that 
they  might  defy  any  force  the  insurgents 
might  bring  against  them.  With  these 
opposite  points  so  fortified,  the  Nationals 
controlled  a  great  portion  of  the  navi¬ 
gation  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Bilge,  Henry  W.,  was  born  at  Nor¬ 
wich,  Conn.,  and  was  one  of  Governor 
Buckingham’s  aids  when  the  Civil  War 
began.  He  entered  the  service  in  June, 
1861,  as  major,  and  early  in  1862  was 
made  colonel.  For  services  on  the  Lower 
Mississippi  he  was  made  brigadier-gen¬ 
eral,  Sept.  19, 1863.  He  was  in  the  Red 
River  campaign  and  in  Sheridan’s  cam¬ 
paign  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  1864. 
In  June,  1865,  he  was  appointed  to  command  the 
•military  district  of  Savannah. 

Birney,  James  G.,  an  earnest  advocate  of 
anti-slavery  views,  wms  born  at  Danville,  Ky., 
Feb.  4, 1792;  died  at  Englewood,  N.  J.,  Nov.  24, 
1857.  He  graduated  at.  the  College  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey  (Princeton)  in  1812;  studied  law  with  A.  J. 
Dallas,  of  Philadelphia;  and  began  its  practice 
in  Kentucky  in  1814.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature  at  the  age  of  twenty-two ;  be¬ 
came  a  planter  in  Alabama;  served  in  the  Ala¬ 
bama  Legislature;  and  practised  law  in  Hunts¬ 
ville.  Removing  to  Kentucky  in  1834,  he  eman¬ 
cipated  his  slaves,  and  proposed  to  print  there 


TWENTY  FOUR  SHILLINGS 


REVERSE  OF  A  MASSACHUSETTS  TREASURY  NOTE. 


BLACK  COCKADE 


131 


BLACK  REPUBLICAN 


an  anti -slavery  paper.  He  could  not  find  a 
printer  to  undertake  it ;  so  lie  went  to  Ohio  and 
established  one,  at  great  personal  risk,  the  oppo¬ 
sition  to  “abolitionists”  then  being  very  vehe¬ 
ment  everywhere.  About  1836  he  was  in  New 
York  as  Secretary  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  and  tried  to  build  up  a  political  party 
upon  that  sole  issue.  He  went  to  England  in 
1840,  and  took  part  in  the  anti- slavery  move¬ 
ments  there.  In  1844  he  was  the  candidate  of 
the  “Liberty  Party”  (which  see)  for  the  Presi¬ 
dency  of  the  Republic,  the  result  of  which  was 
not  only  his  own  defeat,  but  that,  of  Henry  Clay, 
the  candidate  of  the  Whig  party  for  the  same 
office.  Mr.  Birney  was  the  father  of  the  merito¬ 
rious  general  David  Bell  Birney,  who  did  excel¬ 
lent  service  for  the  Union  in  the  Civil  War,  and 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  8,  1864. 

Black  Cockade,  The.  Ever  since  Minister 
Adet’s  proclamation  the  Democrats,  or  friends 
of  the  French,  had  worn  the  tri-colored  cock¬ 
ade.  (See  Cockade  Proclamation.)  When,  in  the 
spring  of  1798,  President  Adams  took  strong 
ground  against  France,  a  decided  war  spirit 
was  aroused  throughout  the  country ;  addresses 
poured  in  on  the  President;  and  everywhere 
were  seen  evidences  of  a  reflex  of  opinion  which 
sustained  the  President.  In  Philadelphia,  an 
“Address  to  the  President,”  signed  by  five  thou¬ 
sand  citizens,  was  presented  to  Adams  ;  and  this 
was  followed  by  an  address  by  the  young  men 
of  the  city,  who  went  in  a  body  to  deliver  it, 
many  of  them  wearing  black  cockades  —  the 
same  which  were  worn  in  the  American  army 
during  the  Revolution.  This  was  done  in  the 
way  of  defiance  to  the  tri  -  colored  cockades. 
From  this  circumstance  was  derived  the  term, 
so  familiar  to  politicians  three  fourths  of  a  cen¬ 
tury  ago,  of  “  Black  Cockade  Federalists.”  It 
became,  in  time,  a  term  of  reproach,  and  the 
wearers  were  exposed  to  personal  attacks. 

Black  Hawk  (Ma-ka-tae-mish-kia-kiah)  was 
born  at  Kaskaskia,  Ill.,  in  1767.  He  was  a  Pota- 
watomie  by  birth,  but  became  a  noted  chief  of 
the  Sacs  and  Foxes.  He  was  accounted  a  brave 
when  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  soon  after¬ 
wards  led  expeditions  of  war -parties  against 
the  Osage  Indians  in  Missouri  and  the  Chero- 
kees  in  Georgia.  He  became  head  chief  of  the 
Sacs  when  he  was  twenty-one  years  old  (1788). 
Inflamed  by  Tecumtha  and  presents  from  the 
British  agents,  he  joined  the  British  in  the  war 
of  1812-15,  with  the  commission  of  brigadier- 
general,  leading  about  five  hundred  warriors. 
He  again  reappears  in  history  in  hostilities 
against  the  white  people  on  the  northwestern 
frontier  settlements  in  1832.  (See  Black  Hawk 
War.)  He  opposed  the  removal  of  the  Sacs  and 
Foxes  to  lands  west  of  the  Mississippi  after  they 
had  ceded  those  east  of  that  stream ;  and  this 
was  the  origin  of  the  war.  He  did  not  long 
survive  that  conflict.  He  died  at  his  camp  on 
the  River  Des  Moines,  Oct.  3,  1838. 

Black  Hawk  War,  The.  In  1832  eight  of 
a  party  of  Chippewas,  on  a  visit  to  Fort  Snel- 
ling,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Upper  Mississippi, 
were  killed  or  wounded  by  a  party  of  Sioux. 


Four  of  the  latter  were  afterwards  captured  by 
the  commander  of  the  garrison  at  Fort  Snelling 
and  delivered  up  to  the  Chippewas,  who  imme¬ 
diately  shot  them.  The  chief  of  the  Sioux  (Red 
Bird)  resolved  to  be  revenged,  and  he  and  some 
companions  killed  several  white  people.  Gen¬ 
eral  Atkinson,  in  command  in  the  northwest, 
finally  captured  Red  Bird  and  a  party  of  Winne- 
bagoes.  Red  Bird  died  in  prison  soon  after¬ 
wards,  when  Black  Hawk,  a  fiery  chief  of  the 
Sacs  and  Foxes  and  an  ally  of  the  Sioux,  having 
been  released  from  confinement,  at  once  began 
hostilities  against  the  white  people  on  the  fron¬ 
tier.  General  Gaines  marched  to  the  village  of 
the  Sacs,  when  they  humbly  sued  for  peace.  At 
the  same  time  Black  Hawk  and  a  band  of  fol¬ 
lowers  were  murdering  the  Menomonees,  who 
were  friendly  to  the  white  inhabitants.  Black 
Hawk  crossed  the  Mississippi,  and  General  At¬ 
kinson  took  the  field  against  him  ;  but  in  July 
the  cholera  broke  out  among  the  troops,  and 
whole  companies  were  almost  destroyed.  In 
one  instance  only  nine  survived  out  of  a  corps 
of  208.  Atkinsou  was  reinforced,  and,  with  a 
command  greatly  superior  to  that  of  Black 
Hawk,  pressed  him  so  closely  that  the  latter 
sent  the  women  an<]  children  of  his  band  down 
the  Mississippi  in  canoes  and  prepared  for  a 
final  struggle.  A  severe  fight  occurred  (Aug.  1, 
1832)  on  Bad  Axe  River,  in  which  twenty-three 
Indians  were  killed  without  loss  to  the  troops. 
The  contest  was  between  four  hundred  Indians 
and  some  United  States  troops  on  board  the 
steamboat  Warrior,  which  had  been  sent  up  the 
river.  After  the  fight  the  Warrior  returned  to 
Prairie  du  Cliien.  The  contest  was  renewed  the 
next  morning  between  Black  Hawk  and  troops 
led  by  General  Atkinson,  when  the  Indians  were 
defeated  and  dispersed,  with  a  considerable  loss 
in  killed  and  wouuded,  and  thirty-six  of  their 
women  and  children  made  prisoners.  There  were 
eight  of  the  troops  killed  and  seventy -seven 
wounded.  Black  Hawk  was  pursued  over  the 
Wisconsin  River,  and  at  a  strong  position  the 
fugitive  chief  made  a  stand  with  about  three 
hundred  men.  After  a  severe  battle  for  three 
hours,  he  fled,  and  barely  escaped,  with  the  loss  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  of  his  bravest  warriors  and 
his  second  in  command.  The  chief  himself  was 
finally  captured  by  a  party  of  friendly  Winne- 
bagoes  and  given  up  to  General  Steele  at  Prairie 
du  Chieu.  Treaties  were  then  made  with  the 
hostile  tribes  by  which  the  United  States  ac¬ 
quired  valuable  lands  on  favorable  terms.  Black 
Hawk,  his  two  sons,  and  six  principal  chiefs 
were  retained  as  hostages.  The  chief  and  his 
sons  were  taken  to  Washington  to  visit  the  Pres¬ 
ident  ;  and  then  they  were  shown  some  of  the 
principal  cities  of  the  North  and  East  to  impress 
them  with  the  greatness  of  the  American  people. 
The  hostages,  after  confinement  in  Fortress  Mon¬ 
roe,  were  liberated  at  Fort  Armstrong,  Rock  Isl¬ 
and,  Ill.,  in  August,  1833.  Black  Hawk  being 
deposed,  Keokuk  was  made  chief  of  the  Sacs 
and  Foxes,  when  the  former  settled  on  the 
Des  Moines  River,  where  he  died  in  1838. 

Black  Republican  was  the  name  applied  in 
derision  to  the  Republican  party  formed  in  1856, 


BLACK  ROCK 


132 


because  of  their  friendship  for  the  black  bonds-  [ 
men  in  the  Southern  States  and  their  efforts 
for  the  restriction  of  the  slave  system  of  labor. 
For  several  years  it  was  used  as  a  term  of  re¬ 
proach. 

Black  Rock,  Surprise  of  (1813).  On  the 
11th  of  July,  1813,  Lieutenant  -  colonel  Cecil 
Bisshopp,  with  a  motley  party  of  regulars,  Ca¬ 
nadians,  and  Indians,  about  four  hundred  in 
number,  crossed  the  Niagara  River  and  landed 
a  little  below  Black  Rock  (which  was  a  naval 
station,  two  miles  below  Buffalo),  just  before 
daylight.  Hjs  object  was  to  surprise  and  capt¬ 
ure  the  garrison,  and  especially  the  large  quan¬ 
tity  of  stores  collected  there  by  the  Americans; 
also  the  ship -yard.  These  were  defended  by 
only  about  two  hundred  militia  and  a  dozen 
men  in  a  block-house.  There  were  some  infan¬ 
try  and  dragoon  recruits  from  the  South  on  their 
way  to  Fort  George,  besides  a  little  more  than 
one  hundred  Indians  under  the  young  Corn- 
planter,  who  had  been  educated  at  Philadelphia, 
and  had  gone  back  to  his  blanket  and  feather 
head-dress.  The  former  were  under  the  com¬ 
mand  of  General  Peter  B.  Porter,  then  at  his 
home  near  Black  Rock.  Bisshopp  surprised 
the  camp  at  Black  Rock,  when  the  militia  fled 
to  Buffalo,  leaving  their  artillery  behind.  Por¬ 
ter  narrowly  escaped  capture  in  his  own  house. 
He  hastened  towards  Buffalo,  rallied  a  part  of 
the  militia,  and,  with  fifty  volunteer  citizens, 
proceeded  to  attack  the  invaders.  At  the  same 
time  forty  Indians  rose  from  an  ambush  in  a 
ravine  and  rushed  upon  the  invaders  with  the 
appalling  war-whoop.  The  frightened  British, 
after  a  very  brief  contest,  fled  in  confusion  to 
their  boats,  and,  with  their  commander,  hastily 
departed  for  thex  Canada  shore,  followed  by  vol¬ 
leys  from  American  muskets.  Iu  the  flight  Bis¬ 
shopp  was  mortally  wounded.  He  was  a  gallant 
young  man,  only  thirty  years  of  age.  He  was 
taken  to  his  quarters  at  Lundy’s  Lane,  where 
he  died  five  days  afrer  he  received  his  wound. 


BISSHOPP’S  MONUMENT. 


Over  his  remains,  in  a  small  cemetery  on  the 
south  side  of  Lundy’s  Lane,  more  than  thirty 
years  afterwards,  the  sister  of  the  young  soldier 
erected  a  haudsome  monument. 

Black  Warrior,  Affair  of  the.  There  had 
been,  for  some  time,  causes  for  irritation  be¬ 
tween  the  Spanish  authorities  of  Cuba  and  the 
United  States,  on  account  of  invasions  of  the 
territory  of  the  former  from  that  of  the  latter. 


BLACKBURN’S  FORD,  BATTLE  AT 

Under  cover  of  a  sliqllow  pretence,  the  steam¬ 
ship  Black  Warrior ,  belonging  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  was  seized  (Feb.  28,  1854)  at 
Havana,  by  order  of  the  Spanish  authorities  in 
Cuba,  and  the  vessel  and  cargo  were  declared 
confiscated.  This  flagrant  outrage  aroused  a 
bitter  feeling  against  those  authorities;  and  a 
motion  was  made  in  the  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives  to  suspend  the  neutrality  laws  and  com¬ 
pel  those  officials  to  act  more  justly.  A  better 
measurei  was  adopted.  A  special  messenger  was 
sent  to  Madrid,  with  instructions  to  the  Ameri¬ 
can  minister  there,  Mr.  Soul6,  to  demand  from 
the  Spanish  government  immediate  redress  in 
the  form  of  indemnification  to  the  owners  of  the 
vessel  in  the  amount  of  $300,000.  The  Spanish 
government  justified  the  outrage,  and  this  justi¬ 
fication,  operating  with  other  causes  for  irrita¬ 
tion,  led  to  the  famous  consultation  of  American 
ministers  in  Europe  known  as  the  “  Ostend  Con¬ 
ference.”  (S ee  Ostend Manifesto.)  Meanwhile  the 
perpetrators  of  the  outrage  became  alarmed,  and 
the  Captain-general  of  Cuba,  with  pretended 
generosity,  ottered  to  give  up  the  vessel  and 
cargo  on  the  payment,  by  the  owners,  of  a  fine 
!  of  $6000.  They  complied,  but  under  protest. 
The  governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Spain  finally  made  an  amicable  settlement. 

Blackburn’s  Ford,  Battle  at  (1861).  Pre¬ 
liminary  to  the  severe  conflict  at  Bull’s  Run 
(July  21,  1861)  was  a  sharp  fight  on  the  same 
stream,  at  Blackburn’s  Ford.  This  ford  was 
guarded  by  a  Confederate  force  under  Geueral 
James  Longstreet.  Some  National  troops  un¬ 
der  General  D.  Tyler — a  part  of  McDowell’s  ad¬ 
vancing  army  (see  Bull’s  Bun) — went  out  tow¬ 
ards  this  ford  on  a  recon noissance  on  the  18th. 
The  troops  consisted  of  Richardson’s  brigade,  a 
squadron  of  cavalry,  and  Ayres’s  battery.  Sher¬ 
man’s  brigade  was  held  in  reserve.  He  found 
the  Confederates  there  in  strong  force,  partly 
concealed  by  woods.  Hoping  to  draw  their  fire 
and  discover  their  exact  position,  a  20-pouml 
cannon  of  Ayres’s  battery  fired  a  shot  at  ran¬ 
dom  among  them.  A  battery  in  view  only  re¬ 
sponded  with  grape-shot.  Richardson  sent  for¬ 
ward  the  Second  Michigan  regiment  as  skir¬ 
mishers,  who  were  soon  engaged  in  a  hot  con¬ 
test  on  low7  ground.  The  Third  Michigan,  First 
Massachusetts,  and  Twelfth  New  York  pushed 
forward,  and  were  soon  fighting  severely.  Cav¬ 
alry  and  two  howdtzers  were  fiercely  assailed 
by  musketry  and  a  concealed  battery,  when  the 
Nationals,  greatly  outnumbered,  recoiled  and 
withdrew  behind  Ayres’s  battery  on  a  hill. 
Just  then  Sherman  came  up  with  his  brigade, 
when  Ayres’s  battery  again  opened  fire,  and  for 
an  hour  an  artillery  duel  was  kept  up,  the  Con¬ 
federates  responding,  gun  for  gun.  Satisfied 
that  he  could  not  flank  the  Confederates, 
McDow7ell  ordered  the  whole  body  to  fall  back 
to  Ceutreville.  The  Confederates  called  this 
the  “  Battle  of  Bull’s  Run,”  and  that  which  the 
Nationals  designate  by  that  name  they  called 
the  “  Battle  of  Manassas.”  The  loss  of  the  com¬ 
batants  at  Blackburn’s  Ford  was  nearly  equal — 
that  of  the  Nationals  seventy-three,  and  of  the 
Confederates  seventy. 


BLACKSTOCK’S.  BATTLE  AT  133  BLADENSBURG.  BATTLE  AT 


Blackstock’s,  Battle  at  (1780).  General 
Sumter  had  collected  a  small  force  near  Char¬ 
lotte,  N.  C.,  and  with  these  returned  to  South 
Carolina.  (See  Fishing  Creek.)  For  many  weeks 
he  annoyed  the  British  and  Tories  very  much. 
Cornwallis,  who  called  him  the  “  Carolina  Game¬ 
cock,”  tried  hard  to  catch  him.  Tarleton,  Wem- 
yss,  and  others  were  sent  out  for  the  purpose. 
On  the  night  of  Nov.  12,  1780,  Major  Wemyss,  at 
the  head  of  a  British  detachment,  fell  upon  him 
near  the  Broad  River,  but  was  repulsed.  Eight 
days  afterwards  he  was  encamped  at  Black¬ 
stock’s  plantation,  on  the  Tyger  River,  in  Union 
District,  wrhere  he  was  joined  by  some  Georgians 
under  Colonels  Clarke  and  Twiggs.  There  he 
was  attacked  by  Tarleton,  when  a  severe  battle 
ensued  (Nov.  20).  The  British  were  repulsed 
with  a  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  of  about  three 
hundred,  while  the  Americaus  lost  only  three 
killed  and  five  wounded.  General  Sumter  was 
among  the  latter,  and  was  detained  from  the 
field  several  mouths. 

Blackstone  in  Rhode  Island.  Governor 
Wintlirop  found  on  the  Shawmut  (the  penin¬ 
sula  of  Boston)  a  solitary  settler  there  named 
Blackstone.  Soon  afterwards  he  received  a 
grant  of  fifty  acres  of  land  from  the  new  town 
of  Boston  planted  there,  which  he  sold,  and  then 
went  into  the  wilderness  with  some  cattle.  He 
had  left  England  because  he  could  not  endure 
the  “  lords  bishops,”  and  he  liked  the  “  lords 
brethren”  no  better.  Blackstone  seated  him¬ 
self  on  the  upper  w  aters  of  the  Pawtucket  Riv¬ 
er,  where  Roger  Williams  found  him  when,  on 
his  banishment  from  Massachusetts,  he  went 
into  the  Narraganset  country.  Blackstone  did 
not  sympathize  with  Williams,  and  always  ac¬ 
knowledged  his  allegiance  to  Massachusetts. 
He  was  the  first  white  settler  in  Rhode  Island, 
but  did  nothing  towards  founding  the  colony. 

Blackwater,  Battle  at  the.  Late  in  1861 
the  department  of  Missouri  was  enlarged,  and 
General  Henry  W.  Halleck  was  placed  in  com¬ 
mand  of  it.  Genei’al  Price  had  been  there  rap¬ 
idly  gathering  Confederate  forces  in  Missouri ; 
and  General  Joliu  Pope  was  placed  in  command 
of  a  considerable  body  of  troops  to  oppose  him. 
Pope  acted  with  great  vigor  and  skill.  He 
made  a  short,  sharp,  and  decisive  campaign. 
Detachments  from  his  camp  struck  telling  blows 
here  and  there.  One  was  inflicted  by  General 
Jefferson  C.  Davis  on  the  Blackwater,  near  Mil¬ 
ford,  which  much  disheartened  the  Secessionists 
of  that  state.  Davis  found  the  insurgents  in  a 
wooded  bottom  opposite  his  own  forces.  He 
carried  a  well-guarded  bridge  by  storm,  and  fell 
upon  the  Confederates  with  such  vigor  that 
they  retreated  in  confusion,  and  were  so  closely 
pursued  that  they  surrendered,  in  number  about 
1300,  cavalry  and  infantry.  The  spoils  of  vic¬ 
tory  were  800  horses  and  mules,  1000  stand  of 
arms,  and  over  70  wagons  loaded  witli  tents, 
baggage,  ammunition,  and  supplies  of  every 
kind.  In  a  brief  space  of  time  the  pow  er  of  the 
insurgents  in  that  quarter  was  paralyzed,  and 
Halleck  complimented  Pope  on  his  “brilliant 
campaign.” 


Bladensburg,  Battle  at  (1814).  General  Win¬ 
der  had  continually  warned  the  President  and 
his  cabinet  of  the  danger  to  the  national  capital 
from  a  contemplated  invasion  by  the  British. 
The  obstinate  aud  opinionated  Secretary  of 
War  (Armstrong)  would  not  listen ;  but  when 
Admiral  Cochrane  appeared  in  Chesapeake  Bay 
with  a  powerful  land  and  naval  force,  the 
alarmed  secretary  gave  Wiuder  a  carte  blanche, 
almost,  to  do  as  he  pleased  in  defending  the 
capital.  Commodore  Joshua  Barney  was  in 
command  of  a  flotilla  in  the  bay,  composed  of 
an  armed  schooner  and  thirteen  barges.  These 
were  driven  into  the  Patuxent  River,  up  which 
the  flotilla  was  taken  to  a  point  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  British  vessels,  and  where  it  might 
assist  in  the  defence  of  either  Washington  or  Bal¬ 
timore,  whichever  city  the  British  might  attack. 
To  destroy  this  flotilla,  more  than  five  thousand 
regulars,  marines,  and  negroes  were  landed  at 
Benedict,  with  three  cannons ;  and  the  British 
commander,  General  Robert  Ross,  boasted  that 
he  would  wipe  out  Barney’s  fleet,  and  dine  in 
Washington  the  next  Sunday.  The  boast  being 
known,  great  exertions  were  made  for  the  de¬ 
fence  of  the  capital.  General  Winder,  relieved 
from  restraint,  called  upon  the  veteran  general 
Samuel  Smith  (see  Fort  Mifflin)  of  Baltimore,  to 
bring  out  his  division  of  militia,  and  General 
Van  Ness,  of  Washington,  was  requested  to  sta¬ 
tion  two  brigades  of  the  militia  of  the  District 
of  Columbia  at  Alexandria.  Winder  also  called 
for  volunteers  from  all  the  militia  districts  of 
Maryland.  General  Smith  promptly  responded, 
but  the  call  for  volunteers  was  not  very  effec¬ 
tual.  Meanwhile  the  British,  who  had  pursued 
Barney  up  the  Patuxent  in  barges,  w'ere  disap¬ 
pointed.  Seeing  no  chance  for  escape,  the 
Commodore  blew  up  his  flotilla  at  Pig  Point 
(Aug.  22,  1814),  and  with  his  men  hastened  to 
join  Winder  at  his  headquarters.  When  Gen¬ 
eral  Ross  arrived,  perceiving  Barney’s  flotilla  to 
be  a  smoking  ruin,  he  passed  on  to  Upper  Marl¬ 
borough,  where  a  readied  directly  to  Washington 
city,  leaving  Admiral  Cockburn  (see  Amphibious 
Warfare)  in  charge  of  the  British  flotilla  of 
barges.  To  oppose  this  formidable  force,  Winder 
had  less  than  three  thousand  effective  men,  most 
of  them  undisciplined ;  and  he  prudently  retreated 
towards  Washington,  followed  by  Ross,  who  had 
been  joined  by  Cockburn  aud  his  sailors  ready 
for  plunder.  That  night  (Aug.  23)  the  British 
encamped  within  ten  miles  of  the  capital.  At 
the  latter  place  there  was  great  excitement,  and 
there  were  sleepless  vigils  kept  by  soldiers  and 
civilians.  Uncertain  whether  Washington  city 
or  Fort  Washington  was  the  intended  destina¬ 
tion  of  the  invaders,  Winder  left  a  force  near 
Bladensburg  (four  miles  from  the  capital),  and 
with  other  troops  closely  watched  the  highways 
leading  in  other  directions.  The  anxious  Pres¬ 
ident  and  his  cabinet  were  awake  that  night, 
and  at  dawn  the  next  morning  (Aug.  24),  while 
Winder  was  in  consultation  with  them  at  his 
headquarters,  a  courier  came  in  hot  haste  to  tell 
them  that  the  British  were  marching  on  Bla¬ 
densburg.  Winder  sent  troops  immediately  to 
reinforce  those  already  there,  and  soon  followed 


134 


BLAKELEY 


BLADEN SBURG,  BATTLE  AT 

in  person.  The  overwhelming  number  of  the 
invaders  put  his  little  army  in  great  peril.  He 
was  compelled  to  fight  or  surrender;  he  chose 
to  fight,  and  at  a  little  past  noon  a  severe  con¬ 
test  began.  The  troops  under  General  Winder, 
including  those  from  Baltimore  (about  2200) 
and  detachments  at  various  points  watching 
the  movements  of  the  British,  with  the  men  of 
Barney’s  flotilla,  were  about  7000  strong,  of 
whom  900  were  enlisted  men.  But  many  of 
these  were  at  distant  points  of  observation. 
The  cavalry  did  not  exceed  400.  The  little 
army  had  twenty-six  pieces  of  cannon,  of  which 
twenty  were  only  six- pounders.  With  these 
troops  and  weapons  Winder  might  have  driven 
back  the  invaders,  had  he  been  untrammelled 
by  the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  rest  of  the 
seemingly  bewildered  cabinet.  As  the  British 
descended  the  hills  and  pressed  towards  the 
bridge  at  Bladeusburg,  they  commenced  hurl¬ 


ing  rockets  at  the  exposed  Americans.  They 
were  repulsed  at  first  by  the  American  artil¬ 
lery,  but,  being  continually  reinforced,  they 
pushed  across  the  stream  (east  branch  of  the 
Potomac)  in  the  face  of  a  deadly  fire.  A  terri¬ 
ble  conflict  ensued,  when  another  shower  of 
rockets  made  the  regiments  of  militia  break  and 
flee  in  the  wildest  disorder.  Winder  tried  in  vain 
to  rally  them.  Another  corps  held  its  position 
gallantly  for  a  while,  when  it,  too,  fled  in  disor¬ 
der,  covered  by  riflemen.  The  first  and  second 
lines  of  the  Americans  were  now  dispersed.  The 
British  still  pressed  on  and  encountered  Com¬ 
modore  Barney  and  his  gallant  flotilla- men. 
After  a  desperate  struggle,  in  which  the  Com¬ 
modore  was  severely  wounded,  Winder  ordered 
a  general  retreat.  Barney  was  too  badly  hurt 
to  be  removed,  and  was  taken  prisoner.  He 
was  immediately  paroled.  The  great  body 
of  the  Americans  who  were  not  dispersed  re¬ 
treated  towards  Montgomery  Court-house, Mary¬ 


land,  leaving  the  battle-field  in  full  possession 
of  the  British.  The  Americans  lost  26  killed 
and  50  wounded.  The  British  loss  was  more 
than  500  killed  and  wounded,  among  them  sev¬ 
eral  officers  of  rank  and  distinction.  The  bat¬ 
tle  lasted  about  four  hours.  The  principal 
troops  engaged  were  militia  and  volunteers  of 
the  District  of  Columbia;  militia  from  Balti¬ 
more,  under  the  command  of  General  Stansbury  ; 
various  detachments  of  Maryland  militia ;  a  reg¬ 
iment  of  Virginia  militia,  under  Colonel  George 
Minor,  600  strong,  with  100  cavalry.  The  reg¬ 
ular  army  contributed  300  men  ;  Barney’s  flo¬ 
tilla  400.  There  were  120  marines  from  the 
Washington  navy- yard,  with  two  eighteen- 
pound  and  three  twelve-pound  cannons.  There 
were  also  various  companies  of  volunteer  cav¬ 
alry  from  the  District,  Maryland,  and  Virginia, 
300  in  number,  under  Lieutenant-colonel  Tilgli- 
man  and  Majors  O.  H.  Williams  and  C.  Sterett. 

There  was  also  a  squad¬ 
ron  of  United  States  dra¬ 
goons,  commanded  by  Ma¬ 
jor  Laval. 

Blair,  John,  jurist,  was 
born  at  Williamsburg, Va., 
in  1732 ;  died  there  in  Au¬ 
gust,  1800.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary  (which 
see)  ;  studied  law  at  the 
Temple,  London ;  soon  rose 
to  the  first  rank  as  a  law¬ 
yer  ;  was  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses  so  early 
as  1765,  and  was  one  of  the 
dissolved  Virginia  Assem¬ 
bly  who  met  at  the  Ba- 
leigh  Tavern,  in  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1774,  and  drafted 
the  Virginia  non-importa¬ 
tion  agreement.  He  was 
one  of  the  committee  who, 
in  June,  1776,  drew  up  the 
plan  for  the  Virginia  State 
government,  and  in  1777 
was  elected  a  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals;  then  chief-justice,  and, in  1780, 
a  judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Chancery.  He 
was  one  of  the  framers  of  the  National  Consti¬ 
tution  ;  and,  in  1789,  Washington  appointed  him 
a  judge  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  He 
resigned  his  seat  ou  the  bench  of  that  court  in 
1796. 

Blakeley,  Johnston,  Captain,  United  States 
Navy,  was  born  at  Seaford,  Down,  Ireland,  Oc¬ 
tober,  1771 ;  was  lost  at  sea  in  1814.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
in  1800,  and  entered  the  navy,  as  midshipman, 
Feb.  5,  1800.  He  was  made  lieutenant  in  1807, 
master-commander  in  1813,  and  captain  in  1814. 
He  commanded  the  brig  Enterprise  in  protect¬ 
ing  the  American  coast-trade.  In  August,  1814, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Wasp, 
which  captured  the  Reindeer.  (See  Wasp  and 
Reindeer.)  For  this  exploit  Congress  voted 
him  a  gold  medal.  Capturing  the  brig  Atlanta 
ou  Sept.  21,  that  vessel  was  sent  to  Savannah, 


THE  BRIDGE  AT  BLADE.NSBURG  IN  1801. 


135 


BLENNERHASSETT 


BLAKELY,  BATTLE  OF 

and  brought  the  last  intelligence  of  the  Wasp. 
It  is  supposed  she  foundered  in  a  gale,  aud  no 
tidings  were  ever  heard  of  her  afterwards. 


JOHNSTON  BLAKELEY. 


Blakely,  Battle  of.  Ever  since  Steele’s  ar¬ 
rival  from  Pensacola  (see  Mobile,  Capture  of), 
Blakely  had  been  held  in  a  state  of  siege.  By 
the  fall  of  Spanish  Fort  (which  see),  water  com¬ 
munication  between  Blakely  and  Mobile  had 
been  cut  off.  It  was  defended  by  abatis,  che- 
vaux-de-frise,  and  terra-torpedoes,  and  had  a 
ditch  in  the  rear  of  these.  In  front  of  these 
Canby  formed  a  strong  line  of  battle,  Hawkins’s 
negro  troops  being  on  the  right,  the  divisions  of 
Yeatch  and  Andrews  in  the  centre,  and  Garrard’s 
division  on  the  left.  On  Sunday  afternoon,  April  8, 
1865,  when  the  assault  began,  a  heavy  thunder¬ 
storm  was  gathering.  There  was  a  fierce  strug¬ 
gle  with  obstacles  in  front  of  the  fort.  They  were 
finally  cleared,  and  while  the  colored  troops 
climbed  the  face  of  the  works,  other  soldiers 
turned  their  right,  entered  the  fort,  and  captured 
the  commander  (General  Thomas)  and  1000  men. 
Instantly  loud  cheers  announced  the  victory,  and 
several  National  flags  appeared  on  the  parapets. 
At  the  same  time  the  whole  National  line  partici¬ 
pated  in  the  assault.  Great  guns  were  making 
fearful  lanes  through  their  ranks.  Tempests 
of  grape  and  canister  from  the  armament  of  the 
fort  made  dreadful  havoc.  At  length  the  col¬ 
ored  brigade  were  ordered  to  carry  the  works. 
They  sprang  forward  with  a  shout,  “Remem¬ 
ber  Fort  Pillow !”  They  went  over  the  Confed¬ 
erate  embankments  scattering  everything  be¬ 
fore  them.  The  victory  for  the  Nationals  was 
complete.  The  struggle  had  been  brief  but  very 
severe.  The  Nationals  lost  about  1000  men  ; 
the  Confederates  500.  The  Rpoils  were  nearly 
40  pieces  of  artillery,  4000  small-arms,  16  battle- 
flags,  and  a  vast  quantity  of  ammunition. 

Bland,  Richard,  statesman,  born  in  Virginia, 
1708;  died  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  Oct.  28,  1776. 
Educated  at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary, 


he  became  a  fine  classical  scholar,  and  was  an 
oracle  touching  the  rights  of  the  colonies.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses  from 
1745  until  his  death  —  a  period  of  thirty-one 
years;  and  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  of  its 
patriotic  members.  In  1774  he  was  a  delegate 
in  the  Continental  Congress,  but  declined  to 
serve  the  next  year.  In  1766  he  published  one 
of  the  ablest  tracts  of  the  time,  entitled  An 
Inquiry  into  the  Bights  of  the  British  Colonies. 

Bland,  Theodoric,  statesman  and  soldier, 
was  born  in  Prince  George’s  County,  Va.,  in 
1742;  died  in  New  York,  June  1,  1790.  He 
was,  by  his  maternal  side,  fourth  in  descent 
from  Pocahontas  (which  see),  his  mother  being 
Jane  Rolfe.  John  Randolph  was  his  nephew. 
He  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh, 
returned  home  in  1764,  and  practised  medicine. 
Bland  led  volunteers  in  opposing  Governor 
Dunmore,  and  published  some  bitter  letters 
against  that  officer  over  the  signature  of  “Cas¬ 
sius.”  He  became  captain  of  the  first  troop 
of  Virginia  cavalry,  aud  joined  the  main  Con¬ 
tinental  army  as  lieutenant -colonel  in  1777. 
Brave,  vigilant,  and  judicious,  he  was  intrust¬ 
ed  with  t lie  command  of  Burgoyne’s  captive 
troops  at  Albemarle  Barracks  in  Virginia;  and 
was  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1780-83.  In  the  Legislature  and  in  the  Con¬ 
vention  of  his  state  he  opposed  the  adoption 
of  the  National  Constitution  ;  but  represented 
Virginia  in  the  first  congress  held  under  it, 
dying  while  in  attendance  there  in  New  York. 
Colonel  Bland  was  a  poet  as  well  as  a  soldier 
and  patriot.  The  Bland  Papers,  containing 
many  valuable  memorials  of  the  Revolution, 
were  edited  and  published  by  Charles  Camp¬ 
bell  in  1840-43. 

Blenker,  Lewis,  was  boru  at  Worms,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  in  1812 ;  died  in  New  Jersey,  Oct. 
31,  1863.  He  was  one  of  the  Bavarian  Legion, 
raised  to  accompany  King  Otho  to  Greece.  In 
1848-49,  he  became  a  leader  of  the  revolution¬ 
ists,  and  finally  fled  to  Switzerland.  Ordered  to 
leave  that  country  (September,  1849),  ho  came 
to  the  United  States.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  War  he  raised  a  regiment,  and,  early 
in  July,  1861,  was  put  at  the  head  of  a  brigade, 
chiefly  of  Germans.  In  the  Army  of  the  Poto¬ 
mac  he  commanded  a  division  for  a  while, 
which  was  sent  to  Western  Virginia,  and  par¬ 
ticipated  in  the  battle  of  Cross  Keys  (which 
see). 

Blennerhassett,  Harman,  born  in  Hamp¬ 
shire,  England,  in  1767 ;  died  in  the  island  of 
Guernsey  in  1831.  He  was  of  Irish  descent ; 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Dublin; 
studied  law  and  practised  there ;  and  in  1796 
married  the  beautiful  Adelaide  Agnew,  daugh¬ 
ter  of  General  Agnew,  who  was  killed  in  the 
battle  at  Germantown,  1777.  (See  Agnew.)  Be¬ 
ing  a  republican  in  principle,  he  became  in¬ 
volved  in  the  political  troubles  in  Ireland  in 
1798,  when  he  sold  his  estates  in  England,  and 
came  to  America  with  an  ample  fortune.  Ho 
purchased  an  island  in  the  Ohio  River,  nearly 
opposite  Marietta,  built  an  elegant  mansion, 


BLIND 


136 


BLOCKADE 


furnished  it  luxuriously,  aud  there  he  and  his 
accomplished  wife  were  living  in  happiness  and 
contentment,  surrounded  by  books,  philosophi¬ 
cal  apparatus,  pictures,  aud  other  means  for  in¬ 
tellectual  culture,  when  Aaron  Burr  entered 
that  paradise,  and  tempted  aud  ruined  its 
dwellers.  (See  Burr's  Mysterious  Expedition.) 
A  mob  of  militia-men  laid  the  island  waste,  in 


BLENXEnHASSETT  S  1SLA.N1>  KES1UE.NCE. 


a  degree,  and  Blennerhassett  and  his  wife  be¬ 
came  fugitives  in  1807.  He  was  prosecuted  as 
an  accomplice  of  Burr,  but  was  discharged. 
Then  he  became  a  cotton-planter  near  Port 
Gibson,  in  Mississippi,  but  finally  lost  his  fort¬ 
une,  aud,  in  1819,  went  to  Montreal,  aud  there 
began  the  practice  of  law.  In  1822,  he  and  his 
wife  went  to  the  West  Indies.  Thence  they  re¬ 
turned  to  England,  where  Blennerhassett  died, 
at  the  age  of  sixty-four  years.  His  widow  came 
back  to  America  to  seek,  from  Congress,  re¬ 
muneration  for  their  losses ;  but,  while  the 
matter  was  pending,  she,  also,  died  (1842),  in 
poverty,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  was  bur¬ 
ied  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Blind,  The,  in  our  country,  receive  a  full 
share  of  public  sympathy.  In  1870  there  were 
about  twenty  thousand  blind  persons  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  public  asylum  for 
the  blind  established  in  our  country  was  the 
Perkins  Institute  and  Massachusetts  Asylum 
for  the  Blind,  founded  in  1829,  and  opened  in 
1832,  with  the  late  Dr.  Samuel  Gridley  Howe 
at  its  head.  Similar  ones  were  founded  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  at  about  the  same 
time.  In  1876  there  were  twenty-seven  insti¬ 
tutions  in  the  United  States  for  the  instruction 
of  the  blind,  with  an  aggregate  of  about  two 
thousand  pupils. 

Block  Island,  Events  at.  In  1636,  John 
Oldham  (which  see)  was  trading  in  a  vessel  of 
his  own  along  the  shores  of  Connecticut,  and 
near  Block  Island  ( so  named  from  Adrian 
Block,  the  Dutch  navigator,  who  discovered 
it)  he  was  attacked  by  Indians  of  that  island, 
and  he  and  his  crew  were  murdered.  Filled 
with  the  barbarians,  who  did  not  know  how 
to  manage  rudder  or  sail,  the  vessel  was  found 
drifting  by  John  Gallop,  a  Massachusetts  fish¬ 
erman,  who  had  only  a  man  and  two  boys  with 
him.  They  gallantly  attacked  the  Indians, 
killed  or  drove  them  into  the  sea,  and  recapt¬ 


ured  the  vessel  —  the  first  naval  fight  on  the 
New  England  coast.  They  found  the  dead 
body  of  Oldbam  on  the  deck,  yet  bleeding. 
The  Block  Island  Indians  were  allies  of  the 
Pequods,  aud  were  protected  by  the  latter. 
The  murder  of  Oldbam  was  a  signal  for  war. 
In  August,  five  small  vessels,  carrying  about 
one  hundred  men,  under  John  Eudicott,  sailed 

from  Boston  to  punish 
the  Block  Island  sav¬ 
ages.  His  orders  from 
the  magistrates  were  to 
kill  all  the  men,  but  to 
spare  the  women  and 
children.  There  were 
four  captains  in  the 
Bii  company,  because  the 
Indians  in  fighting  usu¬ 
ally  divided  into  small 
squads,  and  it  was  nec¬ 
essary  to  attack  them  in 
like  detachments.  One 
of  these  captains  was 
the  famous  John  Under¬ 
hill.  (See  Peqnod  War.) 
Endicott’s  party  landed  in  a  heavy  surf,  aud  in 
the  face  of  a  shower  of  arrows,  but  only  one 
Englishman  was  wounded.  The  Indians  fled 
into  the  interior  of  the  island.  Everything — 
dwellings,  crops,  and  the  simple  furniture  of  the 
Indians — was  destroyed.  The  island  was  com¬ 
pletely  desolated.  Eudicott  could  not  find  the 
Indians  to  kill  them,  but  he  left  them  in  a  con¬ 
dition  to  starve  to  death.  Endicott  attacked 
the  Pequods  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peqnod  Riv¬ 
er  (now  the  Thames),  but  was  unsuccessful; 
then,  coasting  along  the  shores  of  the  Narra- 
ganset  country,  he  burned  the  wigwams,  de¬ 
stroyed  the  crops,  and  so  aroused  the  fiercest 
indignation  among  the  native  inhabitants. 

Blockade,  Actual  and  Proclaimed.  In 
May,  1813,  the  British  proclaimed  a  formal  block¬ 
ade  of  New  York,  the  Delaware,  Chesapeake 
Bay,  Charleston,  Savannah,  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi.  On  June  11,  the  United  States, 
Macedonian,  and  Hornet,  under  the  command  of 
Decatur,  blockaded  in  the  harbor  of  New  York, 
attempted  to  get  to  sea  through  the  East  River 
and  Long  Island  Sound,  but  off  the  Conuecticut 
shore  they  were  intercepted  by  a  British  squad¬ 
ron  and  driven  into  the  harbor  of  New  London. 
The  militia  were  called  out  to  protect  these  ves¬ 
sels,  and  the  neighborhood  was  kept  in  constant 
alarm.  The  British  blockading  squadron,  com¬ 
manded  by  Sir  Thomas  Hardy,  consisted  of  the 
flag-ship  Eamillies,  of  the  Orpheus,  Valiant,  A  casta, 
and  smaller  vessels.  The  commander-in-chief 
had  won  the  respect  of  the  inhabitants  along 
the  coast  because  of  his  honorable  treatment  of 
them.  The  blockade  of  New  Londou  harbor 
continued  twenty  months,  or  during  the  remain¬ 
der  of  the  war.  In  the  spring  of  1814,  all  hopes 
of  their  being  able  to  escape  having  faded,  the 
United  States  and  Macedonian  were  dismantled, 
and  laid  up  just  below  Norwich,  while  the  Hor¬ 
net,  after  remaining  in  the  Thames  about  a  year, 
slipped  out  of  the  harbor  and  escaped  to  New 
York. 


BLOCKADE  OF  THE  POTOMAC 


137 


BLOCKADING  SQUADRONS 


Blockade  of  the  Potomac.  By  batteries  on 
the  Virginia  shore  a  blockade  of  the  Potomac 
River  against  the  passage  of  vessels  with  sup¬ 
plies  for  the  troops  at  Washington  was  kept  np 
for  some  time.  In  September,  1861,  General 
McClellan,  in  command  of  the  rapidly  increas¬ 
ing  Army  of  the  Potomac,  was  ordered  to  co¬ 
operate  with  the  naval  force  on  the  river  in  re¬ 
moving  the  blockade,  but  he  failed 
to  do  so;  and  it  was  kept  up  until 
the  Confederates  voluntarily  aban¬ 
doned  their  position  in  front  of  Wash¬ 
ington  in  1862. 

Blockade  of  the  Potomac  Re¬ 
moved.  The  insurgents  planted  can¬ 
nons  on  the  Virginia  shores  of  the  Po¬ 
tomac  River,  at  various  points,  to  in¬ 
terrupt  the  navigation.  One  of  these 
redoubts  was  at  Matthias  Point,  a  bold 
promontory  in  King  George’s  Coun¬ 
ty,  Va.,  and  commanded  the  river  a 
short  time.  The  Point  was  heavily 
wooded.  Captain  J.  H.  Ward,  with 
his  flag-ship  Freeborn,  of  the  Potomac 
flotilla,  was  below  this  point  when  he 
heard  of  the  insurgents  being  busy  in  erect¬ 
ing  a  battery  there.  He  procured  from  Com¬ 
modore  Rowan,  of  the  Pawnee,  then  lyin  g  off 
Aqnia  Creek  (which  see),  two  companies  of  ma¬ 
rines,  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  Chaplin.  Ward 
had  determined  to  land  there,  denude  the  Point 
of  trees,  and  leave  no  shelter  for  the  insurgents. 
On  the  morning  of  June  27, 1861,  Chaplin  and  the 
marines,  under  cover  of  a  fire  from  the  vessels, 
landed,  and  soon  encountered  the  pickets  of  the 
insurgents.  Captain  Ward  accompanied  Chap¬ 
lin.  A  body  of  about  four  hundred  insurgents 
were  seen  approaching,  when  Ward  hastened 
back  to  the  Freeborn,  and  the  marines  took  to 
their  boats.  They  returned,  but  were  called  off 
because  the  number  of  the  insurgents  was  over¬ 
whelming.  A  spirited  skirmish  ensued  between 
the  insurgents  on  shore  and  the  Nationals  on 
their  vessels.  While  Captain  Ward  was  man¬ 
aging  one  of  his  cannons,  he  was  mortally  wound¬ 
ed  in  the  abdomen  by  a  well-aimed  Minid  bullet 
from  the  shore.  He  lived  only  forty-five  minutes, 
the  bullet  having  passed  through  the  intestines 
and  the  liver.  His  was  the  only  life  lost  on  the 
Union  side  on  that  occasion.  Captain  Ward  was 
the  first  naval  officer  killed  during  the  war.  His 
body  was  conveyed  to  the  navy-yard  at  Brook¬ 
lyn,  where,  on  the  North  Carolina,  it  lay  in  state, 
and  was  then  taken  to  Hartford,  where  imposing 
funeral  ceremonies  were  performed  in  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  cathedral. 

Blockade-Runners.  The  British  government 
professed  to  be  neutral  when  the  Civil  War  in 
the  United  States  broke  out,  but  the  Confed¬ 
erates  were  permitted  to  have  privateer  vessels 
built  and  supplied  in  Great  Britain,  while  swift¬ 
sailing  British  merchant  steam-vessels,  built  for 
the  purpose,  were  permitted  to  carry  on  an  ex¬ 
tensive  trade  with  the  insurgents  by  running 
the  blockade  of  Southern  ports.  These  vessels 
carried  arms,  ammunition,  and  other  supplies  to 
the  insurgents,  and  received  in  exchange  cotton 


and  tobacco.  Enormous  profits  were  made  for 
the  owners  of  these  vessels  when  a  successful 
voyage  was  accomplished  ;  but  so  many  of  them 
were  captured  by  the  blockading  fleets,  destroy¬ 
ed  or  wrecked,  that  it  is  believed  their  losses 
were  greater  in  amount  than  their  gains.  The 
number  of  blockade-runners  captured  or  de¬ 
stroyed  during  the  war  by  the  national  navy 


A  BLOCKADE-RUNNER. 


was  1504.  The  gross  proceeds  of  the  property 
captured  and  condemjied  as  lawful  prize,  before 
the  first  of  November  following  the  close  of  the 
war,  amounted  to  nearly  $22,000,000.  This  sum 
was  subsequently  increased  by  new  decisions. 
The  value  of  the  vessels  captured  and  destroyed 
(1149  captured  and  355  destroyed)  was  not  less 
than  $7,000,000,  making  a  total  loss,  chiefly  to 
British  owners,  of  at  least  $30,000,000.  Besides, 
in  consequence  of  the  remissness  in  duty  of  the 
British  government  in  permitting  piratical  ves¬ 
sels  to  be  built  and  furnished  in  the  realm  for 
the  Confederates,  that  government  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  pay,  in  the  form  of  damages  to  Amer¬ 
ican  property  on  the  seas,  $15,500,000  in  gold. 
(See  Tribunal  of  Arbitration.) 

Blockading  Squadrons  on  the  New  Eng¬ 
land  Coast.  From  the  spring  of  1813  until  the 
close  of  the  war,  British  blockading  squadrons 
were  hovering  along  the  whole  Amei’icau  coast; 
and  these,  with  embargo  acts  (which  see),  double- 
barred  its  seaports  against  commerce,  and  threat¬ 
ened  its  sea-coast  cities  and  villages  with  de¬ 
struction.  The  year  1814  was  a  peculiarly  trying 
one  for  New  England.  The  blockade  of  New 
London,  begun  in  1813,  was  kept  up  strictly  un¬ 
til  the  close  of  the  war.  Early  in  June,  1814, 
British  blockading  vessels  began  depredations 
on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  under  an  order 
issued  by  Admiral  Cochrane  to  “  destroy  the  sea¬ 
port  towns  anddevastate  the  country.”  At  Ware- 
ham,  on  Buzzard’s  Bay,  they  destroyed  vessels 
and  other  property  valued  at  $40,000.  In  the 
same  month  fifty  armed  men  in  five  large  barges 
entered  the  Saco  River,  Maine,  and  destroyed 
property  to  the  amount  of  about  $20,000.  New 
Bedford,  and  Fair  Haven  opposite,  were  threat¬ 
ened  by  British  cruisers.  Eastport  and  Castine, 
in  Maine,  were  captured  by  the  British.  In  July 
(1814)  Sir  Thomas  M.  Hardy  sailed  from  Hali¬ 
fax  with  a  considerable  land  and  naval  force, 
to  execute  the  order  of  Cochrauo.  The  country 


138 


BLUE  LIGHTS 


BLOODY  MARSH,  BATTLE  OF 

from  Passamaquoddy  Bay  to  the  Penobscot 
River  speedily  passed  under  British  rule,  and 
remained  so  until  the  close  of  the  war.  After 
capturing  Eastport  Hardy  sailed  westward,  and 
threatened  Portsmouth  and  other  places.  An 
attack  on  Bost'on  was  confidently  expected.  It 
was  almost  defenceless,  and  offered  a  rich  prize 
for  plunder.  There  ships  were  built  for  the 
war;  but  when  real  danger  appeared,  the  in¬ 
habitants  were  aroused  to  intense  action  in  pre¬ 
paring  defences.  All  classes  of  citizens  might 
be  seen  with  implements  of  labor  working  daily 
in  casting  up  fortifications  on  Noddle’s  Island 
(now  East  Boston).  Informed  of  these  prepa¬ 
rations  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  Hardy 
passed  by  and  took  a  position  off  the  coast  of 
Connecticut,  where  he  proceeded,  with  reluc¬ 
tance,  to  execute  Cochrane’s  cruel  order.  He 
bombarded  Stonington,  but  was  repulsed.  (See 
Stonington,  Bombardment  of.)  His  squadron  lay 
off  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  (Conn.)  when  the 
news  of  peace  came.  (See  Xew  London.) 

Bloody  Marsh,  Battle  of.  (See  Georgia,  In¬ 
vasion  of.) 

Bloomfield,  Joseph,  was  born  at  Woodbridge, 
N.  J. ;  died  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Oct.  3, 1823.  He 
was  a  law  student  when  the  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence  broke  out,  when  he  was  made  a  captain, 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  patriots,  serv¬ 
ing  until  the  end  of  the  war.  Then  he  had  at¬ 
tained  the  rank  of  major.  After  the.  war  he  was 
attorney-general  of  New  Jersey ;  governor  in 
1801-12 ;  brigadier-general  during  the  war  of 
1812-15 ;  member  of  Congress  1817-21 ;  and  wTas 
always  esteemed  a  sound  legislator  and  a  judi¬ 
cious  leader. 

Blooming  Gap,  Skirmish  at  (18621.  General 
F.  W.  Lander  was  sent,  early  in  January,  1862, 
to  protect  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway.  He 
had  a  wily  and  energetic  opponent  in  “Stone¬ 
wall  Jackson,”  who  was  endeavoring  to  gain 
what  the  Confederates  had  lost  in  Western  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  to  hold  possession  of  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  With  about  four  thousand  men  Lander 
struck  Jackson  at  Blooming  Gap  (Feb.  14),  capt¬ 
ured  seventeen  of  his  commissioned  officers, 
nearly  sixty  of  his  rank  and  file,  and  compelled 
him  to  retire. 

Blount,  William,  was  born  in  North  Caroli¬ 
na  in  1744;  died  at  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  March  21, 
1800.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental 
Congress  in  1782-83, 1786,  and  1787 ;  and  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  Na¬ 
tional  Constitution.  In  1790  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio. 
(See  Northwestern  Territory.)  He  was  president 
of  the  convention  that  formed  the  State  of  Ten¬ 
nessee  in  1796,  and  was  chosen  the  first  United 
States  Senator  from  the  new  state.  Blount  was 
impeached  in  1797  by  the  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives,  charged  with  having  intrigued,  while  ter¬ 
ritorial  governor,  to  transfer  New  Orleans  and 
neighboring  districts  (then  belonging  to  Spain) 
to  Great  Britain  by  means  of  a  joint  expedition 
of  Englishmen  and  Creek  and  Cherokee  Indians. 
He  was  expelled  from  the  Senate,  and  the  proc¬ 
ess  was  discontinued  in  the  House.  His  popu¬ 


larity  in  Tennessee  was  increased  by  these  pro¬ 
ceedings,  and  he  became,  by  the  voice  of  the 
people,  a  state  senator  and  president  of  that 
body. 

Blue  Hen,  a  cant  or  popular  name  for  the 
State  of  Delaware.  Captain  Caldwell,  of  the 
First  Delaware  regiment  in  the  Revolution,  was 
a  brave  and  very  popular  officer,  and  noted  for 
his  fondness  for  cock-fighting.  When  officers 
were  sent  to  his  state  to  get  recruits  for  the 
regiment,  it  was  a  common  remark  that  they 
had  gone  for  more  of  Captain  Caldwell’s  game¬ 
cocks.  The  captain  insisted  that  no  cock  could 
be  truly  game  unless  the  mother  was  a  blue 
hen  ;  and  the  expression  “  Blue  Hen’s  Chick¬ 
ens”  was  substituted  for  game-cocks,  and  final¬ 
ly  applied  to  the  whole  Delaware  line. 

Blue  Laws,  the  name  given  to  the  first  col¬ 
lection  of  laws  framed  for  the  government  of 
the  Connecticut  colony.  They  were  published, 
in  collected  form,  in  1650,  and  issued  in  blue- 
paper  covers.  From  this  fact  they  derived  the 
name  of  Blue  Laws.  They  contained  rigid  en¬ 
actments  against  every  social  vice,  as  well  as 
for  social  regulations,  and  revealed  the  stern¬ 
ness  of  the  Puritan  character  and  morals.  Cop¬ 
ies  of  these  laws  found  their  way  to  England, 
where  they  first  received  the  name  of  “  Blue 
Laws.”  After  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  the 
word  blue  was  applied  to  rigid  moralists  of 
every  kind,  especially  to  the  Presbyterians. 
Butler,  in  Hudibras,  says : 

“  For  his  religion  it  was  writ, 

To  match  his  learning  and  his  wit, 

’Twas  Presbyterian  true  blue." 

To  ridicule  the  Puritans  of  New  England,  a  series 
of  ridiculous  enactments,  falsely  purporting  to 
be  a  selection  from  the  Blue  Laws,  were  pro¬ 
mulgated,  and  gained  general  belief. 

Blue  Lights.  The  Macedonian  and  Hornet 
were  blockaded  in  New  London  harbor.  Deca¬ 
tur  was  anxious  to  run  the  blockade,  and  migrht 
have  accomplished  it  but  for  the  mischievous, 
if  not  treasonable,  conduct  of  a  section  of  the 
ultra-Federalists  known  as  the  “Peace  Party” 
(which  see).  He  had  fixed  on  Sunday  evening, 
Dec.  12,  1813,  for  making  an  attempt  to  run  the 
blockade.  The  night  was  very  dark,  the  wind 
was  favorable,  and  the  tide  served  at  a  conven¬ 
ient  hour.  When  all  things  were  in  readiness 
and  he  was  about  to  weigh  anchor,  word  came 
from  the  “row-guard”  of  the  blockaded  vessels 
that  signal-lights  were  burning  on  both  sides 
of  the  river,  near  its  mouth.  The  lights  were 
blue,  and  placed  in  position  by  treasonable  men 
to  warn  the  British  blockaders  of  Decatur’s  final 
movements.  There  were  “Peace -men”  in  al¬ 
most  every  place  in  New  England,  who  did  all 
they  could  to  embarrass  their  government  in  its 
prosecution  of  the  war.  So  betrayed,  Decatur 
gave  up  the  design,  and  tried  every  means  to 
discover  the  betrayers,  but  without  success. 
The  Federalists  denied  the  fact,  but  the  blue 
signal -lights  had  been  seen  by  too  many  to 
make  the  denial  of  any  effect.  In  a  letter  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Decatur  wrote : 
“  Notwithstanding  these  signals  have  been  re- 


139 


BOARD  OF  WAR 


BLUE  SPRINGS,  BATTLE  AT 

peated,  and  have  been  seen  by  at  least  twenty 
persons  in  this  squadron,  there  are  men  iu  New 
London  who  have  the  hardihood  to  affect  to 
disbelieve  it  and  the  effrontery  to  deny  it.” 
The  whole  Federal  party,  traditionally  opposed 
to  the  war,  were  often  compelled  to  bear  the 
odium  of  the  bad  conduct  of  the  Peace  factiou. 
They  had  to  do  so  in  this  case  and  for  more 
than  a  generation ;  and  long  after  that  organ¬ 
ization  was  dissolved  members  of  that  party 
were  stigmatized  with  the  epithet  of  “  Blue 
Light  Federalists.” 

Blue  Springs,  Battle  at.  While  Burnside’s 
forces  in  East  Tennessee  were  concentrating  at 
Knoxville  (see  Knoxville,  Siege  of)  they  had  many 
encounters  with  the  Confederates.  One  of  these 
occurred  at  Blue  Springs,  not  far  from  Bull’s 
Gap.  There  the  Confederates  had  gathered  in 
considerable  force.  A  brigade  of  National  cav¬ 
alry,  supported  by  a  small  force  of  infantry, 
was  then  at  Bull’s  Gap.  The  cavalry  pressed 
forward  to  Blue  Springs,  where  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  were  commanded  by  General  S.  Jones.  Af¬ 
ter  a  desultory  fight  for  about  twenty -four 
hours  (Oct.  10  and  11,  1863)  the  Confederates 
broke  and  fled,  leaving  their  dead  on  the  field. 
They  were  pursued  and  struck  from  time  to 
time  by  General  Shackleford  and  his  cavalry, 
and  driven  out  of  the  state.  The  pursuers  pen¬ 
etrated  Virginia  ten  miles  beyond  Bristol.  In 
the  battle  of  Blue  Springs  the  Nationals  lost 
about  one  hundred  men  in  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Confederate  loss  was  a  little  greater. 

Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations.  This 
commission  was  first  suggested  by  Charles  Dav- 
enaut,  son  of  the  eminent  Sir  William  Daven- 
tlut,  and  an  English  author  of  note.  He  pro¬ 
posed,  in  au  essay,  that  the  care  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  colonies  should  be  made  “  the  province  of  a 
select  number  of  lords  and  gentlemen  of  reputa¬ 
tion  both  for  parts  and  fortunes and  suggest¬ 
ed  that  it  would  be  in  their  power  “to  put 
things  into  a  form  and  order  of  government 
that  should  always  preserve  these  countries  in 
obedience  to  the  crown  and  dependence  upon 
the  kingdom.”  At  the  same  time,  he  advo¬ 
cated  the  keeping  of  the  conditions  of  their 
charters  sacred  and  inviolate.  A  standing- 
council  of  commerce  had  been  established,  but 
in  1673  it  was  dropped.  From  that  time  un¬ 
til  1696  all  disputes  and  regulations  relating 
to  commerce  and  the  colonies  were  usually 
referred  to  a  committee  of  the  privy  council. 
The  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations  was  estab¬ 
lished  by  King  William  III.  in  that  year.  It 
consisted  of  a  first  lord  commissioner,  who  was 
a  peer  of  the  realm,  and  seven  other  commis¬ 
sioners,  with  a  salary  of  $5000  each.  The  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  board  were  styled  the  “  Lord  Com¬ 
missioners  for  Trade  and  Plantations.”  With 
this  board  the  governors  of  the  English-Ameri- 
ean  colonies  held  continual  correspondence  con¬ 
cerning  their  respective  governments  ;  and  to 
this  board  they  transmitted  the  journals  of  their 
councils  and  assemblies,  the  accounts  of  the  col¬ 
lectors  of  customs  and  naval  officers,  and  simi¬ 
lar  articles  of  official  intelligence.  On  t  he  death 


of  Queen  Anne,  in  1714,  George,  Elector  of  Han¬ 
over,  ascended  the  English  throne.  The  new 
ministry  reduced  the  powerful  Board  of  Trade 
to  a  subordinate  position — a  mere  committee 
for  reference  and  report,  and  a  dependent  upon 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  colonies.  Iu 
March,  1749,  Horace  Walpole,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations,  reported 
a  bill  to  overrule  all  charters,  and  to  make  the 
orders  of  the  king,  or  under  his  authority,  the 
supreme  law  in  America.  This  seemed  to  be 
consistent  with  the  high  claim  of  legislative 
authority  for  Parliament.  Onslow,  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  believed  the  Parliament 
had  power  to  tax  America,  but  not  to  delegate 
it.  He  ordered  the  objections  to  the  measure 
to  be  spread  at  length  on  the  journals  of  the 
House,  and  the  Board  of  Trade  dropped  the  mat¬ 
ter. 

Board  of  War.  On  the  13th  of  June,  1776, 
the  Congress  appointed  John  Adams,  Roger 
Sherman,  Benjamin  Harrison,  James  Wilson, 
and  John  Rutledge  commissioners  constitut¬ 
ing  a  “Board  of  War  and  Ordnance,”  and  ap¬ 
pointed  Richard  Peters  their  secretary.  This 
was  the  germ  of  the  War  Department  of  our 
government.  It  had  a  general  supervision  of 
all  military  affairs ;  kept  exact  records  of  all 
transactions,  with  the  names  of  officers  and  sol¬ 
diers  ;  and  had  charge  of  all  prisoners  of  war 
and  of  all  correspondence  on  the  subject  of  the 
army.  The  secretary  and  clerks  were  required 
to  take  an  oath  of  secrecy  before  entering  upon 
their  duties.  The  salary  of  the  secretary  was 
fixed  at  $800  a  year;  of  the  clerks,  $266.66.  A 


seal  was  adopted.  Owing  to  the  exteut  of  the 
field  of  war,  subordinate  boards  were  author¬ 
ized  in  1778.  In  November,  1777,  a  new  board 
was  organized,  consisting  of  three  persons  not 
members  of  Congress,  to  sit  in  the  place  where 
that  body  should  be  in  session,  each  member  to 
be  paid  a  salary  of  $4000  a  year.  Iu  1778  an¬ 
other  organization  of  the  board  occurred.  It 
then  consisted  of  two  members  of  Congress  and 
three  who  were  not  members,  any  three  to  consti¬ 
tute  a  quorum.  Then  the  salary  of  t  he  secretary 
of  the  board  was  increased  to  $20f  0.  On  the  new 
organization  of  the  government  in  1781  (see  Ar¬ 
ticles  of  Confederation),  the  Congress  resolved  to 
create  a  Secretary  of  War,  and  General  Lincoln 


BOBADILLA 


140 


BOGUS  PROCLAMATION 


was  cliosen.  His  salary  was  $5000  a  year.  He 
held  the  office  until  the  close  of  the  war.  After 
that  military  affairs  were  managed  by  a  hoard 
of  war  until  the  organization  of  the  government 
under  the  National  Constitution,  when  they  were 
placed  under  the  supreme  control  of  a  Secre¬ 
tary  of  W  ar. 

Bobadilla,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  magistrate, 
was  sent  to  Santo  Domingo  by  Queen  Isabella 
in  1500  to  ascertain  the  condition  of  the  Span¬ 
ish  colony  there,  so  many  complaints  of  the  ad¬ 
ministration  of  Columbus  having  reached  her. 
Coveting  the  place  of  Columbus,  Bobadilla  made 
many  unjust  charges  against  him.  He  arrested 
the  illustrious  man  and  seut  him  to  Spain  in 
chains.  But  the  sovereigns,  satisfied  that  he 
was  innocent,  reinstated  Columbus,  recalled  Bo-  j 
badilla,  and  sent  Ovando  to  take  his  place.  (See  j 
Ovando.)  On  his  return  homeward,  Bobadilla 
was  lost  at  sea  in  a  furious  tempest  with  many 
others  of  the  enemies  of  Columbus,  together 
with  the  immense  wealth  which  they  were  car¬ 
rying  away  with  them. 

Bogardus,  Everardus,  was  the  first  clergy¬ 
man  iu  New  Netherland.  He  and  Adam  Roe- 
landson,  school-master,  came  from  Holland  with 
Governor  Van  Twiller  in  1633.  He  was  a  hold,  ! 
outspoken  man,  and  did  not  shrink  from  giving 
“a  piece  of  his  mind”  to  men  in  authority. 
Provoked  by  what  he  considered  maladminis-l 
tratiou  of  public  affairs,  he  wrote  a-  letter  to  ; 
Governor  Van  Twiller,  in  which  he  called  him 
“a  child  of  the  devil,”  and  threatened  to  give 
him  “such  a  shake  from  the  pulpit”  the  next 
Sunday  as  would  “make  him  shudder.”  About 
the  year  1638  Bogardus  married  Annetje,  widow 
of  Roeloff  Jansen,  to  whose  husband  Van  Twil¬ 
ler  had  granted  sixty-two  acres  of  land  on  Man¬ 
hattan  Island,  now  in  possession  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York.  This  is  the  estate  which 
the  “heirs  of  Annetje  Jansen  Bogardus”  have 
been  seeking  to  recover.  Being  charged  before 
the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  with  conduct  unbe- 1 
coming  a  clergyman,  Bogardus  was  about  to  go 
thitherto  defend  himself  on  the  arrival  ofKieft, 
but  the  governor  and  council  determined  to  re¬ 
tain  him  for  the  “  good  of  souls.”  A  daughter 
of  Mr.  Bogardus  by  his  first  wife  was  married 
iu  1642 ;  and  it  wras  on  that  occasion  that  Gov¬ 
ernor  Kieft  procured  generous  subscriptions  for 
building  a  new  church.  At  the  wedding  feast, 
“  after  the  fourth  or  fifth  round  of  drinking,” 
he  made  a  liberal  subscription  himself  to  the 
church  fund,  and  requested  the  other  guests  to 
do  the  same.  All  the  company,  with  “  light 
heads  and  glad  hearts,”  vied  wdth  each  other  in 
“subscribing  richly;”  and  some  of  them,  after 
they  returned  home,  “  well  repented  it,”  but 
were  not  excused.  John  and  Richard  Ogden, 
of  Stamford,  Conn.,  were  employed  to  build  the 
church,  in  which  Bogardus  officiated  about  four 
years.  When  Kieft,  in  1643,  was  about  to  make 
war  on  the  Indians  (see  Kieft),  Bogardus,  who 
had  been  invited  to  the  council,  warned  him  iu 
\v arm  words  against  his  rashness.  Two  years 
later  he  shared  with  the  people  in  disgust  of 
the  governor;  and  he  boldly  denounced  him,  as 


he  had  Van  Twiller,  from  the  pulpit,  charging 
him  with  drunkenness  and  rapacity,  and  said, 
“What  are  the  great  men  of  the  country  but 
vessels  of  wrath  and  fountains  of  woe  and 
trouble  ?  They  think  of  nothing  hut  to  plun¬ 
der  the  property  of  others,  to  dismiss,  to  banish, 
to  transport  to  Holland.”  Kieft  and  some  of 
the  provincial  officers  absented  themselves  from 
church  to  avoid  further  clerical  lashings.  Kieft 
encouraged  unruly  fellows  to  keep  up  a  noise 
around  the  church  during  the  preaching.  On 
one  occasion  a  drum  was  beaten,  a  cannon  was 
fired  several  times  during  the  service,  and  the 
communicants  were  insulted.  The  plucky  dom¬ 
inie  denounced  the  authorities  more  fiercely  than 
ever,  and  the  governor  brought  the  contuma¬ 
cious  clergyman  to  trial.  The  excitement  ran 
high,  but  mutual  friends  finally  brought  about 
a  cessation  of  hostilities,  if  not  peace.  There 
were  then  two  other  clergymen  iu  the  province 
— Samuel  Megapoleusis  and  Francis  Doughty— 
the  latter  preaching  to  the  English  residents 
there.  The  conduct  of  Bogardus  had  become  a 
subject  of  remark  iu  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam, 
and  after  the  arrival  of  Stnyvesant  (1647)  he 
resigned,  and  sailed  for  Holland  in  the  same 
vessel  w  ith  Kieft.  He,  too,  was  drowned  when 
the  vessel  was  wrecked.  (See  Kieft.) 

Boggs,  Charles  Stewart,  was  born  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Jan.  28,  1811 ;  entered  the 
navy  in  1826;  served  on  stations  in  the  Medi¬ 
terranean,  West  Indies,  the  coast  of  Africa,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  was 
made  lieutenant  in  1837 ;  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander  in  1855;  aud  in  1858  was 
appointed  light-house  inspector  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Placed  iu  command  of  the  gunboat  Fa* 
runa ,  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  was 
with  Admiral  Farragut  iu  the  desperate  fight 
on  the  Mississippi,  near  Forts  Jackson  and  St. 
Philip.  (See  New  Orleans,  Capture  of .)  In  that 
contest  his  conduct  w  as  admirable  for  bravery 
aud  fortitude.  He  has  since  been  iu  command 
of  various  vessels  on  American  and  European 
stations.  Captain  Boggs  wras  commissioned 
rear-admiral  iu  the  United  States  Navy  in 
July,  1870.  Died  April  20, 1888. 

Bogus  Proclamation,  The.  Early  in  the 
campaign  of  1864,  a  proclamation,  bearing  the 
names  of  the  President  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  appeared  in  the 
New  York  World  and  New  York  Journal  of 
Commerce  (newspapers  opposed  to  the  adminis¬ 
tration),  iu  wTiich  defeats  and  disasters  to  the 
National  armies  were  narrated,  a  day  of  fasting 
aud  prayer  recommended,  and  a  call  made  for 
five  hundred  thousand  more  troops  to  suppress 
the  great  insurrection.  This  proclamation  was 
calculated  to  cause  great  depression  among  all 
loyal  people,  discourage  enlistments,  and  give 
encouragement  to  the  insurgents.  The  gov¬ 
ernment  regarded  it  as  the  w  ork  of  an  enemy 
of  the  Republic.  The  two  newspapers  that 
published  the  proclamation  were  promptly 
suppressed  by  military  power,  and  the  author 
of  the  proclamation,  when  discovered,  was  sent, 
a  state  prisoner,  to  Fort  Lafayette.  The  au- 


BOLDNESS  OF  THE  COLONIAL  PRESS  141  BONHOMME  RICHARD  AND  SERAPIS 


thor  was  Joseph  Howard,  one  of  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  Brooklyn  Eagle ,  an  opposition  news¬ 
paper.  Howard  declared  that  it  was  intended 
only  as  a  joke — a  burlesque  of  the  method  of 
conducting  the  war.  The  government  regard¬ 
ed  it  as  a  serious  misdemeanor,  and  acted  ac¬ 
cordingly. 

Boldness  of  the  Colonial  Press.  When, 
early  in  January,  1766,  the  speech  of  the  king 
at  the  opening  of  Parliament  was  published  in 
the  Boston  Gazette ,  its  editors  (Edes  and  Gill) 
said  to  the  monarch,  “  Great  Sir,  retreat,  or  you 
are  ruined.”  A  Philadelphia  newspaper  said: 
“  None  in  this  day  of  liberty  will  say  that 
duty  binds  us  to  yield  obedience  to  any  man, 
or  body  of  men,  forming  part  of  the  British 
Constitution,  when  they  exceed  the  limits  pre¬ 
scribed  by  that  Constitution.  The  Stamp  Act 
is  unconstitutional,  and  no  more  obligatory 
than  a  decree  of  the  Divan  of  Turkey.”  De¬ 
fiant  essays  upon  the  rights  of  the  colonies 
were  issued  in  pamphlet  form,  and  the  news¬ 
papers  teemed  with  squibs  and  epigrams  aimed 
at  the  authority  of  Parliament  and  even  of  the 
crown. 

Bollan,  William,  an  English  lawyer,  came 
to  America  about  1740,  settled  in  Boston,  and 
died  in  England  in  1776.  He  married  a  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Governor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts,  and 
was  appointed  Collector  of  Customs  at  Salem 
and  Marblehead.  In  1745  he  was  sent  to  Eng¬ 
land  to  solicit  the  reimbursement  of  more  than 
$800,000  advanced  by  Massachusetts  for  the  ex¬ 
pedition  against  Cape  Breton.  He  was  success¬ 
ful  ;  and  was  agent  for  Massachusetts  in  1762, 
but  was  dismissed.  Being  in  Eugland  in  1769, 
he  obtained  copies  of  thirty-three  letters  writ¬ 
ten  by  Governor  Bernard  and  General  Gage, 
calumuiatiug  the  colonists,  and  sent  them  to 
Boston.  For  this  act  he  was  denounced  in 
Parliament.  He  strongly  recommended  the 
British  government  to  pursue  conciliatory 
measures  towards  the  colonists  in  1775 ;  and 
in  various  ways,  in  person  and  in  writing,  he 
showed  his  warm  friendship  for  the  Americans. 
Mr.  Bollan  wrote  several  political  pamphlets 
relating  to  American  affairs  ;  and  in  1774  he 
presented,  as  colonial  agent,  a  petition  to  the 
king  in  council. 

Bonaparte  and  Peace.  While  war  with 
France  seemed  inevitable,  and  was  actually 
occurring  on  the  ocean,  a  change  in  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  that  country  occurred,  which  avert¬ 
ed  from  the  United  States  the  calamity  of  war. 
For  a  long  time  the  quarrels  of  political  fac¬ 
tions  had  distracted  France.  The  Directory 
(which  see)  had  become  very  unpopular,  and 
the  excitable  people  were  ripe  for  another 
revolution.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  then  at 
the  head  of  an  army  in  the  East.  His  brothers 
informed  him  of  the  state  of  affairs  at  home, 
and  he  suddenly  appeared  in  Paris  with  a  few 
followers,  where  he  was  hailed  as  the  good 
genius  of  the  republic.  With  his  brother  Lu- 
cien,  then  President  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  and  the  Abb6  Sieybs,  one  of  the  Di¬ 
rectory,  aud  of  great  inlluence  in  the  Council 


of  the  Ancients,  he  conspired  for  the  overthrow 
of  the  government  and  the  establishment  of  a 
new  one.  Sieyes  induced  the  Council  of  the 
Ancients  to  place  Bonaparte  in  command  of  the 
military  of  Paris,  Nov.  9,  1799.  Then  Sieybs 
and  two  other  members  of  the  Directory  re¬ 
signed,  leaving  France  without  an  executive 
authority,  and  Bonaparte  with  its  strong  arm 
—  the  military  —  firmly  in  his  grasp.  The 
Council  of  the  Ancients,  deceived  by  a  trick, 
assembled  at  St.  Cloud  the  next  day.  Bona¬ 
parte  appeared  before  them  to  justify  his  con¬ 
duct.  Perceiving  their  enmity,  he  threatened 
them  with  arrest  by  the  military  if  they  should 
decide  against  him.  Meanwhile  Lncien  had 
read  the  letters  of  resignation  of  the  three  Di¬ 
rectors  to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  A 
scene  of  terrible  excitement  occurred.  There 
were  shouts  of  “  No  Cromwell!  no  dictator! 
the  constitution  forever!”  Bonaparte  entered 
that  chamber  with  four  grenadiers,  and  at¬ 
tempted  to  speak,  but  was  interrupted  by 
cries  and  execrations.  The  members  seemed 
about  to  offer  personal  violence  to  the  bold 
soldier,  when  a  body  of  troops  rushed  in  and 
bore  him  off.  A  motion  was  made  for  his  out¬ 
lawry,  which  Lucieir  refused  to  put,  and  left 
the  chair.  He  went  out  and  addressed  the 
soldiers.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  speech, 
Murat  entered  with  a  body  of  armed  men, 
aud  ordered  the  Council  to  disperse.  The 
members  replied  with  defiant  shouts  and  ex¬ 
ecrations.  The  drums  were  ordered  to  be 
beaten  ;  the  soldiers  levelled  their  muskets, 
wlien  all  but  about  fifty  of  the  Council  es¬ 
caped  by  the  windows.  These,  with  the  An¬ 
cients,  passed  a  decree  making  Sieyhs,  Bona¬ 
parte,  and  Ducros  Provisional  Consuls.  In 
December,  Bonaparte  was  made  First  Consul, 
or  supreme  ruler,  for  life.  New  American  en¬ 
voys  had  just  reached  Paris  at  this  crisis,  and 
very  soon  Bonaparte  concluded  an  amicable 
settlement  of  all  difficulties  between  the  two 
nations.  Peace  was  established ;  the  envoys  re¬ 
turned  home  ;  and  the  Provisional  Army  of  the 
United  States  which  had  been  organized  was 
disbanded. 

Bonliomme  Richard  and  Serapis,  Action 
between.  During  the  spring  and  summer 
of  1779,  American  cruisers  were  very  active, 
both  in  American  aud  European  waters.  At 
the  middle  of  August,  John  Paul  Jones  was 
sent  out  from  the  French  port  of  L’Orient, 
with  five  vessels,  to  the  coast  of  Scotland. 
His  flag-ship  was  the  Bonliomme  Richard.  As  he 
was  about  to  strike  some  armed  British  vessels 
in  the  harbor  of  Leith,  a  storm  arose,  which 
drove  him  into  the  North  Sea.  When  it 
ceased,  he  cruised  along  the  Scottish  coast, 
capturing  many  prizes,  and  producing  great 
alarm.  Late  in  September,  while  Jones’s 
squadron  lay  a  few  leagues  north  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Humber,  he  discovered  the  Baltic  fleet 
of  forty  merchantmen  (convoyed  by  the  Sera¬ 
pis,  a  forty-four-gun  ship,  and  the  Countess  of 
Scarborough,  of  twenty -two  guns),  stretching 
out  from  Flamborough  Head.  Jones  signalled 
for  a  chase,  and  all  but  the  Alliance,  Captain 


BOONE 


142 


BOONE 


Landais,  obeyed.  While  the  opposing  war¬ 
ships  were  manoeuvring  for  advantage,  night 
fell  upon  the  scene.  At  seven  o’clock  in  the 
evening  (Sept.  23,  1779),  one  of  the  most  des¬ 
perate  of  recorded  sea-tights  began.  The  Bon- 
homme  Richard  and  Serapis,  Captain  Pearson, 
came  so  close  to  each  other  that  their  spars 
and  rigging  became  entangled,  and  Jones  at¬ 
tempted  to  board  his  antagonist.  A  short 
contest  with  pike,  pistol,  and  cutlass  ensued, 
and  Jones  was  repulsed.  The  vessels  separat¬ 
ed,  and  were  soon  placed  broadside  to  broad¬ 
side,  so  close  that  the  muzzles  of  their  guns 
touched  each  other.  Both  vessels  were  dread¬ 
fully  shattered ;  and,  at  one  time,  the  Serapis 
was  on  tire  in  a  dozen  ydaces.  Just  as  the 
moon  rose,  at  half- past  nine  o’clock,  the  Rich¬ 
ard,  too,  caught  fire.  A  terrific  hand-to-hand 
fight  now  ensued.  Jones’s  ship,  terribly  dam¬ 
aged,  could  not  float  much  longer.  The  flames 
were  creeping  up  the  rigging  of  the  Nera/fis, 
and,  by  their  light,  Jones  saw  that  his  double¬ 
headed  shot  had  cut  the  mainmast  of  the  Sera¬ 
pis  almost  in  two.  He  hurled  another,  and 
the  tall  mast  fell.  Pearson  saw  his  great  per¬ 
il,  hauled  down  his  flag,  and  surrendered.  As 
he  handed  his  sword  to  Jones,  he  said,  in  a 
surly  tone,  “  It  is  painful  to  deliver  up  my 
sword  to  a  man  who  has  fought  with  a  rope 
around  his  neck!”  (Jones  had  been  declared  a 
pirate  by  the  British  government.)  The  king 
knighted  Pearson.  “  Well,”  observed  Jones, 
when  informed  of  this,  “he  deserves  it;  and 
if  I  fall  on  him  again,  I’ll  make  a  lord  of  him.” 
The  battle  ceased,  after  raging  three  hours. 
The  vessels  were  disengaged,  and  the  Richard 
soon  went  to  the  bottom  of  the  North  Sea. 
For  this  victory  Congress  gave  Joues  the 
thanks  of  the  nation  and  a  gold  medal. 


explore  the  forests  of  Kentucky.  There  he 
was  captured  by  some  Indians,  but  escaped, 
and  returned  home  in  1771.  In  1773  he  led  a 
party  of  settlers  to  the  wilds  he  had  explored  : 


DANIEL  BOONE. 

and  in  1774  he  conducted  a  party  of  surveyors 
to  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio  (now  Louisville).  '  He 
had  takeu  his  family  with  the  other  families 
to  Kentucky  in  1773,  where  they  were  in  per¬ 
petual  danger  from  the  barbarians  of  the  for¬ 
est.  He  had  several  fights  with  the  Indians; 
'  and  in  1775  he  built  a  fort  on  the  Kentucky 
,  River  on  the  present  site  of  Boonesborough.  iii 
1777  several  attacks  were  made  on  this  fort  by 
the  Indians.  They  were  repulsed,  but  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  1778,  Boone  was  captured  by  them,  and  tak- 
|  eu  to  Ckillicothe,  beyond  the  Ohio,  and  thence 


GOLD  MEDAL  PRESENTED  TO  PAUL  JONES. 


Boone,  Daniel,  an  American  pioneer  and 
explorer,  was  born  in  Bucks  County,  Pa.,  Feb. 
11,  1735 ;  died  at  Charette,  Mo.,  Sept.  26,  1820. 
From  his  youth  he  was  a  famous  hunten*  and, 
while  yet  a  minor,  he  emigrated,  with  his  fa¬ 
ther,  to  North  Carolina,  where  he  married. 
In  May,  1759,  Boone  and  five  others  went  to 


to  Detroit.  Adopted  as  a  son  in  an  Indian 
family,  he  became  a  favorite,  but  managed  to 
escape  in  June  following,  and  returned  to  his 
fort  and  kindred.  In  August,  about  four  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  Indians  attacked  his  fort,  which 
he  bravely  defended  with  about  fifty  men.  At 
different  times  two  of  his  sous  were  killed  by 


BOOTH 


143 


the  Indians.  Boone  accompanied  General 
Clarke  on  his  expedition  against  the  Indians 
on  the  Scioto,  in  Ohio,  in  1782,  soon  after 
a  battle  at  the  Bine  Licks.  Having  lost  his 


boose’s  fort. 


lands  in  Kentucky  in  consequence  of  a  defec¬ 
tive  title,  he  went  to  the  Missouri  country  in 
1795,  and  settled  on  the  Osage  Woman  River, 
where  he  continued  the  occupations  of  hunter 
and  trapper.  Again  he  was  deprived  of  a  large 
tract  of  land  in  Missouri,  obtained  under  the 
Spanish  authority,  by  the  title  being  declared 
invalid.  Boone’s  remains,  with  those  of  his 
wife,  rest  in  the  beautiful  public  cemetery  near 
Frankfort,  Ky.,  on  the  banks  of  the  Kentucky 
River. 

Booth,  Edwin,  son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth, 
was  born  in  Maryland  in  1833;  was  educated 
for  the  stage  by  his  father,  and  made  his  tirst 
public  appearance  in  Boston,  in  1849.  In  1851 
he  supplied  his  father’s  place  as  “  Richard  III.” 
at  the  Chatham  Theatre,  New  York.  He  made 
a  professional  tour  to  California  and  the  Sand¬ 
wich  Islands,  and,  in  18C0,  played  Shakesperian 
parts  in  New  York.  On  returning  from  Eng¬ 
land,  in  1869,  “  Booth’s  Theatre”  was  built.  In 
1882  and  early  in  1883  his  professional  career 
abroad  won  for  him  unbounded  admiration.  He 
is  regarded  as  the  leading  American  tragedian. 
His  private  life  is  spotless. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus,  a  great  tragedian, 
was  born  in  London,  May  1,  1796;  died  on  the 
Mississippi  River  while  on  a  passage  towards 
Cincinnati  from  New  Orleans,  Dec.  1,  1852. 
He  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  John  Wilkes 
(which  see).  He  joined  a  company  of  stroll¬ 
ing  players  in  England,  rose  rapidly  in  that 
profession,  and  soon  competed  successfully 
with  Edmund  Kean  in  tragedy.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1821,  and  from  that  time 
until  near  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  a  popu¬ 
lar  actor  everywhere.  His  irregular  habits 
shortened  his  life.  His  son  Edwin  has  risen 
to  the  highest  position  as  an  actor  in  tragedy. 

Border  State  Convention.  At  the  sugges¬ 
tion  of  Virginia,  a  Border  State  Convention  was 
held  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  on  March  27, 1861.  The 
Unionists  in  Kentucky  had  elected  nine  of  their 
representatives  and  the  Secessionists  one.  The 
convention  was  a  failure.  No  delegates  from 


BORGNE,  LAKE 

Virginia  appeared,  and  only  five  besides  those 
from  Kentucky.  The  venerable  John  J.  Crit¬ 
tenden  presided.  Four  of  the  five  outside  of 
Kentucky  were  from  Missouri,  and  oue  from 
Tennessee.  The  “  wrongs  of  the  South  ”  and 
the  “sectionalism  of  the  North”  were  spoken 
of  as  the  principal  cause  of  the  trouble  at  hand. 
It  condemned  rebellion,  but  did  not  ask  the  loy¬ 
al  people  to  put  it  down.  Its  chief  panacea  for 
existing  evils  was,  in  substance,  the  Crittenden 
Compromise  (which  see);  and  the  convention 
regarded  the  national  protection  and  fostering 
of  the  slave  system  as  “  essential  to  the  best 
hopes  of  our  country.” 

Borgne,  Lake,  Naval  Battle  on.  The  rev¬ 
elations  made  by  Lafitte  caused  everybody  to 
be  vigilant  at  New  Orleans.  (See  Lafitte  and  the 
Baratarians .)  Early  in  December,  1812,  Commo¬ 
dore  D.  T.  Patterson,  in  command  of  the  naval 
station  there,  was  warned,  by  a  letter  from  Pen¬ 
sacola,  of  a  powerful  British  land  and  naval 
armameut  in  the  Golf.  He  immediately  seut 
Lieutenant  Thomas  Ap  Catesby  Jones  with  five 
gunboats,  a  tender,  and  a  despatch-boat,  to 
watch  for  their  enemy.  Jones  sent  Lieutenant 
McKeever  with  two  gunboats  to  the  entrance 
of  Mobile  Bay  for  intelligence.  McKeever  dis¬ 
covered  the  British  fleet  on  Dec.  10,  and  hastened 
back  with  the  news.  In  the  afternoon  of  the 
same  day  the  fleet  appeared  near  the  entrance 
to  Lake  Borgne,  and  Jones  hastened  with  his 
flotilla  towards  Pass  Christian,  where  he  an¬ 
chored,  and  waited  the  approach  of  the  invad¬ 
ers  to  dispute  their  passage  iuto  the  lake.  He 
was  discovered  by  the  astonished  Britons  on 
the  13tli,  when  Admiral  Cochrane,  in  command 
of  the  fleet,  gave  orders  for  a  change  in  the  plan 
of  operations  against  New  Orleans.  It  wopld 
not  do  to  attempt  to  land  troops  while  the  wa¬ 
ters  of  the  lake  were  patrolled  by  American  gun¬ 
boats.  A  flotilla  of  about  sixty  barges  was  pre¬ 
pared,  the  most  of  them  carrying  a  carronade  in 
the  bow,  and  an  ample  number  of  armed  volun¬ 
teers  from  the  fleet  were  sent,  under  the  com¬ 
mand  of  Captain  Lockyer,  to  capture  or  destroy 
the  American  vessels.  Perceiving  his  danger, 
Jones,  in  obedience  to  orders,  proceeded  with 
his  flotilla  towards  the  Rigolets,  between  Lakes 
Borgne  and  Pontchartraiu.  Calm  and  currents 
prevented  his  passing  a  channel,  aud  he  anchored 
at  two  in  the  morning  of  the  14th.  Jones’s  flag¬ 
ship  was  a  little  schooner  of  eighty  tons.  The 
total  number  of  men  in  his  squadron  was  182,  and 
of  guns  23.  At  daylight  the  British  barges,  con¬ 
taining  1200  men,  bore  down  upon  Jones’s  little 
squadron.  They  had  six  oars  on  each  side,  and 
formed  in  a  long,  straight  line.  Jones  reserved 
his  fire  until  the  invaders  were  within  close 
rifle  range.  Then  McKeever  hurled  a  32-pound 
ball  over  the  water  and  a  shower  of  grapesliot, 
which  broke  the  British  line  and  made  great 
confusion.  But  the  invaders  pushed  forward, 
and  at  half-past  eleven  o’clock  the  engagement 
became  general  and  desperate.  At  oue  time 
Jones’s  schooner  was  attacked  by  fifteen  barges. 
The  British  captured  the  tender  Alligator  early 
in  the  contest ;  and  finally,  by  the  force  of  over¬ 
whelming  numbers,  they  gained  a  victory,  which 


BOSCAWEN 


144  BOSTON,  FIRST  SETTLEMENT  OF 


<iave  them  undisputed  command  of  Lake  Borgne. 
The  triumph  cost  them  about  300  men  killed  and 
wounded.  The  Americans  lost  6  men  killed  and 
35  wounded.  Among  the  latter  were  Lieuten¬ 
ants  Jones,  McKeever,  Parker,  and  Speddou. 
The  British  commander,  Lockyer,  was  severely 
wounded  ;  so,  also,  was  Lieutenant  Pratt,  the  of¬ 
ficer  wdio,  under  the  direction  of  Admiral  Cock- 
burn,  set  fire  to  the  public  buildings  in  Wash¬ 
ington  city.  Several  of  the  British  barges  were 
shattered  and  sunk.  The  lighter  transports, 
filled  with  troops,  immediately  entered  Lake 
Borgne.  Ship  after  ship  got  aground,  until  at 
length  the  troops  were  all  placed  in  small  boats 
and  conveyed  about  thirty  miles  to  Pea  Island, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Pearl  River,  where  General 
Keane  organized  his  forces  for  future  action. 
(See  Louisiana,  Invasion  of.) 

Boscawen,  Edward,  a  British  admiral,  son 
of  Viscount  Falmouth,  was  born  in  England, 
Aug.  14,  1711 ;  died,  Jan.  10,  1761.  He  was 
made  a  captain  in  the  Royal  Navy  in  March, 
1737.  Distinguished  at  Porto  Bello  and  Car- 
thagena,  he  was  promoted  to  the  command  of 
a  sixty -gun  ship  in  1744,  in  which  he  took 
the  Media.  He  signalized  himself  under  An¬ 
son  in  the  battle  off  Cape  Finisterre  in  1747, 
and  against  the  French  in  the  Indies  as  rear 
admiral  the  next  year.  He  made  himself  mas¬ 
ter  of  Madras,  and  returned  to  England  in  1751. 
Admiral  of  the  Blue,  he  commanded  an  expe¬ 
dition  against  Louisburg,  Cape  Breton,  in  1758, 
with  General  Amherst.  In  1759  he  defeated 
the  French  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  —  capt¬ 
uring  two  thousand  prisoners.  For  these  ser¬ 
vices  he  was  made  General  of  the  Marines  and 
Member  of  the  Privy  Council  ( which  see ) 
Parliament  also  granted  him  a  pension  of 
$15,000  a  year. 

Boston  and  Illicit  Trade.  From  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  war  of  1812—15  there  was  a  mis¬ 
chievous  peace  faction  (which  see),  composed 
largely  of  selfish  and  unpatriotic  politicians, 
and  confined  almost  exclusively  to  New  Eng¬ 
land,  whose  commercial  interests  had  been  ru¬ 
ined  by  the  war.  Boston  was  their  headquar¬ 
ters.  Embargo  acts  had  closed  all  American 
ports  against  the  legal  admission  of  goods  from 
abroad,  and  these  could  only  be  obtained 
through  contraband  or  illicit  trade.  Such  a 
trade  was  carried  on  extensively  at  Boston, 
where  the  magistrates  were  not  zealous  iu  the 
enforcement  of  laws  restricting  commerce. 
Smuggling  was  so  prevalent  that  it  became  al¬ 
most  respectable.  That  distinguished  citizen 
of  Boston,  Harrison  Gray  Otis,  charged  the  ad¬ 
ministration  at  Washington  and  the  war  with 
the  authorship  of  that  “  monstrous  depreciation 
of  morals”  and  “execrable  course  of  smuggling 
and  fraud,”  and  said  that  a  class  of  citizens, 
“encouraged  by  the  just  odium  against  the 
war,  sneer  at  the  restraints  of  conscience,  laugh 
at  perjury,  mock  at  legal  restraints,  and  acquire 
ill-gotten  wealth  at  the  expense  of  public  mor¬ 
als  and  the  more  sober,  conscientious  part  of 
the  community.”  Foreign  goods,  shut  out  from 
other  seaports,  found  their  way  into  Boston. 


|  Into  that  port  many  valuable  British  prizes 
were  taken  ;  and  from  these  sources  and  from 
extensive  smuggling  that  city  became  so  ple¬ 
thoric  with  foreign  goods  that  the  merchants 
of  other  cities  of  the  Union  looked  to  Boston 
for  their  regular  supplies.  Boston  became  the 
financial  centre  of  the  Republic,  and  held  that 
position  during  a  greater  part  of  the  w  ar. 

Boston  Boys,  Temper  of.  The  boys  of  Bos¬ 
ton  wrere  iu  the  habit  of  building  mounds  of 
snow  on  the  “  Common  ”  in  winter.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  soldiers,  who,  under  General  Gage,  took  pos¬ 
session  of  Boston  in  1768,  battered  down  these 
snow  structures  merely  to  annoy  the  boys.  This 
had  been  repeated  several  times,  when  a  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  larger  boys  was  held,  and  a  represen¬ 
tation  was  sent  to  General  Gage  to  remonstrate. 
“  We  come,  sir,”  said  the  tallest  boy,  “  to  demand 
satisfaction.”  “  What !”  exclaimed  Gage,  “  have 
your  fathers  been  teaching  you  rebellion  and 
sent  you  here  to  exhibit  it?”  “Nobody  sent 
us  here,  sir,”  said  the  boy,  Avhile  his  eyes  flashed 
with  indignation.  “We  have  never  insulted 
nor  injured  your  soldiers,  but  they  have  trodden 
dowm  our  snoAV-hills  and  broken  the  ice  in  our 
skating  -  grounds.  We  complained,  and  they, 
calling  us  young  rebels,  told  us  to  help  our¬ 
selves  if  wre  could.  We  told  the  captain  of  this, 
and  he  laughed  at  us.  Yesterday  our  works 
were  destroyed  for  the  third  time,  and  we  will 
bear  it  no  longer.”  Gage  admired  the  spirit  of 
the  boys,  promised  them  redress,  and,  turning  to 
an  officer,  he  said,  “  The  very  children  here  draw 
in  a  love  of  liberty  with  the  air  they  breathe.” 

Boston  First  Incorporated  a  City.  In  1822 
Boston  Avas  first  incorporated  a  city,  and  John 
Phillips  was  elected  the  first  mayor.  It  theu 
contained  about  fifty  thousand  inhabitants. 
The  first  of  May  was  appointed  by  the  charter 
the  beginning  of  its  municipal  year,  and  the 
ceremonies  of  inducting  the  mayor  and  other 
officers  into  their  official  places  were  attended 
at  Faneuil  Hall.  After  an  introductory  prayer 
by  Rev.  Dr.  Baldwin,  senior  minister  of  the  city, 
Chief-justice  Parker  administered  the  oaths  of 
allegiance  and  office  to  the  mayor-elect,  w ho  ad¬ 
ministered  similar  oaths  to  other  officers.  The 
chairman  of  the  selectmen  then  arose,  and,  after 
an  address  to  the  mayor,  delivered  to  him  the 
city  charter,  contained  in  a  superb  silver  case, 
vqtli  the  ancient  act  incorporating  the  town 
nearly  two  hundred  years  before.  Boston  is 
now  (1887)  the  fifth  city  in  the  Union  in  popu¬ 
lation,  Avhich,  in  1880,  Avas  362,839. 

Boston,  First  Settlement  of.  On  a  pen¬ 
insula  on  the  south  side  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Charles  River  (which  the  natives  called  Shaw- 
mut,  but  Avhich  the  English  named  Tri-moun¬ 
tain,  because  of  its  three  hills)  lived  William 
Blackstoue,  a  supposed  Episcopal  minister,  avIio 
Avent  there  from  Plymouth  about  1623.  (See 
Blackstoue.)  He  went  over  to  Charlestown  to 
pay  his  respects  to  Governor  Wiutlirop,  and  in¬ 
formed  him  that  upon  Shawmut  was  a  spring  of 
excellent  Avater.  He  invited  Winthrop  to  come 
over.  The  governor  with  others,  crossed  the 
river,  and  finding  the  situation  there  delightful, 


BOSTON  MASSACRE 


145 


BOSTON  NECK  FORTIFIED 


began  a  settlement  by  the  erection  of  a  few  small 
cottages.  At  a  court  held  at  Charlestown  in 
September,  1630,  it  was  ordered  that  Tri -moun¬ 
tain  should  be  called  Boston.  This  name  was 
given  in  honor  of  Rev.  John  Cotton,  vicar  of 
St.  Botolpli’s  Church  at  Boston,  in  Lincolnshire, 
England,  from  which  place  many  of  the  settlers 
came.  The  governor,  with  most  of  his  assist¬ 
ants,  removed  their  families  to  Boston,  and  it 
soon  became  the  capital  of  New  England. 

Boston  Instructs  its  Representatives.  As 

soon  as  intelligence  of  the  introduction  of  the 
Stamp  Act  into  Parliament  readied  Boston,  a 
town -meeting  was  called  (May,  1764),  and  the 
representatives  of  that  municipality  were  in¬ 
structed  to  stand  by  the  chartered  rights  of  the 
colonists;  to  oppose  every  encroachment  upon 
them  ;  to  oppose  all  taxation  then  in  contem¬ 
plation  ;  aud  concluded  by  saying,  “  As  his  Maj¬ 
esty’s  other  Northern  American  colonies  are  em¬ 
barked  with  us  in  this  most  important  bottom, 
wo  further  desire  you  to  use  your  best  endeav¬ 
ors  that  their  weight  may  be  added  to  that  of 
this  province,  and  that,  by  the  united  applica¬ 
tions  of  all  who  are  aggrieved,  all  may  happily 
obtain  redress.” 

Boston  Massacre,  Fifth  Anniversary  of 
the.  On  the  5th  of  March  each  year  the  “  Bos¬ 
ton  massacre”  was  commemorated  by  a  public 
meeting  and  an  oration.  In  1775  the  orator 
was  young  Dr.  Joseph  Warren.  Gage  regarded 
the  commemoration,  aud  especially  the  subject 
of  the  oration,  as  au  affront  to  himself  and  his 
officers,  for  it  was  on  the  baleful  effects  of  stand¬ 
ing  armies  in  times  of  peace.  The  offence  was 
heightened  because  it  was  delivered  to  the 
town  in  a  town-meeting,  contrary  to  an  act  of 
Parliament  which  Gage  was  there  to  enforce. 
Among  the  crowd  that  overflowed  the  South 
Meeting-house  were  about  forty  British  officers 
of  the  army  and  navy  Samuel  Adams  pre¬ 
sided,  and,  with  studied  courtesy,  placed  these 
officers  near  the  orator,  some  of  them  on  the 
platform.  Warren  drew  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
horrid  scenes  on  the  night  of  the  massacre.  He 
inveighed  against  the  attempt  of  Parliament  to 
tax  the  Americans  without  their  consent.  He 
alluded  to  the  “  malice  of  the  Port  Bill.”  He 
declared  that  the  sending  of  troops  to  Boston 
had  been,  in  one  respect,  beneficial  to  the  col¬ 
ony  ;  for  their  discipline  showed  the  youth  of 
America  how  to  use  arms  effectively.  “  Charles 
the  Invincible,”  ho  said,  “  taught  Peter  the  Great 
the  art  of  war  ;  the  battle  of  Pultowa  convinced 
Charles  of  the  proficiency  Peter  had  made.”  The 
whole  oration  was  a  stinging  commentary  on 
the  errand  of  the  British  troops  in  Boston. 
When,  at  the  conclusion,  a  motion  was  made 
for  the  appointment  of  an  orator  for  the  ensu¬ 
ing  year,  the  British  officers  began  to  hiss.  The 
audience  became  greatly  excited  and  threaten¬ 
ed  vengeance  for  the  insult,  but  at  the  com¬ 
mand  of  Adams  order  was  soon  restored.  The 
army  was  maddened,  and  officers  and  soldiers 
thirsted  for  revenge.  They  really  seemed  to 
try  to  provoke  the  people  into  some  act  that 
would  give  them  a  pretext  for  slaughter. 

I.— 10 


Boston  Massacre,  The  (1770).  The  British 
troops  in  Boston  were  a  continual  source  of  irri¬ 
tation.  Daily  occurrences  exasperated  the  peo¬ 
ple  against  the  soldiers.  The  words  “tyrant” 
and  “rebel”  frequently  passed  between  them. 
Finally  an  occurrence  apparently  trifling  in  it¬ 
self  led  to  riot  aud  bloodshed  in  the  streets  of 
Boston.  A  rope-maker  quarrelled  with  a  sol¬ 
dier  and  struck  him.  Out  of  this  grew  a  fight 
between  several  soldiers  and  rope-makers,  when 
the  latter  were  beaten;  and  the  event  aroused 
the  more  excitable  portion  of  the  citizens.  A 
few  evenings  afterwards  (March  5, 1770)  about 
seven  hundred  of  them  assembled  in  the  streets 
for  the  avowed  purpose  of  attacking  the  troops. 
Near  the  Custom-house  a  sentinel  was  assaulted 
with  missiles,  when  Captain  Preston,  command¬ 
er  of  the  guard,  went  to  his  rescue  with  eight 
men.  The  mob  attacked  these  soldiers  with 
stones,  pieces  of  ice,  and  other  missiles,  daring 
them  to  fire.  One  of  the  soldiers  who  received 
a  blow  fired,  and  his  companions,  mistaking  an 
order,  fired  also.  Three  of  the  populace  were 
killed  and  five  were  dangerously  wounded.  The 
leader  of  the  mob  (who  was  killed)  was  a  pow¬ 
erful  mulatto  or  Indian  named  Crispus  Attacks. 
The  mob  instantly  retreated,  when  all  the  bells 
of  the  city  rang  out  an  alarm,  and  in  less  than 
an  hour  several  thousands  of  exasperated  citi¬ 
zens  were  in  the  streets.  A  terrible  scene  of 
bloodshed  might  have  ensued  had  not  Govern¬ 
or  Hutchinson  assured  the  people  that  justice 
should  be  vindicated  in  the  morning.  They  re¬ 
tired,  but  were  firmly  resolved  not  to  endure 
military  despotism  any  longer.  The  governor 
was  called  upon  at  an  early  hour  t-o  fulfil  his 
promise.  The  people  demanded  the  instant  re¬ 
moval  of  the  troops  from  Boston  and  the  trial 
of  Captain  Preston  and  his  men  for  murder. 
Their  demands  were  complied  with.  The  troops 
were  removed  to  Castle  William  (March  12),  and 
Preston,  ably  defended  by  John  Adams  aud  Jo- 
siah  Quincy,  two  of  the  popular  leaders  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  was  tried  and  acquitted,  with  six  of  his 
men,  by  a  Boston  jury.  This  loyalty  to  justice 
and  truth,  in  the  midst  of  unreasoning  public 
excitement,  gave  the  friends  of  the  Americans 
in  England  a  powerful  argument  in  favor  of 
being  just  towards  the  colonists. 

Boston  Neck  Fortified  (1774).  Alarmed  by 
warlike  preparations  everywhere,  General  Gage 
began  to  fortify  Boston  Neck,  for  the  purpose  of 
defence  only,  as  he  declared.  The  Neck  was  a 
narrow  isthmus  that  connected  the  peninsula 
of  Shawmut,  on  which  Boston  stood,  with  the 
mainland  at  Roxbury.  He  also  removed  the 
seat  of  government  from  Salem  back  to  Boston. 
The  work  of  fortifying  went  slowly  on,  for  Brit¬ 
ish  gold  could  not  buy  the  labor  of  Boston  car¬ 
penters,  though  suffering  from  the  dreadful  de¬ 
pression,  and  workmen  had  to  be  procured  else¬ 
where.  Workmen  and  timber  shipped  at  New 
York  for  Boston  for  carrying  on  the  fortifica¬ 
tions  were  detained  by  the  “Sons  of  Liberty” 
in  the  latter  city.  Finally  the  fortifications 
were  completed,  and  became  the  source  of  great 
irritation  among  the  people.  They  stretched 
entirely  across  the  isthmus,  aud  intercourse  be- 


BOSTON  PORT  BILL 


146 


BOSTON  TEA  PARTY 


tween  the  town  and  country  was  narrowed  to  a 
passage  guarded  by  a  military  sentinel.  The 
fortifications  consisted  of  a  line  of  works  of  tim¬ 
ber  and  earth,  with  port -holes  for  cannon,  a 
strongly  built  sally-port  in  the  centre,  and  pick¬ 
ets  extending  into  the  water  at  each  end. 


governor  was  to  receive  his  salary  from  the 
crown.  They  regarded  it  as  an  infraction  of 
their  charter,  declaring  that  it  provided  for  tint 
support  of  all  the  civil  officers  of  the  colonial 
government  by  the  colony  itself,  independent  of 
the  crown.  The  governor  opposed  them.  The 


VIEW  OF  THE  LINES  ON  BOSTON  NECK. 


Boston  Port  Bill.  When  intelligence  reach¬ 
ed  London  of  the  destruction  of  tea  in  Boston 
harbor  there  was  almost  universal  indignation, 
and  the  friends  of  the  Americans  were  abashed. 
Ministerial  anger  rose  to  a  high  pitch,  and  Lord 
North  introduced  into  Parliament  (March  14, 
1774)  a  bill  providing  for  the  sliutting-up  of  the 
port  of  Boston  and  removing  the  seat  of  gov¬ 
ernment  to  Salem.  The  measure  was  popular. 
Even  Bane  and  Conway  gave  it  their  approval, 
and  the  Bostonians  removed  their  portraits  from 
Fanenil  Hall.  Violent  language  was  used  in 
Parliament  against  the  people  of  Boston.  “  They 
ought  to  have  their  town  knocked  about  their 
ears  and  destroyed,”  said  a  member,  and  con¬ 
cluded  his  tirade  of  abuse  by  quoting  the  fac¬ 
tious  cry  of  the  Romans,  “  Delemla  est  Cartha¬ 
go.”  Burke  denounced  the  bill  as  unjust,  as 
it  would  punish  the  innocent  for  the  sins  of 
the  guilty.  The  bill  was  passed  by  an  almost 
unanimous  vote,  and  became  a  law  March  31, 
1774. 

Boston  Port  Bill  in  Boston.  The  king  be¬ 
lieved  that  the  torture  which  the  closing  of  the 
port  of  Boston  (see  Boston  Port  Bill)  would  iullict 
upon  the  inhabitants  of  that  town  would  make 
them  speedily  cry  for  mercy  and  procure  uncon¬ 
ditional  obedience.  Not  so.  When  the  act  was 
received  at  Boston,  its  committee  of  correspond¬ 
ence  invited  eight  of  the  neighboring  towns  to 
a  conference  “on  the  critical  state  of  public  af¬ 
fairs.”  At  three  o’clock  on  the  afternoon  of 
May  12,  1774,  the  committees  of  Dorchester,  Rox- 
bury,  Brookline,  Newtown,  Cambridge,  Charles¬ 
town,  Lynn,  and  Lexington  joined  them  in 
Fanenil  Hall.  Samuel  Adams  was  chosen  chair¬ 
man.  They  denounced  the  Boston  Port  Act  as 
cruel  and  unjust,  by  accusing,  trying,  and  con¬ 
demning  the  town  of  Boston  without  a  hearing, 
coutrary  to  natural  right  as  well  as  the  laws  of 
civilized  nations.  The  delegates  from  the  e  ight 
towns  were  told  that  if  Boston  should  pay  for 
the  tea  (see  Boston  Tea  Party),  the  port  would 
not  be  closed  ;  but  their  neighbors  held  such  a 
measure  to  be  uncalled  for  under  the  circum¬ 
stances,  and  the  humiliating  offer  not  worthy 
to  be  thought  of.  They  nobly  promised  to  join 
“  their  suffering  brethren  in  every  measure  of 
relief.” 

Boston  Report  and  Address  on  >Salaries 
of  Crown  Officers.  In  July,  1772,  the  General 
Assembly  of  Massachusetts  expressed  their  dis¬ 
satisfaction  at  the  new  regulation,  by  which  the 


inhabitants  of  Boston  took  up  the  matter  in 
town  meeting.  They  appointed  a  committee 
who  were  instructed  to  inquire  whether  the 
regulation  complained  of  had  actually  taken 
place.  The  governor  chose  not  to  tell  them. 
They  then  requested  him  to  allow  the  General 
Court  to  meet  at  the  time  to  which  it  was  ad¬ 
journed.  The  governor  refused.  At  another 
town  meeting  (Nov.  2,  1772)  a  large  committee 
of  the  most  respectable  citizens  was  chosen  to 
state  the  rights  of  the  colonists,  and  of  those  of 
Massachusetts  in  particular;  to  communicate 
the  same  to  the  several  towns  in  the  province  ; 
and  to  request  each  town  to  communicate  to 
t lie  committee  their  sentiments  on  the  subject. 
This  was  the  origin  of  the  Massachusetts  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Correspondence  (which  see).  The 
towns  heartily  approved  the  report  and  ad¬ 
dress. 

Boston  Tea  Party,  a  popular  name  given  to 
an  occurrence  in  Boston  Harbor  in  December, 
1773.  To  compel  Great  Britain  to  be  just  tow¬ 
ards  her  American  colonies,  in  the  matter  of 
enforced  taxation  in  the  form  of  duties  upon 
articles  imported  into  the  colonies,  imposed  by 
English  navigation  laws,  the  merchants  of  the 
latter  entered  into  agreements  not  to  import 
anything  from  Great  Britain  while  such  oppres¬ 
sive  laws  existed.  The  consequence  was,  Brit¬ 
ish  manufacturers  and  shipping-merchants  felt 
the  loss  of  the  American  trade  severely.  The 
Parliament  had  declared  their  right  to  tax  the 
colonists  without  their  consent ;  the  latter  took 
the  position  that  “taxation  without  representa¬ 
tion  is  tyranny,”  and  resisted.  The  quarrel  had 
grown  hotter  and  hotter.  Some  of  the  duties 
were  removed  under  pressure ;  but  several  ar¬ 
ticles,  among  them  tea,  were  still  burdened  by 
duties  in  1773.  The  English  East  India  Com¬ 
pany  felt  the  loss  of  their  American  customers 
for  tea,  of  which  they  had  the  monopoly,  most 
severely,  and  offered  to  pay  the  government,  as 
an  export  duty,  more  than  the  threepence  a 
pound  exacted  in  America,  if  they  might  deliver 
it  there  free  of  duty.  The  government  consid¬ 
ered  itself  in  honor  bound  to  enforce  its  laws, 
just  or  unjust,  instead  of  conciliating  the  Amer¬ 
icans  by  compliance.  It  allowed  the  East  India 
Company  to  take  their  tea  to  America  on  their 
own  account  free  of  export  duty.  As  this  ar¬ 
rangement  would  enable  the  Americans  to  pro¬ 
cure  their  tea  as  cheaply  as  if  it  were  duty  free, 
the  ministry  supposed  they  would  submit.  But 
there  wras  a  principle  which  the  colonists  would 


BOSTONIANS  ,  147 


not  yield.  However  small  the  tax,  if  levied 
without  their  consent,  they  regarded  it  as  oppressive. 
They  refused  to  allow  any  cargo  of  tea  even  to 
he  landed  in  some  of  their  ports.  Vessels  were 
sent  immediately  back  with  their  cargoes  un¬ 
touched.  Two  ships  laden  with  tea  were  moored 
at  a  wharf  in  Boston,  and  the  royal  governor 
and  his  friends  attempted  to  have  their  cargoes 
lauded  in  defiance  of  the  popular  will.  An  im¬ 
mense  indignation  meeting  of  the  citizens  was 
held  in  the  Old  South  Meeting-house  (see  p.  10) ; 
and,  at  twilight,  on  a  cold  moonlit  evening,  on 
the  16th  of  December,  1773,  about  sixty  men, 
disguised  as  Indians,  rushed,  by  preconcert,  to 
the  wharf,  boarded  the  vessels,  tore  open  the 
hatches,  and  cast  three  hundred  and  forty  chests 
of  tea  into  the  waters  of  the  harbor.  The  citi- 


BOUDINOT 

signed  by  the  king  — the  act  that  dissevered 
the  realm. 

Botetourt  (Norborne  Berkeley),  Baron, 
Governor  of  Virginia,  was  born  in  Gloucester¬ 
shire,  England,  about  1717;  died  at  Williams¬ 
burg,  Va.,  Oct.  15, 1770.  But  little  is  known  of 
his  career  in  his  earlier  life.  He  was  colonel 
of  the  Gloucestershire  militia,  and  was  sum¬ 
moned  to  Parliament  as  Baron  Botetourt  (the 
title  having  been  in  abeyance  since  1406)  in 
April,  1764.  He  succeeded  Sir  Jeffrey  Amherst 
as  governor-iu-cliief  of  Virginia,  and  arrived 
there  in  November,  1768.  Having  been  instruct¬ 
ed  to  assume  great  dignity,  he  appeared  in  the 
streets  of  Williamsburg  in  a  coach,  with  guards 
and  other  insignia  of  vice-regal  pomp  ;  and  en¬ 
tered  upon  his  duties  with  a  determination  to 


CASTING  TEA  OVERBOARD  IN  BOSTON  HARBOR. 


zens  of  Boston  offered  to  pay  for  the  tea.  The 
government  punished  them  by  closing  their  port 
the  next  year  against  all  commerce  and  naviga¬ 
tion.  (See  Boston  Port  Bill.) 

Bostonians,  Slanders  against.  After  the 
destruction  of  the  tea  in  Boston  harbor,  the  most 
extravagant  stories  were  told  in  England  and 
believed  about  the  barbarism  and  perfect  un¬ 
ruliness  of  the  people  of  that  town.  Ministers 
actually  made  the  king  believe  that  they  had  a 
regular  committee  for  tarring  and  feathering 
crown  officers  and  their  friends  in  the  colony. 
The  press  was  employed  to  rouse  the  indigna¬ 
tion  of  the  people  against  the  Americans,  until 
their  zeal  for  the  maintenance  of  England’s  su¬ 
premacy  in  the  colonies  became  a  passion.  The 
merchants  and  manufacturers  were  made  to  be¬ 
lieve  that  their  command  of  the  American  mar¬ 
ket  depended  on  the  enforcement  of  the  claim 
of  parliamentary  authority  in  all  things  what¬ 
soever.  For  a  moment  Americans  seemed  hard¬ 
ly  to  have  a  friend  in  England ;  and  it  was 
under  this  cloud  that  the  Boston  Port  Bill 
(which  see)  became  a  law,  and  was  eagerly 


enforce  submission  to  parliamentary  authority. 
With  a  generous  mind  he  perceived  the  right¬ 
eousness  of  colonial  indignation  because  of  the 
taxation  schemes  of  the  ministry,  and  he  for¬ 
warded  to  England  remonstrances  of  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  people,  with  his  own  opinion, 
against  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  parliamen¬ 
tary  measures.  In  interfering  with  the  wishes 
of  the  people,  he  obeyed  instructions  rather  than 
the  promptings  of  his  own  will.  A  malarial 
fever  which  attacked  him  was  so  aggravated  by 
chagrin  because  of  the  aspect  of  political  affairs 
that  he  died  at  his  post.  The  colony  erected 
his  statue  in  front  of  the  Capitol  in  1774,  for  he 
was  generally  beloved  by  the  people.  In  1797 
it  was  removed  to  the  front  of  William  and  Mary 
College,  of  which  he  was  a  benefactor ;  and 
thence  it  was  taken  to  the  enclosure  of  the  Asy¬ 
lum  for  the  Insane  in  Williamsburg  during  the 
late  Civil  War. 

Boudinot,  Elias,  LL.D.,  of  Huguenot  descent, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  May  2,  1740;  died  at 
Burlington,  N.  J.,  Oct.  24,  1821.  He  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  New  Jersey,  and  was  an  early 


BOUNDARIES 


148 


BOUNDARY 


advocate  of  freedom  for  tlie  American  colonies. 
Congress  appointed  him  commissary -general  of 
prisoners,  in  1777  ;  and  during  the  same  year  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  that  body.  He  became 
its  president  in  1782,  and  as  such  he  signed  the 
ratification  of  the  treaty  of  peace.  Mr.  Boudi- 
not  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  1789.  In 
1796  Washington  appointed  him  superintend¬ 
ent.  of  the  mint,  which  position  he  held  until 
1805,  when  be  resigned  all  public  employments, 
and  retired  to  Burlington.  On  becoming  trustee 
of  the  college  at  Princeton  in  1805,  he  endowed 
it  with  a  valuable  cabinet  of  natural  history. 
Mr.  Boudinot  took  great  interest  in  foreign  mis¬ 
sions,  and  became  a  member  of  the  board  of 
commissioners  in  1812 ;  and  in  1816  he  was  cho¬ 
sen  the  first  president  of  the  American  Bible 
Society  (which  see),  to  both  of  which  and  to 
benevolent  institutions  he  made  munificent  do¬ 
nations.  Dr.  Boudinot  was  the  author  of  The 
Age  of  Revelation  ;  Second  Advent  of  the  Messiah  ; 
and  Star  in  the  TTest,  or  an  Attempt  to  Discover  the 
Long-lost  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Boundaries,  The,  between  Connecticut  and 
New  Netherlaud  settled.  On  Sept.  19, 1650,  Peter 
Stuyvesant,  Governor  of  New  Netherlaud,  ar¬ 
rived  at  Hartford,  and  demanded  of  the  com¬ 
missioner  of  the  Connecticut  colony  a  full  sur¬ 
render  of  the  lands  on  the  Connecticut  River. 
After  a  consultation  for  several  days,  it  was 
agreed  to  leave  the  matter  to  arbitrators.  The 
commissioner  chose  Simon  Bradstreet,  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  and  Thomas  Prince,  of  Plymouth  ; 
Stuyvesant  chose  Thomas  Willett  and  George 
Baxter,  both  Englishmen.  It  was  agreed  that 
on  Long  Island  a  line  should  be  drawn  from  the 
westernmost  part  of  Oyster  Bay  straight  to  the 
sea  ;  the  easterly  part  to  belong  to  the  English, 
the  remainder  to  the  Dutch.  On  the  mainland 
a  line  should  begin  at  the  west  side  of  Green¬ 
wich  Bay,  about  four  miles  from  Stamford,  and 
run  northerly  twenty  miles;  and  beyond  that 
distance,  as  it  should  be  agreed  by  the  two  gov¬ 
ernments  of  the  Dutch  and  New  Haven,  pro¬ 
vided  that  line  should  not  come  within  ten  miles 
of  Hudson’s  River.  It  was  also  agreed  that  the 
Dutch  should  not  build  a  house  within  six 
miles  of  the  dividing  line. 

Boundary,  The,  between  New  Netherlands 
and  Maryland.  In  1659  a  deputation  arrived 
at  New  Amsterdam  from  Maryland  to  present 
the  claim  of  Lord  Baltimore  to  the  whole  terri¬ 
tory  of  the  “  South  River,”  or  Delaware,  to  forty 
degrees  north  latitude.  The  Dutch  resorted  to 
negotiation  instead  of  a  hopeless  open  resist¬ 
ance  by  arms,  though  the  courageous  Stuyvesant 
was  disposed  to  do  so.  After  much  discussion 
the  Baltimore  patent  was  shown  to  the  com¬ 
missioners,  in  which  was  a  clause  limiting  the 
proprietor’s  grant  to  lands  hitherto  uncultivat¬ 
ed  and  inhabited  only  by  Indians.  The  Dutch 
commissioners  rested  their  case  on  this  clause. 
They  argued  that  the  South  River  (Delaware) 
region  was  distinctly  excluded  from  Lord  Bal¬ 
timore’s  patent  by  its  own  terms,  inasmuch  as 
when  the  grant  was  made  that  country  had 
been  purchased  of  the  Indians  by  the  Dutch 


some  time  before.  The  argument  wras  unan¬ 
swerable.  Here  the  controversy  about,  jurisdic¬ 
tion  ceased,  but  the  matter  was  never  adjusted 
between  the  Dutch  and  English. 

Boundary,  The,  between  New  York  and  Con¬ 
necticut  was  long  a  subject  of  dispute,  and  has 
not  been  definitely  settled  with  exactness.  On 
the  surrender  of  New  Netherland  to  the  English 
(1664)  and  the  change  of  its  name  to  New  York, 
the  commissioners  to  whom  the  conquest  of  the 
Dutch  province  and  the  settlement  of  troubles 
in  New  England  had  been  intrusted,  proceeded 
to  define  the  boundary  between  the  two  colo¬ 
nies.  It  was  decided  that  the  boundary  should 
be  twenty  miles  east  of  the  Hudson  River  and 
run  parallel  to  it.  It  was  determined  that  the 
line  should  run  N.N.W.  from  tide-water  on  the 
Mamaroueck  to  the  southern  limits  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts;  but  it  was  found  that  this  line  would 
cross  the  Hudson  in  the  Highlands  and  not  run 
parallel  with  it — certainly  not  twenty  miles  east 
of  it.  The  commissioners  reversed  their  deci¬ 
sion,  and  the  controversy  was  renewed.  In  1683 
another  boundary  commission  was  appointed. 
It.  was  finally  agreed  to  allow  New  York  the 
whole  of  Long  Island  and  all  the  islands  in  the 
Sound  to  within  a  few  rods  of  the  Connecticut 
shore,  and  Connecticut  to  extend  her  boundaries 
west  along  the  Sound  to  a  point  within  about 
fifteen  miles  of  the  Hudson,  the  strip  extending 
an  average  of  about  eight  miles  north  of  the 
Sound ;  New  York  to  receive  a  compensation  in 
the  north  by  the  surrender  of  a  narrow'  tract  of 
61,440  acres,  called  “  The  Oblong,”  by  Connecti¬ 
cut.  The  lines  were  established  in  1731;  but 
the  exact  line  remaining  a  subject  of  dispute, 
commissioners  were  appointed  in  1856  to  fix  it, 
but  they  failed  to  agree.  (See  New  York.) 

Boundary,  The,  between  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland.  In  1733  the  proprietary  of  Maryland 
agreed  with  the  heirs  of  Penn  that  the  boun¬ 
dary-line  between  their  respective  provinces  and 
Delaware  should  be  as  follow's:  For  the  south¬ 
ern  boundary  of  Delaware,  a  line  commencing 
at  Cape  Henlopen,  to  be  drawn  due  west  from 
Delaware  Bay  to  the  Chesapeake.  The  wrest 
boundary  of  Delaware  was  to  be  a  tangent 
drawn  from  the  middle  point  of  this  line  to  a 
circle  of  twelve  miles  radius  around  New  Castle. 
A  due  west  line,  continued  northward  to  a  par¬ 
allel  of  latitude  fifteen  miles  south  of  Philadel¬ 
phia,  was  to  be  the  southern  boundary  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania.  On  his  arrival  in  Maryland,  the  pro¬ 
prietary,  on  the  plea  of  misrepresentation,  re¬ 
fused  to  be  bound  by  this  agreement.  He  pe- 
tioned  the  king  to  be  confirmed  in  possessioii  of 
the  whole  peninsula  between  the  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  Bays.  The  boundary  was  finally 
determined  (see  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line )  sub¬ 
stantially  in  accordance  with  the  original  agree¬ 
ment. 

Boundary,  The,  between  the  provinces  of 
New  York  and  Massachusetts  was  a  subject  of 
long  dispute.  It  was  finally  settled  in  1773  by 
commissioners  respectively  appointed  by  Gov¬ 
ernors  Tryon  of  New  York  and  Hutchinson  of 
Massachusetts.  These  magistrates  attended  the 


149 


BOWDOIN 


BOUNDBROOK,  ACTION  AT 

convention  held  for  the  purpose  at  Hartford  in 
May,  1773,  and,  with  the  commissioners,  signed 
the  agreement. 

Boundbrook,  Action  at.  A  considerable 
force  under  General  Lincoln,  detached  to  guard 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Raritau  River,  in  New 
Jersey,  was  stationed  at  Boundbrook  in  April, 
1777.  It  was  not  far  from  a  British  post  at  New 
Brunswick.  Owing  to  the  negligence  of  a  mili¬ 
tia  guard,  Lincoln  came  near  being  surprised  by 
a  detachment  under  Cornwallis,  which  marched 
out  of  New  Brunswick  (April  13)  and  fell  sud¬ 
denly  upon  the  Americans.  The  latter,  after  a 
sharp  action,  escaped  with  the  loss  of  twenty 
men,  twTo  pieces  of  artillery,  and  some  baggage. 

Bouquet,  Henry,  was  born  at  Ralle,  Switzer¬ 
land,  in  1719  ;  died  at  Pensacola,  Fla.,  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  1766.  In  1748  he  was  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  Swiss  Guard  in  the  service  of  Holland; 
and  he  entered  the  English  service  with  the 
same  rank  in  1756.  In  1762  he  was  made  colo¬ 
nel,  and  in  1765  brigadier -general.  Bouquet 
was  active  in  Western  Pennsylvania  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  operations  against  Fort  Duquesne 
(which  see)  ;  also  in  relieving  Fort  Pitt  in  1763. 
(See  Pontiac's  War.)  In  1764  he  subdued  the  Ohio 
Indians,  and  compelled  the  Shawnoese  and  Dela¬ 
wares  to  make  peace.  (See  Bouquet's  Expedition.) 
Dr.  William  Smith,  of  Philadelphia,  wrote  a  his¬ 
tory  of  this  expedition,  and  published  it  in  1765, 
with  plates  and  a  map. 

Bouquet  River,  Burgoyne  at.  Burgoyne, 
on  his  way  up  Lake  Champlain,  landed  some  of 
his  troops,  encamped  (June  21, 1777)  at  the  falls 
of  the  Bouquet  River  (now  Willsborough,  Essex 
Co.,  N.  Y.),  and  there  gave  a  wrar-feast  to  about 
four  hundred  Indians  (Algonquins,  Iroquois,  and 
Ottawas),  who  were  accompanied  by  Roman 
Catholic  priests.  They  had  come  to  join  the 
British  army  in  the  campaign.  Burgoyne  made 
a  speech  to  them,  in  which  he  tried  to  soften 
their  savagism  and  restrain  their  ferocious  thirst 
for  blood.  At  the  same  time  he  exhorted  them 
to  fight  valiantly  for  the  king.  These  Indians 
promised  much,  but  performed  little. 

Bouquet’s  Expedition.  During  Pontiac’s 
W  ar  (which  see ),  Fort  Pitt  (now  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.)  was  in  imminent  danger,  and  Colonel 
Bouquet  was  sent  to  its  relief.  He  arrived  at 
Fort  Bedford,  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  on  July 
25,  1763,  in  the  neighborhood  of  w  hich  eighteen 
persons  had  been  made  prisoners  or  scalped  by 
the  Indians.  The  barbarians  were  then  besieg¬ 
ing  Fort  Pitt.  So  soon  as  they  heard  of  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  Bouquet,  they  raised  the  siege  with 
the  intention  of  meeting  and  attacking  him. 
Uncertain  of  their  strength  and  motives,  Bou¬ 
quet  left  Fort  Bedford  and  went  to  Fort  Ligo- 
nier,  Avhere  he  left  his  wagons  and  stores,  and 
pushed  on  towards  Fort  Pitt,  with  the  troops 
in  light  marching  order,  and  340  pack- horses 
carrying  Hour.  On  Aug.  5  his  advanced  guard 
Avas  attacked  near  Bushy  Run  by  Indians  in 
ambuscade,  who  Avere  driven  some  distance  by 
the  troops.  The  barbarians  returned  to  the  at¬ 
tack,  and  a  general  action  ensued,  the  Indians 
being  continually  repulsed  and  then  returning  i 


to  the  fight.  They  were  finally  driven  from 
their  posts  wfith  fixed  bayonets  and  dispersed. 
They  rallied,  and  the  next  morning  surrounded 
Bouquet’s  camp.  After  a  severe  conflict,  they 
were  again  dispersed.  In  these  engagements 
the  English  lost  fifty  killed  and  sixty  Avounded. 
Colonel  Bouquet  reached  Fort  Pitt  four  days 
afterwards,  and  the  campaign  was  closed. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  mathe¬ 
matician  and  astronomer,  was  born  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  March  26,1773;  died  in  Boston  March  16, 
1838.  With  meagre  education,  he  learned  the 


business  of  a  ship-chandler,  and  then  spent  nine 
years  on  the  sea,  attaining  the  rank  of  master. 
With  great  native  talent  and  equal  industry,  he 
became  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  science  of  his 
time.  While  he  was  yet  on  the  sea  he  publish¬ 
ed  (1800)  his  Practical  Navigator.  He  made  the 
first  entire  translation  into  English  of  La  Place’s 
Mecanique  Celeste ,  and  published  it,  in  four  vol¬ 
umes,  in  1829,  with  most  A’aluable  commentaries, 
in  which  were  recorded  the  more  recent  discov¬ 
eries  in  astronomy.  It  was  estimated  that  there 
Avere  at  that  time  only  two  or  three  persons  in 
America,  and  not  more  than  tAvelve  in  Great 
Britain,  who  were  able  to  read  the  original  Avork 
critically.  La  Place  added  much  to  his  work 
many  years  after  it  was  published.  Bowditch 
translated  this  supplement ;  and  it  has  been 
published,  as  a  fifth  volume,  under  the  editorial 
care  of  Professor  Benjamin  Peirce,  with  an  elab¬ 
orate  commentary.  Bowditch  had  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  various  languages,  and  drew  his 
great  store  of  knowledge  from  many  sources. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  principal  scientific 
societies  in  Europe. 

Bowdoin,  James,  was  Governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  at  the  time  of  Shays’s  Insurrection  (which 
see).  He  Avas  a  descendant  of  Pierre  Bowdoin, 
a  Huguenot  who  fled  to  America  from  persecu¬ 
tion  in  France.  He  was  born  in  Boston,  Aug.  8, 
1727;  died  Nov.  6, 1790.  He  graduated  at  Har¬ 
vard  in  1745,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Court,  a  senator  of  Massachusetts,  and  a 
councillor.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the  colo¬ 
nists,  was  President  of  the  Massachusetts  Coun¬ 
cil  in  1775,  and  Avas  chosen  president  of  the  con¬ 
vention  that  framed  the  state  constitution.  He 
succeeded  Hancock  as  governor  of  the  state. 
By  vigorous  measures  he  soon  suppressed  the 


BOWYER.  FORT  150  BOYDTON  PLANK-ROAD.  BATTLE  OF 


rebellion  led  by  Daniel  Shays.  His  son  James, 
born  Sept.  22,  1752,  and  died  Oct.  11,  1811,  also 
graduated  at  Harvard  (1771),  and  afterwards 
spent  a  year  at  Oxford.  He  was  minister  to 
Spain  from  1805  to  1808 ;  and  while  in  Paris 
lie  purchased  an  extensive  library,  philosoph¬ 
ical  apparatus,  and  a  collection  of  paintings, 
which,  with  a  tine  cabinet  of  minerals,  he  left 
at  his  death  to  Bowdoiu  College,  Maine,  so 
named  in  honor  of  li is  father.  He  bad  before 
made  a  donation  to  tlie  college  of  one  thousand 
acres  of  land  and  more  than  $5000  in  money. 
By  his  will  he  also  gave  the  college  six  thou¬ 
sand  acres  of  land  and  the  reversion  of  the  Isl¬ 
and  of  Naushon,  one  of  the  Elizabeth  Islands 
(which  see),  in  Buzzard’s  Bay,  where  be  died. 

Bowyer,  Fort,  Attack  upon  (1814).  At  the 
entrance  to  Mobile  Bay,  thirty  miles  from  the 
village  of  Mobile,  was  Fort  Bowyer  (now  Fort 
Morgau),  occupying  the  extremity  of  a  narrow 
cape  on  the  eastern  side  of  that  entrance,  and 
commanding  the  channel  between  it  and  Fort 
Dauphin  opposite.  It  was  a  small  work,  in 
semicircular  form  towards  the  channel,  with¬ 
out  bomb  -  proofs,  and  mounting  only  twenty 
guns,  nearly  all  of  them  12-pounders.  It  was 
the  chief  defence  of  Mobile  ;  and  in  it  Jack- 
son,  on  his  return  from  Pensacola,  placed  Major 
William  Lawrence  and  130  men.  On  Sept.  12, 
1814,  a  British  squadron  appeared  off  Mobile 
Point  with  land  troops,  and  very  soon  Lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel  Nichols  appeared  in  rear  of  the  fort 
with  a  few  marines  and  600  Indians.  The  squad¬ 
ron  consisted  of  the  Hermes ,  22  guns  ;  Sophia,  18 ; 
Caron,  20;  and  Anaconda,  18 — The  whole  under 
Captain  Percy,  the  commander  of  a  squadron  of 
nine  vessels  which  Jackson  drove  from  Pensa¬ 
cola  Bay.  (See  Pensacola,  1814.)  By  a  skilful 
use  of  his  twenty  cannon,  Lawrence  dispersed 
parties  who  tried  to  cast  up  intrenchmeuts  and 
sound  the  channel.  Early  in  the  afternoon  of 
the  15th  the  British  began  an  attack  on  land 
and  water.  The  garrison  adopted  as  the  signal 
for  the  day  “  Don’t  give  up  the  fort.”  A  tierce 
and  general  battle  ensued,  and  continued  until 
half-past  five  o’clock,  when  the  flag  of  the  Her¬ 
mes  was  shot  away.  Lawrence  ceased  firing  to 
ascertain  whether  she  had  surrendered.  This 
humane  act  was  answered  by  a  broadside  from 
another  vessel.  A  raking  fire  soon  disabled  the 
Hermes.  At  length  the  flagstaff  of  the  fort  was 
shot  away,  when  the  ships  redoubled  their  fire. 
Supposing  the  fort  had  surrendered,  the  British 
leader  on  land  assailed  it  with  his  Indians.  He 
was  soon  undeceived.  They  were  driven  back 
by  a  terrible  storm  of  grape-shot,  and  fled  in  ter¬ 
ror.  The  battered  ships  withdrew,  all  but  the 
Hermes.  She  was  set  on  tire  by  her  friends,  and 
at  midnight  her  magazine  exploded.  The  Brit¬ 
ish,  who  had  brought  to  bear  upon  Fort  Bowyer 
92  pieces  of  artillery,  and  arrayed  over  1300  men 
against  a  garrison  of  130,  were  repulsed  with  a 
loss  of  232  men,  of  whom  162  were  killed.  The 
loss  of  the  Americans  was  four  men  killed  and 
four  wounded. 

Bowyer,  Fort,  Surrender  of.  When  the 
British  left  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans  (Jan. 


19, 1815)  they  proceeded  to  attack  Fort  Bowyer, 
yet  commanded  by  Major  Lawrence.  They  be¬ 
sieged  it  nearly  two  days,  when  the  commander 
was  compelled,  by  a  superior  force,  to  surrender 
it.  The  British  were  about  to  attack  defence¬ 
less  Mobile,  when  news  of  peace  caused  the  ar¬ 
rest  of  further  attempt  at  conquest. 

Boyd,  John  Parker,  was  born  at  Newbury  - 
port,  Mass.,  Dec.  21,  1768;  died  in  Boston  Oct.  4, 
1830.  He  entered  the  military  service  of  the 
United  States  in  1786,  but  soon  afterwards  went 


JOHN  PARKER  BOYD. 


to  the  East  Indies  and  entered  the  Mahratta  ser¬ 
vice,  in  which  he  lose  to  the  rank  of  commander, 
and  at  one  time  led  ten  thousand  men.  He  first 
raised  three  battalions  of  five  hundred  men  each, 
with  a  few  English  officers, 'whom,  as  well  as  his 
men,  he  hired,  at  a  certain  amount  a  month,  to 
any  of  the  Indian  princes  who  needed  their  ser¬ 
vices.  Their  equipment,  including  guns  and  el¬ 
ephants,  was  at  his  own  expense.  He  was  at 
one  time  in  the  pay  of  Holkar,  in  the  Peishawa’s 
service,  and  afterwards  in  that  of  Neham  Ali 
Khan.  Arriving  at  Madras  in  July,  1789,  he  was 
given,  by  the  ruler,  the  command  of  ten  thousand 
men.  When  demands  for  his  services  almost 
ceased,  he  sold  out  and  went  to  Paris.  In  1808 
he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  re-entered 
the  army  as  colonel  of  the  Fourth  Infantry  on 
Oct.  7  of  that  year.  In  that  capacity  he  was 
distinguished  in  the  battle  at  Tippecanoe  (which 
see),  Nov.  7, 1811.  Boyd  was  commissioned  brig¬ 
adier-general  Aug. 26, 1812.  He  was  in  command 
of  fifteen  hundred  men  in  the  expedition  down 
the  St.  Lawrence  in  1813 ;  and  fought  bravely  at 
Chrysler’s  Field,  in  Canada,  Nov.  11, 1813.  (See 
Chrysler’s  Field.)  He  led  his  brigade  in  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  Fort  George,  Upper  Canada.  General 
Bovd  was  Naval  Officer  at  the  port  of  Boston  in 
1830. 

Boydton  Plank  -  road,  Battle  of  ( 1864 ). 
Since  the  possession  of  the  Weldon  road  (which 
see)  by  the  Nationals,  the  Boydton  plank-road 


BRACETI,  BATTLE  OF 


151 


BRADDOCIv’S  DEFEAT 


had  become  the  chief  channel  of  communica¬ 
tion  for  Lee  in  that  quarter,  and  he  had  ex¬ 
tended  his  iutrenchments  along  its  line  to  the 
vicinity  of  Hatcher’s  Run.  The  corps  of  War¬ 
ren  and  Parke  were  sent  to  assail  the  extreme 
right  of  these  iutrenchments,  while  Hancock’s 
corps  and  Gregg’s  cavalry,  well  towards  its 
left,  should  swing  around  to  the  west  side  of 
Hatcher’s  Run,  sweep  across  the  Boydton  road, 
and  seize  the  Southside  Railway.  The  Boydton 
road  was  a  few  miles  west  of  the  Weldon  Rail¬ 
way.  The  movement  began  on  the  morning 
of  Oct.  27,  1864,  and  at  nine  o’clock  the  Con¬ 
federate  line  was  struck,  but  it  was  not  bro¬ 
ken.  Warren’s  corps  made  its  way  to  the  west 
of  Hatcher’s  Run  to  gain  the  Confederate  rear. 
Crawford’s  division  got  entangled  and  broken 
in  an  almost  impassable  swamp.  An  attempt 
of  a  part  of  Howard’s  corps  to  form  a  junction 
with  Crawford’s  troops  was  defeated  by  the 
tangled  swamp.  These  movements  had  been 
eagerly  watched  by  the  Confederates.  Hetli 
was  sent  by  Hill  to  strike  Hancock.  It  was 
done  at  four  o’clock,  P.M.  The  blow  first  fell 
upon  Pierce’s  brigade,  and  it  gave  way,  leav¬ 
ing  two  guns  behind.  The  Confederates  were 
pursuing,  when  they,  in  turn,  were  struck  by 
the  Nationals,  driven  back,  and  the  two  guns 
recaptured.  Full  one  thousand  Confederates 
were  made  prisoners.  Others,  in  their  flight, 
rushed  into  Crawford’s  lines,  and  two  hundred 
of  them  were  made  prisoners.  Meanwhile 
Hancock  had  been  sorely  pressed  on  his  left 
and  rear  by  five  brigades  under  Wade  Hamp¬ 
ton.  Gregg  fought  them,  and  with  infantry 
supports  maintained  his  ground  until  dark. 
In  these  encounters  Hancock  lost  about  fif¬ 
teen  hundred  men,  and  the  Confederates  about 
an  equal  number.  Hancock  withdrew  at  mid¬ 
night,  and  the  whole  National  force  retired  be¬ 
hind  their  intrenchments  at  Petersburg.  The 
movement  was  intended  to  favor  Butler’s  oper¬ 
ations  on  the  north  side  of  the  James  River. 
(See  Fort  Harrison.) 

Braceti,  or  Brazito,  Battle  of  (1846).  Colo¬ 
nel  Alexander  W.  Doniphan,  in  command  of 
one  thousand  mounted  volunteers  from  Mis¬ 
souri,  was  detached  from  General  Kearney’s 
command  for  independent  service.  In  No¬ 
vember,  1846,  he  marched  towards  Chihuahua, 
Mexico,  after  forcing  the  Navajo  Indians  to 
make  a  treaty  of  peace.  His  object  was  to 
join  the  forces  under  General  Wool.  At  Bra¬ 
ceti,  or  Brazito,  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  del 
Norte,  not  far  from  El  Paso,  he  was  attacked, 
in  his  camp,  by  a  large  Mexican  force  (Dec.  22) 
under  General  Ponce  de  Leon,  who  sent  a  black 
flag,  bearing  the  device  of  a  skull  and  cross- 
bones,  to  the  American  commander,  with  the 
message,  “We  will  neither  take  nor  give  quar¬ 
ter.”  Doniphan  was  surprised,  and  his  men 
had  not  time  to  saddle  their  horses  before  the 
foe  —  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery — assailed 
them.  Doniphan  hastily  drew  up  his  men  in 
front  of  his  camp.  The  Mexicans  fired  three 
rounds  in  quick  succession,  and  the  Missouri¬ 
ans  all  fell  upon  their  faces.  The  Mexicans, 
supposing  them  all  bo  bo  slain,  rushed  forward 


fo  plunder  the  dead,  when  the  Americans  sud¬ 
denly  arose,  poured  deadly  volleys  from  their 
rifles,  killed  about  two  hundred  of  the  foe, 
seized  their  cannon,  and  dispersed  the  whole 
body  of  the  assailants. 

Braddock,  Death  of.  Competent  testimony 
seems  to  prove  that  General  Braddock,  who 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle  of  the 
Monongahela  (July  9, 1755)  was  shot  by  Thom¬ 
as  Faucett,  one  of  the  provincial  soldiers.  His 
plea  in  extenuation  of  the  crime  was  self-pres¬ 
ervation.  Braddock,  who  had  spurned  the  ad¬ 
vice  of  Washington  about  the  method  of  fight¬ 
ing  Indians,  had  issued  a  positive  order  that 
none  of  the  English  should  protect  themselves 
behind  trees,  as  the  French  and  Indians  did. 
Faucett’s  brother  had  taken  such  a  position, 
and  when  Braddock  perceived  it,  he  struck 
him  to  the  earth  with  his  sword.  Thomas,  on 
seeing  his  brother  fall,  shot  Braddock  in  the 
back,  and  then  the  provincials,  fighting  as 
they  pleased,  were  saved  from  utter  destruc¬ 
tion. 

Braddock,  General  Edward,  born  in  Perth¬ 
shire,  Scotland  ;  died  July  13,  1755.  Entered 
the  army  as  ensign  in  the  Coldstream  Guards. 
He  served  in  the  wars  in  Flanders,  received  a 


GENERAL  EDWARD  BRADDOCK. 


commission  as  brigadier- general  in  1746,  and 
major-general  in  March,  1754.  He  arrived  in 
Virginia  in  February,  1755;  conducted  an  ex¬ 
pedition  against  Fort  Duquesne,  and  was  mor¬ 
tally  wounded  in  battle  (it  is  believed  by  one 
of  his  own  men)  in  July.  (See  JBraddock’s  De¬ 
feat.  )  General  Braddock  was  haughty  and 
egotistical,  and  his  private  character  was  not 
good,  he  being  known  as  a  gambler  and  spend¬ 
thrift. 

Braddoclt’s  Defeat.  General  Edward  Brad¬ 
dock,  in  command  of  an  expedition  against 
Fort  Duquesne,  commenced  his  march  from 


BRADFORD 


152 


BRADSTREET 


Will's  Creek  (Cumberland,  Md.),  June  10,  1755, 
with  about  two  thousand  men,  regulars  and 
provincials.  Anxious  to  reach  his  destination 
before  Fort  Duquesne  should  receive  reinforce¬ 
ments,  he  made  forced  marches  with  twelve 
hundred  men,  leaving  Colonel  Dunbar,  his  sec¬ 
ond  in  command,  to  follow  with  the  remainder 
and  the  wagon-train.  On  the  morning  of  July 
9  the  little  army  forded  the  Monongahela  Riv¬ 
er,  and  advanced  in  solid  platoons  along  the 
southern  shores  of  that  stream.  Washington 
saw  the  perilous  arrangement  of  the  troops 
after  the  fashion  of  European  tactics,  and  he 
ventured  to  advise  Braddock  to  disperse  his 
army  in  open  order  and  employ  the  Indian 
mode  of  fighting  in  the  forests.  The  haughty 
general  angrily  replied,  “What!  a  provincial 
colonel  teach  a  British  general  how  to  fight!” 
The  army  moved  on,  recrossed  the  river  to  the 
north  side,  and  were  marching  in  fancied  secu¬ 
rity  at  about  noon,  when  they  were  suddenly 
assailed  by  volleys  of  bullets  and  clouds  of  ar¬ 
rows  on  their  front  and  flanks.  They  had  fall¬ 
en  into  an  ambush,  against  which  Washington 
had  vainly  warned  Braddock.  The  assailants 
were  French  regulars,  Canadians,  and  Indians, 
less  than  one  thousand  in  number,  under  De 
Beaujen,  who  had  been  sent  from  Fort  Du¬ 
quesne  by  Contrecceur  (see  Duquesne,  Fort),  and 
who  fell  at  the  first  onslaught.  The  sudden¬ 
ness  of  the  attack  and  the  horrid  war-whoop 
of  the  Indians,  which  the  British  regulars  had 
never  heard  before,  disconcerted  them,  and 
they  fell  into  great  confusion.  Braddock,  see¬ 
ing  the  peril,  took  the  front  of  the  fight,  and 
by  voice  and  example  encouraged  his  men. 
For  more  than  two  hours  the  battle  raged 
fearfully^  Of  eighty-six  English  officers  six¬ 
ty-three  were  killed  or  wounded;  so,  also,  were 
one  half  the  private  soldiers.  All  of  Brad- 
dock’s  aids  were  disabled  excepting  Washing¬ 
ton,  who,  alone  unhurt,  distributed  the  gen¬ 
eral’s  orders.  Braddock  had  five  horses  shot 
under  him,  and  finally  he,  too,  fell,  mortally 
wounded.  (See  Braddock,  Death  of.)  The  pro¬ 
vincials  fought  bravely,  and  nearly  all  were 
killed.  The  remnant  of  the  regulars  broke  and 
fled  when  Braddock  fell.  Washington,  who 
was  left  in  chief  command,  perceiving  the  day 
was  lost,  rallied  the  few  provincial  troops,  and, 
carrying  with  him  his  dying  general,  gallantly 
covered  the  retreat.  The  enemy  did  not  pur¬ 
sue.  The  British  left  their  cannons  and  their 
dead  on  the  battle-field.  Three  days  after  the 
battle,  Braddock  died,  and  was  buried  in  the 
forest  more  than  fifty  miles  from  Cumberland. 
Washington,  surrounded  by  sorrowing  officers, 
read  the  funeral  service  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  by  torch-light  at  his  grave.  (See  French 
and  Indian  (Far.) 

Bradford,  William,  first  printer  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  and  New  York,  was  born  at  Leicester, 
England,  in  1659 ;  died  in  New  York,  May  23, 
1752.  A  Friend,  or  Quaker,  he  came  to  Ameri¬ 
ca  with  Penn’s  early  colonists  in  1682,  and  land¬ 
ed  near  the  spot  where  Philadelphia  was  after¬ 
wards  built.  He  had  learned  the  printer’s  trade 
in  London,  and,  in  1686,  he  printed  an  almanac 


in  Philadelphia.  Mixed  up  in  a  political  and 
social  dispute  in  Pennsylvania,  and  suffering 
thereby,  he  removed  to  New  York  in  1693,  and 
in  that  year  printed  the  laws  of  that  colony. 
He  began  the  first  newspaper  in  New  York, 
Oct.  16,  1725 — the  New  York  Gazette.  He  was 
printer  to  the  government  of  New  York  more 
than  fifty  years,  and  for  thirty  years  the  only 
one  in  the  province. 

Bradford,  William,  Governor  of  Plymouth 
Colony,  was  a  passenger  in  the  Mayflower. 
He  was  born  at  Austertield,  Yorkshire,  Eng¬ 
land,  in  March,  1588;  died  at  Plymouth,  New 
England,  May  9,  1657.  At  the  early  age  of 
seventeen  years  he  made  an  attempt  to  leave 
England  with  dissenters,  for  Holland  (see  Pil¬ 
grim  Fathers ),  and  suffered  imprisonment.  He 
finally  joined  his  dissenting  brethren  at  Am¬ 
sterdam,  learned  the  art  of  silk -dyeing,  and, 
coming  into  the  possession  of  a  considerable 
estate  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  he  en¬ 
gaged  successfully  in  commerce.  One  of  Mr. 
Robinson’s  congregation  at  Leyden,  he  accom¬ 
panied  the  “Pilgrims”  to  America,  and  was 
one  of  the  foremost  in  selecting  a  site  for 
the  colony.  Before  the  “Pilgrims”  landed,  his 
wife  fell  into  the  sea  from  the  Mayflower,  and 
was  drowned.  He  succeeded  *John  Carver 
(April  5,  1621)  as  Governor  of  Plymouth  Col¬ 
ony.  He  cultivated  friendly  relations  with 
the  Indians ;  and  he  was  annually  rechosen 
governor  as  long  as  he  lived,  excepting  in  five 
years.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Plymouth  colo¬ 
ny  from  1620  to  1647,  which  was  published  by 
the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  in  1856. 

Bradstreet,  John,  was  born  in  1711 ;  died 
in  New  York  city,  Sept.  25, 1774.  He  was  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel  of  Pepperell’s  regiment  in  the 
expedition  against  Louisburg  in  1745  ;  and  in 
September,  the  same  year,  he  was  made  a  cap¬ 
tain  of  a  regular  regiment.  The  following 
year  he  was  appointed  Lieutenant-governor  of 
St.  Johns,  Newfoundland  —  a  sinecure  place. 
Braddock  ordered  him  to  accompany  Shirley  to 
Oswego,  in  1755,  as  his  adjutant;  and  in  1756 
he  was  charged  with  conveying  supplies  to  Os¬ 
wego.  In  1757  he  was  appointed  captain  of 
a  company  in  the  regiment  of  Royal  Ameri¬ 
cans  ;  and  late  in  the  same  year  he  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  same  regi¬ 
ment,  and  deputy  quartermaster -general,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel.  He  was  quartermaster- 
general  of  Abercrombie’s  forces,  with  the  rank 
of  colonel,  in  the  expedition  against  Ticon- 
deroga  in  July,  1758;  and  in  August  he  led 
an  expedition  which  captured  Fort  Frontenac. 
Bradstreet  was  with  Amherst  in  his  expedition 
against  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  in  1759. 
In  May,  1762,  he  was  commissioned  a  major- 
general,  and  in  1764  he  commanded  an  expedi¬ 
tion  against  the  western  Indians. 

Bradstreet,  Simon,  Governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  was  born  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in 
March,  1603 ;  died  at  Salem,  Mass.,  March  27, 
1697.  After  studying  one  year  in  college, 
young  Bradstreet  became  steward  to  the  Coun¬ 
tess  of  Warwick.  He  married  Anne,  a  daugh- 


BEADSTEEET’S  EXPEDITION 


153 


BEAGG’S  AEMY  EXPELLED 


tor  of  Thomas  Dudley,  and.  was  persuaded  to 
engage  in  the  settlement  of  Massachusetts. 
Iuvested  with  the  office  of  judge,  he  arrived 
at  Salem  in  the  summer  of  1630.  The  next 
year  he  was  among  the  founders  of  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  was  one  of  the  first  settlers  at  An¬ 
dover.  Very  active,  he  was  almost  continual¬ 
ly  in  public  life,  and  lived  at  Salem,  Ipswich, 
and  Boston.  He  was  Secretary,  Agent,  and 
Commissioner  of  the  United  Colonies  of  New 
England  (see  New  England  Confederacy) ;  and  in 
1662  he  was  despatched  to  congratulate  Charles 
II.  on  his  restoration.  He  was  assistant  (see 
Court  of  Assistants)  from  1630  to  1679,  and  dep¬ 
uty-governor  from  1673  to  1679.  From  that 
time  till  1686  (  when  the  charter  was  an¬ 
nulled)  he  was  governor.  When,  in  1689,  An¬ 
dros  was  imprisoned,  he  was  restored  to  the 
office,  which  he  held  until  the  arrival  of  Gov¬ 
ernor  Phipps,  in  1692,  with  the  new  charter. 
His  wife,  Anne  Bradstreet,  was  a  poetess  of 
considerable  merit.  Her  poems  were  pub¬ 
lished  in  Loudon  in  1650,  and  a  second  edition 
was  published  in  Boston  in  1678. 

Bradstreet’ s  Expedition.  Pontiac’s  War  had 
filled  the  settlements  on  the  western  frontiers 
with  dire  <alarm,  and  they  sent  piteous  calls 
for  help.  In  July,  1764,  a  little  army  of  eleven' 
hundred  men,  composed  chiefly  of  proviucial 
battalions  from  New  Jersey,  New  York,  and 
Connecticut,  led  by  the  gallant  John  Brad¬ 
street  (see  Frontenac,  Fort  h  reached  Fort  Ni¬ 
agara  on  its  way  farther  westward.  Brad¬ 
street  found  a  large  concourse  of  Indians 
there,  of  various  nations,  ready  to  renew 
friendship  with  the  English,  and  expecting 
presents.  The  Senecas,  to  placate  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  brought  iu  prisoners,  and  ratified  a  treaty 
of  peace.  On  his  march  along  the  southern 
shores  of  Lake  Erie,  Bradstreet  was  met  by 
dusky  deputations  from  the  Ohio  country, 
who  desired  to  have  the  chain  of  friendship 
brightened  ;  and  he  made  a  treaty  with  the 
nations  dwelling  between  Lake  Erie  aud  the 
Ohio.  He  was  welcomed  at  Detroit  with  ex¬ 
pressions  of  great  respect  and  satisfaction ; 
and  from  that  post  he  sent  a  detachmeut  to 
take  possession  of  Mackinaw  (which  see).  On 
Sept.  7,  the  Ottawas  and  Chippewas  met  Brad¬ 
street  in  council,  and,  cashiering  their  old 
chiefs,  the  young  warriors  made  a  covenant 
of  friendship  with  the  English,  as  brothers,  and 
asked  for  peace  in  the  name  of  their  wives  and 
children.  Pontiac  did  not  appear,  but  was  in¬ 
cluded  in  the  treaty  of  peace  then  made.  By 
that  treaty  the  Indian  country  became  a  part 
of  the  royal  domain  ;  its  tribes  were  bound  to 
render  aid  to  the  English  troops;  and,  in  re¬ 
turn,  were  promised  English  protection.  (See 
Pacification  of  Indian  Tribes.) 

Bragg,  Braxton,  was  born  in  Warren  Coun¬ 
ty,  N.  C.,  about  1815;  died  at  Galveston,  Tex., 
Sept.  27, 1876.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  Mil¬ 
itary  Academy  in  1837;  entered  the  artillery; 
and  served  in  the  Seminole  War  and  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  receiving  for  good  conduct  in  the 
latter  several  brevets  and  promotions.  The  last 
brevet  was  that  of  licutcuaut-colouel,  for  Buena 


Vista,  Feb.  23,  1847.  He  was  made  major  in 
1855 ;  resigned  the  next  year,  and  lived  (an  ex¬ 
tensive  planter)  in  Louisiana  until  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War,  when  (March,  1861)  he  was 
made  a  brigadier  -  general  in  the  Confederate 
army.  Made  major-general  in  February,  1862, 
he  took  an  important  part  in  the  battle  of  Shi¬ 
loh  (which  see)  in  April.  He  was  made  general 
in  place  of  A.  S.  Johnston,  killed ;  and  in  May 
succeeded  Beauregard  in  command.  Early  in 
the  fall  he  iuvaded  Kentucky,  but  was  driven 
out  with  much  plunder.  (See  Perryville.)  He 
fought  Eosecrans  with  great  spirit  at  Mur- 
freesborough  (December,  1862) ;  was  driven  into 
Georgia  in  the  summer  of  1863;  defeated  Eose¬ 
crans  at  Chickamauga  (which  see)  in  Septem¬ 
ber  ;  and  was  defeated  by  Grant  at  Missionaries’ 
Eidge  late  in  November.  A  few  weeks  later  he 
was  relieved  of  command,  but  led  a  small  force 
from  North  Carolina  to  Georgia  in  1864.  He  lost 
favor  with  the  Confederate  leader. 

Bragg’s  (  Confederate  )  Army  Expelled 
from  Tennessee.  The  armies  of  Eosecrans 
and  Bragg  confronted  each  other  for  several 
months  in  Tennessee  after  the  battle  of  Stone’s 
Eiver  (which  see).  Eosecrans  remained  on  the 
scene  of  the  battle ;  Bragg  was  below  the  Duck 
Eiver.  Finally  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  in 
three  divisions,  commanded  respectively  by  Gen¬ 
erals  Thomas,  McCook,  aud  Crittenden,  began  its 
march  (June  23, 1863)  from  Murfreesborough  to 
Chattanooga.  General  Burnside,  iu  Kentucky, 
was  ordered  to  move  through  the  mountains 
into  East  Tennessee  to  co-operate  with  Eose¬ 
crans.  At  that  time  Bragg’s  left  wing,  under 
General  (Bishop)  Polk,  lay  at  Shelbyville,  be¬ 
hind  formidable  intrenchments  about  five  miles 
in  length,  cast  up  by  legally  emancipated  slaves 
drawn  from  Northern  Georgia  aud  Alaba  rna.  Gen¬ 
eral  Hardee,  with  12,000  men,  was  at  War  Trace, 
on  the  railway  between  Murfreesborough  and 
Chattanooga,  and  holding  the  front  of  rugged 
hills,  behind  which  was  a  strongly  intrenched 
camp  at  Tullalioma.  Bragg  had  about  40,000 
men,  and  Eosecrans  60,000.  By  skilful  move¬ 
ments  he  manoeuvred  Bragg  out  of  his  strong 
position.  The  latter  was  pressed  back  to  Tulla- 
homa.  Eosecrans  meanwhile  had  seized  moun¬ 
tain  passes  on  Bragg’s  front  and  seriously  men¬ 
aced  his  flank.  Perceiving  this,  Bragg  turned 
and  fled  without  giving  a  blow,  the  Nationals 
pressing  hard  upon  his  rear’.  Having  the  ad¬ 
vantage  of  railway  communication,  the  retreat¬ 
ing  forces  very  easily  kept  ahead  of  their  pur¬ 
suers  ;  and  passing  rapidly  over  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  towards  the  Tennessee  Eiver,  they 
crossed  that  stream  at  Bridgeport,  destroying 
the  bridge  behind  them,  and  made  a  rapid 
march  to  Chattanooga.  The  expulsion  of  Bragg 
from  Tennessee  alarmed  and  disheartened  the 
Confederates,  and  they  felt  that  everything  de¬ 
pended  upon  their  holding  Chattanooga,  the 
key  to  East  Tennessee  and  Northern  Georgia. 
Towards  that  point  the  Army  of  the  Cumber¬ 
land  pressed  on  slowly ;  and  late  in  August  it 
had  crossed  the  mountains,  aud  was  stretched 
along  the  Tennessee  Eiver  from  above  Chatta¬ 
nooga  many  a  league  westward. 


BRAGG’S  INVASION  OF  KENTUCKY  154 


Bragg’s  Invasion  of  Kentucky.  John  Mor¬ 
gan,  of  Alabama,  a  famous  guerilla  chief,  and  N. 
B.  Forrest,  the  leader  of  a  strong  cavalry  force, 
had  for  some  time  (in  1862)  roamed,  with  very 
little  serious  opposition,  over  Kentucky  and  Ten¬ 
nessee,  preparatory  to  the  invasion  of  the  for¬ 
mer  by  a  large  Confederate  force  ttuder  General 
Braxton  Bragg.  E.  Kirby  Smith,  a  native  of 
Connecticut,  led  Bragg’s  advance.  He  entered 
Kentucky  front  East  Tennessee,  pushed  rapidly 
to  Lexington,  after  defeating  a  National  force 
near  Richmond,  in  that  state,  and  was  warmly 
welcomed  by  the  Secessionists.  The  alarmed 
Legislature,  sitting  at  Frankfort,  fled  to  Louis¬ 
ville  ;  while  Smith  pressed  on  towards  the  Ohio, 
where  he  was  confronted  by  strong  fortifications 
opposite  Cincinnati.  The  invader  recoiled,  and 
falling  back  to  Frankfort,  awaited  the  arrival 
of  Bragg,  who  entered  Kentucky  (Sept.  5)  with 
forty  regiments  and  as  many  cannons.  His 
advance,  8000  strong,  under  General  Chalmers, 
encountered  a  National  force  under  Colonel 
Wilder  at  Mumfordsville,  on  the  line  of  the 
Nashville  and  Louisville  Railway.  The  Con¬ 
federates  were  repulsed  ;  but  Wilder  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  yield  to  General  Polk  a  few  days  later. 
Bragg  joined  Smith  at  Frankfort,  where  the 
combined  armies  numbered  about  65,000  effec¬ 
tive  men.  He  now  expected  to  make  an  easy 
march  to  Louisville,  but  was  confronted  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Buell,  who  had  been  marching  abreast  of 
Bragg.  Buell  suddenly  turned  upon  Bragg  with 
about  60,0J0  troops,  and  a  fierce  battle  ensued 
near  Perryville  (Oct.  8,  1862),  in  which  the  in¬ 
vaders  were  so  roughly  handled  that  they  fled 
in  haste  towards  East  Tennessee,  followed  by 
their  marauding  bands,  who  had  plundered  the 
inhabitants  in  every  direction.  Indeed,  the 
whole  expedition  seemed  to  be  a  plundering 
raid.  It  was  disastrous  to  Bragg,  who  soon  af¬ 
terwards  abandoned  Kentucky. 

Brandy  Station,  Skirmish  near.  While 
Meade,  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  was  halt¬ 
ing  on  the  north  side  of  the  Rappahannock 
River,  in  the  summer  of  1863,  his  cavalry  were 
not  idle.  On  Aug.  1,  General  Buford,  with  his 
troopers,  dashed  across  that  river,  struck  Stu¬ 
art’s  cavalry,  and  pushed  them  back  almost  to 
Culpepper  Court-house.  So  vigorous  and  sud¬ 
den  was  the  assault  that  the  daring  Confeder¬ 
ate  leader  and  his  staff  came  near  being  capt¬ 
ured  at  a  house  near  Brandy  Station,  where  they 
were  about  to  dine.  They  left  their  dinner  un¬ 
touched  and  immediately  decamped,  leaving  the 
viands  to  be  eaten  by  the  Union  officers.  Bu¬ 
ford  pursued,  and  from  Auburn  (the  residence 
of  the  stanch  Virginia  Unionist,  John  Minor 
Botts)  there  was  a  running  fight  back  towards 
Brandy  Station  ;  for,  strongly  confronted  there 
by  Stuart,  Buford  became  a  fugitive  in  turn. 
In  that  engagement  he  lost  one  hundred  and 
forty  men,  of  whom  sixteen  were  killed. 

Brandywine,  Battle  on  the.  When  Wash¬ 
ington  learned  that  Howe  was  ascending  Ches¬ 
apeake  Bay  in  the  fleet  of  his  brother,  he  march¬ 
ed  ( Aug.  24,  1777)  from  Philadelphia  to  meet 
him.  At  about  the  time  he  reached  Wilmiug- 


BRANDYWINE,  BATTLE  ON  THE 

ton  Howe  was  landing  his  army,  18,000  strong, 
at  the  head  of  the  Elk  River,  fifty-four  miles 
from  Philadelphia.  Washington’s  effective  force 
did  not  exceed  11,000  men,  including  1800  Penn¬ 
sylvania  militia.  Howe’s  objective  was  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  he  began  his  march  (Sept.  3) 
in  that  direction  through  a  couutry  swarming 
with  Tories.  One  division  was  led  by  Eail 


WASHINGTON’S  HEADQUARTERS. 


Cornwallis,  and  the  other  by  General  Knyphan- 
sen.  Washington  had  advanced  almost  to  Red 
Clay  Creek,  and  sent  General  Maxwell  with  his 
brigade  to  form  an  ambuscade  in  the  direction 
of  the  enemy.  In  a  skirmish  the  British  were 
checked,  but  moved  forward  (Sept.  8)  to  attack 
Washington  and  turn  his  flank.  By  a  dexter¬ 
ous  movement  in  the  night,  the  latter  fell  back 
to  Chad’s  Ford,  on  the  Brandywine  Creek,  above 
Wilmington,  and  took  post  in  a  strong  position 
on  the  hills  that  skirt  the  eastern  borders  of 
that  stream.  The  astonished  Britons  gave  chase 
the  next  morning,  but  found  Washington  stand¬ 
ing  in  their  pathway  to  Philadelphia.  The  two 
divisions  of  Howe’s  army  met  at  Kennet  Square 
(Sept.  10),  and  the  next  morning  Cornwallis 
led  a  large  portion  of  them  up  the  Lancaster 
Road  towards  the  forks  of  the  Brandywine,  leav¬ 
ing  all  their  baggage — even  their  knapsacks — 
with  the  other  division.  The  latter  moved  for 
Chad’s  Ford  a  few  hours  later  in  a  dense  fog. 
Washington’s  left  wing,  composed  of  the  bri¬ 
gades  of  Muhlenberg  and  Weedon,  of  Greene’s 
division,  and  Wayne’s  division,  with  Proctor’s 
artillery,  were  on  the  hills  east  of  Chad’s  Ford. 
The  brigades  of  Sullivan,  Stirling,  and  Stephen, 
composing  the  right  wing,  extended  along  the 
Brandywine  Creek  to  a  point  above  the  forks; 
and  1000  Pennsylvania  militia  under  General 
Armstrong  were  at  Pyle’s  Ford,  two  miles  be¬ 
low  Chad’s.  General  Maxwell,  with  1000  light- 
troops,  was  posted  on  the  west  side  of  the  creek 
to  dispute  the  passage  of  Knyphausen.  The  lat¬ 
ter  attempted  to  dislodge  Maxwell,  who,  after  a 
severe  fight,  was  pushed  to  the  edge  of  the 
Brandywine,  where  he  was  reinforced.  Then 
he  turned  upon  his  pursuers  and  drove  them 
back  to  the  main  line.  Perceiving  danger  of 
being  flanked,  Maxwell  fled  across  the  stream, 


BRANDYWINE,  BATTLE  ON  THE  155  BRANDYWINE,  BATTLE  ON  THE 


leaving  its  western  banks  in  possession  of  the 
enemy.  Knypliausen  now  brought  his  great 
gnus  to  bear  upon  the  Americans  at  Chad’s 
Ford.  It  was  to  divert  Washington’s  attention 
from  Cornwallis,  who  was  pushing  forward  to 
cross  the  Brandywine  and  gain  the  rear  of  the 
Americans.  This  accomplished,  Knypliausen 
was  to  cross  over,  when  a  simultaneous  attack 


so,  Cornwallis,  with  his  rested  troops,  fell  upon 
Sullivan,  and  a  severe  conflict  ensued.  For 
a  while  the  result  was  doubtful.  Finally  the 
right  wing  of  the  Americans,  under  General  De- 
borre,  gave  way ;  then  the  left,  under  Sullivan  ; 
but  the  centre,  under  Stirliug,  remained  firm  for 
a  wThile.  Then  it,  too,  broke  and  fled  in  confu¬ 
sion.  Lafayette,  who  was  with  this  corps,  fight- 


VIEW  AT  CHAD’S  FORD,  ON  THE  BRANDYWINE. 


by  both  parties  w'as  to  be  made.  Washington 
resolved  to  strike  a  blow  at  once.  He  direct¬ 
ed  Sullivan  to  cross  the  Brandywine  above 
and  attack  Cornwallis,  while  he  (Washington) 
should  cross  the  stream  and  assail  Knypliausen. 
Through  misinformation,  Sullivan  failed  to  per¬ 
form  his  part.  A  message  which  he  sent  to 
Washington  kept  the  latter  in  suspense  a  long 
time.  Greene,  who  had  crossed  at  Chad’s  Ford 
with  his  advanced  guard,  wTas  recalled ;  and 
Cornwallis,  in  the  meantime,  had  made  a  wide 
circuit,  crossed  the  Brandywine,  and  gained  a 
hill  near  Birmingham  Meeting- house,  not  far 


BIRMINGHAM  MEETING-HOUSE. 


from  Sullivan’s  right,  before  that  officer  dis¬ 
covered  him.  The  surprised  general  informed 
Washington  of  his  peril,  and  immediately  pre¬ 
pared  to  attack  the  enemy.  Before  he  could  do 


ing  as  a  volunteer  on  foot,  was  badly  wounded 
in  his  leg.  The  scattered  troops  could  not  be 
rallied,  excepting  a  few  who  made  a  stand  at 
Dilwortli.  They,  too,  soon  joined  the  fugitives 
in  the  flight  towards  the  main  army,  closely 
pursued  by  the  victors,  Cornwallis’s  cannons 
having  made  dreadful  havoc  in  the  ranks  of 
the  Americans.  Meanwhile  Washington,  with 
Greene  and  two  brigades,  had  hastened  to  the 
aid  of  the  right  wing.  They  met  the  fugitives, 
opened  their  ranks  to  receive  them,  and,  by  a 
constant  cannonade,  checked  their  pursuers ; 
and  at  a  narrow  defile  the  regiments  of  Stephen 
and  Stewart  held  the  British  back  until  night, 
when  the  latter  encamped.  In  the  meantime 
Knypliausen  had  crossed  at  Chad’s  Ford  and 
attacked  the  left  wing  under  Wayne.  After  a 
gallant  fight,  the  latter,  seeing  the  British  gain¬ 
ing  his  rear,  abandoned  his  cannons  and  muni¬ 
tions  of  war  and  made  a  disorderly  retreat  be¬ 
hind  the  division  of  Greene.  At  twilight  there 
was  a  skirmish  near  Dilwortli  between  Maxwell 
and  his  light  troops,  lying  in  ambush  to  cover 
the  retreat  of  the  Americans,  and  some  British 
grenadiers.  The  contest  was  brief,  for  darkness 
put  an  end  to  it.  The  Americans,  defeated, 
marched  leisurely  to  Chester ;  for  the  British, 
who  held  the  field,  did  not  pursue.  The  next 
morning  (Sept.  12,  1777)  Washington  gathered 
his  broken  army,  marched  towards  Philadel¬ 
phia,  and  encamped  near  Germantown.  It  was 
estimated  that  the  Americans  lost,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  about  1200;  the  Brit¬ 
ish,  about  800. 


BRANT 


156 


BRANT 


Brant,  John,  son  of  Joseph  Brant,  was  born 
at  the  Mohawlc  village  on  the  Grand  River,  in 
Canada,  Sept.  27, 1794 ;  and  died  there  at  the  age 
of  forty-eight  years.  He  took  np  arms  for  the 
British  when  the  War  of  1812-15  broke  ont,  and 
led  a  party  of  Indians  at  the  battle  of  Qneens- 
ton  (which  see).  He  was  then  only  eighteen 
years  of  age,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his  brav¬ 
ery.  He  had  received  a  good  English  educa¬ 
tion  at  Ancaster  and  Niagara,  and  was  a  dili¬ 
gent  student  of  English  authors.  Young  Brant 
was  an  ardent  lover  of  nature,  was  manly  and 
amiable,  and  was  in  every  respect  an  accom¬ 
plished  gentleman.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1807,  he  became  the  principal  chief  of  the  Six 
Nations,  although  he  was  the  fourth  and  young¬ 
est  son.  Brantr  was  engaged  in  most  of  the  mil¬ 
itary  events  on  the  Niagara  frontier  during  the 
war;  and  at  its  close  he  and  his  young  sister 
Elizabeth  occupied  the  homestead  at  t  lie  head 
of  Lake  Ontario,  and  there  dispensed  a  generous 
hospitality.  He  went  to  England  in  1821  on 
business  for  the  Six  Nations,  and  there  took  oc¬ 
casion  to  defend  the  character  of  his  father  from 
the  aspersions  contained  in  Campbell’s  Gei'trude 
of  Wyoming.  He  proved  that  his  father  was  not 
present  at  the  massacre  in  Wyoming;  but  the 
poet  had  not  the  generosity  or  manliness  to 
strike  out  of  the  poem  the  calumnious  words, 
and  so  it  remaius  until  this  day.  In  1827  Gov- 


JOHN  BRANT. 


ernor  Dalhousie  gave  him  the  commission  of 
captain,  and  as  such  he  appeared  as  in  the  en¬ 
graving.  In  1832  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Provincial  Parliament  for  the  County  of 
Haldimand. 

Brant,  Joseph  (Thay-en-da-ne-gea),  a  noted 
Mohawk  chief,  was  born  about  1742 ;  died  on 
his  estate  at  the  head  of  Lake  Ontario,  Canada, 
Nov.  24, 1807.  In  1761  Sir  William  Johnson  sent 


him  to  Dr.  Wheelock’s  school  at  Hanover,  N.  H., 
where  he  translated  portions  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  into  the  Mohawk  language.  Brant  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  war  against  Pontiac  in  1763  (see 


JOSEPH  BRANT. 


Pontiac War);  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war  for  independence  he  was  secretary  to  Guy 
Johnson,  the  Indian  Superintendent.  In  the 
spring  of  1776  he  was  in  England;  and  to  the 
ministry  he  expressed  his  willingness,  and  that 
of  his  people,  to  join  in  the  chastisement  of 
the  rebellious  colonists.  It  was  an  unfavor¬ 
able  time  for  him  to  make  such  an  offer  with  an 
expectation  of  securing  very  favorable  arrange¬ 
ments  for  his  people,  for  the  ministry  were 
elated  with  the  news  of  the  disasters  to  the 
“rebels”  at  Quebec.  Besides,  they  had  com¬ 
pleted  the  bargain  for  a  host  of  German  mer¬ 
cenaries  (which  see),  a  part  of  whom  were  then 
on  their  way  to  America  to  crush  the  rebellion. 
They  concluded  the  next  ship  would  bring  news 
that  the  Americans  were  willing  to  agree  to  un¬ 
conditional  submission,  the  only  terms  which 
the  imperial  government  would  grant.  Brant 
returned,  but  to  find  the  Americans  successful 
in  many  places,  and  determined  to  persevere. 
He  took  up  arms  for  the  British ;  and  in  the  raids 
of  Tories  and  Indians  in  Central  New  York  upon 
the  patriotic  inhabitants  he  was  often  a  leader, 
holding  the  commission  of  colonel  from  the  King 
of  England.  He  prevailed  on  the  Six  Nations 
to  make  a  permanent  peace  after  the  war;  and 
in  1786  he  went  to  England  the  second  time,  but 
then  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  funds  to  build 
a  church  on  the  Indian  reservation  on  the  Grand 
River,  in  Canada.  This  was  the  first  church 
erected  in  the  Upper  Province.  Brant  did  much 
to  induce  his  people  to  engage  in  the  arts  of 
peace.  The  remains  of  Braut  rest  beneath  a 
handsome  mausoleum  near  the  church  on  the 
reservation  on  the  Grand  River,  Canada.  It  was 
erected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  vicinity  in 
1850.  It  is  composed  of  light-brown  sandstone. 
On  the  slab  that  surmounts  it  is  an  appropri¬ 
ate  inscription  in  commemoration  of  the  chief, 


BRASHEAR  CITY 


157 


BREYARD 


and  of  his  accomplished  son  John,  who  was  con 
spumous  on  the  Niagara  frontier  in  the  War  of 
1812-15. 


THE  BRANT  MONUMENT. 


Erashear  City,  Military  Operations  near 
(18(53).  This  town  was  in  a  singular  country, 
composed  of  fertile  plantations,  extensive  for¬ 
ests,  sluggish  lagoons  and  bayous,  passable  and 
impassable  swamps,  made  dark  by  umbrageous 
cypress-trees  draped  with  Spanish  moss  and  fes¬ 
tooned  with  interlacing  vines,  the  earth  in  many 
places  matted  and  miry,  and  the  waters  abound¬ 
ing  in  alligators.  At  that  time  the  whole  coun¬ 
try  was  half  submerged  by  the  superabundant 
waters  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries. 
A  single  railway  passed  through  this  country 
from  New  Orleans  to  Brashear  City,  on  the  Atcli- 
afala.va,  a  distance  of  eighty  miles,  at  which 
point  the  waters  of  the  great  bayou  Teche  meet 
those  of  the  Atchafalaya  and  others.  Near  Pat- 
tersonville,  on  the  Teche,  the  Confederates  had 
erected  fortifications,  and  gathered  troops  to  dis¬ 
pute  the  passage  of  these  important  waters  by 
National  gunboats.  Banks,  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  the  Gulf,  determined  to  expel 
the  armed  Confederates  from  Brashear  City  and 
its  vicinity.  An  expedition  for  that  purpose 
was  led  by  General  Godfrey  Weitzel,  accompa¬ 
nied  by  a  squadron  of  gunboats,  under  Commo¬ 
dore  McKean  Buchanan,  brother  of  the  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Merrimao  (which  see).  They 
penetrated  to  Brashear  City,  and  then  proceeded 
(Jan.  11,  1863)  to  attack  the  works  near  Patter- 
sonville.  Weitzel’s  infantry  were  placed  in  the 
gunboats,  and  his  cavalry  and  artillery  proceed¬ 
ed  by  land.  They  encountered  formidable  river 
obstructions — torpedoes,  an  armored  steamboat, 
and  batteries  well  manned  by  eleven  hundred 
men,  on  each  side  of  the  bayou.  These  were  at¬ 
tacked  ou  the  15th,  and  in  that  engagement 
Buchanan  was  killed  by  a  rifle-ball  that  passed 
through  his  head.  The  Confederates  were  driv¬ 
en  from  their  works,  and  their  monster  steam¬ 
er  was  abandoned  and  burned.  In  this  affair 
the  Nationals  lost  thirty-four  men  killed  and 
wounded. 

Braxton,  Carter,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 


of  Independence,  was  born  at  Newington,  Va., 
Sept.  10,  1736  ;  died  Oct.  10,  1797.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  in  1756, 
and  resided  in  England  until  1760.  He  was  a 
distinguished  member  and  patriot  in  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  House  of  Burgesses  in  supporting  the  res¬ 
olutions  of  Patrick  Henry  in  1765,  and  in  sub¬ 
sequent  assemblies  dissolved  by  the  governor. 
He  remained  in  the  Virginia  Assembly  until 
royal  rule  ceased  in  that  colony,  and  was  ac¬ 
tive  in  measures  for  defeating  the  schemes  of 
LordDuumore.  Braxton  was  in  the  Convention 
at  Richmond  in  1775,  for  devising  measures  for 
the  defence  of  the  colony  and  the  public  good  ; 
and  in  December  he  became  the  successor  of 
Peyton  Randolph  iu  Congress.  He  remained 
in  that  body  to  vote  for  and  sign  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Independence.  In  1786,  after  serving  in 
the  Virginia  Legislature,  he  became  one  of  the 
executive  council. 

Breckinridge,  John  Cabell,  was  born  near 
Lexington,  Ky.,  Jan.  21,  1821 ;  died  at  Lexing¬ 
ton,  May  17,  1875.  Studying  law  at  the  Tran¬ 
sylvania  Institute,  he  began  its  practice  at  Lex- 
ingtou.  He  served  as  major  in  the  war  with 


JOHN  CABELL  BRECKINRIDGE. 


Mexico ;  was  a  member  of  his  State  Legislature ; 
and  from  1851  to  1855  was  in  Congress.  Presi¬ 
dent  Pierce  tendered  him  the  mission  to  Spain, 
which  he  declined.  In  March,  1857,  he  became 
Vice-President,  under  Buchanan,  and  succeeded 
John  J.  Crittenden  iu  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  in  1861.  He  was  then  a  defeated  candi¬ 
date  for  the  Presidency.  His  friendship  for  the 
insurgents  caused  his  expulsion  from  the  Senate 
in  December,  1861,  when  he  joined  the  Secession¬ 
ists,  and  was  made  a  Confederate  major-geu- 
eral,  Aug.  5,  1862.  He  was  active  at  various 
points  during  the  remainder  of  the  war.  Breck¬ 
inridge  was  Secretary  of  War  of  the  Confeder¬ 
acy  when  it  fell  (1865),  and  soon  afterwards  de¬ 
parted  for  Europe,  returning  to  his  native  state 
iu  a  short  time. 

Brevard,  Ephraim,  was  a  native  of  Mecklen¬ 
burg  County,  N.  C.,  and  was  secretary  of  the 
famous  “Mecklenburg  Convention”  (which  see) 
that  issued  a  declaration  of  independence  in 
1775.  He  died  at  Charlotte,  N.  C.,  near  the 
close  of  the  Revolution.  Mr.  Brevard,  one  of 
seven  sons  of  a  widow,  graduated  at  the  College 


BREVET 


158 


of  New  Jersey  in  1768;  was  educated  for  a  phy¬ 
sician,  and  practised  the  profession  in  Char¬ 
lotte.  When  the  British  invaded  the  Carolinas, 
Dr.  Brevard  entered  the  Continental  army  as  a 
surgeon,  and  was  made  a  prisoner  at  Charleston 
in  1780.  Broken  with  disease,  he  returned  to 
Charlotte  after  his  release,  and  soon  afterwards 
died. 

Brevet  implies  (in  French)  a  royal  act,  con¬ 
ferring  some  privilege  or  distinction;  in  Eng¬ 
land  it  is  applied  to  a  commission  giving  nom¬ 
inal  rank  higher  than  that  for  which  pay  is  re¬ 
ceived.  Thus,  a  brevet-major  serves  aud  draws 
pay  as  captain.  The  first  time  it  was  used  in 
the  United  States  Army  was  in  1812,  when  Cap¬ 
tain  Zachary  Taylor  was  promoted  to  major  by 
brevet  for  his  defence  of  Fort  Harrison  (which 
see).  It  was  sometimes  used  in  the  Continental 
army  after  the  arrival  of  the  French  troops  in 
1780. 

Brewster,  William,  born  at  Scrooby,  Eng¬ 
land,  in  1566;  died  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  April  16, 
1644.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he  entered  the 
service  of  William  Davidson,  ambassador  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  Holland.  The  ambassador 
was  much  attached  to  Brewster,  and  procured 
for  him  the  office  of  postmaster  at  Scrooby. 
When  his  mind  was  turned  very  seriously  tow¬ 
ards  religions  subjects,  he  withdrew  from  the 
Church  of  England,  and  established  a  dissenting 
society,  or  rather  a  society  of  Separatists.  This 
new  society  worshipped  on  Sabbath  days  at 
Mr.  Brewster’s  house  until  persecution  began  to 
interrupt  them.  He,  with  Mr.  Bradford  and 
others,  was  among  those  who  attempted  to  fly 
to  Holland  in  1607.  (S ee  Robinson,  John.)  They 
were  arrested  and  imprisoned  at  Boston  in  Lin¬ 
colnshire.  As  Mr.  Brewster  had  the  most  prop¬ 
erty,  he  was  the  greater  sufferer.  At  much  ex¬ 
pense  he  gained  his  liberty,  and  then  he  assisted 
the  poorer  members  of  the  church  to  escape,  fol¬ 
lowing  them  himself  soon  afterwards.  At  Ley¬ 
den  he  opened  a  school  for  teaching  the  English 
language,  to  replenish  his  exhausted  funds.  He 
had  then  been  an  elder  and  teacher  for  some 
time.  By  the  assistance  of  some  friends  he  pro¬ 
cured  a  printing-press,  and  published  several 
books  against  the  English  hierarchy.  In  Mr. 
Robinson’s  church  in  Leyden  Brewster  was  a 
ruling  elder,  and  was  so  highly  esteemed  that 


ELDER  BREWSTER’S  CHEST  AND  DINNER-POT. 


lie  was  chosen  the  spiritual  guide  of  the  “Pil¬ 
grims”  who  emigrated  to  America.  He  took 
with  him  to  the  wilderness  Ids  wife  and  numer¬ 
ous  children.  It  was  upon  the  lid  of  his  chest 


BRISTOW  STATION,  BATTLE  AT 

that  the  political  compact  was  signed  on  board 
the  Mayflower.  At  New  Plymouth  he  supplied 
the  vacant  pulpit  most  of  the  time  for  nine 
years,  preaching  very  impressive  sermons  ;  but 
he  could  never  be  persuaded  to  administer  the 
Lord’s  Supper,  though  he  had  the  care  of  the 
church.  Some  of  Elder  Brewster’s  descendants 
were  very  long-lived.  Mrs.  Polly  (Brewster) 
Buckingham,  who  died  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
in  January,  1873,  aged  ninety-five  years  and 
seven  months,  was  sixth  in  descent  from  the 
elder.  She  had  heard  her  grandmother,  who 
died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight  years,  say  that 
she  had  conversed  with  persons  who  came  over 
in  the  Mayflower. 

Bridgman,  Laura,  was  horn  at  Hanover, 
N.  H.,  Dec.  21,  1829.  Severe  illness  deprived 
her  of  sight  and  hearing,  and  consequently  of 
speech,  when  she  was  two  years  of  age.  Her 
sense  of  smell  was  also  destroyed,  and  that  of 
touch  much  impaired.  On  the  recovery  of  her 
health,  none  of  her  senses  were  restored.  The 
late  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe  took  great  interest  in  her 
case,  and  she  became  an  inmate  of  the  “  Perkins 
Institute”  for  the  blind,  in  Boston,  of  which  he 
was  the  founder,  where  she  was  taught  the 
names  and  qualities  of  objects  and  how  to 
write.  She  also  acquired  the  rudiments  of 
arithmetic;  became  quite  a  skilful  pianist;  and 
acquired  a  practical  knowledge  of  some  house¬ 
hold  duties,  as  well  as  needlework.  The  case 
of  Laura  Bridgman  is  the  most  remarkable  on 
record  in  all  its  phases.  She  is  yet  (1887)  an 
inmate  of  the  Perkins  Institute. 

Brier  Creek,  Battle  of  (  1779 ).  Colonel 
Ashe,  of  North  Carolina,  was  sent  by  General 
Lincoln,  with  two  thousand  men,  to  drive  the 
British  from  Augusta.  The  latter  fled  when 
Ashe  appeared  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
and  pushed  towards  the  sea,  led  by  Lieutenaut- 
colonel  Campbell.  Ashe  crossed  and  pursued 
as  far  as  Brier  Creek,  forty  miles  below  Augus¬ 
ta,  on  the  Georgia  side  of  the  Savauuah  River, 
where  he  encamped.  He  was  surprised  (March 
3, 1779)  aud  utterly  defeated  by  General  Prevost, 
who  was  marching  up  from  Savannah  to  sup¬ 
port  Campbell.  Ashe  lost  almost  his  entire 
army  by  death,  captivity,  aud  dispersion.  Some 
were  killed,  others  perished  in  the  morasses, 
aud  many  were  drowned  in  attempting  to  pass 
the  Savannah  River.  This  blow  deprived  Lin¬ 
coln  of  about  one  fourth  of  his  army  and  led  to 
the  temporary  re-establishment  of  royal  author¬ 
ity  in  Georgia. 

Bristow  Station,  Battle  of  (  1863 ).  In 
the  third  race  for  Washington  (which  see),  the 
struggle  to  first  pass  Bristow  Station,  on  the 
Central  Virginia  Railway,  was  very  hot.  Lee 
pushed  Hill  and  Ewell  forward  to  gain  that 
point  before  the  Nationals  should  reach  it. 
When  they  approached  it  the  entire  Army  of 
the  Potomac  had  passed  it,  excepting  General 
Warren’s  corps,  which  was  then  not  in  sight  of 
the  Confederates.  Hill  was  about  to  attack 
the  Third  Corps,  when,  at  about  noon  (Oct.  15), 
he  was  startled  by  the  appearance  of  Warren’s 
troops  approachiug  his  rear.  They  had  outstrip- 


BRITISH  AID  TO  THE  CONFEDERATES  159 


BRITISH  FLAG  AT  NEW  YORK 


peel  Ewell’s,  and  were  expecting  to  meet  Sykes’s 
at  Bristow  Station.  Hill  instantly  turned  and 
opened  his  batteries  upon  Warren,  who  was  sur¬ 
prised  for  a  moment ;  but  in  the  space  of  ten 
minutes  the  batteries  of  Arnold  and  Brown,  as¬ 
sisted  by  the  infantry  divisions  of  Hayes  and 
Webb,  drove  back  the  Confederates  and  captured 
six  of  their  guns.  These  were  instantly  turned 
upon  the  fugitives.  A  Rank  attack  by  the  Con¬ 
federates  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  to  them  of 
450  men  made  prisoners.  This  was  an  effectual 
check  upon  Hill’s  march.  Just  at  sunset  Ewell 
came  up,  and  Warren’s  corps  (Fifth)  was  con¬ 
fronted  by  a  greater  portion  of  Lee’s  army. 
Seeing  his  peril,  Warren  skilfully  withdrew 
under  cover  of  the  approaching  darkness,  and 
joined  the  main  army  in  the  morning  on  the 
heights  of  Centreville.  Warren’s  loss  in  the 
battle  of  Bristow  Station  was  about  two  hun¬ 
dred  in  killed  and  wounded. 

British  Aid  to  the  Confederates.  The 

amount  of  aid  given  to  the  Confederates  by 
British  sympathizers  through  the  agency  of 
blockade-runners  may  be  approximately  esti¬ 
mated  by  the  fact  that  from  Oct.  26  to  Dec.  31, 
1864 — only  thirty-five  days — there  were  carried 
into  the  single  port  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  for 
their  use,  8,320,000  pounds  of  meat,  1,500,000 
pounds  of  lead,  1,993,000  pounds  of  saltpetre, 
546,000  pairs  of  shoes,  316,000  pairs  of  blankets, 
520,000  pounds  of  coffee,  69,000  rifles,  97  pack¬ 
ages  of  revolvers,  2639  packages  of  medicine,  48 
cannons,  and  many  miscellaneous  articles. 

British  Alliance  with  Indians  Urged  (1813). 
The  news  of  Perry’s  victory  on  Lake  Erie  (which 
see)  startled  the  British  public,  and  strange  con¬ 
fessions  of  weakness  were  made  in  the  English 
and  provincial  newspapers.  “  We  have  beeu 
conquered  on  the  Lake,”  said  a  Halifax  paper, 
“and  so  we  shall  be  on  every  other  lake,  if  we 
take  as  little  care  to  protect  them.”  Others 
urged  the  necessity  of  an  alliance  with  the  In¬ 
dians  to  secure  the  possession  of  Canada.  “We 
dare  assert,”  said  a  writer  in  one  of  the  leading 
British  reviews,  “and  recent  events  have  gone 
far  in  establishing  the  truth  of  the  proposition, 
that  the  Canadas  cannot  be  effectually  and  du¬ 
rably  defended  without  the  friendship  of  the 
Indians  and  command  of  the  Lakes  and  River 
St.  Lawrence.”  He  urged  his  countrymen  to 
consider  the  interests  of  the  Indians  as  their 
own  ;  “  for  men,”  he  said,  “  whose  very  name  is 
so  formidable  to  an  American,  and  whose  friend¬ 
ship  has  recently  been  shown  to  be  of  such  great 
importance  to  us,  we  cannot  do  too  much.” 

British  and  American  Fleets  at  Charleston 
(1780).  On  March  21,  1780,  the  British  marine 
force,  under  Admiral  Arbuthnot,  crossed  the  bar 
at  Charleston,  It  consisted  of  one  54-gun  ship, 
two  44-gun  ships,  four  of  32  guns,  and  the  Sand¬ 
wich,  also  an  armed  ship.  Commodore  Whipple 
was  in  the  Charleston  outer  harbor  with  a  flo- 
tilla  of  small  vessels.  Finding  he  could  not 
prevent  the  British  ships  from  passing  the  bar, 
lie  fell  back  to  the  waters  immediately  in  front 
of  Charleston  and  transferred  all  the  crews  and 
guns  of  his  vessels,  excepting  one,  to  the  batter¬ 


ies  on  the  shore.  The  commodore  sunk  most 
of  his  own  and  some  merchant  vessels  near 
Shute’s  Folly,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cooper  River, 
to  preveut  British  vessels  from  entering  it. 

British  Cantonments  in  New  Jersey.  Af¬ 
ter  chasing  Washington  and  his  shattered  army 
to  the  banks  of  the  Delaware  (1776),  the  British 
did  not  attempt  to  cross,  but  were  established 
in  a  line  of  cantonments  at  Trenton,  Penning¬ 
ton,  Bordeutowu,  and  Burlington.  Other  corps 
were  quartered  in  the  rear  of  these,  at  Prince¬ 
ton,  Brunswick,  and  Elizabethtown. 

British  Denial  of  the  Right  of  Search.  At 

the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  Spain  gave  to  Eng¬ 
land  the  privilege  of  transporting  to  the  Span- 
ish-American  colonies  a  certain  number  ot  ne¬ 
gro  slaves.  This  was  a  special  favor,  for  all  but 
Spaniards  were  rigidly  excluded  from  those  col¬ 
onies.  Taking  an  unfair  advantage  of  this  priv¬ 
ilege,  the  English,  under  cover  of  the  slave-trade, 
carried  on  extensive  smuggling.  The  British 
government,  in  assuming  this  illicit  trade,  did 
not  seem  to  consider  the  blow  they  were  giving: 
at  the  very  principles  on  which  their  own  co¬ 
lonial  policy  was  founded.  The  Spaniards,  to 
guard  against  this  systematic  violation  of  their 
laws,  maintained  a  numerous  fleet  of  vessels  in 
the  preventive  service,  called  a  guarda  costa,  or 
coast-guard.  This  guard  were  sometimes  pretty 
severe  in  their  treatment  of  English  smugglers, 
and  they  very  frequently  made  thorough  search¬ 
es  of  English  vessels  suspected  of  the  crime. 
These  acts  were  greatly  exaggerated  in  Eng¬ 
land,  and  the  old  hatred  of  the  Spaniards  was 
renewed.  There  was  a  loud  clamor  against  this 
assumed  right  of  search.  Despising  the  Span¬ 
iards  as  weak,  and  envying  them  for  their  rich¬ 
es,  the  merchants  loudly  opposed  an  amicable 
settlement  of  the  difficulty,  and  forced  Walpole 
into  a  war  with  Spain,  hoping  to  have  the  Span- 
ish-American  ports  thereby  opened  free  to  Eng¬ 
lish  commerce.  (See  Spanish  West  India  Settle¬ 
ments,  War  upon.) 

British  Flag  at  New  York.  On  the  day 
when  the  British  evacuated  the  city  of  New 
York  (Nov.  25,  1783)  they  nailed  their  colors  to 
the  flag-staff  at  Fort  George  (“the  Battery”), 
knocked  off'  the  cleats,  and  “slushed”  the  pole 
from  top  to  bottom  to  prevent  its  being  climbed. 
John  Van  Arsdale,  a  sailor-boy,  sixteen  years  old 
(who  died  in  1836),  ascended  the  pole  by  nailing 
on  cleats  and  applying  sand  to  the  greased  flag¬ 
staff.  In  this  way  he  reached  the  top,  hauled 
down  the  British  colors,  and  placed  the  flag  of 
the  United  States  in  their  place  before  the  fleet 
was  out  of  sight.  It  is  believed  that  the  nailing 
of  the  flag  of  Great  Britain  to  the  staff  at  that 
time  had  a  higher  significance  than  was  visible 
in  the  outward  act — namely,  a  compliance  with 
secret  orders  from  the  imperial  government  not 
to  strike  the  flag,  as  in  a  formal  surrender,  but 
to  leave  it  flying,  in  token  of  the  claim  of  Great 
Britain  to  the  absolute  proprietorship  of  this 
country,  then  abandoned.  It  was  generally  be¬ 
lieved  in  England,  on  the  misrepresentation  of 
the  Tory  refugees,  that  the  absence  of  British 
authority  in  America  would  be  only  temporary. 


BRITISH  INTERFERENCE 


1G0 


BRITISH  MINISTER 


British  Interference  with  the  Rights  of 
Neutrals.  Under  the  pressure  of  war,  the 
French  Convention,  by  decree  ( 1793 ),  allowed 
neutral  vessels  the  privileges  of  French  ships. 
A  rich  commerce  was  at  once  created  for  Amer¬ 
ican  shipping.  The  jealous  British  government 
revived  the  Rule  of  1756  (which  see),  and  Brit¬ 
ish  cruisers  claimed  the  right  to  seize  French 
property  on  board  of  American  vessels.  At  that 
time  there  was  much  trade  between  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  and  American  vessels  were 
carrying  away  many  people,  besides  much  prop¬ 
erty  belonging  to  them,  who  were  fleeing  to  the 
United  States  from  the  horrors  of  insurrection 
in  Santo  Domingo.  Much  of  the  property  of 
these  wretched  people  was  seized  on  American 
vessels.  The  British  government  refused  to 
recognize  as  neutral  the  trade  between  France 
and  her  West  India  colonies,  which  nothing  but 
the  pressure  of  war  had  caused  to  be  opened  to 
other  than  French  vessels.  The  British  govern¬ 
ment  also  issued  an  order  to  British  cruisers  to 
seize  and  bring  in  all  vessels  loaded  with  bread- 
stuffs  and  bound  for  France,  even  though  both 
vessel  and  cargo  should  be  neutral  property. 
Such  vessel  and  cargo,  on  proof  of  neutrality, 
were  not  to  be  forfeited ;  but  the  cargo  was  to 
be  paid  for,  and  the  vessel  released  on  bonds 
being  given  to  land  in  countries  friendly  to 
Great  Britain. 

British  Marauding  Expeditions  (1778).  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  before  he  returned  to  New  York 
from  Rhode  Island,  sent  out  General  Grey  (see 
Paoli)  to  land  with  troops  at  New  Bedford. 
They  proceeded  to  destroy  the  shipping  in  the 
harbor  there.  About  seventy  vessels  were  burn¬ 
ed.  Many  of  them  had  been  captured  by  the 
American  privateers.  They  also  burned  the 
stores,  wharves,  warehouses,  vessels  on  the 
stocks,  and  the  mills  and  barns  at  Fairhaven, 
opposite.  The  value  of  property  destroyed  was 
estimated  at  $323,000.  Then  they  went  to  Mar¬ 
tha’s  Vineyard,  where  they  destroyed  several  ves¬ 
sels  and  made  a  successful  requisition  for  the  mi¬ 
litia  arms,  the  public  money,  three  hundred  oxen, 
and  ten  thousand  sheep.  Clinton  also  sent  out 
an  expedition  from  New  York  to  attack  Colonel 
Baylor’s  troop  of  horse,  quartered  at  Tappan 
Grey  was  sent  on  this  errand  also.  He  took 
them  by  surprise,  as  they  lay  asleep,  and  bay¬ 
oneted  nearly  seveuty,  some  of  them  while  they 
begged  for  quarter.  (See  Baylor.)  Another  ex¬ 
pedition,  under  Captain  Patrick  Ferguson,  burn¬ 
ed  Little  Egg  Harbor,  on  the  New  Jersey  coast, 
with  vessels  there,  and  ravaged  the  surround¬ 
ing  country.  A  picket-guard  of  infantry,  thirty 
in  number,  with  Pulaski’s  Legion,  on  their  way 
from  Trenton  to  Little  Egg  Harbor,  were  sur¬ 
prised  by  these  marauders,  and  all  of  them  were 
butchered. 

British  Minister,  A  Stupid.  In  the  last 
century  there  were  two  secretaries  of  state 
charged  with  the  foreign  relations  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  empire.  The  officer  in  charge  of  the  execu¬ 
tive  power  relating  to  the  American  colonies 
had  the  cave  of  what  was  called  the  Southern 
Department.  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  the  able  Pre¬ 


mier  of  England,  endeavored  to  shape  the  cabi¬ 
net  so  that  men  of  superior  talents  might  not 
become  his  rivals.  In  1724  he  managed  to  have 
the  Duke  of  Newcastle  made  the  keeper  of  the 
seals  of  the  “  Southern  Department.”  He  had 
high  rank,  wealth,  personal  influence  over  the 
boroughs,  and  was  stupid  in  intellect;  and  he 
was  kept  in  that  responsible  station  for  nearly 
twenty-four  years.  While  he  could  give  full 
statistics  of  every  election,  he  had  very  little 
idea  of  the  country  or  people  of  whose  interests 
he  was  the  official  guardian.  He  was  frivolous 
and  shallow,  and  during  his  long  administra¬ 
tion  vast  numbers  of  memorials  and  letters 
from  the  colonies  were  left  unnoticed  in  his  of- 
tice.  Perhaps  his  imbecility  left  the  Americans 
more  liberty  than  they  would  have  enjoyed  un¬ 
der  an  able  and  energetic  statesman.  It  is  said 
the  duke  was  so  deficient  in  his  geographical 
knowledge  that  he  once  inquired  whether  Amer¬ 
ica  could  not  be  reached  easier  by  laud  than  by 
water;  and  he  used  to  address  letters  to  the 
“Island  of  New  England.”  He  could  not  tell 
whether  Jamaica  was  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
or  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Newcastle  was  insin¬ 
cere,  deceptive,  and  fond  of  rewarding  incompe¬ 
tent  friends  with  important  offices.  It  was  writ¬ 
ten  of  him : 

“  He  makes  no  promise  but  to  break  it, 

Faithful  to  naught  but  his  own  ends, 

The  bitterest  enemy  to  his  friends; 

But  to  his  fixed,  undaunted  foe, 

Obsequious,  base,  complying,  low. 

Cunning  supplies  his  want  of  parts; 

Treason  and  lies  are  all  his  arts.” 

In  1748  Newcastle  was  succeeded  by  the  Duke 
of  Bedford,  a  man  of  inflexible  honesty,  unsul¬ 
lied  honor,  not  brilliant,  but  sound,  patriotic, 
and  sincere. 

British  Minister  Dismissed.  Early  in  1855 
enlistments  for  the  British  army,  then  employed 
in  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  were  undertaken  in 
the  United  States  under  the  sanction  of  British 
officials  and  in  violation  of  neutrality  laws.  In 
this  business  the  British  Minister  at  Washing¬ 
ton  (Crampton)  was  implicated.  The  United 
States  government  demanded  his  recall.  The 
British  government  refused  compliance.  After 
waiting  several  mouths  while  diplomatic  corre¬ 
spondence  was  going  on,  the  President)  (fierce) 
dismissed  the  offending  miuister;  also  the  Brit¬ 
ish  consuls  at  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Cin¬ 
cinnati,  who  had  been  guilty  of  a  similar  of- 
ence.  Mutual  national  irritation  followed;  but 
law  and  equity  were  so  clearly  on  the  side  of 
the  United  States  that  a  new  minister  was  sent 
to  Washington,  and  friendly  relations  were  re¬ 
stored. 

British  Minister,  First,  in  the  United 
States.  When  Great  Britain  observed  that 
the  National  Constitution  was  the  foundation 
of  a  compact  nation,  and  that  the  United  States 
were  no  longer  a  mere  league  of  common¬ 
wealths,  she  condescended  to  seud  a  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  reside  at  the  seat  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  new  republic.  George  Ham- 
moud  was  that  miuister,  who  delivered  his  let¬ 
ters  of  credence  soon  after  Washington’s  return 
from  his  Southern  tpur  (which  see).  With  Mr. 


BRITISH  MINISTRY 


161 


BRITISH  SLAVE-TRADE 


Hammond,  Mr.  Jefferson,  Secretary  of  State,  en¬ 
tered  into  an  elaborate  correspondence  on  sev¬ 
eral  unsettled  questions  which  were  still  open 
between  the  two  governments — the  inexecution 
of  the  treaty  as  to  the  evacuation  of  the  fron¬ 
tier  posts ;  the  slaves  carried  away  by  the  de¬ 
parting  British  troops  at  the  close  of  the  Rev¬ 
olution  ;  the  disputed  eastern  boundary ;  and 
the  stipulations  concerning  British  creditors  of 
the  Americans  and  of  the  loyalists. 

British  Ministry,  Blindness  of  the.  When 
Parliament  assembled  on  Nov.  8,  1768,  the  king, 
in  his  speech,  alluded  with  much  warmth  to 
the  “  spirit  of  faction  breaking  out  afresh  in 
some  of  the  colonies.  Boston,”  he  said,  “  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  in  a  state  of  disobedience  to  all 
law  aud  government,  and  has  proceeded  to 
measures  subversive  of  the  constitution,  and 
attended  with  circumstances  that  might  mani¬ 
fest  a  disposition  to  throw  off  its  dependence 
on  Great  Britain.”  He  asked  for  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  Parliament  to  “  defeat  the  mischievous 
designs  of  those  turbulent  and  seditious  per¬ 
sons”  who  had  deluded,  by  false  pretences, 
numbers  of  his  subjects  in  America.  An  ad¬ 
dress  was  moved  promising  ample  support  to 
the  king,  and  providing  for  the  subjection  of 
the  rebellious  spirit  of  the  Americans.  Vehe¬ 
ment  debates  ensued.  The  Opposition  were 
very  severe.  Lord  North,  the  recognized  lead¬ 
er  of  the  ministry,  replied,  saying:  “America 
must  fear  you  before  she  can  love  you.  If 
America  is  to  be  the  judge,  you  may  tax  iu  uo 
instance;  you  may  regulate  in  no  instance.  .  .  . 
We  shall  go  through  with  our  plan,  now  that 
we  have  brought  it  so  near  success.  I  am 
against  repealing  the  last  act  of  Parliament, 
securing  to  us  a  revenue  out  of  America;  I 
will  never  think  of  repealing  it  until  I  see 
America  prostrate  at  my  feet.”  This  was  a 
fair  expression  of  the  sentiments  of  the  minis¬ 
try  and  of  Parliament.  The  address  was  car¬ 
ried  by  an  overwhelming  majority  —  in  the 
House  of  Lords  by  unanimous  vote.  (See  Lord 
Hillsborough  and  Colonial  Agents.) 

British  Offers  to  Treat  for  Peace.  On 
Jan.  6,  1814,  the  United  States  Government  re¬ 
ceived  from  that  of  Great  Britain  an  offer  to 
treat  for  peace  directly  at  London,  that  city 
being  preferred  because  it  would  afford  great¬ 
er  facilities  for  negotiation.  It  was  proposed, 
in  case  there  should  be  insuperable  objections 
to  London,  to  hold  the  conference  at  Gotten- 
burg,  in  Sweden.  This  offer,  with  the  selec¬ 
tion  of  Gottenburg,  was  accepted  by  President 
Madison,  who,  at  the  same  time,  complained  of 
the  rejection  of  Russia’s  mediation,  which  had 
been  offered  three  separate  times.  He  nomi¬ 
nated  as  commissioners  to  negotiate  for  peace, 
John  Quincy  Adams  and  James  A.  Bayard,  to 
whom  Henry  Clay  and  Jonathan  Russell  were 
added  as  special  representatives  of  the  war 
party.  At  the  same  time,  Russell  was  nomi¬ 
nated  and  confirmed  as  minister  to  Sweden. 

British  Plan  of  Conquest  in  America. 

So  early  as  the  summer  of  1776,  intimations 
reached  the  Americans  that,  the  British  minis- 

I.— 11 


try  had  devised  a  grand  scheme  for  dividing 
the  colonies,  and  so  to  effect  their  positive 
weakness  aud  easy  conquest.  It  contemplated 
the  seizure  of  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  River 
aud  Lake  Champlain,  aud  the  establishment  of 
a  line  of  military  posts  between  the  mouth  of 
the  Hudson  and  the  River  St.  Lawrence,  and 
so,  separating  New  England  from  the  rest  of 
the  union,  easily  accomplish  the  subjugation 
of  the  whole.  To  effect  this,  English  and  Ger- 
mau  troops  were  sent  both  to  the  St.  Lawrence 
aud  to  New  York  in  the  spring  and  summer  of 
1775.  It  was  the  grand  aim  of  the  expedition 
of  Burgoyne  southward  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
in  1777.  To  counteract  this  movement,  the 
Americans  cast  up  strong  fortifications  iu  the 
Hudson  Highlands,  and  kept  their  passes 
guarded.  It  was  in  anticipation  of  such  a 
scheme  that  the  colonists  made  the  unsuccess¬ 
ful  attempt  to  win  Canada  either  by  persua¬ 
sion  or  conquest.  (  See  Canada,  Invasion  of ; 
Burgoyne' s  Campaign.) 

British  Power  Vanishing  in  the  South 

(1781)  General  Greene  was  yet  on  the  High 
Hills  of  Santee  when  news  of  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis  reached  him.  The  day  of  its  ar¬ 
rival  was  kept  by  his  army  as  one  of  great  re¬ 
joicing.  The  event  seemed  to  be  a  sure  proph¬ 
ecy  that  peace  and  independence  were  near. 
So  felt  the  patriots  throughout  the  State  of 
South  Carolina.  Governor  Rutledge  called  a 
legislative  assembly  at  Jacksonborough,  S.  C., 
to  re-establish  civil  authority.  An  offer  of 
pardon  brought  hundreds  of  Tories  from  the 
British  lines  at  Charleston  to  accept  clemency. 
The  North  Carolina  Tories  were  dismayed,  for, 
immediately  after  the  surrender  of  Cornwal¬ 
lis,  St.  Clair  had  marched  upon  Wilmington. 
The  alarmed  British  troops  there,  under  Ma¬ 
jor  Craig,  immediately  abandoned  that  post, 
and  the  Tories  in  his  ranks  left  him,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  their  homes.  With  a  few  followers 
Craig  took  post  upon  St.  John’s  Island,  near 
Charleston.  The  vigilance  of  the  Republicans 
was  not  allowed  to  slumber.  Marion  and  his 
men  kept  “  watch  and  ward  ”  over  the  region 
between  the  Cooper  and  Santee  rivers,  while 
Greene’s  main  army  advanced  to,  and  lay 
along,  the  Edisto  River,  and  Wayne’s  forces 
imprisoned  the  British  in  Savannah. 

British  Slave-Trade.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  in  1713,  provision  was  made  for  Eng¬ 
land  to  supply  America  with  kidnapped  ne¬ 
groes.  The  queen  (Annfi)  undertook  to  carry 
to  the  Spauisli  West  Indies,  in  the  space  of 
thirty  years,  144,000  negro  slaves,  at  the  rate 
of  4800  each  year,  paying  a  duty  on  each  of 
them  of  thirty -three  and  one  third  dollars  a 
head.  The  British  might  introduce  as  many 
more  as  they  pleased  at  a  less  rate  of  duty, 
only  no  scandal  was  to  be  offered  to  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  religion.  Great  care  was  tak¬ 
en  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the  business.  As 
great  profits  were  expected  from  the  trade, 
Philip  Y.  of  Spain  took  one  quarter  of  the 
common  stock;  Queen  Annd  reserved  another 
quarter  to  herself,  and  the  remaining  half 


BRITISH  SPY  IN  CONGRESS  102  BROCK  AND  CANADA  LEGISLATURE 


■was  to  be  divided  among  her  subjects.  So  the 
monarchs  of  England  and  Spain,  a  century  and 
a  half  ago,  figure  as  the  largest  slave  merchants 
in  the  world. 

British  Spy  in  Congress  (1774).  It  is  as¬ 
serted  that  Joseph  Galloway  (which  see),  who 
was  a  member  of  the  First  Continental  Con¬ 
gress,  was  a  voluntary  spy  for  the  British 
government.  His  conduct  throughout  the  ses¬ 
sion,  viewed  in  the  light  of  subsequent  his¬ 
tory,  appears  insincere  and  disingenuous.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  bitter  Tories  who  mis¬ 
represented  the  colonies  in  England,  to  which 
he  fled  when  his  principles  were  discovered 
and  denounced.  He  quailed  before  Samuel 
Adams,  the  stern  Puritan  and  patriot,  and 
cordially  hated  him  because  he  feared  him. 
“  Though  by  no  means  remarkable  for  brill¬ 
iant  abilities,”  wrote  Galloway,  “  he  is  equal 
to  most  men  in  popular  intrigue  and  the 
management  of  a  faction.  He  eats  little, 
drinks  little,  sleeps  little,  and  thinks  much; 
and  is  most  decisive  and  indefatigable  in  the 
pursuit  of  his  objects.  He  was  the  man  who, 
by  his  superior  application,  managed  at  once 
the  faction  in  Congress  at  Philadelphia  and 
the  factions  in  New  England.”  And  it  may 
be  added  that  ho  was  the  man  who  so  well 
read  Galloway’s  character  in  that  Congress 
that  he  thwarted  the  schemes  of  the  British 
spy.  (See  Galloway's  Plan.) 

British  Tampering  with  the  Slaves  (1813). 
Admiral  Cochrane  had  succeeded  Admiral  War¬ 
ren  in  command  on  the  American  station,  and, 
on  April  2,  he  issued  a  proclamation,  dated  at 
Bermuda,  the  rendezvous  of  the  more  southern 
blockading  fleet.  That  proclamation  was  ad¬ 
dressed  to  slaves  under  the  denomination  of 
“persons  desirous  to  emigrate  from  the  United 
States.”  Owing  to  the  inability  of  nearly  all 
the  slaves  to  read,  the  proclamation  had  very 
little  effect.  It  is  said  that  a  project  had  been 
suggested  by  British  officers  for  taking  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  peninsula  between  the  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays,  and  there  training  for 
British  service  an  army  of  negro  slaves.  The 
project  was  rejected  only  because  the  British, 
being  then  slave-holders  themselves,  did  not 
like  to  encourage  insurrection  elsewhere. 

British  Troops  in  Boston  (  1768 ).  Be¬ 
fore  news  of  the  riot  in  Boston  ( June,  1768) 
reached  England,  two  regiments  of  troops  had 
been  ordered  to  that  town  from  Halifax.  That 
news  caused  two  others  to  be  ordered  from  Ire¬ 
land.  General  Gage  sent  an  officer  from  New 
York  to  provide  quarters  for  them.  This  oc¬ 
casioned  a  town-meeting  in  Boston,  .and  a  re¬ 
quest  for  the  governor  to  call  a  meeting  of  the 
Assembly.  He  refused.  The  troops  from  Hal¬ 
ifax  came  to  the  number  of  one  thousand  (Sep¬ 
tember,  1768),  and,  though  there  was  room  in 
the  barracks  at  Castle  William,  they  were  or¬ 
dered  to  be  quartered  in  the  town.  The  gov¬ 
ernor  declared  that  the  barracks  were  reserved 
for  the  two  regimeuts  expected  from  Ireland. 
His  council  was  now  opposed  to  him,  and  they 
refused  to  provide  quarters  for  the  troops  in 


Boston.  One  of  the  regiments  encamped  on  the 
Common.  The  Sons  of  Liberty  (  which  see  ), 
having  compassion  on  the  exposed  troops,  al¬ 
lowed  part  of  the  other  regiment  to  occupy  Fan- 
euil  Hall  temporarily,  and  the  remainder  went 
into  the  Town-house.  Cannons  were  planted 
in  front  of  the  latter,  sentinels  were  posted 
iu  the  streets,  the  inhabitants  were  challenged 
as  they  passed,  and  the  Sabbath  stillness  was 
disturbed  by  the  tread  of  marching  soldiers  and 
the  beating  of  drums.  Boston  had  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  a  garrisoned  town,  and  great  irritations 
ensued.  In  October,  General  Gage  appeared  in 
Boston  to  urge  the  provision  of  quarters  for  the 
troops.  The  council  referred  him  to  the  select¬ 
men.  The  latter  declined  to  take  any  steps  in 
the  matter.  The  governor  organized  what  he 
called  a  Board  of  Justice  to  find  quarters,  but 
the  members  appointed  refused  to  serve.  Gage 
was  compelled  to  hire  buildings  for  the  purpose, 
and  to  procure,  out  of  his  own  military  chest, 
various  articles  for  their  comfort. 

British  War  Party.  In  Great  Britain,  at  the 
time  of  the  first  downfall  of  Napoleon,  there  was 
a  furious  war  party  iu  England,  with  the  London 
Times  as  its  leader.  They  demanded  that  the 
released  troops  should  be  sent  to  America  to 
punish,  with  severity,  a  nation  of  insolent  dem¬ 
ocrats,  which  had  taken  advantage  of  Great 
Britain’s  greatest  pressure  to  make  an  unnatu¬ 
ral  war  upon  her.  The  naval  successes  of  the 
Americans,  they  said,  had  made  them  insolent, 
and,  unless  they  received  a  signal  check,  they 
might  become  a  rival  for  the  mastery  of  the 
seas.  The  government  sent  over  (1814)  thou¬ 
sands  of  Wellington’s  veterans,  who,  in  northern 
New  York,  at  Baltimore,  and  at  New  Orleans, 
found  themselves  overmatched  by  the  sturdy 
defenders  of  the  rights  of  the  Republic. 

Brock  and  the  Canada  Legislature.  Gen¬ 
eral  Brock,  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  heard 
of  Hull’s  invasion  from  Detroit  on  July  20, 
1812,  and  took  immediate  measures  to  resist 
it.  He  knew  the  weakness  of  Fort  Malden, 
below  Detroit,  and  felt  anxious.  The  Legis¬ 
lature  was  about  to  assemble  at  York  (Toron¬ 
to),  and  he  could  not  personally  conduct  af¬ 
fairs  in  the  west.  Divided  duties  perplexed 
him.  Leaving  the  military  which  he  had 
gathered  along  the  Niagara  frontier  in  charge 
of  Lieutenant  -  colonel  Myers,  he  hastened  to 
York,  and,  with  much  parade,  opened  the  ses¬ 
sion  of  the  Legislature.  His  address  was 
warmly  received,  but  he  found  that  either  dis¬ 
loyalty  or  timidity  prevailed  in  the  Legislat¬ 
ure.  Some  were  decidedly  in  favor  of  the 
Americans,  and  most  of  them  were  lukewarm. 
Perceiving  this,  Brock  prorogued  the  Assembly 
so  soon  as  they  had  passed  the  necessary  sup- 
ply-bills.  But  a  change  soon  came.  News  of 
the  seizure  of  Mackinaw  and  reverses  to  the 
Americans  on  the  Detroit  frontier,  together 
with  Brock’s  continually  confident  tone  in 
public  expressions,  gave  the  people  courage, 
and  he  was  enabled  to  write  to  Sir  George 
Prevost  (July  29, 1812),  “The  militia  stationed 
here  have  volunteered  their  services  this  morn- 


# 


BROCK 


163 


BROKE 


ing  to  any  part  of  the  province.”  He  soon 
led  quite  a  large  body  of  them,  and  captured 
Detroit.  (See  Detroit,  Surrender  of.) 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  was  boru  in  Guernsey,  Oct. 
6,  1769  ;  killed  at  Queenston,  Canada,  Oct.  13, 


attack  on  Queenstown,  Upper  Canada.”  To  the 
four  surviving  brothers  of  Brock  12,000  acres  of 
land  in  Canada  were  given,  and  a  pension  of 
$1000  a  year  each  for  life.  In  1816  the  Cana¬ 
dians  struck  a  medal  to  his  memory ;  and  on 
the  Heights  of  Queenstown  they  raised  a  beau¬ 
tiful  Tuscan  column  135  feet  in  height.  In  the 
base  of  the  monument  a  tomb  was  formed,  in 
which  the  general’s  remains  repose.  They  were 
taken  to  this  last  resting-place  from  Fort  George 
on  Oct.  13, 1824.  A  small  monument  marks  the 
place  where  he  fell. 

Brodhead,  John  Romeyn,  historian,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Jan. 2, 1814 ;  died  in  New  York, 
May  6, 1873.  He  graduated  at  Rutgers  College 


1812.  He  entered  the  British  army  as  an  en¬ 
sign  in  1783;  saw  service  in  Holland,  and  was 
in  the  attack  on  Copenhagen  in  1801.  Rising 
by  degrees,  he  became  a  major-general,  and  was 
appointed  president  and  administrator  of  the 
government  of  Upper  Canada,  Oct.  9, 1811.  When 
war  was  declared  by  the  United  States,  he  took 
prompt  measures  for  the  defence  of  the  prov¬ 
ince,  and  led  the  military  in  person  at  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  Detroit  and  in  the  battle  of  Queenstown. 
At  the  latter  place  lie  was  killed  while  rally¬ 
ing  his  troops  to  attack  the  Americans  on  the 
Heights.  (See  Queenstown,  Battle  at.)  His  body 
was  pierced  by  three  bullets.  The  British  gov¬ 
ernment  caused  a  line  monument  to  be  erected 
to  his  memory  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral,  London, 
bearing  the  following  inscription:  “Erected  at 


in  1831;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1835;  was 
attached  to  the  American  legation  at  the 
Hague  iu  1839,  and  was  appointed  by  the 
Legislature  of  New  York  its  agent  to  pro¬ 
cure  and  transcribe  original  documents  con¬ 
cerning  the  history  of  the  state.  He  spent 
three  years  in  searching  the  archives  of 
Holland,  England,  and  France,  and  obtained 
copies  of  more  than  five  thousand  separate 
papers,  comprising  the  reports  of  home  and 
colonial  authorities.  They  have  been  pub¬ 
lished  in  eleven  quarto  volumes  by  the 
State  of  New  York,  edited  by  E.  B.  O’Calla- 
glian,  LL.D.  Mr.  Brodhead  was  secretary 
of  the  American  legation  in  London  from 
1846  till  1849.  On  his  return  he  began  the 
preparation  of  a  Bistort/  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  The  first  volume  was  published  in 
1853,  and  the  second  in  1871.  He  was  naval 
officer  of  New  York  from  1853  till  1857.  Mr. 
Brodhead  left  his  History  of  the  State  of  New 
York  unfinished. 


SIR  PHILIP  BOWES  VERB  BROKE. 


MONUMENT  WHERE  BROCK  FELL. 

the  public  expense  to  the  memory  of  Major-gen¬ 
eral  Sir  Isaac  Brock,  who  gloriously  fell  on  the 
13th  of  October,  MDCCCXII.,  in  resisting  an 


Broke,  Sir  Philip  Bowes  Vere,  an  Eng¬ 
lish  admiral,  born  Sept.  9, 1776 ;  died  Jan.  2, 1841. 
lie  entered  the  British  navy  in  1792,  and  became 
post-captain  in  1801.  llismost  conspicuous  ex- 


BROOKFIELD 


164 


ploit  was  liis  capture  of  the  American  frigate 
Chesapeake  in  June,  1813.  (See  Chesapeake  and 
Shannon.)  This  affair  caused  him  to  receive 
knighthood;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he 
held  the  commission  of  rear-admiral  of  the  Red. 
In  the  action  with  the  Chesapeake  he  was  so  badly- 
wounded  that  he  was  never  fit  for  service  after¬ 
wards.  His  sou,  Sir  Philip  Broke,  was  born  on 
Jan.  15, 1804 ;  was  educated  at  the  Royal  Naval 
College  at  Portsmouth ;  aud  entered  the  navy 
in  1819,  risiug  to  the  rank.of  post-captain,  when 
he  left  the  service  aud  became  high  -  sheriff  of 
the  county  of  Suffolk. 

Brookfield,  Encounter  with  Indians  at. 
In  August,  1675,  a  conference  with  the  Nip- 
mucs  at  Brookfield,  Mass.,  was  proposed.  But 
no  Indians  were  there.  Captain  Wheeler,  with 
twenty  horsemeu,  went  in  search  of  them,  and 
fell  into  an  ambush  not  far  away,  when  eight 
of  the  white  men  were  killed.  The  survivors 
hastened  to  Brookfield,  and  had  just  gathered 
the  men,  women,  aud  children  of  the  village — 
seventy  in  number — into  a  strong  house,  when 
three  hundred  savages,  glowing  with  war-paint, 
filled  the  street,  yelling  and  brandishing  torches, 
with  which  they  fired  every  house  excepting 
the  one  in  which  the  English  had  taken  refuge. 
Upon  that  the  Indians  made  a  furious  attack, 
and  the  siege  continued  two  days.  Every  effort 
was  -made,  by  fire  and  weapons,  to  dislodge  the 
garrison.  On  the  third  day,  when  the  savages 
had  contrived  a  successful  method  for  burning 
the  building,  a  heavy  shower  of  raiu  extinguish¬ 
ed  the  flames  ;  and  soon  afterwards  Major  Simon 
Willard,  of  Boston,  arrived  with  about  sixty  men 
and  drove  off  the  besiegers,  who  lost  eighty  of 
their  warriors  in  the  fight.  (See  King  Philip's 
War.) 

Brooks,  John,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  soldier  and  states¬ 
man,  was  born  at  Medford,  Mass.,  May  3,1752; 
died  March  1,  1825.  He  received  a  common- 
school  education,  studied  medicine,  and  settled 


JOHN  BROOKS. 


in  its  practice  at  Reading,  where  he  commanded 
a  company  of  minute-men  (which  see)  when  the 
Revolution  began.  With  his  men  he  was  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  affairs  of  April  19, 1775,  at  Lexington 
and  Concord.  Brooks  was  active  in  intrench¬ 
ing  Breed’s  Hill  (see  Bunker's  Hill)  on  the  night 


BROTHERLY  LOVE,  CITY  OF 

of  June  16,  1775,  and  was  major  of  a  regiment 
that  assisted  in  fortifying  Dorchester  Heights. 
Early  in  1776  he  accompanied  it  to  Long  Island, 
aud  fought  there.  The  battle  of  White  Plains 
tested  his  capacity  as  a  disciplinarian  and  lead¬ 
er  ;  and  early  in  1777  he  was  promoted  to  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel  of  the  Eighth  Massachusetts  Reg¬ 
iment,  which  was  chietly  recruited  by  himself. 
He  became  colonel  of  the  Seventh  Massachusetts 
Regiment  late  in  1778  ;  and  he  accompanied  Ar¬ 
nold  on  his  expedition  to  relieve  Fort  Stanwix 
in  1777.  (See  Fort  Stanwix.)  He  led  his  regi¬ 
ment  in  battle  with  great  prowess  and  success  at 
Saratoga  (see  Bemis’s  Heights),  Oct.  7,  1777  ;  and 
in  the  battle  of  Monmouth  (which  see)  he  was 
acting- adjutant -general.  Colonel  Brooks  re¬ 
sumed  the  practice  of  medicine  at  Medford  after 
the  war,  and  was  for  many  years  major-general 
of  militia.  He  served  cheerfully  and  efficiently 
in  any  civil  or  military  duty  to  which  his  coun¬ 
trymen  called  him;  was  adjutant  -  general  of 
Massachusetts  during  the  War  of  1812-15,  and 
was  governor  of  that  commonwealth  from  1816 
to  1823,  when  he  retired  to  private  life.  In  1816 
Harvard  University  conferred  upon  him  the  de¬ 
grees  of  M.D.  and  LL.D.  From  1817  until  his 
death  he  was  president  of  the  Massachusetts 
Medical  Society;  of  the  State  Society  of  the 
Cincinnati  from  1787  ;  aud  of  the  Massachusetts 
Bible  Society. 

Brooks,  William  T.  H.,  was  born  in  Ohio 
in  1815 ;  died  at  Huntsville,  Ala.,  July  19, 
1870.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841, 
served  under  Scott  in  the  war  against  Mexico, 
and  became  brigadier-general  of  Volunteers  in 
1861,  serving  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
through  all  its  operations  and  vicissitudes.  In 
July,  1864,  he  was  temporarily  in  command  of 
the  Tenth  Army  Corps,  and  resigned  the  same 
month. 

Brother  Jonathan,  Origin  of  the  Phrase. 
When  Washington  took  command  of  the  Con¬ 
tinental  army  at  Cambridge,  he  found  it  in  want 
of  ammunition  and  other  supplies,  and  this  want 
continued,  more  or  less,  for  months.  Jonathan 
Trumbull  was  then  the  popular,  efficient,  aud 
patriotic  governor  of  Connecticut,  and  Wash¬ 
ington  had  frequent  occasion  to  rely  upon  his 
judgment  and  aid.  On  one  occasion,  at  a  coun¬ 
cil  <tf  war,  when  there  seemed  to  be  no  way  to 
make  provision  against  an  expected  attack  of 
the  enemy,  the  commander-in-chief  said,  “  We 
must  consult  brother  Jonathan  on  the  subject.” 
He  did  so,  and  the  governor  was  successful  in 
supplying  many  of  the  wants  of  the  army. 
When  the  army  was  afterwards  spread  over  the 
country  and  difficulties  arose,  it  was  a  common 
saying  among  the  officers,  as  a  by-word,  “  We 
must  consult  brother  Jonathan.”  The  origin 
of  these  words  Avere  soon  lost  sight  of,  aud 
“  Brother  Jonathan”  became  the  title  of  our  na¬ 
tionality,  like  that  of  “  John  Bull”  of  England. 

Brotherly  Love,  City  of.  This  is  the  mean¬ 
ing  of  Philadelphia,  the  name  given  by  William 
Penn  to  the  city  which  he  founded  (1682)  be¬ 
tween  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  rivers.  He 
bought  the  land  of  the  Swedes,  and,  with  the 


165 


BROWN 


BROTHERLY  LOVE,  CITY  OF 

assistance  of  Thomas  Holme,  the  surveyor  of 
his  colony,  he  laid  ont  the  city  at  the  close  of 
1682.  He  caused  the  boundaries  of  the  streets 
to  be  marked  on  the  trunks  of  chestnut,  wal¬ 
nut,  locust,  spruce,  pine,  and  other  forest  trees, 
and  several  of  the  streets  bear  the  names  of 
those  trees.  The  new  city  grew  rapidly. 
Within  a  year  after  the  surveyor  had  finished 
his  work  almost  a  hundred  houses  were  erect¬ 
ed  there,  and  Indians  came  almost  daily  with 
the  spoils  of  the  forest  as  gifts  for  “  Father 
Penn,”  as  they  delighted  to  call  the  proprie¬ 
tor.  Iu  March  following  (1683),  the  city  was 
honored  as  the  gathering- place  of  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  people  to  consider  a  constitu¬ 
tion  of  government  which  Penn  had  prepared. 
It  constituted  a  representative  republican  gov¬ 
ernment,  with  free  religious  toleration  and  jus¬ 
tice  for  its  foundation  ;  and  the  proprietor,  un¬ 
like  those  of  other  provinces,  surrendered  his 
charter  -  rights  to  the  people  on  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  public  officers.  Wise  and  beneficent 
laws  were  enacted  under  the  charter.  To  pre¬ 
vent  lawsuits,  it  was  decreed  that  three  arbi¬ 
trators,  called  peace  -  makers,  should  be  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  county  courts  to  hear  and  de¬ 
termine  differences  among  the  people ;  that 
children  should  be  taught  some  useful  trade  ; 
that  factors  wronging  their  employes  should 
make  satisfaction  and  one  third  over;  that  all 
causes  for  irreligion  and  vulgarity  should  be 
repressed ;  and  that  no  man  should  be  molest¬ 
ed  for  his  religious  opinions.  They  also  de¬ 
creed  that  the  days  of  the  week  and  the 
months  of  the  year  should  be  called,  as  in 
Scripture,  first,  second,  etc.  The  settlers  lived 
in  huts  before  houses  could  be  built,  also  iu 
caves  in  the  river  -  banks,  arched  over  with 
boughs.  The  chimneys  were  built  of  clay, 
strengthened  by  grass.  A  man  named  Guest 
built  the  first  house,  it  is  believed,  which  was 
the  Blue  Anchor  Tavern  afterwards,  and  Guest 
was  its  first  keeper.  Ten  other  houses  were 
soon  built  near  of  frames  filled  in  with  clay. 
Before  Penn’s  arrival  a  little  cottage  had  been 
built  on  the  site  of  the  new  city  by  a  man 
named  Drinker,  and  this  was  the  first  habita¬ 
tion  of  a  white  man  there.  The  name  of  Phila¬ 
delphia — city  of  brotherly  love — was  given  by 
Penn  to  the  town  to  impress  the  people  with 
an  idea  of  the  disposition  which  he  hoped 
would  prevail  there.  Liberty  in  the  colony 
caused  a  great  influx  of  emigrants,  and  in 
the  space  of  two  years  Philadelphia  had 
grown  so  rapidly  that  there  were  six  hun¬ 
dred  houses.  There  had  arrived  in  1682  twen¬ 
ty-eight  ships.  A  large  emigration,  chiefly  of 
Friends,  arrived  there  from  Holland,  Germany, 
England,  and  Wales  in  1683-84 ;  and  the  pop¬ 
ulation  was  estimated,  at  the  close  of  the  lat¬ 
ter  year,  at  twenty -five  hundred.  Schools 
were  established;  and  in  1687  William  Brad¬ 
ford  set  up  a  printing-press  in  Philadelphia. 
A  city  charter  was  given  by  Penn,  Oct.  28, 
1701,  and  a  court-house  was  built  in  1707. 
During  the  whole  colonial  period  Philadel¬ 
phia  was  the  most  important  city  in  the  coun¬ 
try,  and  remained  so  for  more  than  a  quarter 


of  a  century  after  the  establishment  of  state 
government  in  Pennsylvania  in  1776.  Writ¬ 
ing  to  Lord  Halifax  from  Philadelphia,  Penn 
said,  with  righteous  exultation,  “I  must,  with¬ 
out  vanity,  say  I  have  led  the  greatest  colony 
into  America  that  ever  any  man  did  upon  pri¬ 
vate  credit,  and  the  most  prosperous  begin¬ 
nings  that  ever  were  in  it  are  to  be  found 
among  us.” 

Brown,  Jacob,  was  born  in  Bucks  County, 
Penn.,  May  9,  1775,  of  Quaker  parentage ;  died 
iu  Washington  city,  Feb.  24,  1828.  From  his 
eighteenth  to  his  twenty -first  year  he  taught 


JACOB  BROWN. 


school  at  Crosswicks,  N.  J.,  and  passed  the 
next  two  years  in  surveying  lands  in  Ohio. 
In  1798  he  opened  a  select  school  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  and  studied  law.  Some  of  his 
newspaper  essays  attracted  the  notice  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Alexander  Hamilton,  to  whom  he  became 
secretary  while  that  officer  was  acting  general- 
in-chief  of  the  army  raised  to  fight  the  French. 
On  leaving  that  service  he  went  to  northern 
New  York,  purchased  lands  on  the  banks  of  the 
Black  River,  not  many  miles  from  Sackett’s 
Harbor,  and  founded  the  flourishing  settle¬ 
ment  of  Brownsville,  where  he  erected  the 
first  building  within  thirty  miles  of  Lake  On¬ 
tario.  There  he  became  county  judge;  colo¬ 
nel  of  the  militia  in  1809;  brigadier-general  in 
1810;  and,  in  1812,  received  the  appointment 
of  commander  of  the  frontier  from  Oswego  to 
Lake  St.  Francis,  a  line  two  hundred  miles  in 
extent.  He  performed  excellent  service  on 
that  frontier  and  that  of  the  Niagara  during 
the  War  of  1812-15,  receiving  two  severe 
wounds  in  battle.  For  his  services  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress  and  a  gold  medal.  At 
the  close  of  the  war,  General  Brown  was  re¬ 
tained  in  command  of  the  northern  division  of 
the  army,  and  was  made  general-in-chief  of 
the  Army  of  the  United  States,  March  10,  1821. 


BROWN 


166 


BROWN1STS 


General  Brown’s  remains  were  interred  in  tlie 
Congressional  buryiug-gronnd,  and  over  them 
is  a  truncated  column  of  white  marble  upon  an 

inscribed  pedes- 


GKXERAL  brown  s  monument. 


tal. 

Brown,  John, 
a  patriot  of  the 
Revolution,  was 
born  at  Sandis- 
field,  Mass.,  Oct. 
19,  1744  ;  killed 
by  Indiansin  the 
Mohawk  Valley, 
Oct.  19, 1780.  He 
graduated  at 
Yale  College  in 
1761 ;  became  a 
lawyer  and  ac¬ 
tive  patriot;  en¬ 
tered  Canada  in 
disguise  ( 1774- 
75)  to  obtain  in¬ 
formation  and 
secure  the  co¬ 
operation  of  the 
Canadians  with 
the  other  colo¬ 
nists,  and  aided 
Ethan  Allen  in 
the  capture  of 
Ticonderoga.  He 
was  active  with 
Montgomery  in  the  siege  of  Quebec.  In  August, 
1776,  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel,  and,  on 
the  morning  of  Sept.  18, 1776,  he  surprised  the 
outposts  of  Ticonderoga,  set  free  one  hundred 
American  prisoners,  captured  four  companies  of 
British  regulars,  a  quantity  of  stores  and  can¬ 
nons,  and  destroyed  a  number  of  boats  and  an 
armed  sloop.  He  left  the  service  because  of  his 
detestation  of  Benedict  Arnold,  but  continued 
to  act  with  the  militia. 

Brown,  John  (Ossawattomie),  was  born  at 
Torrington,  Conn.,  May  9,  1800 ;  hanged  at 
Charlestown,  Va.,  Dec.  2,  1859.  He  was  a  de¬ 
scendant  of  Peter  Browu  of  the  Mayflower.  His 
grandfather  was  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution, 
and  perished  in  that  war.  When  John  was 
live  years  of  age,  his  father  moved  to  Ohio ; 
and  in  1815-20  he  worked  at  the  trade  of  a 
tanner.  He  became  a  dealer  in  wool ;  visited 
Europe  on  business  ;  and  in  1855  he  emigrated 
to  Kansas,  where,  as  an  anti-slavery  champion, 
he  took  an  active  part  against  the  pro-slavery 
party,  engaging  in  some  of  the  conflicts  of  the 
short  civil  war  in  that  territory.  Devout, 
moral,  courageous,  and  intensely  earnest,  he 
sought  to  be  an  instrument  for  the  abolition 
of  African  slavery  from  the  Republic.  The 
idea  that  he  might  become  a  liberator  was 
conceived  so  early  as  1839.  In  May,  1859,  he 
made  his  first  movement  in  an  attempt  to  lib¬ 
erate  the  slaves  in  Virginia,  which  ended  so 
disastrously  to  himself  at  Harper’s  Ferry. 
(See  John  Brown's  Raid.)  That  movement  pre¬ 
cipitated  the  secession  measures  which  led  to 
the  Civil  War  and  the  destruction  of  the  in¬ 
stitution  of  slavery  in  the  United  States. 


Brown,  John  Cartkr,  was  horn  in  Provi¬ 
dence,  R.  I.,  Aug.  28,  1797  ;  died  there,  June  10, 
1874.  He  was  a  second  sou  of  Nicholas  Brown, 
the  patron  of  Browu  University,  at  which  he 
graduated  in  1816.  He  engaged  largely  in 
the  business  of  manufactures  and  merchan¬ 
dise.  He  travelled  much  in  the  United 
States,  and  resided  in  Europe,  at  different 
times,  for  several  years.  In  1828  he  was 
chosen  a  trustee,  and  in  1842  a  fellow,  of 
Brown  University,  and  so  remaiued  until  his 
death,  bestowing  many  munifleeut  gifts  upon 
that  institution.  Together  they  amounted  to 
$70,000.  In  his  will  he  made  liberal  provision 
for  a  new  library  building,  which  has  since 
been  erected.  His  entire  benefactions  to  the 
university  amount  to  nearly  $160,000.  Mr. 
Brown  never  took  any  prominent  part  in  pub¬ 
lic  affairs;  but  he  was  an  active  friend  of  the 
bondsmen,  and  did  much,  in  his  quiet  way,  in 
aid  of  the  cause  of  freedom  in  the  struggle  in 
Kansas  (which  see),  giving  money  liberally  for 
the  promotion  of  emigration  thither  from  New 
England.  During  almost  his  whole  life  Mr. 
Brown  was  engaged  in  the  collection  of  a  li¬ 
brary  of  American  history,  in  which  his  friend 
Hon.  J.  Russell  Bartlett  materially  aided  him. 
He  aimed  to  gather  early,  rare,  and  valuable 
books,  which,  by  proper  classification,  would 
show  the  methods  of  American  colonization 
and  subsequent  development  of  its  civiliza¬ 
tion.  For  full  forty  years  before  his  death  he 
pursued  this  object  with  zeal,  and  has  left  one 
of  the  rarest  and  grandest  collections  of  the 
kind  ever  made.  It  comprises  about  ten 
thousand  volumes;  and  it  gives  to  John  Car¬ 
ter  Brown  a  foremost  place  among  the  distin¬ 
guished  historical  collectors  of  the  world. 

Brown,  Nicholas,  a  munificent  patron  of 
Browu  University,  from  whom  it  derives  its 
name.  (See  College  of  Rhode  Island.)  He  was 
born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  April  4,  1769;  died 
there,  Sept.  27,  1841.  He  graduated  at  Rhode 
Island  College  (Brown  University)  in  1786, 
became  a  very  successful  merchant  in  1791, 
was  a  member  of  the  Rhode  Island  Legislat¬ 
ure,  and  giving  money  liberally  to  his  alma 
mater,  the  name  of  Brown  University  was  giv¬ 
en  to  it.  He  gave  in  all  about  $100,000  to  that 
college,  and  liberally  patronized  other  institu¬ 
tions  of  learning.  He  gave  nearly  $10,000  to 
the  Providence  Athenaeum,  and  bequeathed 
$30,000  for  an  insane  asylum  in  Providence. 

Brownists.  The  Puritans  who  went  to 
Holland,  and  afterwards  emigrated  to  New 
England,  were  of  the  sect  called  “Brownists,” 
so  named  from  their  leader,  Robert  Brown. 
The  sect  sprang  up  towards  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  So  early  as  1580,  Brown 
began  to  inveigh  against  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Church  of  England.  Being  opposed  by 
the  bishops,  he  and  his  congregation  left 
England,  and  settled  in  Zealand,  where  they 
formed  a  church  upon  a  model  to  suit  them¬ 
selves.  The  seed  he  had  planted  in  England 
grew  so  abundantly  that  at  the  close  of  the 
century  there  were  about  twenty  thousand 


BROWNLOW 


167 


BROWNLOW 


Brownists  in  the  realm.  Of  that  sect  were  Rev. 
Mr.  Robinson,  Elder  Brewster,  and  the  congre¬ 
gation  at  Leyden  in  1620.  The  founder  of  this 
sect  was  born  abont  the  year  1550,  and  died 
about  1630.  His  family  were  closely  connect¬ 
ed  with  Cecil,  afterwards  Lord  Burleigh.  Edu¬ 
cated  at  Cambridge,  as  soon  as  he  left  college 
he  began  a  vigorous  opposition  to  the  whole 
discipline  and  liturgy  of  the  Established  Church. 
He  taught  that  all  the  members  of  a  church 
were  equal,  and  that  the  pastor  should  be  chos¬ 
en  by  the  congregation. 

Brownlow,  William  Gann  away,  clergy¬ 
man  and  journalist,  was  born  in  Wythe  Coun¬ 
ty,  Va.,  Ang.  29,  1805;  died  at  Knoxville,  Tenn., 
April  29, 1877.  He  was  left  an  orphan  at  eleven 


WILLIAM  GANNAWAY  BROWNLOW. 


years  of  age,  and,  by  means  of  wages  as  a  car¬ 
penter  in  his  youth,  he  acquired  a  fair  Eng¬ 
lish  education.  At  the  age  of  twenty  -  four 
years  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Method¬ 
ist  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  an  itinerant  for 
ten  years.  While  on  his  circuit  in  South  Caro¬ 
lina  he  opposed  the  nullification  movement  in 
that  state  (see  Nullification ),  which  excited 
strong  opposition  to  him.  About  1837  he  be¬ 
gan  the  publication  of  the  Knoxville  Whig,  a  po¬ 
litical  newspaper,  which  soqn  circulated  wide¬ 
ly,  and,  for  its  vigorous  polemics,  obtained 
for  Brownlow  the  name  of  the  “Fighting  Par¬ 
son.”  In  1858  he  engaged  in  a  public  de¬ 
bate  in  Philadelphia  on  the  question,  “  Ought 
American  Slavery  to  be  Perpetuated  ?”  in  which 
he  took  the  affirmative.  When  the  secession 
movement  began,  he  boldly  opposed  it,  taking 
the  ground  that  the  preservation  of  the  Union 
would  furnish  the  best  safeguard  of  Southern 
institutions,  and  especially  of  slavery.  So  out¬ 
spoken  and  influential  was  Mr.  Brownlow  that, 
in  December,  1861,  he  was  arrested,  by  order  of 
the  Confederate  authorities,  on  a  charge  of 
treason  against  the  Confederacy,  and  confined 
in  Knoxville  jail,  where  he  suffered  much  un¬ 
til  released  in  March,  1862.  Then  lie  was  sent 
withiu  the  Union  lines  at  Nashville.  After¬ 
wards  he  made  a  tour  in  the  Northern  States, 
delivering  speeches  in  the  principal  cities.  At 
Philadelphia  he  was  joined  by  his  family,  who 
had  been  expelled  from  Knoxville,  where  he 


published  Sketches  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and  De¬ 
cline  of  Secession,  with  a  Narrative  of  Personal 
Adventures  among  the  Rebels.  Brownlow  was 
Governor  of  Tennessee  in  1865-69,  and  United 
States  Senator  from  1869  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  man  of  fearless  spirit,  held  such  a 
caustic  pen,  and  maintained  such  influential 
social  and  political  relations  that  he  wras  in¬ 
tensely  hated  and  feared  by  the  Secessionists. 
The  latter  longed  for  an  occasion  to  silence 
him,  and  fiually  they  made  the  false  charge 
that  he  was  accessory  to  the  firing  of  several 
railway  bridges  in  East  Tennessee  to  cut  off 
communication  between  Virginia  and  that  re¬ 
gion.  His  life  had  been  frequently  menaced 
by  Confederate  soldiers,  and,  at  the  urgent  so¬ 
licitation  of  his  family,  he  left  home  in  the 
autumn  (1861),  and  v'ent  into  another  district. 
While  he  was  absent  several  bridges  were 
burned.  Believing  him  to  have  been  con¬ 
cerned  in  the  burning,  the  Confederate  colo¬ 
nel  Wood  —  a  Methodist  preacher  from  Ala¬ 
bama — was  sent  out,  with  some  cavalry,  with 
orders,  publicly  given  at  Knoxville,  not  to 
take  him  prisoner,  but  to  shoot  him  at  once. 
Informed  of  his  peril,  Brownlow,  with  other 
loyal  men,  secreted  himself  in  the  Smoky 
Mountains,  on  the  borders  of  North  Carolina, 
where  they  were  fed  by  loyalists.  The  Con¬ 
federates  finally  resolved  to  get  rid  of  this 
“dangerous  citizen”  by  giving  him  a  pass  to 
go  into  Kentucky  under  a  military  escort.  He 
received  such  a  pass  at  Knoxville,  and  was 
about  to  depart  for  the  Union  lines,  when  he 
was  arrested  for  treason.  By  the  assurance 
of  safety  he  had  come  to  Knoxville  for  his 
pass,  and  so  put  himself  in  the  hands  of  his 
enemies.  He  and  some  of  the  best  men  in 
East  Tennessee  were  cast  into  the  county 
jail,  where  they  suffered  intensely.  Deprived 
of  every  comfort,  they  were  subjected  to  the 
vile  ribaldry  of  the  guards,  and  constantly 
threatened  with  death  by  hanging.  Acting 
upon  the  suggestions  of  Benjamin  (  see  Solid 
South),  men  charged  with  bridge  -  burning,  and 
confined  with  Brownlow,  were  hanged,  and 
their  bodies  were  left  suspended  as  a  warn¬ 
ing.  In  the  midst  of  these  fiery  trials,  Parson 
Brownlow  (as  he  wras  familiarly  called)  re¬ 
mained  firm,  and  exercised  great  boldness  of 
speech.  They  dared  not  hang  him,  without  a 
legal  trial  and  conviction.  They  offered  him 
life  and  liberty  if  he  would  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  Confederacy.  He  refused 
with  scorn.  To  Benjamin  he  wrote :  “  You 
are  reported  to  have  said  to  a  gentleman  in 
Richmond  that  I  am  a  had  man,  and  danger¬ 
ous  to  the  Confederacy,  and  that  you  desire 
me  out  of  it.  Just  give  me  my  passport,  and 
I  will  do  for  your  Confederacy  more  than  the 
devil  has  ever  done — I  will  quit  the  country.” 
Benjamin  soon  afterwards  indicated  a  wish 
that  Brownlow  should  be  sent  out  of  the  Con¬ 
federacy,  “only,”  he  said,  “because  color  is 
given  to  the  suspicion  that  he  has  been  en¬ 
trapped.”  He  was  finally  released,  and  sent 
to  Nashville  (then  in  possession  of  National 
troops)  early  in  March,  1862. 


BROWN’S  FERRY 


168 


BUCCANEERS 


Brown’s  Ferry,  Seizure  of,  1863.  General 
G.  W.  F.  Smith  undertook  to  open  a  more  di¬ 
rect  way  for  supplies  for  the  National  troops  at 
Chattanooga  (which  see).  In  co-operation  with 
Hooker’s  advance  on  Wauhatchie  (which  see), 
he  sent  General  Hazen  from  Chattanooga,  with 
eighteen  hundred  men  in  batteaux,  to  construct 
a  pontoon  bridge  below.  These  floated  noise¬ 
lessly  and  undiscerued  in  the  night  (Oct.  26,  27, 
1863)  down  the  Tennessee  River,  past  the  point 
of  Lookout  Mountain,  along  a  line  of  Confed¬ 
erate  pickets  seven  miles  in  length.  They  land¬ 
ed  at  Brown’s  Ferry,  on  the  south  side,  captured 
the  pickets  there,  and  seized  a  low  range  of  hills 
that  commanded  Lookout  Valley.  Another  force, 
twelve  hundred  strong,  under  General  Turchin, 
had  moved  down  the  north  bank  of  the  river 
to  the  ferry  at  about  the  same  time  ;  and  by  ten 
o’clock  a  pontoon  bridge  was  laid,  aud  a  strong 
abatis  for  defence  was  constructed.  The  Con¬ 
federates,  bewildered,  withdrew  up  the  valley. 
Before  night  the  left  of  Hooker’s  line  rested  on 
Smith’s  at  the  pontoon  bridge.  By  this  opera¬ 
tion  the  railway  from  Bridgeport  well  up  tow¬ 
ards  Chattanooga  was  put  in  possession  of  the 
Nationals,  and  the  route  for  supplies  for  the 
troops  at  the  latter  place  was  reduced  by  land 
from  sixty  to  twenty-eight  miles  along  a  safe 
road  ;  and  by  using  the  river  to  Kelly’s  Ferry, 
to  eight  miles. 

Brownstown.  (See  Van  Horne’s  Surrender.) 

Bryant  on  the  Embargo.  Among  the  polit¬ 
ical  writers  of  the  day  who  attacked  the  first 
embargo  act  (which  see)  was  the  late  poet  Will¬ 
iam  Cullen  Bryant,  being  a  lad  only  thirteen 
years  of  age.  In  a  poetical  satire,  entitled  The 
Embargo;  or,  Sketches  of  the  Times,  the  boy-politi¬ 
cian  gave  evidence  of  those  powers  which  after¬ 
wards  elevated  him  to  the  front  rank  among  the 
literary  men  of  the  nation.  Young  Bryant  called 
the  embargo  act  a  “  terrapin  policy” — the  policy 
designed  by  it  of  shutting  up  the  nation  in  its 
own  shell,  as  it  were,  like  the  terrapin  with  its 
head.  In  that  poem  he  violently  assailed  the 
President  (Mr.  Jefferson),  and  revealed  the  in¬ 
tensity  of  the  opposition  to  him  and  his  policy 
in  New  England,  which  made  even  boys  bitter 
politicians.  Alluding  to  Jefferson’s  narrow  es¬ 
cape  from  capture  by  Tarleton  in  1781  (see  Corn¬ 
wallis,  Invasion  by),  liis  zeal  for  the  French,  and 
his  scientific  researches,  young  Bryant  wrote  : 

“  And  thou,  the  scorn  of  every  patriot  name, 

Thy  country's  ruin,  and  her  council’s  shame! 

Poor,  servile  thing!  derision  of  the  brave  1 
Who  erst  from  Tarleton  fled  to  Carter’s  cave  ; 

Thou,  who,  when  menaced  by  perfidious  Gaul, 

Didst  prostrate  to  her  wbisker’d  minion  fall; 

And  when  our  cash  his  empty  bags  supplied, 

Did  meanly  strive  the  foul  disgrace  to  hide. 

Go,  wretch,  resign  the  Presidential  chair, 

Disclose  thy  secret  measures,  foul  or  fair  ; 

Go,  search  with  curious  eye  for  horned  frogs 
’Mid  the  wild  wastes  of  Louisiana  bogs  , 

Or.  where  Ohio  rolls  his  turbid  stream, 

Dig  for  huge  bones,  thy  glory  and  thy  theme.” 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  poet,  was  born  at 
Cummington,  Mass.,  Nov.  3,  1794;  died  in  New 
York  city,  June  12,  1878.  He  communicated 
rhymes  to  the  county  newspaper  before  he  was 
ten  years  of  age.  His  father  was  a  distinguished 
physician  aud  man  of  letters,  and  took  great 


pains  in  the  instruction  of  his  boy.  His  poem 
on  The  Embargo,  written  at  the  age  of  thirteen, 
evinced  great  precocity  of  intellect.  (See  Bryant 
on  the  Embargo.)  He  wrote  his  most  remarkable 
poem  ( Thanatopsis )  when  he  was  in  his  nine¬ 
teenth  year.  In  1810  he  entered  Williams  Col- 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT. 


lege,  but  did  not  graduate.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1815,  and  practised  some  time  in 
western  Massachusetts.  His  first  collection  of 
poems  was  published  in  1821,  and  this  volume 
caused  his  immediate  recognition  as  a  poet  of 
great  merit.  In  1825  Mr.  Bryant  became  an  as¬ 
sociate  editor  of  the  New  York  Review.  In  1826 
he  became  connected  with  the  Neiv  York  Evening 
Post,  and  continued  its  editor  until  his  death. 
Meanwhile  he  contributed  to  literary  publica¬ 
tions.  He  made  four  visits  to  Europe  (1834, 
1845,  1849,  and  1858-59),  and  in  the  intervals 
had  visited  much  of  his  own  country  from  Maine 
to  Florida.  On  the  completion  of  his  seventieth 
year,  in  1864,  his  birthday  was  celebrated  by  a 
festival  at  the  “Century  Club”  by  prominent 
literary  men.  His  translations  of  Homer  into 
English  blank  verse  were  commended  as  the 
best  rendering  of  the  Epics  in  his  native  tongue 
ever  made.  His  occasional  speeches  and  more 
formal  orations  are  models  of  stately  style,  some¬ 
times  enlivened  by  quiet  humor.  In  prose  com¬ 
position  Mr.  Bryant  was  equally  happy  as  in 
poetry  in  the  choice  of  pure  and  elegant  Eng¬ 
lish  words,  with  great  delicacy  of  fancy  pervad¬ 
ing  the  whole.  His  last  poem  was  published 
in  the  Sunday-School  Times,  Philadelphia,  Feb. 
22, 1878,  on  the  subject  of  Washington,  and  writ¬ 
ten  at  the  request  of  the  editor  of  that  paper. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  with 
Mr.  S.  H.  Gay  in  the  preparation  of  a  History  of 
the  United  States.  He  had  also  just  completed, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  late  Evart  A.  Duyc- 
kinck,  a  new  and  carefully  annotated  edition 
of  Shakespeare’s  Works,  yet  (1887)  unpublished. 
Parke  Godwin  has  published  his  biography. 

Buccaneers,  The,  were  daring  adventurers 
who  first  combined  for  the  spoliation  of  the 
Spaniards  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  islands  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  first  of  these  were  most¬ 
ly  French,  who  attempted  to  introduce  them¬ 
selves  into  the  West  Indies  not  long  after  the 


BUCHANAN 


169 


BUCHANAN 


conquests  of  the  Spaniards  there,  and  were 
called  Jlibustiers,  or  freebooters.  Their  depre¬ 
dations  among  the  islands  were  extensive  and 
alarming.  They  made  settlements  in  Santo  Do¬ 
mingo,  where  the  Spaniards  attempted  to  expel 
them.  Retaliation  followed.  In  1630  they  made 
the  little  island  of  Tortugas,  west  of  the  Florida 
Keys,  their  stronghold,  where,  in  armed  bands  in 
row-boats,  they  attacked  Spanish  vessels,  lying 
in  wait  for  them  on  their  passage  from  America 
to  Europe.  The  richly  laden  treasure-ships  were 
boarded  by  them,  plundered,  and  their  crews 
cast  into  the  sea.  They  extended  their  opera¬ 
tions.  The  French  buccaneers  made  their  head¬ 
quarters  in  Santo  Domingo,  and  the  English  in 
Jamaica,  during  the  long  war  between  France 
and  Spain  (1635-60)  and  afterwards;  and  they 
were  so  numerous  and  bold  that  Spanish  com¬ 
merce  soon  declined,  and  Spanish  ships  dared 
not  venture  to  America.  Finding  their  own 
gains  diminishing  from  want  of  richly  laden 
vessels  to  plunder,  they  ceased  pillaging  vessels, 
and  attacked  and  plundered  Spanish  towns  on 
the  coasts  of  Central  and  South  America.  A 
number  of  these  were  seized,  and  immense  treas¬ 
ures  were  carried  away  in  the  form  of  plunder 
or  ransom.  At  Carthagena,  in  1697,  they  pro¬ 
cured  $8,000,000.  Their  operations  were  finally 
broken  up  by  an  alliance  against  them  of  the 
English,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  governments.  Ex¬ 
asperated  by  the  conduct  of  the  Spaniards  in 
Florida,  the  Caroliuas  were  disposed  to  give  the 
buccaneers  assistance  in  plundering  them  ;  and 
in  1684-93  they  were  sheltered  in  the  harbor  of 
Charleston. 

Buchanan,  Franklin,  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  about  1800. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1815,  became  lieutenant 
in  1825,  and  master-commander  in  1841.  He  was 
the  first  superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy 
at  Annapolis.  Sympathizing  with  the  Secession 
movement,  and  believing  his  state  would  “  se¬ 
cede,”  he  sent  in  his  resignation.  Finding  that 
Maryland  did  not  “  secede,”  he  petitioned  for 
restoration,  but  was  refused,  when  he  entered 
the  Confederate  service,  and  superintended  the 
fitting-out  of  the  Meirimac  at  Norfolk.  In  her 
he  fought  the  Monitor  (see  Monitor  and  Merrimac ), 
and  was  severely  wounded.  He  afterwards  blew 
up  his  vessel  to  save  her  from  capture.  (See 
Evacuation  of  Norfolk.)  In  command  of  the  iron¬ 
clad  Tennessee,  in  Mobile  Bay,  he  was  defeated 
and  made  prisoner. 

Buchanan,  James,  fifteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Franklin  County, 
Penn.,  April  23, 1791 ;  died  at  “Wheatland,”  near 
Lancaster,  Penn.,  June  1, 1868.  He  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College,  Penn.,  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
years,  and  in  1814,  when  he  was  only  twenty- 
three  years  old,  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Legislature.  He  had  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Lancaster  in 
1812.  His  father  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  and 
bis  mother  was  Elizabeth  Spear,  daughter  of  a 
farmer.  Mr.  Buchanan’s  career  as  a  lawyer  was 
so  successful  that,  at  the  age  of  forty  years,  he  re¬ 
tired  from  the  profession  with  a  handsome  fort¬ 


une.  He  was  a  Federalist  in  politics  at  first, 
and  as  such  entered  Congress  as  a  member  in 
1821,  where  he  held  a  seat  ten  successive  years. 
The  Federal  party  disappeared  (see  Fedei-alists), 
and  he  took  sides  with  the  Democrats.  He  sup¬ 
ported  Jackson  for  the  Presidency  in  1828,  when 
the  present  Democratic  party  was  organized. 


JAMES  BUCHANAN. 


In  1832-34,  Mr.  Buchanan  was  United  States 
minister  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  from  1834  to  1845 
was  a  .member  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
was  Secretary  of  State  in  the  cabinet  of  Presi¬ 
dent  Polk,  1845-49,  where  he  arrayed  himself 
on  the  side  of  the  pro-slavery  men,  opposing  the 
Wilmot  Proviso  (which  see),  and  the  anti-slavery 
movements  generally.  In  1853  President  Pierce 
sent  him  as  United  States  minister  to  England, 
where  he  remained  until  1856 ;  during  which 
time  he  became  a  party  in  the  conference  of 
United  States  ministers  at  Ostend,  and  was  a 
signer  of  the  famous  manifesto,  or  consular  let¬ 
ter.  (See  Ostend  Manifesto.)  In  the  fall  of  1856 
Mr.  Buchanan  was  elected,  by  the  Democratic 
party,  President  of  the  United  States,  receiving 
174  electoral  votes  to  129  given  for  Fremont 
(Republican)  and  Fillmore  (“American”).  His 
cabinet  was  composed  of  four  members  from 
slave-labor  states,  and  three  from  free-labor 
states.  Those  from  the  former  became  the  ac¬ 
tive  enemies  of  the  republic,  and  assisted  in  at¬ 
tempts  to  destroy  the  Union.  In  the  first  year 
of  his  administration  great  excitement  existed 
concerning  the  political  and  social  position  of 
Kansas.  Mr.  Buchanan  favored  the  pro-slavery 
party  ;  and  when,  in  1860,  the  Republican  party 
triumphed,  and  elected  Abraham  Lincoln  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Southern 
politicians  threatened  the  destruction  of  the 
Union,  the  weight  of  Buchanan’s  influence  was 
in  favor  of  the  disunionists.  In  his  last  annual 
message  to  Congress  he  cast  the  blame  for  the 
disruption  of  the  Union,  if  it  should  occur,  on 
the  Northern  people;  and,  supported  by  the 
legal  opinion  of  Ids  attorney-general  (Jeremiah 
S.  Black,  of  Pennsylvania),  he  declared  that  nei¬ 
ther  Congress  nor  the  Executive  of  the  nation 
possessed  power,  under  the  Constitution,  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  secession  of  a  state.  General  Cass,  his 
Secretary  of  State,  differed  with  him  in  opiu- 


BUCHANAN 


170 


BUCKINGHAM 


ion  respecting  executive  power  in  tlie  premises, 
and  resigned  (Dec.  12,  1860)  because  the  Presi¬ 
dent  declined  to  reinforce  Fort  Sumter,  or  do 
anything  with  the  strong  arm  of  power  to  save 
the  Union.  Mr.  Buchanan’s  secretaries  of  the 
Treasury,  War,  and  Interior  became  openly  dis¬ 
loyal ;  and,  when  a  dissolution  of  the  cabinet 
occurred,  and  a  preponderance  of  loyal  men  ap¬ 
peared  in  it,  the  President  was  enabled,  thus 
relieved  from  pressure,  to  act  more  patriotically. 
He  retired  to  private  life  March  4, 1861,  and  took 
up  his  abode  at  “Wheatland,”  where  he  died. 
Mr.  Buchanan  lived  a  bachelor.  He  was  an  able 
lawyer,  a  good  debater,  and  in  private  life,  from 
his  boyhood,  his  moral  character  was  without 
reproach.  He  lived  in  troublous  times,  and  bis 
political  career,  towards  the  last,  seems  to  have 
been  shaped  more  by  persistent  politicians  than 
by  his  own  better  impulses  and  judgment. 

Buchanan,  Robert  Christie,  was  born  in 
Maryland,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1830; 
served  in  the  Seminole  War  and  the  war  with 
Mexico ;  and  was  made  a  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1861.  He  served  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
continually  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  bre¬ 
veted  major-general  U.  S.  Army  iu  1865. 

Buchanan’s  Cabinet.  On  Friday,  March  6, 
1857,  President  Buchanan  sent  to  the  Senate 
the  names  of  the  following  gentlemen  as  his 
cabinet  ministers,  which  were  immediately  con¬ 
firmed:  Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan,  Secretary  of 
State  ;  Howell  Cobb,  of  Georgia,  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury;  Johu  B.  Floyd,  of  Virginia,  Sec¬ 
retary  of  War;  Isaac  Toucey,  of  Connecticut, 
Secretary  of  the  Navy ;  Jacob  Thompson,  of 
Mississippi,  Secretary  of  the  Interior;  Aaron  V. 
Brown,  of  Tennessee,  Postmaster- general ;  Jer¬ 
emiah  S.  Black,  of  Pennsylvania,  Attorney-gen¬ 
eral. 

Buchanan’s  Fast -day  Proclamation.  On 

Dec.  14,  1860,  when  the  whole  country  was  iu 
confusion  and  alarm  because  of  the  bold  avow¬ 
als  of  the  Secessionists  in  Congress  of  their  in¬ 
tention  to  break  up  the  Union,  President  Bu¬ 
chanan  issued  a  proclamation  for  the  observ¬ 
ance  of  Jan.  4  following  as  a  day  for  humil¬ 
iation,  fasting,  aud  prayer  throughout  the  Re¬ 
public.  “All  classes,”  he  said,  “are  in  a  state 
of  confusion  and  dismay,  and  the  wisest  coun¬ 
sels  of  our  best  and  foremost  men  are  wholly 
disi’egarded.  In  this,  the  hour  of  our  calamity 
and  peril,  to  whom  shall  we  resort  for  relief  but 
to  the  God  of  our  fathers.  His  omnipotent  arm 
only  can  save  ns  from  the  awful  effects  of  our 
own  crimes  aud  follies  —  onr  own  ingratitude 
and  guilt  towards  our  Heavenly  Father.”  The 
proclamation,  in  sentiment  and  expression,  was 
all  a  Christian  could  wish,  of  its  kind  ;  but  some 
thought  a  more  appropriate  formula  might  have 
been  framed,  considering  the  social  condition  of 
the  nation,  after  finding  the  following  words  in 
the  fifty-eighth  chapter  of  Isaiah  :  “  Wherefore 
have  we  fasted,  say  they,  and  thou  seest  not  ? 
wherefore  have  we  afflicted  our  soul,  and  thou 
takest  no  knowledge  ?  Behold,  in  the  day  of 
your  fast  ye  find  pleasure,  and  exact  all  your 
labors.  Behold,  ye  fast  for  strife  and  debate, 


and  to  smite  with  the  fist  of  wickedness :  ye 
shall  not  fast  as  ye  do  this  day,  to  make  your 
voice  to  be  heard  on  high.  Is  it  such  a  fast 
that  I  have  chosen  ?  a  day  for  a  mau  to  afflict 
his  soul  ?  is  it  to  bow  down  his  head  as  a  bul¬ 
rush,  and  to  spread  sackcloth  and  ashes  under 
him  ?  wilt  thou  call  this  a  fast,  and  an  accept¬ 
able  day  to  the  Lord  ?  Is  not  this  the  fast  that 
I  have  chosen  f  to  loose  the  bands  of  iviclcedness,  to 
undo  the  heavy  burdens,  and  to  let  the  oppressed  go 
free,  and  that  ye  break  every  yoke?  Is  it  not  to 
deal  thy  bread  to  the  hungry,  and  that  thou 
bring  the  poor  that  are  cast  out  to  thy  house  ? 
when  thou  seest  the  naked,  that  thou  cover 
him ;  aud  that  thou  hide  not  thyself  from  thine 
own  flesh  ?  .  .  .  Then  shalt  thou  call,  and  the 
Lord  shall  answer  ;  thou  shalt  cry,  and  he  shall 
say,  Here  I  am.” 

Buchanan’s  Inaugural  Address.  A  chief 
topic  of  President  Buchanan’s  inaugural  address 
was  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  (not  promulgated  until  two  days 
afterwards)  in  the  Dred  Scott  case  (which  see), 
and  its  effects.  He  spoke  of  that  decision,  which 
virtually  declared  the  institution  of  slavery  to 
be  a  national  one,  aud  that  the  black  man  “  had 
no  rights  which  the  white  man  was  bound  to 
respect,”  aud  said  it  would  “  speedily  and  final¬ 
ly”  settle  the  slavery  question.  He  announced 
his  intention  to  cheerfully  abide  by  that  deci¬ 
sion.  He  declared  that  the  question  was  wholly 
a  judicial  one,  which  belonged  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  Republic  to  settle  ;  and  that,  as  by 
its  decision  the  admission  or  rejection  of  slavery 
in  any  territory  was  to  be  determined  by  the  le¬ 
gal  votes  of  the  people  in  such  territory,  the 
“  whole  territorial  question  was  thus  settled 
upon  the  principle  of  popular  sovereignty — a 
principle  as  ancient  as  free  government  itself;” 
that  “everything  of  a  practical  nature”  had 
been  settled ;  and  that  he  seriously  hoped  the 
long  agitation  of  the  subject  of  slavery  was 
“  approaching  its  end.”  It  was  then  only  the 
“  beginning  of  the  end.”  That  decision  “  kin¬ 
dled  the  fire  ”  spoken  of  by  the  Georgian  in  the 
debate  on  the  Missouri  Compromise  (which  see), 
“  which  only  seas  of  blood  could  extinguish.”  A 
council  of  priests  could  not  stop  the  motion  of 
the  earth,  and  Galileo  knew  it  and  said  so;  the 
opinions  of  five  meu  could  not  prevent  the  great 
heart  of  the  nation  beating  with  strong  desires 
to  have  the  stain  of  slavery  wiped  from  its  es¬ 
cutcheon.  The  decision  settled  nothing  “  speed¬ 
ily  and  finally”  but  the  destruction  of  the  in¬ 
stitution  it  was  expected  to  preserve.  (See 
March  of  Public  Sentiment.) 

Buckeye  State,  the  popular  name  of  the 
State  of  Ohio,  derived  from  the  buckeye,  or  horse- 
chestnut,  tree  which  abounds  there. 

Buckingham,  William  Alfred,  LL.D.,  was 
known  as  the  “War  Governor  of  Connecticut,” 
he  being  the  patriotic  and  energetic  chief  mag¬ 
istrate  of  that  state  during  the  late  Civil  War. 
He  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  May  28,  1804; 
died  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Feb.  4,  1875.  He  en¬ 
gaged  in  business  in  Norwich  in  1825,  where  be 
became  a  successful  merchant  and  carpet  man- 


BUCKNER  171  BUENA  VISTA.  BATTLE  OF 


ufacturer ;  and  his  generosity  and  public  spirit 
endeared  him  to  the  people.  His  patriotism, 
energy,  popularity,  and  extensive  influence  were 
of  inestimable  service  to  the  National  govern¬ 
ment  during  its  struggle  for  existence ;  and  he 
was  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  “  war  gov¬ 
ernors”  during  the  contest.  In  1869,  Governor 
Buckingham  was  chosen  to  represent  Conuecti- 


WILLIAM  ALFRED  BUCKINGHAM. 


cut  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  A  pa¬ 
tron  of  education  and  a  promoter  of  religion 
and  public  morals,  he  gave  to  the  Theological 
School  of  Yale  College  $25,000  for  the  education 
of  young  men  for  the  Gospel  ministry. 

Buckner,  Simon  Bolivar,  was  born  in  Ken¬ 
tucky  about  the  year  1824,  and  graduated  at  the 
West  Point  Academy  in  1844.  He  was  Assistant 
Professor  of  Ethics  there  for  two  years,  and  then 
engaged  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  in  which  he  was 
wounded,  and  breveted  captain.  After  that  war 
he  was  again  a  tutor  at  West  Point ;  resigned  in 
1855;  practised  law  in  Kentucky;  and  became 
one  of  the  most  prominent  “  Knights  of  the  Gold¬ 
en  Circle”  (which  see)  in  that  state.  After  the 
Civil  War  began  he  became  commander  of  the 
“  Kentucky  State  Guard  ”  (which  see),  and  adju¬ 
tant-general  of  the  state.  He  soon  joined  the 
Confederate  army,  and  surrendered  the  fort  and 
garrison  of  Fort  Douelson  (which  see)  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  1862,  when  he  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Fort 
Warren.  After  his  release,  he  continued  in  the 
Confederate  service  until  the  close  of  the  war. 
He  was  elected  governor  of  Kentucky  in  1887. 

Bucktaila.  In  the  politics  of  the  State  of 
New  York  the  Tammany  Society  (which  see) 
held  a  conspicuous  place  so  early  as  during  the 
War  of  1812-15.  The  Republican,  or  Democrat¬ 
ic,  party  had  been  divided  into  two  great  fac¬ 
tions,  known  as  “Madisonians”  and  “Clintoni- 
ans,”  James  Madison  and  De  Witt  Clinton  being 
rival  candidates  for  the  office  of  President  of 
the  United  States.  Most  of  the  Federalists  voted 
for  Clinton.  The  Tammany  Society  adhered  to 
Madison.  In  the  election  of  1816  a  portion  of 
the  members  of  the  Tammany  Society  wore  an 
emblem  in  their  caps — a  deer’s  tail — and  they 
were  called  “  Bucktaila.”  This  soon  became  the 
title  of  the  Madisonians ;  aud  in  1816,  when  Clin¬ 


ton  was  elected  governor  of  New  York,  the  op¬ 
posing  parties  in  the  state  were  known  as  “  Buck- 
tails”  and  “  Clintoniaus.”  To  one  or  the  other 
of  these  parties  portions  of  the  disintegrated  Re¬ 
publican,  or  Democratic,  party  became  attached. 
Afterwards  the  Bncktail  party  was  styled  by  its 
antagonists  the  “Albany  Regency”  (which  see). 

Buell,  Don  Carlos,  was  born  near  Marietta, 
O.,  March  23, 1818;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1841 ;  engaged  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  in  which 
he  won  the  brevets  of  captain  and  major,  aud 
was  severely  wounded  ;  became  lieutenant-colo¬ 
nel  in  the  regular  army,  aud  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  May,  1861;  major-general  of  vol¬ 
unteers  in  March,  1862;  and,  with  an  army,  ar¬ 
rived  on  the  battle-field  of  Shiloh  (which  see)  in 
time  to  assist  in  the  defeat  of  the  Confederates. 
Iu  command  of  the  District  of  Ohio,  he  con¬ 
fronted  Bragg’s  invasion  of  Kentucky  (which 
see),  and  drove  him  out  of  the  state.  (See  Per- 
ryville.)  On  Oct.  24  he  transferred  his  com¬ 
mand  to  General  Rosecrans;  was  mustered  out 
of  the  volunteer  service  May  23,  1864  ;  aud  re¬ 
signed  his  commission  in  tlie  army  June  1, 1865, 
when  he  became  president  of  the  Green  River 
Iron  Company,  in  Kentucky. 

Buena  Vista,  Battle  of  (1847).  General 
Taylor  received  such  instructions  from  the  War 
Department  that  he  declared  (Nov.  13, 1846)  the 
armistice  granted  at  Monterey  was  at  an  end. 
General  Worth  marched,  with  900  men,  for  Sal¬ 
tillo,  the  capital  of  Coahuila,  and  was  followed 
the  next  day  by  Taylor,  who  left  General  W.  O. 
Butler,  with  some  troops,  to  hold  the  conquered 
city  of  Monterey.  Saltillo  was  taken  possession 
of  on  Nov.  15.  After  several  minor  movements, 
and  having  been  deprived  of  a  large  number 
of  his  troops  by  an  order  of  General  Scott  to 
send  them  to  reinforce  an  American  army  that 
was  to  attack  Vera  Cruz,  Taylor  was  forced  to 
stand  on  the  defensive  with  about  5000  men. 
Informed  that  General  Santa  Ana  (who  had  en¬ 
tered  Mexico  from  his  exile  in  Cuba,  aud  had 
been  elected  President  of  Mexico  in  December) 
was  gathering  an  army  of  20,000  men  at  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Taylor  resolved  to  form  a  junction 
with  General  Wool  (who  had  entered  Mexico 
with  about  3000  troops,  crossing  the  Rio  Grande 
at  Presidio),  and  fight  the  boastful  Mexican  lead¬ 
er.  He  reached  Saltillo  with  his  little  army  on 
Feb.  2,  1847,  joining  Wool’s  forces  there,  and  en¬ 
camped  at  Aqua  Nueva,  twenty  miles  south  of 
that  place,  on  the  San  Luis  road.  On  hearing 
of  the  approach  of  Santa  Ana  with  his  host, 
Taylor  and  Wool  fell  back  to  Angostura,  a  nar¬ 
row  defile  in  the  mountains  facing  the  fine  es¬ 
tate  of  Buena  Vista,  and  there  encamped,  in 
battle  order,  to  await  the  coming  of  their  foe. 
Santa  Aha  and  his  army  were  within  two  miles 
of  Taylor’s  camp  on  the  morning  of  Feb.  22, 
when  the  Mexican  chief  sent  a  note  to  Tay¬ 
lor,  telling  him  he  was  surrounded  by  20,000 
men,  and  could  not,  in  all  probability,  avoid 
being  cut  to  pieces ;  but  as  he  held  the  Ameri¬ 
can  commander  in  special  esteem,  and  wished 
to  save  him  such  a  catastrophe,  he  gave  him 
this  notice,  that  he  might  surrender  at  discre- 


172 


BUFFALO 


BUENA  VISTA,  BATTLE  OF 


tiou.  lie  granted  Taylor  an  hour  to  make  a 
decision.  It  was  soon  made ;  for  the  command¬ 
er  immediately  decliued  the  polite  invitation  to 
surrender,  and  both  armies  prepared  to  fight. 
The  Americans  waited  for  the  Mexicans  to  take 
the  initiative.  There  was  slight  skirmishing 
all  day,  and  that  night  the  American  troops  biv¬ 
ouacked  without  fire  and  slept  on  their  arms; 
the  Mexicans,  in  the  mountains,  meanwhile  try¬ 
ing  to  form  a  cordon  of  soldiers  around  the  little 
army  of  Taylor  and  Wool,  then  less  than  5000 
in  number.  The  battle  began  early  on  the 
morning  of  the  23d,  and  continued  all  day.  The 
struggle  was  terribly  severe ;  the  slaughter  was 
fearful;  and  until  near  sunset  it  was  doubtful 
who  would  triumph.  Then  the  Mexican  leader, 
performing  the  pitiful  trick  of  displaying  a  flag 
of  truce  to  throw  Taylor  off  his  guard,  made  a 
desperate  assault  on  the  American  centre,  where 
that  officer  was  in  command  in  person.  The 
batteries  of  Bragg,  Washington,  and  Sherman 
resisted  the  assault,  and  before  long  the  Mexi¬ 
can  line  begau  to  waver.  Taylor,  standing  near 
one  of  the  batteries,  seeing  this  sign  of  weak¬ 
ness,  said,  quietly,  “  Give  ’em  a  little  more  grape, 
Captaiu  Bragg.”  (See  Bragg,  Braxton .)  It  was 
done,  and  just  at  twilight  the  Mexicans  gave 
way  and  fled  in  considerable  confusion.  Night 


party  of  Americans,  drove  General  Minon  and 
800  Mexicans  from  Saltillo.  Taylor  returned 
to  Walnut  Springs,  where  he  remained  several 
months,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1847  he  returned 
home.  (See  Mexico,  War  with.) 

Buffalo,  Destruction  of  (1812).  General 
Riall,  with  his  regulars  and  Indians,  recrossed 
from  Lewiston  (see  Fort  Niagara,  Capture  of) 
when  his  forces  had  returned  from  the  desola¬ 
tion  of  the  New  York  frontier.  Full  license 
had  been  given  to  his  Indians,  and  the  desola¬ 
tion  was  made  perfect  almost  to  Black  Rock. 
Riall  marched  up  from  Queenston  (Dec.  28)  to 
Chippewa,  Lieutenaut  -  general  Drummond  in 
immediate  command.  By  this  time  all  West¬ 
ern  New  York  had  been  alarmed.  McClure  had 
appealed  to  the  people  to  hasten  to  the  frontier. 
General  Amos  Hall  called  out  the  militia  and 
invited  volunteers.  Hall  took  chief  command 
of  troops  now  gathered  at  Black  Rock  and  Buf¬ 
falo,  2000  strong.  From  Drummond’s  camp, 
opposite  Black  Rock,  Riall  crossed  the  river 
(Dec.  30)  with  about  1000  white  men  and  In¬ 
dians.  The  night  was  dark.  They  drove  the 
Americans  from  Black  Rock.  The  militia  were 
alarmed,  and  at  dawn  Hall  ascertained  that  800 
of  them  had  deserted.  Hall,  with  the  rest  of 
Lis  force,  proceeded  to  attack  the  invaders.  He, 


THE  PORT  OF  BUFFALO  IN  1813. 


closed  the  battle.  Expecting  it  would  be  re¬ 
sumed  in  the  morning,  the  Americans  again 
slept  on  their  arms,  but  when  the  day  dawned 
no  enemy  was  to  be  seen.  Santa  Ana  had  fall¬ 
en  back,  and  in  a  few  days  his  utterly  dispirited 
army  was  almost  dissolved.  In  their  flight  the 
Mexicans  had  left  about  500  of  their  comrades, 
dead  or  dying,  on  the  field.  With  these  and 
wounded  and  prisoners,  their  loss  amounted  to 
almost  2000  men  ;  that  of  the  Americans,  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  was  746.  Among 
the  slain  was  a  son  of  Henry  Clay.  On  the  day 
of  the  battle  Captain  Webster,  with  a  small 


too,  had  a  force  of  Indians  ;  but  these,  with  more 
of  the  militia,  soou  gave  way,  and,  the  com¬ 
mander’s  force  broken,  he  was  in  great  peril. 
Deserted  by  a  large  portion  of  his  troops,  vastly 
outnumbered,  and  almost  surrounded,  Hall  was 
compelled  to  retreat  and  leave  Buffalo  to  its 
fate.  It  was  presently  in  possession  of  the 
British  and  their  Indian  allies,  who  proceed¬ 
ed  to  plunder,  destroy,  and  slaughter.  Only 
four  buildings  were  left  standing  in  the  vil¬ 
lage.  At  Black  Rock  only  a  single  building 
escaped  the  flames.  Four  vessels  which  had 
done  good  service  on  Lake  Erie  —  the  Ariel , 


BUFORD 


173 


Little  Belt,  Chippewa,  and  Trippe — were  burned  ; 
and  so  were  completed  the  measures  of  retalia¬ 
tion  for  the  burning  of  Newark  (which  see). 
Six  villages,  many  isolated  country-houses,  and 
four  vessels  were  consumed,  and  the  butchery 
of  many  innocent  persons  attested  the  fierce¬ 
ness  of  the  revenge  of  the  British. 

Buford,  John,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1825; 
died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  Dec.  10,  1863.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1848;  became  cap¬ 
tain  in  1859;  and  inspector -general,  with  the 
rank  of  major,  November,  1861.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  of  cavalry  under  General  Hooker, 
and  was  so  severely  wounded  near  the  Rappa¬ 
hannock  (August,  1862)  that  he  was  reported 
dead.  Iu  the  battle  of  Antietam  he  was  on 
General  McClellan’s  staff.  He  was  conspicu¬ 
ous  iu  many  engagements  while  in  command 
of  the  reserve  cavalry  brigade,  and  he  began 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg  (which  see).  He  was 
chief  of  Burnside’s  cavalry,  and  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumber¬ 
land  just  before  his  death.  His  half-brother, 
Napoleon  Buford  (born  in  1807),  is  also  a  gradu¬ 
ate  of  West  Point,  and  entered  the  artillery. 
He  was  a  pupil  in  the  Law  School  of  Harvard 
University;  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  at 
West  Point ;  but  retired  to  civil  pursuits  in  1835. 
Engaging  first  as  colonel  iu  the  Union  army 
in  1861,  he  served  well  during  the  continuance 
of  the  strife,  and  was  breveted  major-general  of 
volunteers  in  March,  1865. 

Buford’s  Defeat  (1780).  When  a  detach¬ 
ment  of  Americans,  under  Colonel  Abraham 
Buford,  of  Virginia,  hastening  to  the  relief  of 
Lincoln  at  Charleston  (see  Siege  of  Charleston), 
heard  of  his  surrender,  they  returned  towards 
North  Carolina.  Buford’s  command  consisted 
of  nearly  four  hundred  Continental  infantry, 
a  small  detachment  of  Colonel  Washington’s 
cavalry,  and  two  field-pieces.  He  had  reached 
Camden  in  safety,  and  was  retreating  leisure¬ 
ly  towards  Charlotte,  when  Colonel  Tarletou, 
with  seven  hundred  men,  all  mounted,  sent  in 
pursuit  by  Cornwallis,  overtook  Buford  upon 
the  Waxhaw  Creek.  Tarletou  had  marched 
one  hundred  miles  in  fifty-four  hours.  With 
only  his  cavalry — the  remainder  were  mounted 
infantry — he  almost  surrounded  Buford  before 
that  officer  was  aware  of  danger,  and  demand¬ 
ed  an  instant  surrender  upon  the  terms  given 
to  the  Americans  at  Charleston.  These  were 
too  humiliating,  and  Buford  i*efused  compli¬ 
ance.  While  flags  for  the  conference  were 
passing  and  repassiug,  Tarleton,  contrary  to 
the  rules  of  warfare,  was  making  preparations 
for  an  attack  in  case  of  a  refusal.  The  instant 
he  received  Buford’s  reply,  his  cavalry  made  a 
furious  charge  upon  the  American  ranks.  The 
assailed  troops  were  dismayed  by  an  attack  un¬ 
der  such  circumstances,  and  all  was  confusion. 
Some  fired  upon  their  assailants,  others  threw 
down  their  arms  and  begged  for  quarter.  None 
was  given,  and  men  without  arms  were  hewn 
in  pieces  by  the  sabres  of  Tarleton’s  cavalry. 
There  were  one  hundred  and  thirteen  slain  ; 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  were  so  maimed  as 


BULL’S  RUN,  BATTLE  OF 

to  be  unable  to  travel,  and  fifty-three  were 
made  prisoners  to  grace  the  triumphal  entry 
of  the  conqueror  into  Camden.  Only  five  of 
the  British  were  killed  and  fifteen  wounded. 
All  of  Buford’s  artillery,  ammunition,  and  bag¬ 
gage  became  spoil  for  the  enemy.  For  this 
savage  feat  Cornwallis  eulogized  Tarleton,  and 
commended  him  to  the  ministers  as  worthy  of 
special  favor.  Afterwards,  “  Tarleton’s  quar¬ 
ter”  became  a  proverbial  synonym  for  cruelty. 
Stedmau,  one  of  Cornwallis’s  officers,  and  a 
historian  of  the  war,  wrote,  “  On  this  occasion, 
the  virtue  of  humanity  was  totally  forgotten.” 

Bull’s  Run,  Battle  of  (1861).  The  gather¬ 
ing  of  Confederate  troops  at  Manassas  Junc¬ 
tion  (which  see)  required  prompt  and  vigorous 
movements  for  the  defence  of  Washington  city. 
Beauregard  was  there  with  the  main  Confeder¬ 
ate  army,  and  General  J.  E.  Johnston  was  at 
Winchester,  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  with  a 
large  body  of  troops,  with  which  he  might  re¬ 
inforce  the  former.  General  Patterson  was  at 
Martinsburg  with  eighteen  thousand  Nationals 
to  keep  Johnston  at  Winchester.  General  Ir¬ 
vin  McDowell  was  in  command  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Virgiuia,  with  his  headquarters  at 
“Arlington  House;”  and,  at  about  the  middle 
of  July,  1861,  he  was  ordered  to  move  against 
the  Confederates.  With  twenty  thousand  troops 
he  marched  from  Arlington  Heights  (July  16), 
for  the  purpose  of  flanking  the  Confederate 
right  wing.  A  part  of  his  troops  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Tyler  had  a  severe  battle  with  them  at 
Blackburn’s  Ford  (July  18),  and  were  repulsed. 
(See  Blackburn's  Ford,  Battle  at).  McDowell 
found  he  could  not  flank  the  Confederates,  so 
he  proceeded  to  make  a  direct  attack  upon 
them,  not  doubting  Patterson  would  be  able 
to  keep  Johnston  in  the  valley.  On  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  July  21,  McDowell’s  forces  were  set  in 
motion  in  three  columus,  one  under  General 
Tyler  on  the  Warrenton  Road,  to  make  a 
feigned  attack,  and  the  other  two,  command¬ 
ed  respectively  by  Generals  Hunter  and  Heint- 
zelman,  taking  a  wide  circuit  more  to  the  left, 
to  cross  Bull’s  Run  at  different  points  and  make 
a  real  attack  on  Beauregard’s  left  wing,  which 
was  to  be  menaced  by  Tyler.  The  Confeder¬ 
ate  right  was  to  be  threatened  by  troops  un¬ 
der  Colonels  Richardson  and  Davies,  moving 
from  Centreville.  These  movements  were  all 
executed,  but  with  so  much  delay  that  it  was 
nearly  noon  before  the  battle  began.  Mean¬ 
while  the  Confederates  had  made  a  move¬ 
ment  unknown  to  McDowell.  The  Confeder¬ 
ate  goveniment,  just  seated  at  Richmond,  hear¬ 
ing  of  the  movements  of  the  Nationals,  imme¬ 
diately  ordered  Johnston  to  hasten  from  the 
valley,  and  reinforce  Beauregard.  This  was 
done  at  noon  (July  20),  with  six  thousand 
fresh  troops.  (See  Patterson.)  Hunter’s  col¬ 
umn  crossed  Bull’s  Run  at  Sudley  Church,  led 
by  General  Burnside,  with  Rhode  Island,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts  troops.  Soon 
after  crossing  it  encountered  the  Confederates, 
and  a  battle  ensued  in  open  fields.  The  bat¬ 
teries  of  Griffin  and  Reynolds  were  brought  to 
bear  by  the  Nationals.  Only  a  small  stream  in 


BULL’S  RUN.  BATTLE  OF  174  BULL’S  RUN.  EFFECTS  OF  BATTLE  OF 


a  little  vale  separated  the  combatants.  The 
Confederates  were  led  by  Colonel  Evans.  The 
contest  raged  most  fiercely.  Hard  pressed, 
Evans’s  line  began  to  waver,  when  General 
Bee  advanced  with  fresh  troops,  and  gave  it 
strength.  Then  the  National  line  began  to 
tremble,  when  Colonel  Andrew  Porter  sent  a 
battalion  of  regulars  under  Major  Sykes  to 
strengthen  it.  More  fiercely  the  battle  raged. 
General  Hunter  was  severely  wounded.  Colo¬ 
nel  Slocum  of  the  Rhode  Island  troops  was 
killed,  when  Sprague,  the  youthful  governor 
of  the  commonwealth,  took  command  of  his 
troops.  The  wearied  Nationals,  who  had  been 
on  their  feet  since  midnight,  began  to  flag, 
when  they  were  reinforced  by  troops  under 
Heintzelman,  Sherman,  and  Corcoran.  A  charge 
made  by  a  New  York  regiment,  under  Colonel 
H.  W.  Slocum,  shattered  the  bending  Confeder¬ 
ate  line,  and  the  troops  fled  in  confusion  to  a 
plateau  whereon  General  T.  J.  Jackson  had 
just  arrived  with  reserves.  The  flight  was 
checked,  and  order  was  brought  out  of  confu¬ 
sion.  Alarmed  by  this  show  of  unsuspected 
strength  in  the  Nationals,  Johnston,  who  had 
arrived  and  taken  the  chief  command,  looked 
anxiously  towards  the  mountain  gaps  through 
which  he  expected  more  of  his  troops  from  the 
Shenandoah  Valley.  Without  these  he  had 
small  hopes  of  success.  There  had  been  a  lull 
in  the  conflict ;  and,  at  two  o’clock  in  the  af¬ 
ternoon,  it  was  announced  they  were  not  in 
sight.  At  that  time  the  Confederates  had  ten 
thousand  soldiers  and  twenty-two  heavy  guns 
in  battle  order  on  the  plateau.  The  Nationals 
proceeded  to  attempt  to  drive  them  from  this 
vantage-ground.  To  accomplish  this,  five  bri¬ 
gades — namely,  Porter’s,  Howard’s,  Franklin’s, 
Wilcox’s,  and  Sherman’s — with  the  batteries  of 
Ricketts,  Griffin,  and  Arnold,  and  cavalry  un¬ 
der  Major  Palmer,  advanced  to  turn  the  Con¬ 
federate  left,  while  Keyes’s  was  sent  to  annoy 
them  on  their  right.  General  Heintzelman  ac¬ 
companied  McDowell  as  his  lieutenant  in  the 
field,  and  his  division  began  the  attack.  Rick¬ 
etts  and  Griffin  advanced  with  their  troops,  and 
planted  their  batteries  on  an  elevation  that 
commanded  the  whole  plateau,  with  the  im¬ 
mediate  support  of  Ellsworth’s  Fire  Zouaves, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Farnham.  To  the  left 
of  these  batteries,  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
and  Minnesota  troops  took  a  position.  As  the 
artillery  and  Zouaves  were  advancing,  they 
were  suddenly  attacked  on  the  flank  by  Ala¬ 
bamians  in  arnbusb,  and  then  by  Stuart’s  Black 
Horse  Cavalry  in  the  rear,  and  the  Zouaves  re¬ 
coiled.  At  that  moment  Heintzelman  ordered 
up  a  Minnesota  regimeut  to  support  the  bat¬ 
teries,  when  the  Confederates  iu  overwhelm¬ 
ing  force  delivered  a  fire  on  these  guns  that 
disabled  them  by  prostrating  the  men.  Both 
sides  suffered  dreadfully.  When  Johnston 
heard  of  the  slaughter,  he  exclaimed,  “  Oh  for 
four  regiments!”  It  was  now  three  o’clock. 
His  wish  was  more  than  gratified.  Just  then 
he  saw  a  cloud  of  dust  in  the  direction  of  the 
Manassas  Gap  railway.  It  was  a  part  of  his 
troops,  four  thousand  strong,  from  the  valley, 


under  General  E.  Kirby  Smith.  They  were  im¬ 
mediately  ordered  into  action,  when  the  Con¬ 
federates,  so  reinforced,  struck  the  Nationals  a 
stunning  blow,  just  as  the  latter  were  about  to 
grasp  the  palm  of  victory.  It  was  so  unex¬ 
pected,  heavy,  and  overpowering  that  in  fif¬ 
teen  minutes  the  Nationals  were  swept  from 
the  plateau.  As  regiment  after  regimeut  gave 
way,  and  hurried  towards  the  turnpike  in  con¬ 
fusion,  pauic  seized  others,  and  at  four  o’clock 
a  greater  portion  of  the  National  army  was 
flying  across  Bull’s  Run  towards  Centreville — 
leaving  behind  them  over  three  thousand  men, 
killed,  wounded,  or  made  prisoners.  The  Con¬ 
federates  lost  over  two  thousand.  The  Nation¬ 
als  lost  twenty  -  seven  cannons,  ten  of  which 
were  captured  on  the  field,  and  the  remainder 
were  abandoned  in  the  flight  to  Centreville. 
They  only  took  a  single  cannon  in  safety  to 
Centreville.  They  also  lost  many  small-arms 
and  a  large  quantity  of  munitions  of  war,  and 
medicine  and  hospital  supplies.  The  Nation¬ 
als  were  pursued  some  distance.  Had  the  Con¬ 
federates  pressed  on  after  the  panic-stricken 
fugitives,  the  coveted  prize  of  the  National 
capital,  with  all  its  treasures,  might  have  been 
won  by  them  within  twenty-four  hours.  John¬ 
ston  had  escaped  from  Patterson,  reinforced 
Beauregard  at  a  critical  moment,  and  won  a 
great  victory  through  the  forgetfulness  of 
Lieutenaut-geueral  Scott,  who  had  given  Pat¬ 
terson  positive  directions  uot  to  move  until 
he  should  receive  further  orders.  These  the 
commanding-general  forgot  to  send!  Patterson 
knew  of  Johnston’s  movement,  but  his  orders 
to  wait  were  imperative.  The  first  he  heard 
of  the  disaster  at  Bull’s  Run  was  through  a 
morning  paper  from  Philadelphia,  on  July  22. 
(See  Bull's  Bun,  Flight  from.') 

Bull’s  Run,  Effects  of  the  Battle  of. 
The  result  of  the  battle  was  published  with 
great  exaggeration  on  both  sides.  It  produced 
unbounded  joy  among  the  Confederates  aud 
their  friends,  and  the  loyal  people  were,  at 
first,  greatly  depressed  by  it.  While  the  Con¬ 
federates  were  elated  beyond  measure,  by  the 
evidence  the  battle  seemed  to  give  of  their  su¬ 
perior  skill  and  courage,  and  thousands  flocked 
to  the  standard  of  revolt  from  all  parts  of  the 
Southern  States,  the  loyalists  were  stunned  by 
the  great  disaster,  and  the  seventy-five  thou¬ 
sand  men,  whose  three  months’  term  of  service 
was  about  to  expire,  were,  for  the  moment, 
made  eager  to  leave  the  field,  and  return  home. 
The  President  of  the  Confederacy,  who  arrived 
at  Manassas  just  after  the  victory,  made  an  ex¬ 
ultant  speech  at  Richmond,  now  become  its 
capital,  and  said  to  the  multitude,  when  re¬ 
ferring  to  the  vanquished,  with  bitter  scoru, 
“Never  be  haughty  to  the  humble;”  and  pre¬ 
dicted  that  the  National  capital  would  soon  be 
in  their  possession.  While  the  streets  of  Rich¬ 
mond  were  populous  with  prisoners  from  the 
vanquished  army,  and  eager  volunteers  press¬ 
ing  forward  towards  the  camp  of  the  victors 
at  Manassas,  the  streets  of  Washington  were 
crowded  with  a  discomfited  and  disheartened 
soldiery,  without  leaders,  and  without  organ- 


BULL’S  RUN,  SECOND  BATTLE  OF  175  BULL’S  RUN,  THE  FLIGHT  FROM 


ization  —  the  personification  of  the  crushed 
hopes  of  the  loyal  people.  Such  was  the  sad 
picture  of  the  situation  of  the  Republic,  much 
exaggerated,  which  was  presented  to  Europe 
in  August,  1861.  The  intelligence  was  given 
first  to  Europe  through  the  London  Times — the 
accredited  exponent  of  the  political  and  social 
opinions  of  the  ruling  class  in  England — by 
the  pen  of  Dr.  Russell,  its  war-correspondent  in 
the  United  States.  He  did  not  see  the  battle, 
and  his  account  was,  in  a  great  degree,  a  tale 
of  the  imagination.  It  excited  among  the  rul¬ 
ing  classes  a  derision  of  the  government  and 
loyal  people  of  the  United  States,  and  gratified 
the  opponents  of  republicanism.  To  them  the 
ruin  of  the  Great  Republic  of  the  West  seemed 
to  be  a  fact  accomplished.  English  statesmen 
and  journalists  dogmatically  asserted  it,  and 
deplored  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  the  Pres¬ 
ident  and  Congress  in  “waging  war  upon  sov¬ 
ereign  states,”  and  attempting  to  hold  in  union, 
by  force,  a  people  who  “  had  the  right  and 
the  desire  to  withdraw  from  a  hated  fellow¬ 
ship.”  It  was  declared  that  “the  bubble  of 
democracy  had  burst.”  The  London  Times  said 
(Aug.  13),  “It  is  evident  that  the  whole  volun¬ 
teer  army  of  the  Northern  States  is  worthless 
as  a  military  organization,  ...  a  screaming 
crowd and  spoke  of  it  as  a  collection  of 
“  New  York  rowdies  and  Boston  abolitionists 
desolating  the  villages  of  Virginia.”  The  de¬ 
pression  of  spirits  among  the  loyal  people  was, 
however,  only  momentary.  Within  a  few  days 
they  were  buoyant  with  faith  and  hope.  There 
was  a  second  uprising  of  the  friends  of  free  in¬ 
stitutions  more  marvellous  than  the  first.  Vol¬ 
unteers  flocked  to  the  standard  of  the  “  Stars 
and  Stripes”  by  thousands.  The  Confederates 
were  amazed  by  the  spectacle,  and  did  not. 
venture  near  the  capital  in  force,  where  loyal 
regiments  were  continually  arriving.  Five 
days  after  the  battle,  Secretary  Seward  wrote 
to  Minister  Adams  in  London :  “Our  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  on  Sunday  last,  met  a  reverse 
equally  severe  and  unexpected.  For  a  day  or 
two  the  panic  which  had  produced  the  result 
was  followed  by  a  panic  that  seemed  to  threat¬ 
en  to  demoralize  the  country.  But  that  evil 
has  ceased  entirely.  The  result  is  already 
seen  in  a  vigorous  reconstruction  upon  a  scale 
of  greater  magnitude  and  increased  enthusi¬ 
asm.”  The  Pennsylvania  reserves  (which  see) 
were  transferred  to  the  National  army  at  Wash¬ 
ington.  The  government  and  people  were  sat¬ 
isfied  that  a  long  and  desperate  struggle  was 
before  them,  and  they  put  forth  most  extraor¬ 
dinary  energies  to  meet  the  crisis.  On  the 
contrary,  when,  the  shouts  of  victory  having 
died  away,  and  the  smoke  of  battle  dissipated, 
the  people  of  the  Confederacy  saw  their  vic¬ 
torious  army  immovable  at  Manassas  and  in¬ 
disposed  to  follow  up  their  triumph,  they  were 
filled  with  apprehensions,  and  a  feeling  akin  to 
despondency  toojc  possession  of  the  hearts  of 
the  Southern  people. 

Bull’s  Run,  Second  Battle  of.  On  the 
morning  after  the  battle  at  Groveton  (which 
see)  Pope’s  army  was  greatly  reduced.  It  had 


failed  to  prevent  the  unity  of  Lee’s  army,  and 
prudence  dictated  its  immediate  flight  across 
Bull’s  Run,  and  even  to  the  defences  of  Wash¬ 
ington.  But  Pope  determined  to  resume  the 
battle  the  next  morning.  He  had  received  no 
reinforcements  or  supplies  since  the  26th,  and 
had  no  positive  assurance  that  any  would  be 
sent.  He  confidently  expected  rations  and  for¬ 
age  from  McClellan  at  Alexandria  (a  short  dis¬ 
tance  away),  who  was  to  supply  them ;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  morning  of  the  30th  (August, 
1862),  when  it  was  too  late  to  retreat  and  peril¬ 
ous  to  staud  still,  that  he  received  information 
that  rations  and  forage  would  be  sent  as  soon 
as  he  (Pope)  should  send  a  cavalry  escort  for 
the  train— a  thing  impossible.  He  had  no  al¬ 
ternative  but  to  fight.  Both  commanders  had 
made  dispositions  for  attack  in  the  morning. 
Lee’s  movements  gave  Pope  the  impression  that 
the  Confederates  were  retreating,  and  he  or¬ 
dered  McDowell  to  pursue  with  a  large  force, 
Porter’s  forces  to  advance  and  attack  them,  and 
Heintzelman  and  Reno,  supported  by  Rickett’s 
division,  were  ordered  to  assail  and  turn  the 
Confederate  left.  This  movement,  when  at¬ 
tempted,  revealed  a  state  of  affairs  fearful  to 
the  National  army.  The  latter,  as  their  ad¬ 
vance  moved  forward,  were  opened  upon  by  a 
fierce  fire  of  cannons,  shot,  shell,  and  bullets,  and 
at  the  same  moment  a  large  number  of  Lee’s 
troops  were  making  a  flank  movement  that 
might  imperil  the  whole  of  Pope’s  army.  A 
very  severe  battle  soon  occurred.  Porter’s  corps, 
which  had  recoiled  at  the  unexpected  blow, 
was  rallied,  and  performed  special  good  ser¬ 
vice;  aud  Jackson’s  advanced  line  was  stead¬ 
ily  pushed  back  until  five  o’clock  in  the  after¬ 
noon,  when  Longstreet  turned  the  tide  of  battle 
by  pouring  a  destructive  artillery  fire  upon  the 
Nationals.  Line  after  line  was  swept  away, 
and  very  soon  the  whole  left  was  put  to  flight. 
Jackson  advauced,  aud  Longstreet  pushed  his 
heavy  columns  against  Pope’s  centre,  while  the 
Confederate  artillery  was  doing  fearful  execu¬ 
tion.  The  left  of  the  Nationals,  though  pushed 
Juick,  was  unbroken,  and  held  the  Warrenton 
pike,  by  which  alone  Pope’s  army  might  safely 
retreat.  Pope  had  now  no  alternative  but  to 
fall  back  towards  the  defences  at  Washington. 
At  eight  o’clock  in  the  evening  he  gave  orders 
to  that  effect.  This  movement  was  made  dur¬ 
ing  the  night,  across  Bull’s  Run,  to  the  heights 
of  Ceutreville,  the  brigades  of  Meade  and  Sey¬ 
mour  covering  the  retreat.  The  night  was  very 
dark,  and  Lee  did  not  pursue ;  and  in  the  morn¬ 
ing  (Aug.  31)  Bull’s  Run  again  divided  the  two 
great  armies.  So  ended  the  second  battle  of 
Bull’s  Run. 

Bull’s  Run,  The  Flight  from.  Other  fugi¬ 
tives  than  defeated  military  men  were  in  the 
flight  from  Bull’s  Run,  July  21, 1861.  The  grav¬ 
ity  of  the  occasion  was  so  little  appreciat¬ 
ed  that  when  it  was  known  at  Washington 
that  McDowell  was  to  attack  the  Confederates 
on  Sunday,  July  21,  scores  of  men,  and  even 
women — Congressmen,  officials  of  almost  every 
grade,  and  plain  citizens  —  went  out  in  car¬ 
riages  to  witness  the  conflict,  as  to  a  spectacu- 


BUNKER’S  HILL,  BATTLE  OF  176  BUNKER’S  HILL,  BATTLE  OF 


lar  show.  Passes  from  military  commanders 
were  like  tickets  to  a  Roman  circus  or  a  com¬ 
bat  in  the  colosseum,  and  the  vicinity  of  the 
battlefield  was  gay  on  Sunday  morning  with 
civilians,  who  indulged  in  wine  and  cigars  at 
the  headquarters  of  Colonel  Miles  at  Ceutre- 
ville.  The  heights  thei’e  were  crowded  with 
spectators,  and  they  enjoyed  the  roar  of  the 
battle  as  it  went  on.  The  excitement  was  de¬ 
licious  while  danger  was  distant.  It  assumed 
a  different  phase  before  night,  and  glowing 
cheeks  were  made  pale  with  terror  when  the 
flying  regiments  came  thundering  on  with  tales 
of  defeat  and  disaster  and  of  pursuing  Con¬ 
federates.  The  spectators  joined  in  a  pell-mell 
rush  for  safety.  Soldiers  and  citizens  and 
well-dressed  women  were  mingled  in  pictur¬ 
esque  confusion  in  the  line  of  fugitives  who 
crowded  the  highways.  In  several  places  the 
roads  became  blockaded  with  overturned  vehi¬ 
cles  or  abandoned  cannons,  and  horses  and  hu¬ 
man  kind  seemed  equally  eager  to  escape  from 
the  whirlwind  of  destruction  that  followed  in 
fury  behind  them  for  a  while.  Fortunately,  the 
pursuit  of  the  Confederates  was  soon  abandon¬ 
ed.  Among  the  civilians  who  were  caught  by 
the  pursuers  was  Alfred  Ely,  member  of  Con¬ 
gress  from  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  who  was  confined 
in  the  famous  tobacco  warehouse  in  Richmond 
known  as  the  “  Libby  Prison  ”  (which  see).  He 
was  a  prisoner  there  four  months,  when  he  was 
exchanged  for  Charles  J.  Faulkner,  late  Ameri¬ 
can  Minister  to  France,  who  had  been  impris¬ 
oned  for  suspected  disloyalty.  Mr.  Faulkner’s 
character  was  afterwards  vindicated. 

Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill,  Battle  of.  By  re¬ 
inforcements  from  England  and  Ireland,  Gen¬ 
eral  Gage’s  army  in  Boston,  at  the  close  of  May, 
1775,  was  10,000  strong.  With  the  reinforce¬ 
ments  came  Generals  William  Howe,  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  and  John  Burgoyue,  three  officers  ex¬ 
perienced  in  the  military  tactics  of  Europe,  but 
little  prepared  for  service  in  America.  Thus 
strengthened,  Gage  issued  a  proclamation  (June 
12)  of  martial  law,  and  offering  pardon  to  all 
who  should  return  to  their  allegiance,  except¬ 
ing  Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock.  At  that 
time  the  New  England  army  before  Boston 
(presently  to  be  adopted  as  a  Continental  army) 
numbered  about  16,000  men,  divided  into  thirty- 
six  regiments,  of  which  Massachusetts  furnished 
twenty-seven,  aud  the  other  three  New  England 
colonies  three  each.  John  Whitcomb,  a  colonel 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  Joseph  War¬ 
ren,  President  of  the  Provincial  Congress,  were 
appointed  (June  15)  major-generals  of  the  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  forces.  These  provincial  troops  com¬ 
pletely  blockaded  Boston  on  the  land  side,  and 
effectively  held  the  British  troops  as  prisoners 
on  the  peninsula.  General  Artemas  Ward,  the 
'  military  head  of  Massachusetts,  was  regarded, 
by  common  consent,  as  the  commander-iu-chief 
of  this  New  England  army.  The  Americans  had 
thrown  up  only  a  few  breastworks — a  small  re¬ 
doubt  at  Roxbury,  and  some  breastworks  at  the 
foot  of  Prospect  Hill,  in  Cambridge.  The  right 
wing  of  the  besieging  army,  under  General  John 
Thomas,  was  at  Roxbury,  consisting  of  4000  Mas¬ 


sachusetts  troops,  four  artillery  companies,  a  few 
field-pieces,  and  some  heavy  cannons.  The  Rhode 
Island  forces  were  at  Jamaica  Plain,  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Greene,  with  a  regiment  of  Connecticut 
troops  under  General  Spencer.  General  Ward 
commanded  the  left  wing  at  Cambridge.  The 
Connecticut  and  New  Hampshire  troops  ■were 
in  the  vicinity.  It  was  made  known  to  the 
Committee  of  Safety  that  General  Gage  had 
fixed  upon  the  night  of  the  18th  of  June  to  sally 
out  and  take  possession  of  and  fortify  Bunker’s 
Hill  (an  elevation  not  far  from  Charlestown); 
also  Dorchester  Heights,  south  of  Boston.  Both 
of  these  points  would  command  the  town.  The 
eager  provincials  determined  to  anticipate  this 
movement,  aud  the  Massachusetts  Committee 
of  Safety  ordered  Colonel  William  Prescott  to 
march,  on  the  evening  of  the  16th,  with  1000 
men,  including  a  company  of  artillery,  with  two 
field -pieces,  to  take  possession  of  and  fortify 
Bunker’s  Hill.  This  force,  after  a  prayer  by  Pres¬ 
ident  Langdon,  of  Harvard,  passed  over  Charles¬ 
town  Neck ;  but,  going  by  Bunker’s  Hill,  they  as¬ 
cended  Breed’s  Hill  (much  nearer  Boston),  where 
they  had  a  better  command  of  the  town  and  the 
shipping.  They  had  been  joined  on  the  way  by 
Major  Brooks  and  General  Putnam,  and  by  •wag¬ 
ons  laden  with  intrenching  tools.  The  patriot 
troops  worked  incessantly  all  night  under  the 
skilful  engineer  Gridley,  and  at  dawn  a  redoubt 
about  eight  rods  square,  flanked  on  the  right  by 
a  breastwork  ■which  extended  northwardly  to 
marshy  land,  met  the  bewildered  and  astonish¬ 
ed  gaze  of  the  sentinels  on  the  British  shipping 
in  the  St.  Charles  River.  The  guns  of  their 
vessels  were  immediately  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  redoubt  on  Breed’s  Hill,  and  the  noise  of 
the  cannonade  aroused  the  sleepers  in  Boston. 
The  Americans  on  Breed’s  Hill  continued  their 
work  until  eleven  o’clock  on  that  very  hot  June 
morning,  under  an  incessaut  shower  of  shot  and 
shell,  with  a  scanty  supply  of  provisions,  after 
having  -worked  all  night.  Putnam  had  removed 
the  intrenching  tools  at  noon  to  Bunker’s  Hill  for 
the  purpose  of  casting  up  iutrenchmeuts  there, 
and  the  right  flank  of  Prescott  was  strengthened 
by  a  few  reinforcements  thrown  into  Charles¬ 
town  at  the  southern  slope  of  the  hill.  On  the 
left  a  fortification  against  musket-balls,  com¬ 
posed  of  a  rail  fence  and  new-mown  hay,  was 
hastily  constructed,  almost  at  the  moment  of 
attack.  The  British  clearly  saw  their  impend¬ 
ing  danger,  and,  to  thwart  it,  picked  corps  of 
their  army,  3000  strong,  led  by  Generals  Howe 
and  Pigot,  embarked  iu  boats  from  the  wharves 
in  Boston,  and  landed  at  the  eastern  base  of 
Breed’s  Hill.  Meanwhile  the  troops  who  had 
worked  all  night  and  half  of  a  hot  June  day  in 
throwing  up  intrenchments  on  Breed’s  Hill 
were  not  relieved  by  others,  as  they  should 
have  been.  Colonel  Prescott,  at  first,  did  not 
believe  the  British  would  attack  his  redoubt; 
and  when  he  saw  the  movement  in  the  town  he 
felt  assured  that  he  could  easily  repulse  any  as¬ 
sailants,  and  it  was  nine  o’clock  before  he  ap¬ 
plied  to  General  Ward  for  reinforcements.  Put¬ 
nam  had  urged,  early  in  the  morning,  the  send¬ 
ing  of  troops.  Ward,  believing  Cambridge  to 


BUNKER’S  HILL,  BATTLE  OF 


177 


BURGOYNE 


be  the  point  of  attack,  would  not  consent  to 
sending  more  than  a  part  of  Stark’s  New  Hamp¬ 
shire  regiment  at  tirst.  Finally  the  remainder 
was  sent ;  also,  the  whole  of  Colonel  Reed’s  reg¬ 
iment  on  Charlestown  Neck  was  ordered  to  re¬ 
inforce  Prescott.  General  Putnam  was  on  the 
field,  but  without  troops  or  command.  The 
same  was  the  case  with  General  Warren,  who 
hastened  to  the  scene  of  action  when  the  con¬ 
flict  began.  Stark’s  regiment  took  a  position 
on  the  left  of  the  unfinished  breastwork,  but 
two  hundred  yards  in  the  rear,  and  under  im¬ 
perfect  cover,  made  by  pulling  up  a  rail  fence, 
making  parallel  lines  with  the  rails,  and  filling 
the  intervening  spaces  with  new -mown  hay. 
At  a  little  past  three  o’clock  in  the  afternoon 
Howe’s  great  guns  moved  towards  the  redoubt 
and  opened  fire  upon  the  works.  They  were 
followed  by  the  troops  in  two  columns,  com¬ 
manded  respectively  by  Howe  and  Pigot.  The 
guns  on  the  British  ships,  and  a  battery  on 
Copp’s  Hill,  iu  Boston,  hurled  random  shots  in 
abundance  on  the  Americans  on  Breed’s  Hill. 
The  occupants  of  the  redoubt  kept  silent 
until  the  enemy  had  approached  very  near, 
when,  at  the  word  Fire !  1500  of  the  con¬ 
cealed  patriots  suddenly  arose  and  poured 
such  a  destructive  storm  of  bullets  upon 
the  climbers  of  the  green  slope 
that  whole  platoons,  and  even 
companies,  were  prostrated. 


BUNKER’S  HILL,  PLAN  OP  BATTLE  OP,  AND  MONUMENT.* 


Flags  fell  to  the  ground  like  tall  lilies  in  a 
meadow.  The  assailants  fell  back  to  the  shore, 
and  a  shout  of  triumph  went  up  from  the  re¬ 
doubt.  Some  scattering  shots  had  come  from 
the  houses  at  Charlestown  ;  and  Gage,  infuri¬ 
ated  by  the  repulse,  gave  orders  to  send  com¬ 
bustibles  into  that  village  and  set  it  on  fire. 
It  was  done,  and  soon  the  town  was  in  flames. 
This  conflagration  added  new  horrors  to  the 
scene.  The  British  again  advanced,  and  were 
again  driven  back  to  their  landing-place.  Then 
General  Clinton  passed  over  from  Boston  to 
aid  Howe  and  Pigot,  and  the  troops  were  led  to 
the  assault  a  third  time.  The  powder  of  the 


*  On  the  riglit.  of  tho  plan  of  the  bnttlo  is  seen  a  picture  of 
jhe  granito  obelisk  erected  over  the  site  of  the  redoubt.  Tho 
form  of  the  redoubt  is  seen  in  the  diagram  A  in  the  map. 
The  entrance  to  it  was  at  a,  which  was  on  the  end  towards 
Charlestown  Neck. 


provincials,  scanty  at  the  beginning,  now  failed. 
Some  British  artillery  planted  pieces  near  the 
breastwork  and  swept  it  from  end  to  end,  while 
grenadiers  assailed  the  redoubt  on  three  sides 
at  once  and  carried  it  at  the  point  of  the  bayo¬ 
net.  Stark,  meanwhile,  had  kept  the  British  at 
bay  at  the  rail  fence  until  the  redoubt  was  car¬ 
ried,  after  which  all  of  the  surviving  provincials 
fled  in  good  order  across  Charlestown  Neck,  en¬ 
filaded  by  the  fire  from  the  vessels  and  floating 
batteries  on  the  Charles  River,  but  received  very 
little  hurt.  Of  the  3000  British  troops  engaged 
in  the  fight,  1054  were  killed  or  wounded — a 
proportionate  loss  which  few  battles  can  show. 
The  loss  of  the  provincials  was  450,  killed  and 
wounded.  Among  the  former  was  General  War¬ 
ren,  whose  loss  was  irreparable.  He  came  to 
the  redoubt  without  command,  and  did  not  take 
it  from  Prescott.  He  fell,  as  he  was  leaving  the 
redoubt,  from  the  effects  of  a  bullet  -  wound. 
The  result  of  the  battle  was  a  substantial  vic¬ 
tory  for  the  Americans.  They  failed  only  be¬ 
cause  their  ammunition  failed.  It  tested  the 
ability  of  the  provincial  army  to 
meet  a  British  force  in  the  field  ; 
and  so  unsatisfactory  was  the  bat¬ 
tle  to  the  British  ministry,  that 
Gage  was  superseded  in  command 
by  General  Howe.  The  general 
impression  at  the  time  was  that 
the  battle  was  on  Bunker’s  Hill, 
and  so  it  figures  in  history  as  the 
“  Battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill.”  It  was 
fought  on  Breed’s  Hill,  some  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  former.  The  bat¬ 
tle  was  seen  by  thousands  who 
were  on  the  neighboring  hills  and 


the  roofs  and  balconies  in  Boston. 
Many  of  the  spectators  were  deep¬ 
ly  interested,  for  they  had  dear 
relatives  and  friends  in  the  con¬ 
flict.  Tho  battle  lasted  about 
two  hours. 

Bunker’s  Hill  Monument.  The 
corner-stone  of  this  monument 
was  laid  on  the  fiftieth  anniver¬ 
sary  of  the  battle  (June  17, 1825), 
in  the  presence  of  a  vast  multi¬ 
tude  of  people.  Lafayette,  then 
on  a  visit  to  the  United  States,  was  present, 
and  Daniel  Webster  delivered  an  oration.  The 
monument  is  an  obelisk,  and  stands  in  the 
centre  of  the  ground,  on  Breed’s  Hill,  included 
in  the  old  breastwork.  Its  sides  are  precisely 
parallel  with  those  of  the  redoubt.  It  is  built 
of  Quincy  granite,  and  is  221  feet  in  height. 
The  base  of  the  obelisk  is  30  feet  square,  and  at 
the  spring  of  the  apex  15  feet.  By  a  flight  of 
295  stone  steps,  within  the  obelisk,  its  top  may 
be  reached.  A  chamber  at  the  top  has  four 
windows,  with  iron  shutters.  The  monument 
was  not  completed  until  1843,  when,  on  June  17, 
it  was  dedicated  in  the  presence  of  President 
Tyler  and  his  cabinet  and  a  vast  multitude  of 
citizens.  The  city  of  Charlestown,  recently  an¬ 
nexed  to  Boston,  now  surrounds  the  monument. 
(See  Blinker's  Hill,  Hattie  of.) 

Burgoyne,  Slit  John,  was  born  in  England 


I.— 12 


BURGOYNE 


17a 


BURGOYNE’S  CAMPAIGN 


about  1730;  died  in  London,  Aug.  4,  1792.  He 
was  liberally  educated,  and  entered  the  army 
at  an  early  age.  While  a  subaltern  lie  clandes¬ 
tinely  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Derby, 
who  subsequently  aided  him  in  acquiring  mili¬ 
tary  promotion  and  settled  $1500  a  year  upon 
him.  He  served  with  distinction  in  Portugal 


SIR  JOHN  BURGOYNE. 

in  1762.  The  year  before,  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament,  and  gained  his  seat  as  representa¬ 
tive  of  another  borough,  in  1768,  at  an  expense 
of  about  $50,000.  In  the  Letters  of  Junius 
(which  see)  he  was  severely  haudled.  Being 
appointed  to  a  command  in  America,  he  arrived 
at  Boston  May  25,  1775 ;  and  to  Lord 
Stanley  he  wrote  a  letter  (which  was 
published)  giving  a  graphic  account  of 
the  battle  on  Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill.  In 
December,  1776,  he  returned  to  England, 
and  was  commissioned  lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral.  Placed  in  command  of  the  British 
forces  in  Canada,  he  arrived  there  early 
in  1777,  and  in  June  he  began  an  invasion 
of  the  province  of  New  York  (see  Bur¬ 
goyne’s  Invasion)  by  way  of  Lake  Chain- 
plain  aud  the  Hudson  Valley.  He  capt¬ 
ured  Ticonderoga  (July  5),  aud  pushed 
on,  by  way  of  Fort  Edward,  to  Saratoga 
(Sept.  13).  On  the  19th  he  fought  an  in¬ 
decisive  battle  on  Bemis’s  Heights ;  and, 
on  the  7th  of  October,  another  on  nearly 
the  same  field,  where  he  was  defeated. 

He  surrendered  his  whole  army  (Oct.  17), 
and  returned  to  England,  on  his  parole, 

May,  1778.  Being  blamed,  he  solicited  in 
vain  for  a  court-martial  to  try  his  case, 
but  he  ably  vindicated  himself  on  the 
floor  of  Parliament,  and  published  (1780) 
a  narrative  of  his  campaign  in  America 
for  the  same  purpose.  He  joined  the  op¬ 
position,  aud  an  ineffectual  attempt  was 
made  in  1779  to  exclude  him  from  Parlia¬ 
ment.  Then  he  resigned  all  his  appoint¬ 
ments;  but  in  1782  he  was  restored  to  his  rank 
iu  the  army,  and  appointed  privy-councillor  aud 
commander-in-chief  in  Ireland.  He  retired  from 
public  life  in  1784.  Burgoyne  acquired  a  liter¬ 
ary  reputation  as  a  dramatist.  His  plays  and 
poems  were  published  in  a  collection,  iu  two 
volumes,  in  1808. 


Burgoyne  Threatens  the  Patriots.  In  a 

proclamation  issued  at  Crown  Point  (July,  1777) 
Burgoyne  said,  “Let  not  people  consider  their 
distance  from  my  camp ;  I  have  but  to  give 
stretch  to  the  Indian  forces  under  my  direction 
— and  they  amount  to  thousands — to  overtake 
the  banded  enemies  of  Great  Britain.  If  the 
frenzy  of  hostility  should  remain,  I  trust  I  shall 
stand  acquitted  iu  the  eyes  of  God  and  man  in 
executing  the  vengeance  of  the  state  against 
the  wilful  outcasts.” 

Burgoyne’s  Campaign.  Lieutenant-general 
Burgoyne  was  in  command  of  the  British  forces 
in  Canada  in  1777.  He  planned  an  invasion  of 
northern  New  York  to  co-operate  with  British 
troops  ascending  the  Hudson.  (See  Forts  Clin¬ 
ton  and  Montgomery.)  He  left  St.  Johns,  on  the 
Sorel  (June,  1777),  with  a  brilliant  and  well-ap¬ 
pointed  army  of  eight  thousand  men,  and  ascend¬ 
ed  Lake  Champlain  in  boats.  At  the  falls  of 
the  Bouquet  River,  near  the  western  shore  of 
the  lake,  he  met  about  four  hundred  Indians  in 
council,  and  after  a  feast  (June  21, 1777)  he  made 
a  stirring  speech  to  them.  On  the  1st  of  July 
he  appeared  before  Ticonderoga,  which  was  in¬ 
adequately  garrisoned.  General  St.  Clair,  iu 
command  there,  was  compelled  to  evacuate  the 
post,  with  Mount  Independence  opposite  (July 
5  and  6),  and  fly  towards  Fort  Edward,  on  the 
Upper  Hudson,  through  a  portion  of  Vermont. 
In  a.  battle  at  Hubbard  ton  (which  see)  the  Amer¬ 
icans  were  beaten  and  dispersed  by  the  pursuing 


BURGOYNE  ADDRESSING  THE  INDIANS. 

British  and  Germans.  St.  Clair  had  sent  stores 
in  boats  to  Skenesborough  (now  Whitehall),  at 
the  head  of  the  lake.  These  were  overtaken 
and  destroyed  by  the  pursuing  British.  Bur¬ 
goyne  pressed  forward  almost  unopposed,  for 
the  American  forces  were  very  weak.  The  lat¬ 
ter  retreated  first  to  Fort  Edward,  and  then 


BURKE 


179 


BURLINGAME 


gradually  down  the  Hudson  almost  to  Albany. 
The  British  advanced  hut  slowly,  for  the  Amer¬ 
icans,  under  the  command  of  General  Philip 
Schuyler,  harassed  them  at  every  step.  An 
expedition  sent  by  Burgoyne  to  capture  stores 
and  cattle,  and  procure  horses  in  this  region 
and  at  Bennington,  Vt.,  was  defeated  in  a  bat¬ 
tle  at  Hoosick,  N.  Y.  (Aug.  16),  by  a  force  has¬ 
tily  gathered  under  General  Stark.  Already 
another  invading  force  of  British  regulars,  Ca¬ 
nadians,  Tories,  and  Indians,  under  Colonel  St. 
Leger,  which  was  sent  by  Burgoyne,  by  way  of 
Oswego,  to  march  down  the  Mohawk  Valley  and 
meet  the  latter  at  Albany,  had  been  defeated  in 
a  battle  at  Oriskany  (Aug.  6).  Schuyler  was 
superseded  by  Gates  (see  Schuyler  and  Gates )  in 
command  of  the  northern  army.  Gates  formed 
a  fortified  camp  on  Bemis’s  Heights  to  oppose 
the  onward  march  of  Burgoyne  down  the  Hud¬ 
son  Valley.  There  he  was  attacked  (Sept.  19) 
by  the  British ;  and,  after  a  severe  battle,  the 
latter  retired  to  their  camp  on  the  heights  of 
Saratoga  (now  Schuylerville)  to  await  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton  from  New  York. 
The  latter  captured  forts  on  the  Hudson  High¬ 
lands,  and  sent  marauding  expeditions  up  the 
river  that  burned  Kingston.  Again  Burgoyne 
advanced  to  attack  Gates.  He  was  defeated 
(Oct.  7),  and  again  retired  to  his  camp.  Find¬ 
ing  it  impossible  to  retreat,  go  forward,  or  re¬ 
main  quiet,  he  surrendered  his  whole  army  and 
its  splendid  appointments,  Oct.  17, 1777. 

Burke,  jEdanus,  was  born  in  Galway,  Ire¬ 
land,  in  1743;  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  March  3, 
1802.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Orners  for  a  priest; 
emigrated  to  South  Carolina,  and  there  engaged 
with  the  patriots  iu  their  conflict  with  Great 
Britain.  He  was  a  lawyer,  and  in  1778  was 
made  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  South 
Carolina.  He  served  two  years  in  the  army ; 
was  in  Congress  (1789-91) ;  and  after  serving 
in  the  state  Legislature,  he  became  chancellor 
of  the  commonwealth  awhile  before  his  death. 
Judge  Burke  was  a  thorough  Republican,  and 
■wrote  a  famous  pamphlet  against  the  “Cincin¬ 
nati  Society”  (which  see)  that  was  translated 
into  French  by  Mirabeau,  and  used  by  him  with 
much  effect  during  the  French  Revolution. 
Burke  opposed  its  aristocratic  features.  He 
also  opposed  the  National  Constitution,  fearing 
consolidated  power. 

Burke,  Edmund.  Born  in  Dublin,  June  1, 
1730;  died  at  Beaconsfield,  Eng.,  July  9,  1797. 
He  was  one  of  fifteen  children  of  his  father, 
Richard  Burke,  an  attorney,  and  was  descended 
from  the  Norman  Do  Burghs,  who  early  settled 
iu  Ireland.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin  (1748) ;  studied  law,  and  in  1756  he  pub¬ 
lished  his  famous  essay  on  The  Sublime  and  Beau¬ 
tiful.  In  1758-59  he  and  Dodsley  established 
the  Annual  Register ;  and  in  1765  he  was  made 
secretary  to  Premier  Rockingham.  He  entered 
Parliament  iu  1766.  There  he  took  an  active 
and  brilliant  part  in  debates  on  the  American 
question,  and  always  iu  favor  of  the  Americans, 
advocating  their  cause  with  rare  eloquence.  In 
1771  ho  was  appointed  agent  for  the  colony  of 


New  York.  He  lost  some  popularity  by  advo¬ 
cating  the  claims  of  the  Roman  Catholics  iu 
1780,  and  opposing  the  policy  of  repressing  the 
trade  of  Irelaud.  During  the  brief  admiuistra- 
tion  of  the  Rockiugliam  ministry  in  1782,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  privy  council  and  paymaster 
of  the  forces.  Taking  a  prominent  part  in  the 


EDMUND  BURKE. 


affairs  in  India,  he  began  the  prosecution  of 
Governor  Warren  Hastings  early  in  1786.  His 
labors  in  behalf  of  India  in  that  protracted  trial 
were  immense,  though  the  conviction  of  Hast¬ 
ings  was  not  effected.  His  great  work  entitled 
Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France  appeared  iu 
1790.  As  a  statesman  and  thinker  and  clear 
writer  Edmund  Burke  had  few  superiors.  His 
conversational  powers  were  remarkable,  and  he 
was  one  of  the  suspected  authors  of  the  Letters 
of  Junius  (which  see). 

Burke,  Thomas,  Governor  of  North  Carolina, 
was  born  in  Ireland  about  1747 ;  died  at  Hills¬ 
borough,  N.  C.,  Dec.  2, 1783.  He  came  to  Virginia 
when  seventeen  years  old,  and  in  time  engaged 
in  the  practice  of  medicine.  Then  he  studied 
law,  and  iu  1774  moved  to  Hillsborough.  He 
had  written  against  the  stamp  act  and  other 
obnoxious  measures,  and  he  took  a  conspicuous 
part  in  politics  in  North  Carolina.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Provincial  Congress  in  1776; 
was  engaged  a  short  time  in  the  army,  and  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  December,  1776,  un¬ 
til  early  in  1781,  when  he  was  chosen  governor 
of  the  state.  In  September  of  that  year  he  was 
seized  by  Tories,  and  kept  a  prisoner  on  James 
Island,  near  Charleston,  four  months ;  after 
which  he  was  regularly  exchanged,  resumed  his 
duties  of  governor,  but  soon  retired  to  private 
life. 

Burlingame,  Anson,  diplomatist,  was  born 
at  New  Berlin,  Chenango  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  14, 
1820;  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  Feb.  23, 
1870.  His  father,  a  farmer,  removed  to  Seneca 
County,  Ohio,  when  Anson  was  three  years  of 


BURLINGTON  HEIGHTS  AND  YORK  180  BURNSIDE 


age.  Ten  years  later  the  family  were  in  Michi¬ 
gan.  Anson  entered  the  University  of  Michi¬ 
gan  in  1837,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1846. 
He  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Boston,  and  sub¬ 
sequently  became  an  active  member  of  the  “  Free 
Soil  Party’’  (which  see),  acquiring  a  wide  repu¬ 
tation  as  an  effective  speaker.  In  1849-50  he 
was  in  Europe.  In  1852  he  was  chosen  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Massachusetts  Senate,  and  became  an 
active  supporter  of  the  “American  Party”  in 
1854,  by  which  he  was  elected  to  Congress  the 
same  year.  Mr.  Burlingame  assisted  in  the 
formation  of  the  Republican  party  in  1855-56 ; 
and  he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  de¬ 
baters  in  Congress  on  that  side  of  the  House. 
Severely  criticising  Preston  S.  Brooks  for  his 
attack  upon  Charles  Sumner  (which  see),  the 
South  Carolinian  challenged  him  to  tight  a  duel. 
He  promptly  accepted  the  challenge,  proposed 
rifles  as  the  weapons,  and  Navy  Island,  just 
above  Niagara  Falls,  as  the  i>lace  of  conflict. 
Brooks  declined  to  go  there,  and  the  matter  was 
dropped.  In  March,  1861,  President  Lincoln  ap¬ 
pointed  Mr.  Burlingame  minister  to  Austria. 
He  having  spoken  in  favor  of  Hungarian  inde¬ 
pendence,  the  Austrian  government  refused  to 
receive  him,  and  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
China.  There  he  carried  forward  important  ne¬ 
gotiations;  and  when,  in  1867,  he  announced  to 
the  Chinese  government  his  intention  of  return¬ 
ing  home,  Prince  Rung,  the  regent  of  the  empire, 
ottered  to  appoint  him  special  ambassador  to 
the  United  States  aud  the  great  European  pow¬ 
ers,  for  the  purpose  of  framing  treaties  of  amity 
with  those  nations.  This  high  honor  Mr.  Bur¬ 
lingame  accepted;  and  at  the  head  of  a  reti¬ 
nue  of  Chinese  officials,  he  arrived  in  the  United 
States  in  March,  1868.  From  his  own  country 
Mr.  Burlingame  proceeded  on  his  roving  em¬ 
bassy  to  England,  France,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Holland,  and  Prussia.  He  was  well  received, 
and  he  negotiated  treaties  with  all  but  France. 
He  had  just  entered  upon  negotiations  at  St. 
Petersburg,  early  in  1870,  when  he  died  of  pneu¬ 
monia  after  an  illness  of  only  a  few  days. 

Burlington  Heights  and  York,  Expedition 
to  (1813).  The  British  maintained  for  some 
time  a  fortified  camp  at  Burlington  Heights,  at 
the  western  end  of  Lake  Ontario.  There  they 
made  a  depository  of  stores ;  and  to  capture 
these  an  expedition,  composed  of  three  hundred 
land  troops,  under  Colonel  Winfield  Scott,  borne 
by  the  fleet  of  Commodore  Chauncey,  left  the 
mouth  of  the  Niagara  River,  July  28,  1813. 
The  usual  feeble  guard  over  the  stores  had  just 
been  reinforced.  Convinced  that  their  forces 
were  insufficient  to  seize  the  prizes,  Scott  and 
Chauncey  concluded  to  attack  York,  from  which 
the  British  reinforcements  had  just  been  sent. 
The  fleet  bore  the  troops  across  the  lake,  aud  en¬ 
tered  the  harbor  of  York  on  July  31.  Scott 
landed  his  troops  without  opposition  ;  took  pos¬ 
session  of  the  place  ;  burned  the  barracks,  pub¬ 
lic  store-houses  and  stores,  and  eleven  trans¬ 
ports  ;  destroyed  five  pieces  of  cannon,  and  bore 
away  as  spoils  one  heavy  gun  and  a  consider¬ 
able  quantity  of  flour.  They  found  in  York 
(Toronto)  the  sick  and  wounded  of  Bcerstler’s 


command  captured  at  the  Beaver  Dams  (which 
see). 

Burnet  (Governor)  and  Massachusetts. 
Governor  William  Burnet  having  served  as 
chief  magistrate  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
acceptably  in  general,  he  went  to  Boston  (July 
13,  1728)  with  the  commission  of  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  He  was  received  with  unusual 
pomp.  This  show  he  urged  in  his  speech  as  a 
proof  of  their  ability  to  give  a  liberal  support 
to  his  government,  aud  acquainted  them  with 
the  king’s  instructions  to  him  to  insist  upon  an 
established  salary,  and  his  intention  to  adhere 
to  it.  The  Assembly  at  once  took  an  attitude  of 
opposition  to  the  governor.  They  voted  him 
£1700  to  enable  him  to  manage  public  affairs, 
and  to  defray  his  expenses  in  going  there.  The 
governor  declared  himself  dissatisfied,  and  would 
not  consent  to  their  resolve,  as  it  w  as  “  contrary 
to  his  majesty’s  instructions.”  The  Assembly 
appealed  to  their  charter,  granted  by  King  Will¬ 
iam,  aud  refused  to  vote  a  fixed  salary.  A  spir¬ 
ited  contest  in  writing  ensued.  In  one  of  his 
communications  the  governor  threatened  the 
colony  with  the  loss  of  their  charter.  They  re¬ 
mained  firm,  “because,”  they  said,  “it  is  the  un¬ 
doubted  right  of  all  Englishmen,  by  Magna 
Charta,  to  raise  and  dispose  of  money  for  the 
public  service  of  their  own  free  accord,  without 
compulsion.”  At  a  town  -  meeting  in  Boston, 
during  the  controversy,  a  unanimous  declaration 
was  made  that  the  people  of  that  town  were 
opposed  to  settling  a  fixed  salary  on  the  gover¬ 
nor.  That  official  then  adjourned  the  Legis¬ 
lature  to  Salem,  remarking,  in  his  message  for 
that  purpose,  that  the  interposition  of  towns 
was  “  a  needless  and  officious  step,  better  adapt¬ 
ed  to  the  republic  of  Holland  than  to  a  British 
constitution.”  The  Assembly  adhered  to  their 
determination,  and  the  governor  was  compelled 
to  yield. 

Burnet,  William,  horn  at  the  Hague,  Hol¬ 
land,  in  March,  1688,  when  William  of  Orange 
(afterwards  William  III.  of  England)  became  his 
godfather  at  baptism.  He  was  a  son  of  Bishop 
Burnet.  He  became  engaged  in  the  South  Sea 
speculations  (see  Law's  Scheme),  which  involved 
him  pecuniarily,  and,  to  retrieve  his  fortune,  he 
received  the  appointment  of  governor  of  the 
colonies  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  He  ar¬ 
rived  in  New  York  in  September,  1720.  Becom¬ 
ing  unpopular  there,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
governments  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Hamp¬ 
shire.  He  arrived  at  Boston  in  July,  1728,  and 
soon  became  involved  in  disputes  with  the  As¬ 
sembly  about  his  salary.  (See  Burnet  and  Mas¬ 
sachusetts.)  That  body  was  firm,  and  the  gover¬ 
nor  was  compelled  to  yield.  In  person  he  was 
very  commanding  ;  w  as  frank  in  manner,  and 
of  ready  wit.  Governor  Burnet  died  Sept.  7, 
1729. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett,  was  born  at 
Liberty,  Ind.,  May  23,  1824.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1847,  and,  as  a  member  of  a  corps 
of  artillery,  accompanied  General  Patterson  to 
Mexico  the  same  year.  Afterwards  lie  was  in 
charge  of  a  squadron  of  cavalry  in  New  Mexico ; 


BURR 


BURNT  CORN  CREEK,  BATTLE  OF  181 


was  quartermaster  of  the  Mexican  Boundary 
Commission  in  1850-51 ;  resigned  in  1853 ;  es¬ 
tablished  a  manufactory  of  breech-loading  rifles 
(his  own  invention)  in  Rhode  Island;  and  was 
an  officer  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  Com¬ 
pany  when  the  Civil  War  began.  He  went  into 


AMBROSE  EVERETT  BURNSIDE. 

that  conflict  as  colonel  of  the  First  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and  Volunteers.  For  good  service  at  the  battle 
of  Bull’s  Run,  he  was  made  (August  6,  1861) 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded 
the  expedition  that  captured  Roanoke  Island 
(which  see)  in  February,  1862 ;  also  Newbern  and 
Beaufort.  He  was  called  to  Virginia  after  the 
close  of  the  campaign  on  the  Peninsula,  and 
was  active  and  skilful  as  a  corps  commander  in 
many  of  the  most  important  military  events  of 
the  war.  General  Burnside  served  in  the  cam¬ 
paign  in  Maryland  under  McClellan,  and  was  in 
the  battles  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam. 
On  Nov.  7,  1862,  he  superseded  McClellan  in 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Fail¬ 
ing  of  success  in  his  attack  upon  Lee  at  Freder¬ 
icksburg  (December,  1862),  he  resigned,  and  was 
succeeded  by  General  Hooker  (see  Fredericks¬ 
burg )  in  January,  1863.  Assigned  to  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Department  of  the  Ohio  in  May,  he 
was  active  there  in  suppressing  the  disloyal 
elements  in  that  region.  In  the  fall  lie  freed 
East  Tennessee  of  Confederate  domination, 
where  he  fought  Longstreet.  He  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  his  old  corps  (the  Ninth)  in  Grant’s 
campaign  against  Richmond  in  1864-65,  where 
he  performed  important  work.  He  resigned 
April  15,  1865.  In  1866  General  Burnside  was 
elected  governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and  was 
twice  re-elected.  Being  in  Europe  in  the  fall 
of  1870,  he  was  admitted  within  the  German 
and  French  lines  around  Paris,  and  ineffectual-  j 
ly  endeavored  to  mediate  between  the  belliger¬ 
ents.  He  died  Sept.  13, 1881. 

Burnt  Corn  Creek,  Battle  of.  Peter 
McQueen,  a  half-blood  Creek  Indian  of  Talla¬ 
hassee,  was  a  fiery  leader  among  the  war  party 
of  that  nation,  wherein  civil  war  was  raging  in 
the  spring  of  1813.  This  war  Tecumtha  had 
stirred  up,  and  the  whole  Creek  nation  had  be¬ 
come  a  seething  caldron  of  passion.  A  British 


squadron  in  the  Gulf  held  friendly  intercourse 
with  the  Spanish  authorities  at  Pensacola.  To 
that  port  McQueen  aud  three  hundred  follow¬ 
ers,  with  pack-horses,  went  to  get  supplies  and 
convey  them  to  the  war  party  in  the  interior. 
That  party  was  inimical  to  the  white  people 
settled  in  that  nation,  aud  it  was  the  duty  of 
the  military  iu  that  region  to  protect  the  lat¬ 
ter.  This  protection  was  not  furnished,  and 
the  white  inhabitants  and  the  peace  party 
among  the  Creeks  prepared  to  defend  them¬ 
selves.  Colonel  James  Caller  called  out  the 
militia  to  intercept  McQueen.  There  was  a 
prompt  response,  and  Caller  set  out  with  a  few 
followers.  He  marched  towards  the  Florida 
frontier,  joined  on  the  way  by  the  famous  bor¬ 
derer  Captain  Sam  Dale  and  fifty  men,  who 
were  engaged  in  the  construction  of  a  fort. 
He  was  now  joined  by  others  from  Tensaw 
Lake  and  Little  River  under  various  leaders. 
Caller’s  command  now  numbered  about  one 
hundred  and  eighty  men,  in  small  companies, 
well  mounted  on  good  frontier  horses,  and  pro¬ 
vided  with  rifles  aud  shot-guns.  Setting  out  on 
the  main  route  for  Pensacola  on  the  morning 
of  July  27  (1813),  they  found  McQueen  encamp¬ 
ed  upon  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  windiugs  of 
Burnt  Corn  Creek.  It  was  resolved  to  attack 
him.  McQueen  and  his  party  were  surprised, 
but  they  fought  desperately  a  few  minutes,  and 
then  fled  towards  the  creek.  The  tide  then 
turned.  McQueen  and  his  Indians  arose  from 
an  ambush  with  horrid  yells  and  fell  upon  less 
than  one  hundred  of  Caller’s  men.  Dale  was 
severely  wounded,  but  kept  on  fighting.  Over¬ 
whelming  numbers  at  length  compelled  Caller’s 
force  to  retreat.  They  fled  in  disorder,  many 
of  them  leaving  their  horses  behind  them.  Vic¬ 
tory  rested  with  the  hostile  Creeks.  Only  two 
of  Caller’s  command  were  killed  and  fifteen 
wounded.  The  battle  of  Burnt  Corn  Creek  was 
the  first  in  the  Creek  war,  a  conflict  which 
ruined  that  nation.  (See  Creeks.) 

Burr,  Aaron,  President  of  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,  was  born  at  Fairfield, Conn.,  Jan.  4, 1716; 
died  Sept.  24, 1757.  He  was  of  German  descent; 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1735;  and  was  or¬ 
dained  by  the  presbytery  of  East  Jersey  a  min¬ 
ister  of  the  Gospel  in  1737.  He  became  a  pastor 
at  Newark,  N.  J.,  where  he  was  chiefly  instru¬ 
mental  in  founding  the  College  of  New  Jersey 
(now  Princeton),  and  was  elected  its  first  presi¬ 
dent  in  1748.  In  1752  he  married  a  daughter 
of  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  metaphysician.  Iu 
1754  he  accompanied  Whitefield  to  Boston. 

Burr,  Aaron,  was  born  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Feb. 
6,  1756 ;  died  on  Staten  Island,  Sept.  14,  1836. 
He  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Aaron  Burr,  President  of 
the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton),  and  of  a 
daughter  of  the  eminent  theologian  Jonathan 
Edwards.  When  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  en¬ 
tered  the  Continental  army,  at  Cambridge,  as  a 
private  soldier,  and  as  such  accompanied  Arnold 
in  his  expedition  to  Quebec  (which  see).  From 
the  line  of  that  expedition,  in  the  wilderness, 
Arnold  sent  him  with  despatches  to  General 
Montgomery,  at  Montreal,  where  he  entered  the 


BURR 


182 


BURR  AND  EATON 


military  family  of  that  officer  as  liis  aide-de- 
camp,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  Offended  be¬ 
cause  checked  by  Montgomery  in  his  officions- 
uess,  he  left  his  staff,  and  joined  Arnold’s  on  the 
night  of  the  assault  ou  Quebec  (Dec.  30  and  31, 
1775).  He  was  with  Arnold  when  the  latter 
was  wounded  in  that  assault,  and  was  his  act¬ 
ing  brigade  major  for  a  while.  He  left  the 


AARON  BURR. 


army  in  Canada,  and  joined  the  military  family 
of  Washington,  at  New  York,  in  May,  1776,  with 
the  rank  of  major.  Dissatisfied  with  that  posi¬ 
tion,  he  left  it  iu  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  and 
took  a  similar  position  on  General  Putnam’s 
staff'.  He  was  active  in  the  events  connected 
with  the  defence  and  abandonment  of  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1776 ;  and  in  1777  he  became 
lieutenant-colonel  of  Malcolm’s  regiment.  Burr 
distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  of  Monmouth 
in  1778,  where  he  commanded  a  brigade  in  Stir¬ 
ling’s  division.  During  the  winter  of  1778-79 
he  was  stationed  iu  Westchester  County,  N.  Y. 
For  a  short  time  he  was  in  command  of  the 
post  at  West  Point,  but,  on  account  of  ill-health, 
he  left  the  army  in  March,  1779.  Burr  was  a 
born  intriguer,  and  was  naturally  drawn  tow¬ 
ards  Lee  and  Gates,  and  became  a  partisan  in 
their  schemes  for  injuring  the  reputation  of 
Washington.  (See  Conway's  Cabal.)  He  had 
been  detected  by  the  commander-in-chief  in  im¬ 
moralities,  and  ever  afterwards  he  affected  to 
despise  the  military  character  of  Washington. 
He  began  to  practise  law  at  Albany  in  1782,  but 
removed  to  New  York  the  next  year.  Entering 
the  arena  of  politics,  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  New  York  Legislature  in  1784,  and  again 
in  1798.  In  1789  he  wras  appointed  adjutant- 
general  of  the  state,  and  commissioner  of  revo¬ 
lutionary  claims  in  1791.  A  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate  from  1791  till  1797,  Burr 
was  a  conspicuous  Democratic  leader  in  that 
body ;  and  in  the  Presidential  election  in  1800 
he  and  Thomas  Jefferson  had  an  equal  number 
of  votes  in  the  electoral  college.  The  House  of  , 


Representatives  decided  the  choice  in  favor  of 
Jefferson  ou  the  thirty-sixth  ballot,  and  Burr 
became  Vice-President.  In  July,  1804,  he  killed 
Alexander  Hamilton  in  a  duel ;  and  the  next 
year  he  undertook  his  mad  and  mysterious  en¬ 
terprise  in  the  West,  which  resulted  in  his  trial 
for  treason.  (See  Burr’s  Mysterious  Expedition.) 
Acquitted,  he  went  to  England  (1808)  and  sought 
to  engage  that  or  some  other  European  govern¬ 
ment  in  his  project  for  revolutionizing  Mexico. 
Pressed  by  his  creditors,  he  lived  a  miserable 
life,  in  poverty,  in  London  and  Paris.  Becom¬ 
ing  subject  to  suspicion  in  London  as  a  French 
spy,  he  was  driven  from  the  country,  and  took 
refuge  in  Paris.  Finely,  after  long  solicita¬ 
tions,  he  obtained  leave  to  return,  and  appeared 
in  New  York  in  1812,  where  he  resumed  the 
practice  of  law ;  but  he  lived  in  comparative 
poverty  and  obscurity  until  1834,  when,  at  the 
age  of  seventy-eight,  he  married  Madame  Ju- 
mel,  a  wealthy  woman  in  New  York,  with  whom 
he  lived  only  a  short  time,  when  they  were  sep¬ 
arated.  Burr’s  first  wife  was  the  widow  of  Gener¬ 
al  Augustine  Prevost,  by  whom  he  had  a  daugh¬ 
ter,  Theodosia.  She  became  an  accomplished 
woman,  and  the  wife  of  Governor  Allston,  of 
South  Carolina.  She  left  Charleston  (1812)  in  a 
vessel  to  visit  her  father  iu  New  York,  and  was 
never  heard  of  afterwards.  Burr  was  small  in 
stature,  of  great  ability,  and  fascinating  in  man¬ 
ners. 

Burr  and  Eaton.  While  engaged  in  his 
mysterious  scheme  of  operations  beyond  the 
mountains,  Aaron  Burr  tried  to  enlist  the  sym¬ 
pathies  and  co-operation  of  all  the  leading  mal¬ 
contents  in  the  country.  Among  these  was 
Geueral  William  Eaton,  who  had  returned  from 
the  Barbary  States  (see  Tripoli,  War  with)  angry 
with  his  government.  Iu  Washington  during 
the  winter  of  1805-6,  Burr  sought  and  obtained 
frequent  intercourse  with  Eaton,  and  tried  to  in¬ 
crease  his  ill-will  towards  the  government.  He 
informed  him  that  he  was  organizing  an  expedi¬ 
tion  against  Mexico,  and  asked  him  to  join  in  it. 
Under  the  impression  that  it  was  secretly  coun¬ 
tenanced  by  the  national  government,  Eaton 
agreed  to  close.  At  length  Burr,  believing  he 
had  the  entire  confidence  of  Eaton,  told  him  of 
a  project  he  entertained  of  revolutionizing  the 
Western  country,  separating  it  from  the  Union, 
and  establishing  a  monarchy,  of  which  he  was 
to  be  sovereign.  New  Orleans  was  to  be  the 
capital ;  and  to  further  extend  his  enterprise,  a 
force  was  to  be  organized  on  the  Mississippi 
that  should  seize  a  portion  (or  the  whole)  of 
the  Spanish  provinces  in  Mexico.  He  assured 
Eaton  that  Wilkinson,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  United  States  Army,  was  engaged  in  the  en¬ 
terprise,  and  would  doubtless  be  able  to  carry 
with  him  the  regular  troops  on  the  Western 
waters,  where  they  would  be  reinforced  by  ten 
or  twelve  thousand  volunteers.  Burr  (so  Eaton 
asserted)  said  that,  if  he  could  secure  the  ma¬ 
rine  corps — the  only  troops  stationed  at  Wash¬ 
ington — and  gain  over  the  naval  commanders, 
Trnxton,  Preble,  Decatur,  and  others,  he  would 
turn  Congress  out  of  doors,  assassinate  the  Pres¬ 
ident,  seize  on  the  Treasury  and  navy,  and  de- 


BURR  AND  TRUXTON 


183  BURR’S  MYSTERIOUS  EXPEDITION 


clare  himself  the  Protector  (like  Cromwell)  of 
an  energetic  government.  Eaton,  satisfied  that 
Burr  was  a  dangerous  man,  waited  on  the  Pres¬ 
ident  and  recommended  Jefferson  to  appoint 
him  to  some  foreign  mission,  intimating  that  if 
he  were  not  so  disposed  of  there  would  soon  be 
a  revolution  in  the  Western  country.  But  Jef¬ 
ferson  would  not  doubt  the  attachment  of  the 
Western  people  to  the  Union. 

Burr  and  Truxton.  To  Commodore  Trux- 
ton,  who  was  soured  by  what  he  deemed  to  be 
hard  treatment  by  his  government,  Burr  pro¬ 
posed,  in  the  winter  of  1805-6,  a  naval  expedi¬ 
tion  against  the  Spanish  provinces  on  our  south¬ 
western  border.  He  told  Truxton  that,  in  the 
event  of  a  war  with  Spain,  he  intended  to  estab¬ 
lish  an  independent  government  in  Mexico,  and 
that  Wilkinson  and  greater  men  than  he  were 
engaged  in  it.  He  approached  Truxton,  and 
also  Decatur,  on  the  subject  several  times ;  but 
when  the  former  found  that  the  government 
did  not  favor,  nor  was  cognizant  of  such  a  move¬ 
ment,  he  refused  to  have  any  further  conversa¬ 
tion  on  the  subject.  Yet  Burr  represented  to 
Wilkinson  that  Truxton  would  co-operate.  (See 
Burr's  Mysterious  Expedition.') 

Burr’s  Mysterious  Expedition.  In  March, 
1805,  Burr’s  term  of  office  as  Vice-President  end¬ 
ed,  and  he  descended  to  private  life  an  utterly 
ruined  man.  But  his  ambition  and  his  love  of 
intrigue  were  as  strong  as  ever,  and  he  con¬ 
ceived  schemes  for  personal  aggrandizement 
and  pecuniary  gain.  It  was  the  general  belief, 
at  that  time,  in  our  country  that  the  Spanish 
inhabitants  of  Louisiana  would  not  quietly  sub¬ 
mit  to  our  government.  Taking  advantage  of 
this  belief,  and  the  restlessness  of  many  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  he 
conceived  some  daring  schemes  (none  fully  de¬ 
veloped)  of  military  operations  in  that  region, 
which  he  attempted  to  carry  out  immediately 
after  he  left  office.  With  several  nominal  ob¬ 
jects  in  view',  Burr  started  for  the  Mississippi 
Valley  in  company  with  General  Wilkinson, who 
went  to  take  possession  of  his  office  of  governor 
of  the  Louisiana  Territory,  to  which  he  had  been 
appointed.  At  Pittsburgh  Burr  started  in  a  ves¬ 
sel  called  an  “  ark,”  in  which  were  fitted  up  con¬ 
veniences  for  a  long  voyage.  Wilkinson  w'as 
not  ready,  and  the  impatient  Burr  proceeded 
without  him.  Ho  stopped  at  Blennerhassett’s 
Island,  nearly  opposite  Marietta,  then  inhabited 
by  a  wealthy  and  accomplished  Irish  gentleman 
of  that  name,  who  had  created  there  a  paradise 
for  himself.  (See  Blennerhassett.)  He  had  a 
pleasant  mansion,  enriched  by  books,  adorned 
with  paintings,  enlivened  by  music,  and  pre¬ 
sided  over  by  a  lovely  and  accomplished  wife. 
Burr  laid  before  Harman  Blennerhassett  a  brill¬ 
iant  vision  of  w'ealth  and  power,  in  a  scheme 
of  conquest  or  revolution,  which  captivated  him 
and  fired  the  ambition  that  lay  in  the  bosom  of 
his  wife.  They  engaged  in  Burr’s  scheme,  what¬ 
ever  it  may  have  been,  with  ardor,  and  wrere  to¬ 
tally  ruined  thereby.  The  story  of  Paradise  and 
the  Fall  was  repeated.  After  remaining  there 
some  time,  Burr  pressed  forward,  and  at  Louis¬ 


ville  overtook  Matthew  Lyon  (which  see),  with 
whom  he  had  voyaged  in  company  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  journey.  He  accompanied  Lyon  to 
his  home  on  the  Cumberland  River,  whence  he 
journeyed  to  Nashville  on  horseback ;  had  a 
public  reception  (May  28,  1805),  in  wdiich  An¬ 
drew  Jackson  participated;  and, furnished  with 
a  boat  by  that  gentleman,  returued  to  Lyon’s. 
Then  he  resumed  his  voyage  in  his  own  “ark,” 
and  met  Wilkinson  at  Fort  Massac,  nearly  op¬ 
posite  the  mouth  of  the  Cumberland.  Some 
soldiers  were  about  to  depart  thence  for  New 
Orleans,  and  Wilkinson  procured  a  barge  from 
one  of  the  officers  for  Burr’s  accommodation  in 
a  voyage  to  that  city.  There  he  found  the  in¬ 
habitants  in  a  state  of  great  excitement.  The 
introduction  of  English  forms  of  law  proceed¬ 
ings,  and  the  slight  participation  of  the  people 
in  public  affairs,  had  produced  much  discon¬ 
tent,  especially  among  the  Creoles  and  old  set¬ 
tlers.  Even  the  new  American  immigrants 
were  divided  by  bitter  political  and  private 
feuds.  Burr  remained  only  a  short  time,  when 
he  reascended  the  Mississippi  to  Natchez,  wdience 
he  travelled  through  the  wilderness,  along  an 
Indian  trail  or  bridle-path,  four  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  to  Nashville,  where  he  was  enter¬ 
tained  for  a  week  by  Jackson  early  in  August. 
Afteiv  spending  a  few  wreeks  there,  Burr  made 
his  way  through  the  Indian  Territory  to  St. 
Louis,  where  he  again  met  Wilkinson,  that  being 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  Louisiana  Terri¬ 
tory.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  he  threw  out 
hints  to  Wilkinson  of  his  splendid  scheme  of 
conquest  in  the  Southwest,  which  he  spoke  of 
as  being  favored  by  the  United  States  govern¬ 
ment.  At  the  same  time  he  complained  of  the 
government  as  imbecile,  and  the  people  of  the 
West  as  ready  for  revolt.  He  made  no  explana¬ 
tion  to  Wilkinson  of  the  nature  of  his  scheme, 
and  that  officer,  suspicious  of  Burr’s  designs, 
wrote  to  his  friend  Robert  Smith,  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  advising  the  government  to  keep  a 
watch  upon  his  movements.  Burr  went  from 
St.  Louis  to  Vincennes  with  a  letter  from  Wil¬ 
kinson  to  Governor  Harrison,  in  which  he  urged 
the  latter  to  use  his  influence  to  get  Burr  elect¬ 
ed  to  Congress  from  that  district.  Thence  Burr 
went  eastward,  stopping  at  Cincinnati,  Chili- 
cothe,  and  Marietta,  everywhere  conversing  with 
leading  men,  to  whom  he  gave  only  attractive 
hints  of  a  brilliant  scheme  in  hand.  He  spent 
that  winter  and  the  following  spring  and  sum¬ 
mer  in  Philadelphia  and  Washington,  engaged 
in  his  mysterious  projects.  (See  Burr  and  Eaton 
and  Burr  and  Truxton.)  There  he  more  clearly 
developed  his  scheme,  which  seemed  to  have 
a  twofold  character  —  the  conquest  of  Mexico 
from  the  Spaniards  and  the  establishment  of  an 
independent  monarchy,  and  the  revolutionizing 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  separating  that  region 
from  the  rest  of  the  Union,  and  forming  an  in¬ 
dependent  republic,  with  its  seat  of  government 
at  New  Orleans.  If  the  first-mentioned  scheme 
should  bo  carried  out,  Burr  aspired  to  bo  king  ; 
if  the  latter,  he  was  to  be  president  of  his  new 
republic.  Towards  the  end  of  summer  (August, 
1806)  Burr  departed  on  a  second  western  tour. 


BURR’S  MYSTERIOUS  EXPEDITION  184  BURR’S  MYSTERIOUS  EXPEDITION 


For  a  year  a  vague  suspicion  prevailed  through¬ 
out  the  country  that  Burr  was  engaged  in  a 
scheme  for  revolutionizing  Mexico  —  an  idea 
agreeable  to  the  Western  people  because  of  the 
existing  difficulties  with  Spain.  It  was  be¬ 
lieved,  too  (for  so  Burr  had  continually  hinted), 
that  such  a  scheme  was  secretly  favored  by  the 
government.  Under  this  impression  Burr’s  proj¬ 
ect  received  the  countenance  of  several  lead¬ 
ing  men  in  the  Western  country.  One  of  the 
first  things  which  Burr  did  after  his  arrival  in 
Kentucky  was  to  purchase  an  interest  iu  a  claim 
to  a  large  tract  of  land  on  the  Washita  River, 
under  a  Spanish  grant  to  the  Barou  de  Bastrop. 
The  negotiation  was  carried  on  through  Edward 
Livingston  at  New  Orleans.  The  avowal  of  an 
intention  to  settle  on  these  lands  might  cover 
up  a  far  different  design.  Blennerhassett  now 
joined  Burr  actively  in  his  enterprise.  Togeth¬ 
er  they  built,  with  the  money  of  the  former,  fif¬ 
teen  boats  on  the  Muskingum  River;  and  nego¬ 
tiations  were  set  on  foot  with  an  Ohio  senator 
to  furnish  supplies  for  an  army  in  the  West  and 
the  purchase  of  two  gunboats  he  was  building 
for  the  government.  A  mercantile  house  at 
Marietta,  in  which  Blennerhassett  had  been  a 
partner,  was  authorized  to  purchase  provisions, 
and  a  kiln  was  erected  on  Blennerhassett  Isl- 
land  for  drying  corn  to  fit  it  for  shipment. 
Young  men  enlisted  in  considerable  numbers 
for  an  expedition  down  the  Mississippi,  about 
which  only  mysterious  hints  were  given.  Mean¬ 
while  Wilkinson  had  arrived  at  Natchitoches  to 
repel,  with  500  or  600  troops,  a  Spanish  invasion 
of  the  Territory  of  Orleans  (which  see)  from 
Texas.  There  a  young  man  appeared  in  camp 
with  a  letter  of  introduction  from  Jonathan 
Dayton,  of  New  Jersey,  to  Colonel  Cushing,  the 
senior  officer  next  to  Wilkinson.  He  also  slip¬ 
ped,  unobserved,  a  letter  into  Wilkinson’s  hand, 
from  Burr,  which  was  a  formal  letter  of  intro¬ 
duction.  It  contained  a  letter  from  Burr,  prin¬ 
cipally  written  in  cipher.  Circumstances  seem 
to  show  that  Wilkinson  was  at  this  time  privy 
to,  if  not  actually  engaged  in,  Burr’s  scheme. 
The  cipher  letter  informed  Wilkinson  that  he 
(Burr)  had  arranged  for  troops  under  different 
pretexts  at  different  points,  who  would  rendez¬ 
vous  on  the  Ohio  by  the  1st  of  November;  that 
the  protection  of  England  had  been  secured ; 
that  Truxton  had  gone  to  Jamaica  to  arrange 
with  the  English  admiral  (see  Burr  and  Trux¬ 
ton)  ;  that  an  English  fleet  would  meet  on  the 
Mississippi;  that  the  navy  of  the  United  States 
was  ready  to  join ;  that  final  orders  had  been 
given  to  his  friends  and  followers;  that  Wil¬ 
kinson  should  be  second  to  Burr  only;  that  the 
people  of  the  country  to  which  they  were  going 
were  ready  to  receive  them  ;  and  that  their 
agents  with  Burr  had  stated  that,  if  protected 
in  their  religion,  and  not  subjected  to  a  foreign 
government,  all  would  be  settled  in  three  weeks. 
The  plan  was  to  move  detachments  of  volun¬ 
teers  rapidly  from  Louisville  in  November,  meet 
Wilkinson  at  Natchez  in  December,  and  then  to 
determine  whether  to  seize  Baton  Rouge  (then 
in  possession  of  the  Spaniards  as  a  part  of  West 
Florida)  or  pass  on.  Enclosed  in  the  same  pack¬ 


et  was  a  letter,  also  in  cipher,  from  Jonathan 
Dayton,  telling  Wilkinson  he  would  surely  be 
displaced  at  the  next  meeting  of  Congress,  and 
added,  “  You  are  not  a  man  to  despair,  or  even 
to  despond,  especially  when  such  prospects  of¬ 
fer  in  another  quarter.  Are  you  ready  ?  Are 
your  numerous  associates  ready?  Wealth  and 
glory!  Louisiana  and  Mexico ! — Dayton.”  The 
correspondence,  in  cipher  and  otherwise,  be¬ 
tween  Wilkinson  and  Burr  for  several  months 
previously  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  for¬ 
mer  was,  at  that  time,  engaged  iu  Burr’s  scheme, 
and  that  the  latter  relied  upon  him.  Intima¬ 
tions  in  the  letters  of  a  design  to  seize  newly 
acquired  Louisiana  startled  Wilkinson,  and  he 
resolved  to  make  the  best  terms  he  could  with 
the  Spanish  commander  on  the  Sabine  and 
hasten  back  to  New  Orleans  to  defend  it  against 
any  scheme  of  conquest  there  which  Burr  might 
contemplate  or  attempt.  This  design  he  com¬ 
municated  to  Cushing,  and  obtained  from  the 
bearer  of  the  letters  such  information  as  excited 
his  alarm  to  a  high  pitch.  The  young  man 
(named  Swartwout)  stated  that  he  and  another 
( named  Ogden )  had  been  sent  by  Burr  from 
Philadelphia ;  that  they  had  carried  despatches 
from  Burr  to  General  Adair,  of  Kentucky,  who 
was  a  party  to  the  scheme ;  that  they  hastened 
towards  St.  Louis  in  search  of  Wilkinson,  but 
learned  at  Kaskaskia  that  he  had  descended  the 
river ;  that  they  followed  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Red  River,  when  Ogden  went  on  to  New  Orleans 
with  despatches  to  Burr’s  friends  there,  and  he 
(Swartwout)  had  hastened  to  Wilkinson’s  head¬ 
quarters.  He  said  Burr  was  supported  by  a 
numerous  and  powerful  association,  extending 
from  New  York  to  New  Orleans  ;  that  several 
thousand  men  were  prepared  for  an  expedition 
against  the  Mexican  provinces ;  that  the  Terri¬ 
tory  of  Orleans  would  be  revolutionized — for 
wrhich  the  inhabitants  were  quite  ready ;  that 
he  supposed  some  “  seizing”  would  be  necessary 
at  New  Orleans,  and  a  forced  “transfer”  of  the 
bank ;  that  an  expedition  was  to  land  at  Yera 
Cruz  and  march  thence  to  the  Mexican  capital ; 
that  naval  protection  would  be  furnished  by 
Great  Britain  ;  and  that  Truxton  and  other  of¬ 
ficers  of  the  navy,  disgusted  with  the  conduct 
of  the  government,  would  join  iu  the  enter¬ 
prise.  After  gathering  all  the  information  pos¬ 
sible,  Wilkinson  sent,  by  express,  two  letters 
to  President  Jefferson  —  one  official,  the  other 
confidential,  in  which,  without  mentioning  any 
names,  he  gave  a  general  outline  of  the  pro¬ 
posed  expedition;  and  then  pushed  forward  to 
the  Sabine.  He  sent  orders  to  the  commanding 
officer  at  New  Orleans  to  put  that  place  in  the 
best  possible  condition  for  defence,  and  to  se¬ 
cure,  if  possible,  by  contract,  a  train  of  artillery 
there  belonging  to  the  French.  Having  made  a 
satisfactory  arrangement  with  the  Spanish  com¬ 
mander,  Wilkinson  hastened  back  to  Natchito¬ 
ches,  where  he  received  a  letter  from  St.  Louis 
informing  him  that  a  plan  to  revolutionize  the 
Western  country  was  about  to  explode  ;  and 
that  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
New  Orleans  Territory  had  combined  to  declare 
themselves  independent  on  the  15th  of  Novem- 


BURR’S  MYSTERIOUS  EXPEDITION  185  BURR’S  MYSTERIOUS  EXPEDITION 


l>er.  Wilkinson,  alarmed,  ordered  Cushing  to 
hasten  down  with  the  troops,  while  he  sped  to 
Natchez ;  whence  he  sent  a  second  special  mes¬ 
senger  to  the  President  with  duplicates  of  his 
former  letters,  and  another  declaring  that  a  con¬ 
spiracy  really  existed  ;  and  authorized  the  mes¬ 
senger  to  mention  the  names  of  Burr,  Dayton, 
Trnxton,  and  others  as  apparently  engaged  in 
the  enterprise.  He  informed  Governor  Clai¬ 
borne,  of  the  Orleans  Territory,  that  his  govern¬ 
ment  was  menaced  by  a  secret  plot,  and  took 
other  measures  for  its  defence.  At  New  Or¬ 
leans  Wilkinson  procured  a  meeting  of  mer¬ 
chants,  to  whom  he  and  Governor  Claiborne 
made  an  exposition  of  Burr’s  suspected  proj¬ 
ects.  Bollman,  an  agent  of  Burr  there,  with 
Swartwout  and  Ogden,  were  arrested,  and  the 
militia  of  the  territory  were  placed  at  Wilkin¬ 
son’s  disposal.  Great  excitement  now  prevailed 
on  the  Lower  Mississippi  and  on  the  Ohio  and 
its  tributaries.  A  series  of  articles,  inspired,  no 
doubt,  if  not  written,  by  Burr,  had  appeared  in 
an  Ohio  newspaper,  signed  “Querist,”  arguing 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  separation  of  the  West¬ 
ern  States  from  the  Union.  Similar  articles 
had  appeared  in  a  Democratic  paper  at  Pitts¬ 
burgh.  In  Kentucky  were  many  uneasy  aspi¬ 
rants  for  political  power,  and  an  old  story  of 
Spanish  influence  there  —  through  pensioners 
upon  the  bounty  of  Spain — was  revived.  Burr’s 
enterprise  became  associated  in  the  public  mind 
with  the  old  Spanish  plot ;  and  Burr  and  his 
confederates,  offended  by  what  they  deemed  Wil¬ 
kinson’s  treachery  to  their  cause,  associated  him 
with  the  Spanish  intriguers.  These  hints,  reach¬ 
ing  the  Lower  Mississippi,  embarrassed  Wilkin¬ 
son  ;  for  it  was  intimated  that  he  was  also  con¬ 
nected  with  the  schemes  of  Burr.  General  Jack- 
sou — who  had  favored  Burr’s  schemes  so  long 
as  they  looked  only  towards  a  seizure  of  Spanish 
provinces — alarmed  by  evidences  that  he  had 
wicked  designs  against  the  Union,  wrote  to  Gov¬ 
ernor  Claiborne  (with  the  impression  that  Wil¬ 
kinson  was  associated  with  Burr),  warning  him 
to  beware  of  the  designs  of  that  officer  and  the 
ex-Vice-President.  “I  hate  the  Dons,”  Jackson 
wrote  (Nov.  12,  1806);  “I  would  delight  to  see 
Mexico  reduced  ;  but  I  would  die  in  the  last 
ditch  before  I  would  see  the  Union  disunited.” 
Daviess,  United  States  District  Attorney  for 
Kentucky,  watched  Burr,  and  finally  applied  to 
the  court  for  process  for  his  arrest.  Burr  was 
summoned  before  a  grand  jury  (Nov.  25),  but, 
the  attorney  failing  to  get  such  witnesses  as  he 
desired,  the  jury  not  only  failed  to  find  a  bill, 
but  declared  their  belief  that  Burr  intended 
nothing  against  the  integrity  of  the  Union. 
This  triumph  for  Burr  was  celebrated  by  a  ball 
at  Frankfort.  Meanwhile  the  President  of  the 
United  States  had  commissioned  Graham,  Secre- 
tary  of  the  Orleans  Territory,  to  investigate  the 
reports  about  Burr,  and,  if  well  founded,  to  take 
steps  to  cut  short  his  career.  On  Nov.  27  the 
President  issued  a  proclamation  that  ho  had 
been  informed  of  an  unlawful  scheme  set  on 
foot  for  invading  the  Spanish  dominions;  warn¬ 
ing  citizens  of  the  United  States  not  to  engage 
in  it;  and  directing  all  in  authority  to  endeavor 


to  suppress  it.  Before  this  Graham  had  drawn 
from  Blennerhassett  facts  of  great  importauce 
(for  the  latter  took  the  secretary  to  be  one  of 
Burr’s  confidants),  and  applied  to  the  governor 
of  Ohio  for  the  seizure  of  the  boats  on  the 
Muskingum.  The  Legislature,  then  in  session, 
granted  the  request.  A  few  days  afterwards 
several  boats,  in  charge  of  Colonel  Tyler,  filled 
with  men,  descended  the  Ohio  to  Blennerhas- 
sett’s  Island.  Blennerhassett,  informed  of  the 
seizure  of  his  boats  on  the  Muskingum,  and 
that  a  body  of  militia  were  coming  to  seize 
those  at  the  island,  hastily  embarked  (Dec.  13) 
with  a  few  of  his  followers,  and  descended  the 
river  in  Tyler’s  flotilla.  The  next  day  a  mob 
of  militia  took  possession  of  the  island,  deso¬ 
lated  it,  and  even  insulted  Mrs.  Blennerhassett, 
who  succeeded  iu  obtaining  an  open  boat  and 
following  her  husband  down  the  river.  The 
Legislature  of  Kentucky  speedily  passed  a  sim¬ 
ilar  act  for  seizures  to  that  of  Ohio.  Tyler, 
however,  had  already  passed  Louisville.  They 
were  joined  by  Burr,  and  the  flotilla  passed  out 
into  the  Mississippi  and  stopped  at  Chickasaw 
Bluff's  (now  Memphis),  where  Burr  attempted  to 
seduce  the  garrison  into  his  service.  Burr  now 
first  heard  of  the  action  of  the  Legislature  of 
the  Orleans  Territory,  before  which  Wilkinson 
had  laid  his  exposure  of  the  schemes.  Perceiv¬ 
ing  what  he  might  expect  at  New  Orleans,  and 
fearful  that  the  authorities  of  Mississippi  might 
arrest  him  at  once,  Burr  passed  to  the  west  side 
of  the  river,  out  of  their  jurisdiction,  where  he 
formed  a  camp,  thirty  miles  above  Natchez.  Un¬ 
der  the  proclamation  of  the  President,  a  militia 
force  was  raised  to  arrest  Burr.  He  made  an 
unconditional  surrender  to  the  chril  authority, 
and  agreed  that  his  boats  should  be  searched 
and  all  arms  taken.  Before  this  was  accom¬ 
plished  his  cases  of  arms  were  cast  into  the 
river;  and  as  no  evidence  of  any  hostile  inten¬ 
tion  was  found,  a  belief  prevailed  that  he  was 
innocent  of  any  of  the  designs  alleged  against 
him.  Burr  was  brought  before  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  territory,  and  was  not  only  not  in¬ 
dicted  by  the  grand  jury,  but  they  presented 
charges  against  the  governor  for  calling  out  the 
militia  to  arrest  him.  Burr  spoke  bitterly  of 
Wilkinson  as  a  traitor,  and,  fearing  to  fall  into 
his  hands,  he  resolved  to  disband  his  men  and 
fly.  He  told  them  to  sell  what  provisions  they 
had,  and,  if  they  chose,  to  settle  on  his  Washita 
lands.  They  dispersed  through  the  Mississippi 
Territory,  and  furnished  an  abundant  supply  of 
school -masters,  singing-masters,  dancing-mas¬ 
ters,  and  doctors.  A  reward  was  offered  for  the 
capture  of  Burr,  and  he  was  arrested  (Feb.  19, 
1807)  by  the  Register  of  the  Land-office,  assisted 
by  Lieutenant  (afterwards  major-general)  Ed¬ 
mund  P.  Gaines,  near  Fort  Stoddart,  on  the  Totn- 
bigbee  River,  in  eastern  Mississippi.  An  in¬ 
dictment  for  high -treason  was  found  against 
Burr  by  a  grand  jury  for  the  District  of  Vir¬ 
ginia.  He  was  charged  with  levying  war,  by 
the  collection  of  armed  men  at  Blennerhassett’s 
Island,  within  the  dominion  of  Virginia.  He 
was  also  charged  with  concocting  a  scheme  for 
the  overthrow  of  the  national  authority  in  the 


BUTE 


BURROUGHS  186 


Western  States  and  Territories.  He  "was  tried 
and  acquitted. 

Burritt,  Elihu,  was  tlie  son  of  a  shoemaker; 
was  born  in  New  Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8, 1811,  and 
died  March  7,  1879.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  blacksmith.  .  In  order  to 
read  the  Scriptures  in  their  original  language, 
he  learued  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  read  these 
with  so  much  ease  that  he  continued  his  studies 
and  mastered  many  other  languages.  He  was 
called  “  the  learned  blacksmith.”  He  became 
a  reformer,  and  went  to  England  in  1846,  where 
lie  formed  “the  League  of  Universal  Brother¬ 
hood,”  for  the  abolition  of  war,  slavery,  aud 
other  national  evils.  He  was  United  States 
Consul  at  Birmingham  some  time. 

Burroughs,  Stephen,  Fate  of.  (See  71  itch- 


ally  convicted  and  hanged.  When  the  delu¬ 
sion  passed  by,  the  people  of  Salem,  disgusted 
and  indignant,  drove  Parris  from  the  town. 

Burrows,  William,  was  born  near  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Oct.  6,  1785;  died  Sept.  5,  1813.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  United  States  Navy,  as  midshipman, 
November,  1799;  and  served  under  Preble  in  the 
war  against  Tripoli.  In  March,  1807,  he  was 
promoted  to  lieutenant,  and,  early  in  the  war 
of  1812-15,  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
sloop-of-war  Enterprise.  On  Sunday,  Sept.  5, 
he  fought  the  British  brig  Boxer ,  with  the  En¬ 
terprise ,  off  Portland,  Me.  The  Boxen'  was  van¬ 
quished,  but  Burrows  was  slain.  (See  Enter¬ 
prise  and  Boxer.')  For  this  exploit,  Congress 
voted  a  gold  medal  to  his  nearest  male  rela¬ 
tion. 


THE  BURROWS  MEDAL. 


craft ,  Salem.)  Samuel  Parris,  minister  at  Salem, 
in  whose  house  the  delusion  of  “  Salem  Witch¬ 
craft”  began,  hated  Stephen  Burroughs,  who 
had  been  a  minister  there,  and  who  had  retired 
to  Wells,  in  Maine,  and  settled  there.  In  the 
height  of  the  witch  trials,  Parris  persuaded  the 
authorities  of  Massachusetts  to  bring  Burroughs 
to  Salem  on  au  accusation  of  practising  witch¬ 
craft.  He  was  a  powerful  man  in  person  aud 
stature.  The  magistrates  sent  an  elder  and  two 
constables  to  Wells  to  bring  Mr.  Burroughs  to  Sa¬ 
lem.  They  stated  their  errand,  and  he  cheerfully 
complied.  There  was  no  direct  road  through 
the  forest,  but  his  wood-craft  gave  him  useful 
knowledge.  The  constables  objected  to  travers¬ 
ing  a  way  unknown  to  them.  He  told  them  not 
to  fear,  but  they  became  afraid  of  their  pris¬ 
oner,  and  followed  him  “  under  a  spell,”  they 
said.  A  terrible  storm  overtook  them  in  the 
heart  of  the  forest.  The  blackness  of  night 
and  the  silence  of  the  grave  had  preceded  it. 
Then  came  the  fierce  wind,  the  drenching  raiu, 
and  the  crash  of  thunder.  The  elder  and  the 
constables,  believing  their  prisoner  was  leagued 
with  the  powers  of  darkness,  trembled.  This 
commotion  of  the  elements  was  a  part  of  the 
count  of  the  indictment  against  him,  for  it  was 
believed  that  he  raised  the  tempest.  Mr.  Bur¬ 
roughs  was  tried  for  witchcraft,  and  was  actu¬ 


Bute,  Earl  of  (John  Stuart),  Avas  born  in 
Scotland  in  1713;  died  in  London,  March  10, 
1792.  He  succeeded  to  his  father’s  titles  and 
estates  when  he  was  ten  years  of  age ;  and,  in 
1736,  he  married  the  only  daughter  of  Lady  Mary 
Wortley  Montagu.  In  February,  1737,  he  was 
selected  one  of  the  sixteen  representative  Peers 
of  Scotland,  and  appointed  lord  of  the  bedcham¬ 
ber  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1738.  The  beauti¬ 
ful  Princess  of  Wales  gave  him  her  confidence 
on  the  death  of  her  husband  in  1751,  and  made 
him  preceptor  of  her  sou,  afterwards  King 
George  III.  Over  that  youth  he  gained  great 
influence.  When  he  ascended  the  throne,  in 
1760,  George  promoted  Bute  to  a  privy-coun¬ 
cillor,  and,  afterwards,  a  secretary  of  state; 
and,  when  Pitt  and  the  Duke  of  NeAvcastle  re¬ 
tired  from  the  cabinet,  Bute  was  made  prime- 
minister.  He  soon  became  unpopular,  chiefly 
because  the  king  had  discarded  the  great  Pitt, 
and  preferred  this  Scotch  adventurer,  whose 
bad  advice  Avas  misleading  his  sovereign.  In¬ 
sinuations  AArere  rife  about  the  too  intimate 
personal  relations  of  Bute  and  the  young 
king’s  mother,  who,  it  was  believed,  ruled  both 
the  king  and  his  minister;  and  a  placard  ap¬ 
peared  in  front  of  tlie  Royal  Exchange,  in  large 
letters,  “No  petticoat  government — no  Scotch 
minister  —  no  Lord  George  Sackville!”  Bute 


BUTLER 


187 


BUTLER  IN  NEW  ORLEANS 


was  vigorously  attacked  by  John  Wilkes  in  his 
North  Britain.  The  minister’s  unpopularity  in¬ 
creased.  Suspicions  of  his  being  bribed  by  the 
enemies  of  England  were  rife  ;  and,  perceiving 
a  rising  storm  that  threatened  to  overwhelm 
him  with  disgrace,  Bute  suddenly  resigned  his 
office  (April  7,  1763),  but  nominated  his  suc¬ 
cessor.  He  retired  to  private  life,  passing  his 
time  between  England  and  Scotland  in  the  en¬ 
joyment  of  an  ample  fortune.  He  published, 
at  his  own  expense  ($50,000),  a  work  on  bot¬ 
any,  in  nine  volumes,  and  when  twelve  copies 
bad  been  printed  he  had  the  plates  destroyed 
to  make  the  work  scarce. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  was  born  at 
Deerfield,  N.  H.,  Nov.  5,  1818 ;  and  graduated 
at  Waterville  College,  Me.,  in  1838.  He  stud¬ 
ied  law  at  Lowell,  Mass. ;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1841,  and  continued  the  practice 
until  1861,  with  a  high  reputation  as  a  crimi¬ 
nal  lawyer.  He  was  an  active  politician  in 


the  Democratic  party  until  its  disruption  at 
Charleston  in  1860  (see  Charleston  Convention ); 
and  he  had  served  as  a  member  of  both  Houses 
of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature.  As  briga¬ 
dier-general  of  militia  he  hastened  towards 
Washington,  on  the  call  of  the  President 
(which  see),  with  troops,  in  April,  1861,  and 
landed  at  Annapolis.  He  was  placed  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Department  of  Annapolis,  which 
included  Baltimore.  (See  Baltimore  in  Possession 
of  National  Troops.)  At  the  middle  of  May  he 
was  made  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  put 
in  command  of  the  Department  of  Virginia, 
with  headquarters  at  Fortress  Monroe,  where 
he  held  as  contraband  all  fugitive  slaves. 
(See  Contrabands.)  In  August  (1861),  an  expe¬ 
dition  which  he  commanded  captured  forts 
Hatteras  and  Clarke  (see  Hatteras) ;  and,  in 
t  lie  spring  of  1862,  he  led  another  expedition 
for  the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  in  which  he 
was  successful.  (See  New  Orleans,  Capture  of.) 
He  was  succeeded  in  command  there  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Banks,  in  November.  Late  in  1863,  lie 
was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  his  force  was 
designated  the  Army  of  the  James.  After  an 
unsuccessful  expedition  against  Fort  Fisher,  in 


December,  1864,  General  Butler  retired  to  his 
residence  in  Massachusetts.  He  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1866,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
managers  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in 
conducting  the  impeachment  of  President  John¬ 
son  (which  see).  He  was  again  elected  to  a  seat 
in  Congress  in  1868,  and  continued  to  represent 
a  district  of  Massachusetts  in  that  body  for  ten 
years  afterwards.  In  1882  he  was  elected  gov¬ 
ernor  of  that  state. 

Butler  in  Louisiana.  General  Butler  was 
satisfied,  at  the  beginning  of  September,  1862, 
that  the  Confederates  had  abandoned  all  ideas 
of  attempting  to  retake  New  Orleans,  so  he 
proceeded  to  “repossess”  some  of  the  rich  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Louisiana.  He  sent  General  Godfrey 
Weitzel  with  a  brigade  of  infantry,  with  artil¬ 
lery,  and  Barnet’s  cavalry,  late  in  October,  into 
the  region  of  the  district  of  La  Fourche,  west 
of  the  Mississippi.  On  Oct.  27  Weitzel  had  a 
sharp  fight  at  Labadieville  with  Confederates 
under  General  McPheeters.  They  were  on 
both  sides  of  the  Bayou  La  Fourche,  with  six 
pieces  of  cannon.  These  Weitzel  attacked  with 
musketry  and  cannons.  The  Confederates  were 
driven  and  pursued  about  four  miles.  Weit¬ 
zel  lost  eighteen  killed  and  seventy  -  four 
wounded.  He  captured  two  hundred  and  six¬ 
ty-eight  prisoners  and  one  cannon.  He  now 
proceeded  to  open  communication  with  New 
Orleans  by  the  bayou  and  the  railway  con¬ 
necting  Brashear  City  with  it.  The  whole 
country  was  abandoned,  and  the  troops  were 
received  with  joy  by  the  negroes.  All  indus¬ 
trial  operations  there  were  paralyzed,  and 
General  Butler,  as  a  state  policy  and  for  hu¬ 
mane  purposes,  confiscated  the  entire  proper¬ 
ty  of  the  district,  appointed  a  commission  to 
take  charge  of  it,  and  set  the  negroes  at  work, 
by  which  they  were  subsisted  and  the  crops 
saved.  Two  congressional  districts  in  Louisi¬ 
ana  were  thus  “repossessed,”  and  the  loyal  cit¬ 
izens  of  New  Orleans  elected  to  seats  in  Con¬ 
gress  Benjamin  F.  Flanders  and  Michael  Hahn. 
Late  in  the  autumn  of  1862,  General  Butler 
was  succeeded  by  General  N.  P.  Banks  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Department  of  the  Gulf. 

Butler  in  New  Orleans  elicited  unbounded 
praise  from  loyal  people  because  of  his  vigor 
and  efficiency,  and  created  the  most  intense 
hatred  of  himself  personally  among  the  Confed¬ 
erates  by  his  restrictive  measures.  On  his  ar¬ 
rival  Butler  seized  the  fine  St.  Charles  Hotel, 
and  made  it  his  headquarters.  The  mayor  of 
the  city,  John  T.  Monroe,  took  an  attitude  of 
defiance.  He  refused  to  surrender  the  city,  or 
take  down  the  Louisiana  flag  from  the  city 
hall.  The  editor  of  the  True  Delta  refused  to 
print  Butler’s  proclamation  in  hand-bill  form. 
The  general  invited  the  city  authorities  to  a 
conference.  The  mayor  at  first  refused  to  go, 
but  finally  went  to  the  St.  Charles,  with  Pierre 
Sonld  (formerly  member  of  Congress)  and  oth¬ 
er  friends.  They  persisted  in  regarding  Louisi¬ 
ana  as  an  independent  nation,  and  the  Nation¬ 
al  troops  as  invaders  or.  intruders.  An  im¬ 
mense  and  threatening  mob  had  collected  in 


BUTLER 


188 


BYRD 


the  streets  in  front  of  the  St.  Charles.  Butler 
had  placed  troops  there  and  a  cannon  for  the 
protection  of  headquarters.  The  commander 
sent  him  word  that  the  mob  was  pressing  hard 
upon  him.  “Give  my  compliments  to  General 
Williams”  (the  commander),  said  Butler;  “and 
tell  him  if  he  finds  he  cannot  control  the  mob 
to  open  upon  them  with  artillery.”  The  may¬ 
or  and  his  friends  sprang  to  their  feet,  exclaim¬ 
ing,  “  Don’t  do  that,  general !”  “  Why  not, 

gentlemen?”  said  Butler;  “the  mob  must  be 
controlled.  We  can’t  have  a  disturbance  in 
the  street.”  The  mayor  went  to  a  balcony,  in¬ 
formed  the  mob  of  the  general’s  order,  and  per¬ 
suaded  them  to  disperse.  Butler  read  a  procla¬ 
mation  which  he  had  prepared  to  Soule,  who 
declared  it  would  give  great  offence ;  that  the 
people  were  not  conquered  and  would  never 
submit,  and  uttered  a  threat  in  smooth  terms. 
To  this  Butler  replied :  “  I  have  long  been  ac¬ 
customed  to  hear  threats  from  Southern  gen¬ 
tlemen  in  political  conventions;  but  let  me  as¬ 
sure  the  gentlemen  present  that  the  time  for 
tactics  of  that  nature  has  passed,  never  to  re¬ 
turn.  New  Orleaus  is  a  conquered  city.  If 
not,  why  are  we  here?  How  did  we  get  here? 
Have  you  opened  your  arms,  aud  bid  us  wel¬ 
come?  Are  we  here  by  your  consent?  Would 
you  or  would  you  not  expel  us  if  you  could  ? 
New  Orleaus  has  been  conquered  by  the  forces 
of  the  United  States,  and,  by  the  laws  of  all  na¬ 
tions,  lies  subject  to  the  will  of  the  conqueror.” 
These  utterances  indicated  the  course  General 
Butler  intended  to  pursue  in  New  Orleans  and 
in  the  Department  of  the  Gulf;  and,  within 
twenty-four  hours  after  he  had  taken  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  city,  there  was  a  perfect  under¬ 
standing  between  him  aud  the  people  of  their 
mutual  relations.  Butler,  at  the  same  time, 
took  pains  to  remove  all  causes  for  unnecessary 
irritation,  aud  removed  his  headquarters  from 
the  St.  Charles  to  a  private  residence. 

Butler,  John,  au  able  Tory  leader  in  the 
Revolution,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  and  died 
at  Niagara  iu  1794.  He  was  in  official  com¬ 
munication  with  the  Johnsons  in  the  Mohawk 
Valley  before  the  war,  and  was  colonel  of  a 
militia  regiment  in  Tryon  County,  N.  Y.  In 
1776  he  organized  a  band  of  motley  marauders 
— white  men  and  Indians,  the  former  painted 
and  behaving  like  savages.  He  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  them  in  the  battle  of  Oriskany  (which 
see),  and  of  eleven  hundred  men  who  desolated 
the  Wyoming  Valley  in  July,  1778.  (See  Wy¬ 
oming  Valley,  Invasion  of.)  He  fought  Sullivan 
in  the  Indiau  country,  in  central  New  York,  iu 
1779,  and  accompanied  Sir  John  Johnson  in  his 
raid  on  the  Schoharie  and  Mohawk  settlements 
iu  1780.  After  the  war,  Butler  went  to  Canada, 
and  was  rewarded  by  the  British  government 
with  places  of  emolument  and  a  pension.  His 
son,  Walter,  was  a  ferocious  Tory,  aud  was 
killed  during  the  war. 

Butler,  Richard,  was  born  in  Ireland,  and 
was  killed  by  Indians  in  a  battle  in  Ohio,  Nov. 


4,  1791.  He  came  to  America  before  1760.  He 
was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Pennsylvania 
line  iu  the  Continental  army,  and  also  of  Mor¬ 
gan’s  rifle  corps  in  1777.  Butler  served  through¬ 
out  the  war;  was  agent  for  Indian  affairs  in 
Ohio  in  1787 ;  and  was  with  St.  Clair  in  his  ex¬ 
pedition  against  the  Indians,  late  in  1791,  com¬ 
manding  the  right  wing  of  his  army,  with  the 
rank  of  major-general.  In  that  expedition  he 
was  slain.  (See  St.  Clair's  Campaign.) 

Butler,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1754  ;  died  in  New  Orleans,  Sept.  7,  1805. 
He  was  in  almost  every  important  battle  in 
the  Middle  States  during  the  Revolution.  At 
Brandywine  aud  at  Monmouth  he  received  the 
thanks  of  his  commanders  (Washington  and 
Wayne)  for  skill  and  bravery.  In  1791  he 
commanded  a  battalion  under  St.  Clair,  and 
was  twice  wounded  at  the  defeat  of  that  lead¬ 
er  (see  St.  Clair's  Campaign),  where  his  brother, 
Richard,  was  killed. 

Butler,  Zebulon,  was  born  at  Lyme,  Conn., 
in  1731  ;  died  at  Wilkesbarre,  Penn.,  July  28, 
1795.  He  served  iu  the  French  and  Indiau 
War  and  iu  the  expedition  to  Havana  in  1762, 
when  he  became  a  captain.  He  settled  in  the 
Wyoming  Valley,  Penn.,  in  1769,  aud  was  there 
when  the  valley  was  invaded  by  Tories  and  In¬ 
dians  under  Colonel  John  Butler,  in  1778.  Iu 
defence  of  the  inhabitants,  he  commanded  the 
feeble  force  there,  but  was  unable  to  prevent 
the  massacre  that  took  place.  The  next  year 
he  accompanied  Sullivan  in  his  expedition  into 
the  Indian  country  in  central  New  York,  aud 
served  during  the  remainder  of  the  war. 

Butler’s  Assessments  in  New  Orleans. 
General  Butler  found,  on  taking  possession  of 
New  Orleans,  much  distress  there  occasioned 
by  the  insurrection,  and  he  resolved  to  make 
the  leaders  in  the  Secession  movement  do 
something  for  the  relief  of  the  distressed.  He 
discovered  a  list  of  contributors  to  the  fund 
for  the  promotion  of  secession  and  insurrec¬ 
tion,  with  the  amount  of  their  subscriptions, 
and  he  at  once  assessed  each  of  the  subscrib¬ 
ers  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  that  amount  for 
the  relief  of  the  poor. 

Byrd,  William,  was  born  at  Westover,  Va., 
March  28,  1674  ;  died  Aug.  26,  1744.  Inherit¬ 
ing  a  large  fortune,  and  acquiring  a  good  ed¬ 
ucation,  he  became  a  leader  in  the  promotion 
of  science  aud  literature  in  Virginia,  and  was 
made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Loudon. 
Long  receiver-general  of  the  revenue  iu  Vir¬ 
ginia,  he  was  also  three  times  made  agent  of 
that  colony  in  England,  and  was  for  thirty- 
seven  years  a  member,  and,  finally,  president, 
of  the  king’s  council  of  the  colony.  He  was 
one  of  the  commissioners,  in  1728,  for  running 
the.  boundary-line  between  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina.  He  made  notes  of  his  operations 
and  the  incidents  thereof,  which  form  a  part 
of  the  Westover  Manuscripts,  published  by  Ed¬ 
mund  Ruffin  in  1841.  In  1733  he  laid  out  the 
cities  of  Richmond  aud  Petersburg,  Va. 


CABEQA  DE  VACA 


189 


CABOT 


c. 


Cabeca  de  Vaca,  Alvar  Nunez,  a  Spaniard 
of  noble  birth,  was  the  treasurer  of  tlie  expe¬ 
dition  to  Florida  by  Narvaez  (which  see),  and 
was  one  of  the  few  survivors  who  left  that 
coast  in  boats.  He  wrote,  in  Spanish,  a  minute 
history  of  the  expedition,  which  was  translated, 
a  few  years  ago,  into  Euglish  by  the  late  Buck¬ 
ingham  Smith. 

Cabinet  Ministers,  First.  The  President  of 
the  United  States  chooses  ministers,  or  heads  of 
departments  of  the  government,  who  are  called 
Secretaries.  They  are  appointed  by  him 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  These 
are  his  constitutional  advisers,  whom  he 
may  consult  on  important  occasions,  and 
have  their  opinions  given  in  writing  if  re¬ 
quired.  The  heads  of  the  several  depart¬ 
ments  who  were  in  charge  when  Wash¬ 
ington  became  President  were  continued 
in  office  until  the  first  session  of  the  new 
Congress  had  adjourned  —  Sept.  29,1789. 

The  reason  of  the  delay  was  that  the  laws 
instituting  the  departments  and  fixing  the 
salaries  of  officers  were  not  sooner  passed 
by  Congress.  Washington  appointed  Alex¬ 
ander  Hamilton  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
(  salary,  $3500  )  ;  Henry  Knox,  Secretary 
of  War  ( salary,  $3000 ) ;  and  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Secretary  of  State  ( salary, 

$3500  ).  Jefferson  was  then  in  France, 
and  did  not  enter  upon  his  duties  until 
March,  1790.  The  salary  of  the  President 
was  fixed  at  $25,000  a  year,  and  that  of  the 
Vice-President  at  $5000  a  year. 

Cabinet  Ministers  Killed  (1845).  Late 
in  February  (28tli),  1845,  President  Tyler 
lost  two  of  his  most  trusted  cabinet  min¬ 
isters  by  an  accident.  The  President  and 
all  his  cabinet,  many  members  of  Con¬ 
gress,  and  other  distinguished  citizens, 
with  several  ladies,  were  on  board  the 
United  States  steam  sliip-of-war  Princeton, 
on  a  trial -trip  down  the  Potomac  from 
Washington.  When  they  were  opposite  Mount 
Vernon  one  of  the  largest  guns  of  the  Prince¬ 
ton  ,  in  firing  a  salute,  burst,  scattering  its  dead¬ 
ly  fragments  around.  The  Secretary  of  State, 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  and  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
T.  W.  Gilmer,  and  David  Gardiner,  of  New  York, 
were  killed.  No  one  else  was  seriously  injured. 
The  daughter  of  Mr.  Gardiner  was  soon  after¬ 
wards  married  to  President  Tyler. 

Cabinet  Officer,  Impeachment  of  a.  A  few 
weeks  before  the  opening  of  the  Centennial  Ex¬ 
hibition  (which  see),  General  W.  W.  Belknap, the 
Secretary  of  War,  was  charged  with  having  re¬ 
ceived  a  bribe  from  a  post-trader  to  whom  he 
had  granted  permission  to  sell  goods  to  army 
officers  or  private  soldiers.  Articles  of  impeach¬ 
ment  were  formally  presented  to  the  Senate,  act¬ 
ing  as  a  High  Court  of  Impeachment,  April  4, 1876. 
A  plea  of  non-jurisdiction  was  interposed  by  the 
secretary’s  counsel.  On  May  29  the  Senate  de¬ 


cided  that  it  had  jurisdiction,  and  it  proceeded 
with  the  trial.  The  arguments  of  counsel  closed 
July  26,  and  on  the  1st  of  August  the  Senate  took 
a  vote  on  the  verdict.  The  result  was  au  acquit¬ 
tal.  This  was  the  first  impeachment  of  a  cabinet 
officer  in  the  United  States. 

Cabot,  John  and  Sebastian.  John  was  a 
native  of  Venice,  and,  at  the  time  of  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  Columbus,  was  a  merchant  in  Bristol, 
England.  That  discovery  filled  mariners  in 
western  Europe  with  desires  to  make  voyages 


SEBASTIAN  CABOT. 

for  the  same  purpose;  and  Henry  VII.  of  Eng¬ 
land  gave  a  charter  to  John  Cabot  and  his  sons 
permitting  them  to  explore  any  seas  with  five 
ships,  at  their  own  expense ;  and  to  discover 
and  occupy  any  “  isles  or  countries  of  the  hea¬ 
then  or  infidel  before  unknown  to  Christians, 
accounting  to  the  king  for  a  fifth  part  of  the 
profits.”  There  is  no  positive  evidence  that  the 
Cabots  took  advantage  of  this  charter,  or  that 
any  one  of  them  sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery 
until  1498,  when  John  Cabot  was  dead.  His  sou 
Sebastian,  then  very  young,  received  from  the 
king  a  commission  to  go  on  a  voyage  of  discov¬ 
ery,  and  the  monarch  fitted  out  two  caravels  for 
him.  He  sailed  from  Bristol  in  May,  1498,  in 
search  of  a  northwest  passage  to  India,  but  was 
stopped  by  the  ice-pack  in  Davis’s  Strait. 
Then  he  sailed  southwest,  and  discovered  the 
shores  of  Labrador,  or,  possibly,  the  northern 
shore  of  Newfoundland.  Turning  northward, 


CABRAL 


190 


CADWALLADER 


he  traversed  the  coast  of  the  continent  almost 
to  latitude  60°,  when  the  ice  again  barred  his 
way.  Then  he  sailed  southward,  and  discov¬ 
ered  a  large  island,  which  he  called  New  Found 
Land  ( Newfoundland ),  and  perceived  the  im¬ 
mense  number  of  codfish  in  the  waters  sur¬ 
rounding  it.  Leaving  that  island,  he  coasted 
as  far  as  the  shores  of  Maine,  and,  some  writers 
think,  as  far  south  as  the  Carolinas.  On  his 
return  Cabot  revealed  the  secret  of  the  codfish 
at  New  Found  Land,  and  within  five  or  six 
years  thereafter  fishermen  from  England,  Brit¬ 
tany,  and  Normandy  were  gathering  treasures 
there.  As  Cabot  did  not  bring  back  gold  from 
America,  King  Henry  paid  no  more  attention  to 
him ;  and  in  1512  he  went  to  Spain,  by  invita¬ 
tion  of  King  Ferdinand,  and  enjoyed  honors  and 
emoluments  until  that  monarch’s  death  in  1516, 
when,  annoyed  by  the  jealousies  of  the  Spanish 
nobility,  he  returned  to  England.  Henry  VIII. 
furnished  Cabot  with  a  vessel,  in  1517,  to  seek 
for  a  northwest  passage  to  India;  but  he  unsuc¬ 
cessfully  fought  the  ice-pack  at  Hudson’s  Bay 
and  was  foiled.  The  successor  of  Ferdinand 
invited  Cabot  to  Spain  and  made  him  Chief  Pi¬ 
lot  of  the  realm.  He  was  employed  by  Spanish 
merchants  to  command  an  expedition  to  the 
Spice  Islands  by  way  of  the  then  newly  dis¬ 
covered  Strait  of  Magellan ;  but  circumstances 
prevented  his  going  farther  than  the  southeast 
coast  of  South  America,  where  he  discovered 
the  rivers  De  la  Plata  aud  Paraguay.  His  em¬ 
ployers  were  disappointed,  and,  resigning  his 
office  into  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  monarch, 
he  returned  to  England  in  his  old  age  and  was 
pensioned  by  the  king.  After  the  death  of 
Henry  VIII.  the  “  boy-king,”  Edward  VI.,  made 
Cabot  Grand  Pilot  of  England  ;  but  Queen  Mary 
neglected  him,  aud  allowed  that  eminent  navi¬ 
gator  and  discoverer  of  the  North  American 
continent  to  die  at  Bristol  in  comparative  pov¬ 
erty  and  obscurity  at  the  age  of  eighty  years. 
His  cheerful  temperament  was  manifested  by 
his  dancing  at  an  assembly  of  young  seamen 
the  year  before  his  death. 

Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez,  was  sent  by  Eman¬ 
uel,  King  of  Portugal,  with  thirteen  ships,  on  a 
voyage  from  Lisbon  to  the  East  Indies,  in  the 
year  1500.  In  order  to  avoid  the  calms  on  the 
Guinea  shore,  he  went  so  far  westward  as  to  dis¬ 
cover  land  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  at  latitude  10° 
south.  He  erected  a  cross,  and  named  the  coun¬ 
try  “  The  Land  of  the  Holy  Cross.”  It  was  af¬ 
terwards  called  Brazil,  from  brasil,  a  dye  wood 
that  abounded  there.  Cabral  took  possession 
of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  king.  After 
it  was  ascertained  that  it  was  a  part  of  the 
American  continent,  a  controversy  arose  be¬ 
tween  the  crowns  of  Spain  and  Portugal  con¬ 
cerning  the  right  of  possession,  but  it  was  set¬ 
tled  amicably — Portugal  to  possess  the  portion 
of  the  continent  discovered  by  Cabral,  that  is, 
from  the  River  Amazon  to  the  Plate  ( De  la 
Plata).  This  discovery  led  Emanuel  to  send  out 
another  expedition  (three  ships),  under  Ameri¬ 
cas  Vespucius,  in  May,  1501.  They  touched  Bra¬ 
zil  at  latitude  5°  south,  and  returned  home  after 
a  voyage  of  sixteen  mouths. 


Cabrillo,  Rodriguez  de,  was  sent  by  Men¬ 
doza,  viceroy  of  Mexico  (1542),  in  search  of  the 
“  Strait  of  America,”  supposed  to  lead  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  which  Alarcon  had  failed  to 
find.  He  sailed  up  the  Pacific  coast  as  far  as 
latitude  44°  north,  off  the  coast  of  Oregon.  The 
turbulence  of  the  sea,  sickness  of  his  crew,  and 
want  of  provisions  compelled  him  to  return. 
Cabrillo  was  a  Portuguese,  and  died  a*t  the  Isl- 
land  of  San  Bernardo  June  3, 1543. 

Cacique.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Haytien  tongue.  It  was  inaccurately  applied 
byT  the  Spaniards  to  the  native  nobles  of  Mex¬ 
ico.  Its  true  meaning  is  “  lord,”  or  “  prince,”  or 
“  supreme  ruler.” 

Cadet’s  Gray.  The  uniform  of  the  cadets 
at  the  West  Point  Military  Academy  is  of  gray 
cloth  —  white  pantaloons  in  summer.  It  was 
adopted  at  the  Academy  during  the  War  of 
1812-15.  General  Winfield  Scott  explained  to 
the  writer  how  that  color  came  to  be  adopted. 
While  at  Buffalo,  in  the  late  spring  of  1813,  in 
command  of  United  States  troops  (regulars),  he 
wrote  to  the  quartermaster  for  a  supply  of  new 
clothing  for  his  soldiers.  Word  came  back  that 
blue  cloth,  such  as  v’as  used  in  the  army,  could 
not  be  obtained,  owing  to  the  stringency  of  the 
blockade  and  the  embargo,  and  the  lack  of  wmol- 
len  manufactures  in  the  country,  but  that  there 
was  a  sufficient  quantity  of  gray  cloth  in  Phila¬ 
delphia.  Scott  ordered  it  to  be  made  up  for 
his  soldiers ;  aud  in  these  new  gray  suits  they 
marched  down  the  Niagara  shores  on  the  Cana¬ 
da  side.  So  they'  appeared  the  day  before  the 
battle  at  Chippewa  (which  see).  The  British 
commander  mistook  these  gray  -  clad  regulars 
for  militia,  and  regarded  them  with  such  con¬ 
tempt  that  he  was  not  prepared  to  meet  their 
skill  in  the  battle.  Because  of  the  victoryT  won 
at  Chippewa,  chief! yT  by'  those  gray-clad  regulars 
(July  5,  1813),  aud  in  honor  of  Scott  aud  his 
troops,  that  style  of  cloth  was  adopted  at  the 
Military  Academy7  at  West  Point  as  the  regula¬ 
tion  uniform  of  the  cadets.  “Cadet’s  gray”  is 
regarded  as  the  best  color  for  field-service,  as  it 
is  not  conspicuous.  (See  Uniforms,  United  States 
Army.) 


JOHN  CADWALLADER. 


Cadwallader,  John,  was  born  in  Philadel¬ 
phia  in  1743;  died  at  Shrewsbury,  Penn.,  Feb. 


CALHOUN 


CAIRO,  MILITARY  OCCUPATION  OF  191 


10, 1786.  He  was  an  active  patriot  before  the 
war  for  independence  broke  out.  He  was  made 
colonel  of  one  of  the  city  battalions,  aud  as  a 
brigadier-general  afterwards  be  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Pennsylvania  militia,  co-operat¬ 
ing  with  Washington  in  the  attack  on  Trenton, 
and  participating  in  the  battle  of  Princeton. 
He  was  in  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  German¬ 
town,  and  Monmouth.  He  challenged  General 
Conway  to  fight  a  duel  because  of  offensive 
words  used  by  the  latter  towards  Washington. 
(See  Conway's  Cabal.)  They  fought,  and  Conway 
was  badly  wounded.  After  the  war  Cadwallader 
lived  in  Maryland,  and  was  in  its  Legislature. 

Cairo,  Military  Occupation  of.  The  small 
village  of  Cairo,  Ill.,  is  situated  near  the  extrem¬ 
ity  of  a  boat-shaped  peninsula,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers,  one  hundred 
and  seventy-five  miles  below  St.  Louis.  It  is  a 
point  of  great  importance  as  the  key  to  a  vast 
extent  of  navigable  waters,  and  to  it  National 
troops  were  sent  at  an  early  period.  Both  the 
National  government  and  Governor  Yates  of 
Illinois  had  been  apprised  of  the  intention  of 
the  Confederates  to  secure  that  position,  hoping 
thereby  to  control  the  navigation  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  to  St.  Louis,  and  of  the  Ohio  to  Cincinnati 
and  beyond.  They  also  hoped  that  the  absolute 
control  of  the  Mississippi  below  would  cause 
the  Northwestern  States  to  join  hands  with  the 
insurgents  rather  than  lose  the  advantages  de¬ 
rived  from  navigating  this  great  outlet  of  their 
products.  The  scheme  was  foiled.  Governor 
Yates,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
War,  sent  Illinois  troops  at  an  early  day  to  take 
possession  of  and  occupy  Cairo.  By  the  middle 
of  May  there  were  not  less  than  5000  Union  vol¬ 
unteers  there,  under  the  command  of  General  B. 
M.  Prentiss,  who  occupied  the  extreme  point  of 
the  peninsula,  where  they  cast  up  fortifications 
and  gave  the  post  the  name  of  Camp  Defiance. 
Before  the  close  of  May  it  was  considered  im¬ 
pregnable  against  any  force  the  Confederates 
might  send.  It  soon  became  a  post  of  great  im¬ 
portance  to  the  Union  cause  as  the  place  where 
some  of  the  land  and  naval  expeditious  in  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi  were  fitted  out. 

Caldwell,  James,  was  born  in  Charlotte 
County,  Va.,  in  April,  1734;  died  at  Elizabeth¬ 
town,  N.  J.,  Nov.  24, 1781.  Graduating  at  Prince¬ 
ton  in  1759,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyte¬ 
rian  Church  at  Elizabethtown  in  1762.  Zeal¬ 
ously  espousing  the  revolutionary  cause,  ho  was 
much  disliked  by  the  Tories.  Appointed  chap¬ 
lain  of  a  New  Jersey  brigade,  he  was  for  a  time 
in  the  Mohawk  Valley.  In  1780  his  church 
and  residence  were  burned  by  a  party  of  British 
and  Tories;  and  the  same  year  a  British  incur¬ 
sion  from  Staten  Island  pillaged  the  village  of 
Connecticut  Farms,  where  his  family  were  tem¬ 
porarily  residing.  A  soldier  shot  his  wife 
through  a  window  while  she  was  sitting  on  a 
bed  with  her  babe.  At  that  time  Mr.  Caldwell 
was  in  Washington’s  camp  at  Morristown.  In 
an  altercation  at  Elizabethtown  Point  with  an 
American  sentinel,  he  was  shot  by  the  latter. 
The  murderer  was  afterwards  hanged.  A  costly 


monument  was  erected  in  the  church -yard  at 
Elizabethtown  sixty -four  years  afterwards  to 
commemorate  both  Caldwell  and  his  wife. 

Calef  and  Mather.  Among  the  learned  dupes 
of  the  witchcraft  delusion  in  New  England  in 
the  seventeenth  century  was  Rev.  Cotton  Ma¬ 
ther,  whose  writings  and  preaching  were  chiefly 
instrumental  in  inaugurating  that  terrible  epi¬ 
sode  in  New  England  history.  (See  Witchcraft, 
Salem.)  Even  after  the  people  and  magistrates 
had  come  to  their  senses, persecutions  had  ceased, 
and  the  folly  of  the  belief  in  witchcraft  was 
broadly  apparent,  Mather  continued  to  write  in 
favor  of  it  and  to  give  instances  of  the  doings 
of  witches  in  their  midst.  “  Flashy  people,” 
wrote  Mather,  “  may  burlesque  these  things,  but 
when  hundreds  of  the  most  sober  people,  in  a 
country  where  they  have  as  much  mother  wit 
certainly  as  the  rest  of  mankind,  know  them  to 
be  true,  nothing  but  the  absurd  and  froward 
spirit  of  Sadducism  [  disbelief  in  spirits  ]  can 
question  them.”  They  were  burlesqued  in  a 
most  effectual  manner.  Robert  Calef,  a  mer¬ 
chant  of  Boston,  wrote  and  published  a  series 
of  letters,  in  which  he  exposed  Mather’s  cre¬ 
dulity,  and  greatly  irritated  that  really  good 
man.  Mather  retorted  by  calling  Calef  a  “weaver 
turned  minister.”  Calef  tormented  Mather  more 
by  other  letters  in  the  same  vein,  when  the  for¬ 
mer,  becoming  wearied  by  the  fight,  called  the 
latter  “a  coal  from  hell,”  and  prosecuted  him 
for  slander.  When  these  letters  of  Calef  were 
published  in  book  form,  Increase  Mather,  Pres¬ 
ident.  of  Harvard  College,  caused  copies  of  the 
work  to  be  publicly  burned  on  the  college  green. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell,  LL.D.,  was  born 
in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C.,  March  18, 1782;  died 
in  Washington,  D.C.,  March  31,1850.  His  father 


JOHN  CALDWELL  CALHOUN. 


was  a  native  of  Ireland ;  his  mother,  formerly 
Miss  Caldwell,  was  of  Scotch-Irish  descent.  The 
son  graduated,  with  all  the  honors,  at  Yale  Col- 


CALIFORNIA 


192 


lege,  in  1804  ;  and  studied  law  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  in  a  famous  law-scliool  there.  In  1807 
he  began  the  practice  of  the  profession  in  his 
native  district.  Thoughtful,  ardent,  and  perse¬ 
vering,  he  soon  took  high  rank  in  his  profession 
and  gained  a  very  lucrative  practice.  Fond  of 
politics,  he  early  entered  its  arena,  and  in  1808- 
10  was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature.  He 
was  sent  to  Congress  in  1811,  where  he  remain¬ 
ed,  by  successive  elections,  until  1817.  Mr.  Cal¬ 
houn  was  very  influential  in  pressing  Madison 
to  make  a  declaration  of  war  with  Great  Britain 
in  1812.  President  Monroe  called  him  to  his 
cabinet  as  Secretary  of  War  (Dec.  16, 1817),  and 
he  served  as  such  during  the  Presidential  term 
of  eight  years.  In  1824  he  was  chosen  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  was  re-elect¬ 
ed  with  Andrew  Jackson  in  1828.  In  1831  he 
was  elected  United  States  Senator  by  the  Leg¬ 
islature  of  South  Carolina.  He  was  Secretary 
of  State  in  1844-45,  and  from  1845  till  1850  he 
was  again  a  member  of  the  United  States  Sen¬ 
ate.  The  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty  and  su¬ 
premacy,  and  that  the  Union  was  a  compact  of 
states  that  might  be  dissolved  by  the  secession 
of  any  one  of  them,  independent  of  all  action  on 
the  part  of  others,  was  honestly  held  by  Mr.  Cal¬ 
houn  nearly  all  his  life.  His  influence  iu  his 
own  state  was  very  great;  and  his  political  ten¬ 
ets,  practically  carried  out  by  acts  of  nullifica¬ 
tion  (see  Nullification),  brought  South  Carolina 
to  the  verge  of  civil  war  in  1832;  and  it  made 
that  state  foremost  and  most  conspicuous  in  in¬ 
augurating  the  late  Civil  War.  His  remains  lie 
buried  under  a  neat  mouument  in  St.  Philip’s 
church-yard  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  His  writings 
and  a  biography  have  been  published  iu  six 
volumes. 

California,  Admission  of,  into  the  Union. 
The  discovery  of  gold  iu  California  in  1848 
caused  such  an  influx  of  emigrants  that  iu  1849 
there  were  inhabitants  enough  there  to  entitle 
them,  so  far  as  numbers  were  concerned,  to  ad¬ 
mission  into  the  Union  as  a  state.  A  state  gov¬ 
ernment  was  abso¬ 
lutely  necessary, for 
in  such  a  mixed 
population  as  was 
“uddeuly  gathered 
there,  much  crime 
and  disorder  prevail¬ 
ed.  General- Riley, 
the  military  gover¬ 
nor  of  the  territory, 
called  a  convention 
of  delegates  to  meet 
at  Monterey,  Sept.  1, 
1849,  to  frame  a  state 
constitution.  The  convention,  after  a  six  weeks’ 
session,  adopted  a  constitution.  Before  it  was 
held  the  people  of  California,  in  convention  at  San 
Francisco,  had  voted  against  the  admission  of  the 
slave-labor  system  into  that  country.  The  consti- 
‘  tution  adopted  at  Monterey  also  had  a  provision 
to  exclude  slavery  from  that  inchoate  state. 
Thus  came  into  political  form  the  crude  ele¬ 
ments  of  a  state,  the  birth  and  maturity  of  which 
seems  like  a  strange  dream.  All  had  been  ac- 


CALIFORNIA,  NAME  OF 

complislied  within  twenty  months  from  the  time 
when  gold  was  discovered  at  Sutter’s  Mill.  Un¬ 
der  this  constitution  John  Charles  Fremont  and 
William  M.  Gwynn  were  chosen  by  the  State 
Legislature  United  States  Senators.  Edward 
Gilbert  and  G.  H.  Wright  were  elected  to  the 
House  of  Representatives.  When  Fr6mont  and 
Gwynn  went  to  Washington,  they  took  the  state 
constitution  with  them,  and  presented  a  petition 
(February,  1850)  asking  for  the  admission  of 
California  into  the  Union  as  a  free  and  inde¬ 
pendent  state.  The  article  in  its  constitution 
which  excluded  slavery  became  a  cause  of  vio¬ 
lent  debate  in  Congress  and  of  bitter  feeling  in 
the  South  against  the  people  of  the  North.  The 
Union,  so  strong  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  was 
shaken  to  its  centre.  Mr.  Clay  again  appeared 
as  a  compromiser  for  the  sake  of  peace  and 
union.  It  seemed  that  some  compromise  was 
needed  to  avoid  serious  difficulty,  for  already 
the  representatives  of  the  slave  interest  had 
taken  action,  and  the  Southern  members  in  Con¬ 
gress  boldly  declared  their  intention  to  break 
up  the  Union  if  California  should  be  admitted 
under  such  a  constitution.  A  joint  resolution 
was  adopted  to  appoint  a  committee  of  thirteen 
(six  Northern  and  six  Southern  members,  who 
should  choose  the  thirteenth)  to  consider  the 
subject  of  a  territorial  government  for  Califor¬ 
nia,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah,  with  instructions 
to  report  a  plan  of  compromise  embracing  all 
the  questions  thus  arising  out  of  the  subject  of 
slavery.  Henry  Clay  was  made  chairman  of 
that  committee.  He  had  already  presented  (Jan. 
25, 1850)  a  plan  of  compromise  to  the  South,  and 
spoke  eloquently  in  favor  of  it  (Feb.  5) ;  aud  on 
May  8  he  reported  a  plan  of  compromise  in  a 
series  of  bills,  intended  to  be  a  pacification. 
This  was  called  an  Omnibus  Bill  (which  see). 
It  made  large  concessions  to  the  slaveholders, 
and  yet  it  was  not  satisfactory  to  them.  For 
mouths  a  violent  discussion  of  the  Compromise 
Act  was  carried  on  throughout  the  country,  and 
it  was  denounced  upon  diametrically  opposite 
grounds.  It  finally  became  a  law.  On  Sept.  9, 
1850,  California  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as 
a  state.  Population  in  1880,  864,694. 

California,  Name  of.  In  1534  Hernando  Cor¬ 
tez  sent  Hernando  de  Grijalva  on  an  errand  of 
discovery  to  the  Pacific  coast,  who  probably  saw 
the  peninsula  of  California.  Twenty-five  years 
before  the  Spanish  leader  discovered  the  coun¬ 
try,  a  romance  was  published  iu  Spain  in  which 
are  described  the  doings  of  a  pagan  queen  of 
Amazons,  who  brought  from  the  “  right  hand  of 
the  Indies  ”  her  allies  to  assist  the  infidels  in 
their  attacks  upon  Constantinople.  The  ro¬ 
mance  was  entitled  Esplandian ,  the  name  of  an 
imaginary  Greek  emperor,  living  in  Stamboul, 
the  ancient  name  of  Constantinople.  The  Ama¬ 
zonian  queen  was  named  Calafia,  whose  king¬ 
dom,  rich  in  gold,  diamonds,  and  pearls,  was 
called  California.  The  author  probably  de¬ 
rived  the  name  from  Calif,  the  title  of  a  succes¬ 
sor  of  Mohammed.  The  author  says:  “Know 
that  on  the  right  hand  of  the  Indies  there  is  an 
island,  called  California,  very  close  to  the  Ter¬ 
restrial  Paradise,  aud  it  was  peopled  by  black 


STATE  SEAL  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


193 


CALVERT 


CALIFORNIA,  STATE  OF 

women  without  any  man  among  them,  for  they 
lived  in  the  fashion  of  the  Amazouia.  They 
were  of  strong  and  hardy  bodies,  of  ardeut  cour¬ 
age,  and  of  great  force.  Their  island  was  the 
strongest  in  all  the  world,  with  its  steep  cliffs 
and  rocky  shore.  Their  arms  were  all  of  gold, 
and  so  was  the  harness  of  the  wild  beasts  which 
they  tamed  and  rode.  For  in  the  whole  island 
there  was  no  metal  bnt  gold.  They  lived  in 
caves  wrought  ont  of  the  rocks  with  much  la¬ 
bor.  They  had  many  ships  with  which  they 
sailed  out  to  other  countries  to  obtain  booty.” 
Both  Cortez  and  Grijalva  believed,  as  everybody 
then  believed,  that  they  were  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood' of  the  coast  of  Asia;  and,  as  the  aspect  of 
the  country  corresponded  with  the  description 
in  the  romance,  they  named  the  peninsula  Cali¬ 
fornia.  In  the  Gulf  of  California  were  found 
pearls ;  so  the  description  of  the  country  of  the 
black  Amazons — a  country  filled  with  gold  and 
pearls — suited  the  actual  condition  of  the  re¬ 
gion  explored. 

California,  State  of,  was  discovered  as  early 
as  1534  by  a  Spanish  explorer  (see  Cortez),  but 
settlements  in  Old  or  Lower  California  were  first 
made  in  1683  by  Jesuit  missionaries.  New  or 
Upper  California  was  discovered  later,  and  the 
first  mission  there  (San  Diego)  was  planted  in 
1768.  For  many  years  the  government  of  Cali¬ 
fornia,  temporal  and  spiritual,  was  under  the 
control  of  monks  of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis. 
It  was  not  until  about  1770  that  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco  was  discovered  (unless  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  which  see),  aud  in  1776  a  mission  was 
established  there.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
century  eighteen  missions  had  been  establish¬ 
ed  in  California,  with  over  fifteen  thousand 
converts.  The  Spanish  power  in  California 
was  overthrown  by  the  Mexican  revolution  in 
1822,  when  the  government  was  permanently 
secularized.  In  1843-46  many  thousand  emi¬ 
grants  from  the  United  States  settled  in  Califor¬ 
nia;  aud  when  the  war  with  Mexico  broke  out 
in  1846,  the  struggle  for  the  mastery  in  that  Pa¬ 
cific-coast  province  speedily  ended  in  victory  for 
the  Americans  in  1847.  By  the  treaty  of  peace 
at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (which  see),  California 
and  other  territory  were  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  In  the  month  of  February,  1848,  gold 
was  discovered  in  California,  on  the  Sacramento 
River;  and  as  the  news  spread  abroad,  thou¬ 
sands  of  enterprising  and  energetic  men  fiocked 
thither  to  secure  the  precious  metal,  not  only 
from  the  United  States,  but  from  South  Amer¬ 
ica,  Europe,  and  China.  Very  soon  there  was  a 
mixed  population  of  all  sorts  of  characters  in 
California  of  at  least  250,000  persons.  The  mili¬ 
tary  governor  called  a  convention  to  meet  at 
Monterey,  Sept.  1,  1849,  to  frame  a  state  consti¬ 
tution.  One  was  formed  by  which  slavery  was 
to  be  excluded  from  the  proud  new  state;  and 
this  document  revived  in  Congress,  in  great 
intensity,  debates  on  the  subject  of  slavery 
in  1849-50.  A  compromise  was  effected  (see 
Omnibus  Bill)’,  and  on  Sept.  9,  1850,  California 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state.  So 
lawless  were  a  large  class  of  the  population, 
that  nothing  but  the  swift  operations  of  “  Vigi- 
I.— 13 


lance  Committees”  could  control  them  and  pre¬ 
serve  social  order.  The  first  vigilance  commit¬ 
tee  of  San  Francisco  was  organized  in  1851. 
Finally  these  committees  assumed  the  functions 
and  powers  of  judges  and  executives,  but  under 
proper  regulations,  which  guaranteed  all  ac¬ 
cused  persons  a  fair  trial.  Dangerous  men  of 
every  kind  were  arrested,  tried,  hanged,  trans¬ 
ported,  or  acquitted.  The  tribunal  became  a 
“terror  to  evil-doers.”  Late  in  1856  the  vigi¬ 
lance  committee  in  San  Francisco  surrendered 
its  powers  to  the  regularly  constituted  civil  au¬ 
thority.  California  did  not  furnish  any  troops 
during  the  Civil  War,  owing  to  its  isolated  po¬ 
sition,  there  being  then  no  railroad  communi¬ 
cation  between  the  two  oceans.  It  has  become 
one  of  the  most  prolific  agricultural  states  iu 
the  Union. 

Callender,  James  Thompson,  a  political  writ¬ 
er,  born  in  Scotland;  died  in  Richmond, Va.,  in 
July,  1803.  He  was  a  vigorous  but  coarse  writer, 
and  w  as  never  happier,  apparently,  than  when 
engaged  in  a  quarrel.  He  published  in  Edin¬ 
burgh,  in  1792,  a  book  called  Political  Progress 
of  Great  Britain,  which  so  offended  the  authori¬ 
ties  that  he  was  banished  from  the  kingdom, 
and  came  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  published 
the  Political  Begister  iu  1794-95,  and  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Annual  Register  for  1796-97.  He  was  a  violent 
aud  unscrupulous  opponent  of  Washington’s  ad¬ 
ministration,  aud  delighted  in  abusing  Hamilton 
aud  other  Federalist  leaders.  For  a  season  he 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Jefferson.  The  latter 
became  disgusted  with  Callender,  when  the  for¬ 
mer,  becoming  Jefferson’s  enemy,  calumniated 
him  fearfully.  He  published  a  paper  called  the 
Richmond  Recorder,  in  vdiicli  he  made  fierce  at¬ 
tacks  upou  the  character  of  Washington  and 
Adams.  Callender  was  a  common  scold,  aud 
was  very  mischievous  iu  the  use  of  his  pen 
and  printing  materials.  He  was  accidentally 
drowned  while  bathing  iu  the  James  River. 

Calvert  was  the  family  name  of  the  Lords 
Baltimore  —  George,  Cecilins,  Charles  I.,  Bene¬ 
dict  Leonard,  Charles  II.,  aud  Frederick.  (See 
Baltimore,  Lords.) 

Calvert,  Governor,  Reception  of,  in  Mary¬ 
land.  When  Leonard  Calvert  and  his  colony 
sailed  up  the  Potomac  as  far  as  Aquia  Creek, 
they  found  the  natives  friendly  towards  them. 
Going  still  farther,  to  Piscataway,  they  met  Cap¬ 
tain  Fleet,  an  Indian  trader  with  the  Indians, 
and  a  voyager  to  Jamestown  and  other  places  in 
the  way  of  traffic.  He  had  been  a  prisoner  for 
some  years  with  the  Anacostans  on  the  site  of 
Washington  city,  and  was  familiar  with  the  lan¬ 
guage  of  the  barbarians  in  the  neighborhood. 
Fleet  induced  the  chief  at  Piscataway  to  go  on 
board  Calvert’s  vessel.  He  was  pleased;  but 
wdien  Calvert  asked  him  whether  he  might  sit 
down  with  his  people  in  the  country,  the  king 
answered  cautiously,  “I  will  not  bid  you  go, 
neither  will  I  bid  you  stay;  but  you  may  use 
your  own  discretion.”  Under  the  guidance  of 
Fleet,  the  colonists  were  enabled  to  find  a  good 
place  for  settlement.  (See  Maryland,  Colony  of.) 

Calvert,  Leonard,  second  sou  of  the  first 


CALVERT 


194 


CAMPAIGN  OF  1758 


Lord  Baltimore,  and  first  governor  of  Maryland. 
Born  about  1606;  died  June  9,  1647.  He  sailed 
from  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  for  Chesapeake  Bay, 
Nov.  22,  1633,  as  governor  of  Maryland,  with 
two  vessels  ( Ark  and  Dove),  and  over  three  hun¬ 
dred  emigrants.  (See  Baltimore,  Lords.)  The 
Ark  was  a  ship  of  three  hundred  tons,  and  the 
Dove  a  pinnace  of  fifty  tons.  Among  the  com¬ 
pany  were  two  Jesuit  priests,  Andrew  White 
and  John  Altham.  At  religious  ceremonies  per¬ 
formed  at  the  time  of  departure,  the  expedition 
was  committed  “  to  the  protection  of  God  espe¬ 
cially,  and  of  his  most  Holy  Mother,  and  St.  Ig¬ 
natius,  and  all  the  guardian  angels  of  Mary¬ 
land.”  The  two  vessels  were  convoyed  beyond 
danger  from  Turkish  corsairs.  Separated  by  a 
furious  tempest  that  swept  the  sea  three  days, 
ending  with  a  hurricane  which  split  the  sails  of 
the  Ark,  unshipped  her  rudder,  and  left  her  at 
the  mercy  of  the  waves,  the  voyagers  were  in 
despair,  and  doubted  not  the  little  Dove  had 
gone  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  Delightful 
weather  ensued,  and  at  Barbadoes  the  Dove 
joined  the  Ark  after  a  separation  of  six  weeks. 
Sailing  northward,  they  touched  at  Point  Com¬ 
fort,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Chesapeake,  and  then 
went  up  to  Jamestown,  with  royal  letters  borne 
by  Calvert,  and  received  there  a  kind  reception 
from  Governor  Harvey.  They  tarried  nine  days, 
and  then  entered  the  Potomac  River,  which  de¬ 
lighted  them.  The  colonists  sailed  up  the  river 
to  the  Heron  Islands,  and,  at  a  little  past  the 
middle  of  March,  lauded  on  one  of  them,  which 
they  named  St.  Clement’s.  On  the  25th  they 
offered  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  set  up  a  huge 
cross  hewn  from  a  tree,  and  knelt  in  solemn  de¬ 
votion  around  it.  Going  farther  up,  they  en¬ 
tered  a  river  which  they  called  St.  George  ;  and 
on  the  right  bank  founded  the  capital  of  the 
new  province  with  military  and  religious  cere¬ 
monies,  and  called  it  St.  Mary’s.  That  scene  oc¬ 
curred  March  27, 1634.  It  remained  the  capital 
of  Maryland  until  near  the  close  of  the  century, 
when  it  speedily  became  a  ruined  town,  and  now 
scarcely  a  trace  of  it  remains.  They  found  the 
natives  friendly,  and  awed  into  reverence  for 
the  white  men  by  the  fiash  and  roar  of  cannons, 
which  they  regarded  as  lightning  and  thunder. 
The  successful  medical  services  of  Father  White 
in  curing  a  sick  Indian  king  gained  the  profound 
respect  of  these  children  of  the  forest.  He  and 
his  queen  and  three  daughters  were  baptized  by 
Father  White,  and  became  members  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church.  William  Clayborne,  an  earlier  set¬ 
tler  on  Kent  Island,  in  the  Chesapeake,  gave 
Calvert  much  trouble,  and  was  abetted  in  his 
course  by  the  Virginia  authorities,  who  regard¬ 
ed  the  Maryland  colonists  as  intruders.  (See 
Clayborne.)  He  was  driven  away,  and  his  prop¬ 
erty  was  confiscated.  But  he  was  a  “thorn  in 
the  side”  of  the  proprietor  for  a  long  time.  Gov¬ 
ernor  Calvert  tried  to  carry  out  the  grand  de¬ 
sign  of  the  proprietor  to  establish  a  feudal  no¬ 
bility  with  hereditary  titles  and  privileges,  the 
domain  for  the  purpose  being  divided  into  ma¬ 
norial  estates  of  two  thousand  and  three  thou¬ 
sand  acres  each,  but  the  provisions  of  the  char¬ 
ter  fortunately  prevented  such  a  consummation 


of  Lord  Baltimore’s  order.  Governor  Calvert 
went  to  England  in  1643,  and  during  his  absence 
for  nearly  a  year  much  trouble  had  ensued  in 
the  colony,  for  Clayborne,  with  Captain  Richard 
Ingle,  had  harassed  the  settlement  at  St.  Mary’s. 
Civil  war  ensued  (1645),  and  Governor  Calvert 
was  expelled  from  Maryland,  and  took  refuge  in 
Virginia.  (See  Maryland.)  Finally  Calvert  re¬ 
turned  from  Virginia  with  a  military  force,  took 
possession  of  Kent  Island,  and  re-established 
proprietary  rights  over  all  the  province  of  Mary¬ 
land. 

Cambridge  Platform.  The  second  Synod  of 
Massachusetts  met  at  Cambridge  in  1646,  and 
was  not  dissolved  until  1648.  The  synod  com¬ 
posed  and  adopted  a  system  of  church  discipline 
called  “  The  Cambridge  Platform,”  and  recom¬ 
mended  it,  together  with  the  Westminster  Con¬ 
fession  of  Faith,  to  the  general  court  and  to 
the  churches.  The  latter,  in  New  England,  gen¬ 
erally  complied  with  the  recommendation,  and 
“The  Cambridge  Platform,”  with  the  ecclesias¬ 
tical  laws,  formed  the  theological  constitution 
of  the  New  England  colonies. 

Camden.  (See  Sanders's  Creek.) 

Camp  Wild-cat.  The  invasion  of  Kentucky 
by  Zollicoffer  from  Tennessee  aroused  the  loyal¬ 
ists  of  eastern  Kentucky,  and  they  flew  to  arms. 
Some  of  them  were  organized  under  Colonel 
Garrard,  a  loyal  Kentuckian,  and  among  the 
Rock  Castle  hills  they  established  Camp  Wild¬ 
cat.  There  they  were  attacked  (Oct.  21,  1861) 
by  Zollicoffer.  When  he  appeared,  Garrard  had 
only  about  six  hundred  men,  but  was  joined  by 
some  Indiana  and  Ohio  troops,  and  some  Ken¬ 
tucky  cavalry  under  Colonel  Woolford.  With 
the  latter  came  General  Schoepf,  who  took  the 
chief  command.  Zollicoffer,  with  his  Tennes¬ 
seeans  and  some  Mississippi  “Tigers”  fell  upon 
i  them  in  the  morning,  and  were  twice  repulsed. 
The  last  was  in  the  afternoon.  After  a  sharp 
battle,  Zollicoffer  withdrew.  Garrard  had  been 
reinforced  in  the  afternoon  by  a  portion  of 
Colonel  Steadman’s  Ohio  regiment.  General 
Schoepf,  deceived  by  false  reports  of  a  force 
coming  from  Buckner’s  camp  at  Bowling  Green, 
fell  back  hastily  towards  the  Ohio,  making  forced 
marches.  (See  Invasion  of  Kentucky.) 

Campaign  of  1758.  (See  French  and  Indian 
War.)  William  Pitt  was  called  to  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  public  affairs  in  England  in  June,  1757. 
He  recalled  Lord  Loudoun  from  America,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  General  Abercrombie  to  succeed  him. 
A  strong  naval  armament  was  placed  under  the 
command  of  Admiral  Boscawen,  and  twelve  thou¬ 
sand  additional  English  troops  were  allotted  to 
the  service  in  America.  Pitt  addressed  a  letter 
to  the  several  colonies,  asking  them  to  raise  and 
clothe  twenty  thousand  men,  and  promised,  in 
the  name  of  Parliament,  to  furnish  arms,  tents, 
and  provisions  for  them ;  and  also  to  reimburse 
the  several  colonies  nearly  all  the  money  they 
should  expend  in  raising  and  clothing  the  lev¬ 
ies.  The  response  was  wonderful.  New  Eng¬ 
land  alone  raised  nearly  fifteen  thousand  men, 
and  an  excess  of  levies  soon  appeared ;  and 
when,  in  May,  1758,  Abercrombie  took  charge  of 


CAMPAIGNS  AGAINST  INDIANS 


195 


CAMPBELL 


the  troops  he  found  nearly  fifty  thousand  men 
at  his  disposal.  The  plan  of  the  campaign  con¬ 
templated  the  capture  of  Louisburg,  Ticonde- 
roga,  and  Fort  Duquesne. 

Campaigns  against  Indians  in  Indiana  and 
Illinois.  On  Oct.  14, 1812,  General  Samuel  flop- 
kins,  with  two  thousand  mounted  Kentucky 
riflemen,  crossed  the  Wabash  on  an  expedition 
against  the  Kickapoo  and  Peoria  Indian  vil¬ 
lages,  in  the  Illinois  country,  the  former  eighty 
miles  from  his  starting-place,  the  latter  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  twenty  miles.  They  traversed  mag¬ 
nificent  prairies  covered  with  tall  grass.  The 
army  was  a  free-and-easy,  undisciplined  mob, 
that  chafed  under  restraint.  Discontent,  seen 
at  the  beginning,  soon  assumed  the  forms  of 
complaint  and  murmuring.  Finally,  when  halt¬ 
ing  on  the  fourth  day’s  march,  a  major  rode  up 
to  the  general  and  insolently  ordered  him  to 
march  the  troops  back  to  Fort  Harrison.  Very 
soon  afterwards  the  army  was  scarcely  saved 
from  perishing  in  the  burning  grass  of  a  prairie, 
supposed  to  have  been  set  on  fire  by  the  Indians. 
The  troops  would  march  no  farther.  Hopkins 
called  for  five  hundred  volunteers  to  follow  him 
into  Illinois.  Not  one  responded.  They  would 
not  submit  to  his  leadership,  and  he  followed 
his  army  back  to  Fort  Harrison,  where  they  ar¬ 
rived  Oct.  25.  This  march  of  eighty  or  ninety 
miles  into  the  Indian  country  had  greatly  alarm¬ 
ed  the  barbarians,  and  so  did  some  good.  Tow¬ 
ards  the  same  region  aimed  at  by  General  Hop¬ 
kins  another  expedition,  under  Colonel  Russell, 
composed  of  two  small  companies  of  United 
States  regulars,  with  a  small  body  of  mounted 
militia  under  Governor  Ninian  Edwai’ds  (who 
assumed  the  chief  command),  in  all  four  hun¬ 
dred  men,  penetrated  deeply  into  the  Indian 
country,  but,  hearing  nothing  of  Hopkins,  did 
not  venture  to  attempt  much.  They  fell  sud¬ 
denly  upon  the  principal  Kickapoo  towns,  twen¬ 
ty  miles  from  Lake  Peoria,  drove  the  Indians 
into  a  swamp,  through  which  they  pursued  them, 
sometimes  waist-deep  in  mud,  and  made  them 
fly  in  terror  across  the  Illiuois  River.  Some  of 
the  pursuers  passed  over,  and  brought  back  ca¬ 
noes  with  dead  Indians  in  them.  Probably  fifty 
had  perished.  The  expedition  returned,  after 
an  absence  of  eighteen  days,  with  eighty  horses 
and  the  dried  scalps  of  several  persons  who  had 
been  killed  by  the  savages,  as  trophies.  General 
Hopkius  discharged  the  mutineers  and  organ¬ 
ized  another  expedition  of  twelve  hundred  and 
fifty  men,  composed  chiefly  of  foot -soldiers. 
Its  object  was  the  destruction  of  Propliets- 
town.  The  troops  were  composed  of  Kentucky 
militia,  some  regulars  under  Captain  Zachary 
Taylor,  a  company  of  Rangers,  and  a  company 
of  scouts  and  spies.  They  rendezvoused  at  Vin¬ 
cennes,  and  marched  up  the  Wabash  Valley  to 
Fort  Harrison  Nov.  5, 1812.  They  did  not  reach 
the  vicinity  of  Prophetstown  until  the  19tli. 
Then  a  detachment  fell  upon  and  burned  a 
Winnebago  town  of  forty  houses,  four  miles 
below  Prophetstown.  The  latter  and  a  large 
Kickapoo  village  near  it  were  also  laid  in  ashes. 
The  village  contained  one  hundred  and  sixty 
huts,  with  all  the  winter  provisions  of  corn 


and  beans,  which  were  totally  destroyed.  On 
the  21st  a  part  of  the  expedition  fell  into  an 
Indian  ambush  and  lost  eighteen  men,  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing.  So  destitute  were  the 
troops,  especially  the  Kentuckians,  who  were 
clad  in  only  the  remnants  of  their  summer 
clothing,  that  the  expedition  returned  with¬ 
out  attempting  anything  more.  They  suf¬ 
fered  dreadfully  on  their  return  march.  (See 
Harmar's  Expedition,  1790,  and  Wayne’s  Indian 
Wars.) 

Campaigns  of  1864.  General  Grant  was 
created  lieutenant-general  March  2, 1864,  under 
an  act  of  Congress  passed  the  day  before.  He 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  armies 
of  the  United  States,  and  assumed  the  duties 
March  17th.  He  made  arrangements  for  the 
campaigns  of  that  year,  which  contemplated 
two  grand  objects  —  the  seizure  of  Richmond 
and  Atlanta,  the  former  the  seat  of  the  Con¬ 
federate  government,  and  the  latter  the  focus 
of  several  converging  railways.  The  National 
forces  then  in  the  field  numbered  about  800,000; 
those  of  the  Confederates,  about  400,000.  Both 
parties  were  disposed  to  make  the  campaign 
about  to  be  opened  a  decisive  one  if  possible. 
To  General  George  G.  Meade,  as  commander  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  was  assigned  the  task 
of  conquering  Lee  and  taking  Richmond,  and  to 
General  W.  T.  Sherman  was  assigned  the  task  of 
conquering  Johnston  and  taking  Atlanta.  Grant 
made  his  headquarters  thenceforward  with  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  gave  to  Meade  the 
help  of  his  counsel  and  the  prestige  of  his  name ; 
while  Sherman,  who  was  appointed  Grant’s  suc¬ 
cessor  in  command  of  the  Military  Division  of 
the  Tennessee,  with  General  McPherson  as  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Department  and  Army  of  the 
Tennessee,  was  left  to  his  own  resources,  under 
general  but  explicit  orders  from  the  lieutenant- 
general. 

Campbell,  Lord  William,  Flight  of.  While 
the  Provincial  Congress  of  South  Carolina  was 
in  session,  Lord  William  Campbell,  who  had  ac¬ 
quired  large  possessions  in  South  Carolina  by 
marriage,  arrived  at  Charleston  (July,  1775)  as 
governor  of  the  province.  He  was  received 
with  courtesy;  and  he  soon  summoned  a  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  Assembly.  They  came  ;  declined  to 
do  business ;  and  adjourned  on  their  own  au¬ 
thority.  The  Committee  of  Safety  proceeded  in 
their  preparations  for  resistance  without  regard 
to  the  presence  of  the  governor.  Lord  Camp¬ 
bell  professed  great  love  for  the  people.  His 
sincerity  was  suspected,  and  the  hollowness  of 
his  professions  was  soon  proved.  Early  in  Sep¬ 
tember  Colonel  Moultrie,  by  order  of  the  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Safety,  proceeded  to  take  possession 
of  a  small  post  on  Sullivan’s  Island,  in  Charles¬ 
ton  Harbor.  The  small  garrison  fled  to  the 
British  sloops-of-war  Tamar  and  Cherokee ,  lying 
near.  Lord  Campbell,  seeing  the  storm  of  pop¬ 
ular  indignation  against  him  daily  increasing, 
particularly  after  it  was  discovered  that  he  had 
attempted  to  incite  the  Indians  to  make  war  for 
the  king,  and  had  tampered  with  the  Tories  of 
the  interior  of  the  province,  also  fled  to  one  of 


CAMPBELL 


196  CANADA,  ATTEMPTED  CONQUEST  OF 


these  vessels  for  shelter,  and  never  returned. 
So  ended  royal  authority  in  South  Carolina. 

Campbell,  Lord  William,  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  (1774-75),  and  brother  of  the  Duke  of 
Argyle,  died  Sept.  5, 1778.  He  became  a  captain 
in  the  British  navy  in  August,  1762;  was  in  Par¬ 
liament  in  1764;  and  governor  of  Nova  Scotia 
1766-73.  He  began  his  administration  in  South 
Carolina  in  1775  by  promoting  insurrectionary 
movements  favorable  to  the  crown  among  the 
border  population  and  the  Indians.  When  de¬ 
tected  in  this  practice,  the  indignation  of  the 
people  alarmed  him,  and  he  fled  on  board  a 
British  vessel  in  Charleston  Harbor.  In  the 
contest  of  the  British  fleet  with  Fort  Moultrie, 
in  June,  1776,  he  was  badly  hurt,  and  died  from 
the  effects  of  his  wounds  two  years  afterwards. 
In  May,  1763,  Lord  Campbell  married  Sarah,  sis¬ 
ter  of  Ralph  Izard,  a  revolutionary  patriot.  She 
joined  her  husband  on  the  frigate  to  which  he 
had  fled. 

Campbell,  William,  horn  in  Augusta  County, 
Va.,  iu  1745;  died  September,  1781.  He  was  in 
the  battle  of  Point  Pleasant  (which  see)  in  1774, 
and  was  captain  of  a  Virginia  regiment  in  1775. 
Being  cokmel  of  Washiugton  County  militia  in 
1780,  he  marched,  with  his  regiment,  two  hun¬ 
dred  miles  to  the  attack  of  Major  Ferguson  at 
King’s  Mountain  (which  see),  where  his  services 
gained  for  him  great  distinction.  So,  also,  were 
his  prowess  and  skill  conspicuous  at  Guilford 
Court-house  (which  see),  and  he  was  made  a 
brigadier.  He  assisted  Lafayette  in  opposing 
Cornwallis  in  Virginia,  and  received  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  light  infantry  and  riflemen,  but 
died  a  few  weeks  before  the  surrender  of  the 
British  at  Yorktown. 

Canada,  the  northern  neighbor  of  the  United 
States,  was  discovered  by  Jacques  Cartier  (which 
see),  on  the  borders  of  the  St.  La  wrence  River, 
in  1534.  Its  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  de¬ 
rived  from  the  Huron  word  Kan-va-ta,  signify¬ 
ing  a  collection  of  cabius,  such  as  Hochelaga 
(which  see).  No  settlements  were  made  there 
until  the  explorations  of  Champlain  about  three 
fourths  of  a  century  later.  ( See  Cartier  and 
Champlain.')  He  established  a  semi  -  military 
and  semi-religious  colony  at  Quebec,  and  from 
it  Jesuit  and  other  missions  spread  over  the 
Lake  regions.  Then  came  the  civil  power  of 
France  to  lay  the  foundations  of  au  empire, 
lighting  one  nation  of  Indians  and  making  al¬ 
lies  of  another,  and  establishing  a  feudal  system 
of  government,  the  great  land -holders  being 
called  seigneurs,  who  were  compelled  to  cede  the 
lands  granted  to  them,  when  demanded  by  set¬ 
tlers,  on  fixed  conditions.  They  were  not  abso¬ 
lute  proprietors  of  the  soil,  but  had  certain  val¬ 
uable  privileges,  coupled  with  prescribed  duties, 
such  as  building  mills,  etc.  In  1629  Quebec  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English,  but  was  restored 
in  1632.  In  the  early  history  of  the  colony  the 
governors,  in  connection  with  the  Iutendant, 
held  the  military  and  civil  administration  in 
their  hands.  Jesuit  and  other  priests  became 
conspicuous  in  the  public  service.  Finally, 
when  a  bishop  was  appointed  for  Quebec,  vio¬ 


lent  dissensions  occurred  between  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  Until  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713),  Canada  included  all  of  present 
British  America,  and  more.  At  that  time  Hud¬ 
son’s  Bay  and  vicinity  was  restored  to  England 
by  L^juis  XIV.  Newfoundland  and  Acadia  (Nova 
Scotia)  were  ceded  to  the  English,  and  all  right 
to  the  Iroquois  country  (New  York)  was  re¬ 
nounced,  reserving  to  France  only  the  valleys 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi.  In 
1760  Canada  was  conquered  by  the  English,  and 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (which  see),  in  1763,  a 
greater  portion  of  the  Freuch  dominions  iu 
America  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  British 
crown.  By  an  act  of  the  imperial  Parliament, 
in  1791,  Canada  was  divided  into  two  provinces, 
Upper  Canada  and  Lower  Canada,  and  each  had 
a  parliament  or  legislature  of  its  own.  An  im¬ 
perial  act  was  passed  in  1840  to  unite  the  two 
provinces  under  one  administration  and  one 
legislature.  Antecedent  political  struggles  had 
taken  place,  which  culminated  in  open  insur¬ 
rection  in  1837-38.  (See  Canadian  Rebellion.) 
In  1841  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  were  united 
for  purposes  of  government,  the  system  profess¬ 
edly  modified  after  that  of  Great  Britain.  In 
1857  Ottawa  was  selected  as  the  permanent  seat 
of  government  for  Canada,  and  costly  public 
buildings  were  erected  there.  By  act  of  the 
imperial  Parliament,  which  received  the  royal 
assent  March  28,  1867,  the  provinces  of  Upper 
aud  Lower  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova 
Scotia  were  connected  and  made  one  nation, 
under  the  general  title  of  “The  Dominion.” 
Upper  Canada  was  named  “  Ontario,”  and  Low¬ 
er  Canada  “Quebec.”  Provision  was  made  for 
the  future  admission  of  Prince  Edward’s  Island, 
the  Hudson’s  Bay  Territory,  British  Columbia, 
and  Newfoundland,  with  its  dependency,  Lab¬ 
rador.  In  the  new  government  the  executive 
authority  is  vested  in  the  Queen,  and  her  rep¬ 
resentative  iu  the  Dominion  is  the  acting 
governor  -  general,  who  is  advised  and  aided 
by  a  privy  council  of  fourteen  members,  con¬ 
stituting  the  ministry,  who  must  be  sustain¬ 
ed  by  a  parliamentary  majority.  There  is  a 
parliament  composed  of  two  chambers,  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Commons.  In  1878  the 
Marquis  of  Lome,  son-in-law  of  Queen  Victoria, 
became  governor-general  of  Canada.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Lord  Landsdowne  in  the  year 
1886. 

Canada,  Attempted  Conquest  of,  in  1812. 
The  first  important  military  movement  after 
the  declaration  of  war  was  an  attempt  to  con¬ 
quer  Canada  by  an  invasion  of  its  western  bor¬ 
der  on  the  Detroit  River.  It  then  consisted  of 
two  provinces — Lower  Canada,  with  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  300,000,  mostly  of  French  origin,  and 
Upper  Canada,  with  a  population  of  100,000, 
composed  largely  of  American  loyalists  and 
their  descendants.  The  regular  military  force 
in  both  provinces  did  not  exceed  2000  men, 
scattered  over  a  space  of  1200  miles  from 
Quebec  to  the  foot  of  Lake  Superior.  Sir 
George  Prevost  was  then  governor  -  general, 
with  his  residence  at  Montreal.  To  enter  the 
province  from  the  States,  a  water-barrier  had 


CANADA,  ATTEMPTED  CONQUEST  OF  197  CANADA,  ATTITUDE  OF 


to  be  crossed,  while  tlie  American  frontier  was 
destitute  of  roads,  infected  with  summer  fe¬ 
vers,  and  sparsely  settled.  William  Hull,  a 
soldier  of  the  Revolution,  theu  governor  of 
Michigan  Territory,  was  consulted  about  an 
invasion  of  Canada,  while  on  a  visit  at  Wash¬ 
ington.  He  insisted  that  before  such  an  en¬ 
terprise  should  be  undertaken  a  naval  control 
of  Lake  Erie  should  be  acquired,  and  not  less 
than  3000  troops  should  be  provided  for  the 
invasion.  He  accepted  the  commission  of 
brigadier -general  with  the  special  object  in 
view  of  protecting  his  territory  from  the  In¬ 
dian  allies  of  the  British,  yet,  by  orders  of 
the  government,  he  prepared  to  invade  Cana¬ 
da.  Governor  Meigs,  of  Ohio,  called  for  troops 
to  assemble  at  Dayton,  and  volunteers  flocked 
thither  in  considerable  numbers.  There  Gen¬ 
eral  Hull  took  command  of  them  (May  25, 
1812),  and  they  started  off  in  good  spirits  for 
their  march  through  the  wilderness.  It  was 
a  perilous  and  most  fatiguing  journey.  On 
the  broad  morasses  of  the  summit  lauds  of 
Ohio,  Hull  received  a  despatch  from  the  War 
Department  urging  him  to  press  on  speedily 
to  Detroit,  and  there  await  further  orders. 
When  he  reached  the  navigable  waters  of  the 
Maumee,  his  beasts  of  burden  were  so  worn 
down  by  fatigue  that  he  despatched  for  De¬ 
troit,  in  a  sehoqner,  his  own  baggage  and  that 
of  most  of  his  officers ;  also  all  of  his  hospital 
stores,  intrenching  tools,  and  a  trunk  contain¬ 
ing  his  most  valuable  military  papers.  The 
wives  of  three  of  his  officers,  with  thirty  sol¬ 
diers  to  protect  the  schooner,  also  embarked 
in  her.  In  a  smaller  vessel  the  invalids  of  the 
army  were  conveyed.  Both  vessels  arrived  at 
the  site  of  Toledo  on  the  evening  of  July  1.  The 
next  day,  when  near  Frenclitown  (  now  Mon- 


nous  spirit,  when  he  received  orders  to  “  com¬ 
mence  operations  immediately,”  and,  if  possi¬ 
ble,  take  possession  of  Fort  Malden  ( which 
see).  At  dawn  on  the  morning  of  July  12,  the 
greater  part  of  his  troops  had  crossed  the  De¬ 
troit  River,  and  were  on  Canadian  soil.  Hull 
issued  a  proclamation  to  the  Canadians,  assur¬ 
ing  them  of  protection  in  case  they  remained 
quiet.  Many  of  the  Canadian  militia  deserted 
the  British  standard.  Hull  advanced  towards 
Malden  (July  13).  After  a  successful  encoun¬ 
ter  with  British  and  Indians  ( see  Ta-ron-tee, 
Skirmish  at),  Hull  fell  back  to  Sandwich,  with¬ 
out  attacking  Malden.  His  troops  were  dis¬ 
appointed  and  mutinous.  Then  information 
came  of  the  capture  of  Mackinaw  by  the  Brit¬ 
ish.  (See  Fall  of  Mackinaw.)  News  also  came 
that  General  Proctor,  of  the  British  army,  had 
arrived  at  Malden  with  reinforcements.  This 
was  followed  by  an  intercepted  despatch  from 
the  northwest  announcing  that  twelve  hun¬ 
dred  white  men  and  several  hundred  Indians 
were  coming  down  to  assist  in  the  defence  of 
Canada.  General  Brock  was  approaching  from 
the  east,  with  a  force  gathered  on  his  way. 
(See  Van  Horne's  Defeat,  and  Maguagua,  Battle 
at.)  These  events,  and  other  causes,  impelled 
Hull  to  recross  the  river  to  Detroit  with  his 
army,  and  take  shelter  in  the  fort  there  (Aug. 
8,  1812).  The  British  congregated  in  force  at. 
Sandwich,  and  from  that  point  opened  a  can¬ 
nonade  upon  the  fort  at  Detroit.  On  Sunday 
morning,  the  16th,  the  British  crossed  the  riv¬ 
er  to  a  point  below  Detroit,  and  moved  upon 
the  fort.  Very  little  effort  was  made  to  de¬ 
fend  it,  and,  on  that  day,  Hull  surrendered  the 
fort,  army,  and  Territory  of  Michigan  into  the 
hands  of  the  British.  (See  Detroit,  Surrender 

of) 


BARRACKS  AT  SANDWICH. 


roe),  Hull  received  a  note  from  the  postmaster 
at  Cleveland  announcing  the  declaration  of  war. 
It  was  the  flrst  intimation  he  had  received  of 
that  important  evenc.  In  fact,  the  British  at 
Fort  Malden  (now  Amherstburg)  heard  of  the 
declaration  before  Hull  did,  and  captured  his 
schooner,  with  all  its  precious  freight.  The 
commander  at  Malden  had  been  informed  of  it, 
by  express,  as  early  as  June  30 — two  days  be¬ 
fore  it  reached  Hull.  The  latter  pressed  for¬ 
ward,  and  encamped  near  Detroit  on  July  5. 
The  British  were  then  casting  up  intrench- 
ments  at  Sandwich  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Detroit  River.  There  Hull  awaited  further  or¬ 
ders  from  his  government.  His  troops,  impa¬ 
tient  to  invade  Canada,  had  evinced  a  muti- 


Canada,  Attitude  of  (1775).  When  news  of 
the  surrender  of  Ticonderoga  (which  see)  reach¬ 
ed  Governor  Carleton,  of  Canada,  he  issued  a, 
proclamation  (June  9, 1775)  in  which  he  declared 
the  captors  to  be  a  band  of  rebellious  traitors ; 
established  martial  law  ;  summoned  the  French 
peasantry  to  serve  under  the  old  colonial  no¬ 
bility  ;  and  instigated  the  Indian  tribes  to  take 
up  the  hatchet  against  the  people  of  New  York 
and  New  England.  This  proclamation  neutral¬ 
ized  the  effects  of  the  address  of  Congress  to 
the  Canadians.  The  Quebec  Act  (which  see) 
had  soothed  the  French  nobility  and  Roman 
Catholic  clergy.  The  English  residents  were 
offended  by  it,  and  these,  with  the  Canadian 
peasantry,  were  disposed  to  take  sides  with 


CANADA.  COMMISSIONERS  TO  193  CANADA,  PLAN  FOR  EMANCIPATION  OF 


the  Americans.  They  denied  the  right  of  the 
French  nobility,  as  magistrates,  or  the  seign¬ 
iors,  to  command  their  military  services.  They 
welcomed  invasion,  but  had  not  the  courage 
to  join  the  invaders.  At  the  same  time,  the 
French  peasantry  did  not  obey  the  order  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  bishop,  which  was  sent  to  the 
several  parishes,  and  read  by  the  local  clergy, 
to  come  out  in  defence  of  the  British  govern¬ 
ment.  It  was  known  that  the  bishop  was  a 
stipendiary  of  the  crown. 

Canada,  Commissioners  to.  (See  Commis¬ 
sioners  to  Canada .) 

Canada,  Conquest  of  (1629).  David  Kertk 
(the  English  write  it  Kirk),  a  Huguenot  refu¬ 
gee,  received  a  royal  commission  from  King 
Charles  I.  to  seize  the  French  forts  in  Acadia 
(which  see)  and  on  the  river  St.  Lawrence. 
With  a  dozen  ships  he  overcame  the  small 
French  force  at  Port  Royal,  and  took  posses¬ 
sion  of  Acadia  in  1629.  Later  in  the  summer, 
he  entered  the  St.  Lawrence,  burned  the  ham¬ 
let  of  Tadousac,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saguenay, 
and  sent  a  summons  for  the  surrender  of  Que¬ 
bec.  It  was  refused,  and  Kirk  resolved  to 
starve  out  the  garrison.  He  cruised  in  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and  captured  the  transports 
conveying  winter  provisions  for  Quebec.  The 
sufferings  there  were  intense,  but  they  endured 
them  until  August  the  next  year,  when,  Eng¬ 
lish  ships-of-war,  under  a  brother  of  Admiral 
Kirk,  appearing  before  Quebec,  instead  of  the 
expected  supply  ships,  the  place  was  surren¬ 
dered,  and  the  inhabitants,  not  more  than  one 
hundred  in  all,  were  saved  from  starvation.  By 
a  treaty,  Canada  was  restored  to  the  French  in 
1632. 

Canada,  Expedition  against  (1746).  The 
easy  conquest  of  Louisburg  revived  a  hope 
that  Canada  might  be  conquered.  Governor 
Sbirley  proposed  to  the  ministers  to  have  the 
task  performed  by  a  colonial  army  alone.  They 
would  not  comply,  for  the  colonists,  thus  per¬ 
ceiving  their  own  strength,  might  claim  Cana¬ 
da  by  right  of  conquest,  and  become  too  inde¬ 
pendent  ;  so  they  authorized  an  expedition  for 
the  purpose  after  the  old  plau  of  attacking 
that  province  by  land  and  sea.  An  English 
fleet  was  prepared  to  go  against  Quebec ;  a 
laud  force,  composed  of  troops  from  Connecti¬ 
cut,  New  York,  and  colonies  farther  south, 
gathered  at  Albany  to  march  against  Mon¬ 
treal.  Governor  Clinton  assumed  the  chief 
command  of  the  land  expedition.  His  unpop¬ 
ularity  thwarted  his  plans.  The  corporation 
of  Albany  refused  to  furnish  quarters  for  his 
troops,  and  his  drafts  on  the  British  treasury 
could  not  purchase  provisions.  Meanwhile, 
Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island  had  raised 
nearly  four  thousand  troops,  and  were  waiting 
for  an  English  squadron.  Instead  of  a  British 
armament,  a  French  fleet  of  forty  war  vessels, 
with  three  thousand  veteran  troops,  was  com¬ 
ing  over  the  sea.  New  England  was  greatly 
alarmed.  It  was  D’Anville’s  armament,  and  it 
was  dispersed  by  storms.  (See  Louisburg.)  Ten 
thousand  troops  gathered  at  Boston  for  its  de¬ 


fence  ;  the  fort  on  Castle  Island  was  made  very 
strong,  and  the  land  expedition  against  Mon¬ 
treal  was  abandoned.  Again  the  expenses  of 
Massachusetts  ($1,000,000)  in  making  these  prep¬ 
arations  were  reimbursed  by  Parliament. 

Canada,  Final  Conquest  of.  When  Que¬ 
bec  fell,  in  the  autumn  of  1759,  the  French  held 
Montreal,  and  were  not  dismayed.  In  the 
spring  of  1760,  Vaudreuil,  the  governor-gener¬ 
al  of  Canada,  sent  M.  Levi,  the  successor  of 
Montcalm,  to  recover  Quebec.  He  descended 
the  St.  Lawrence  with  six  frigates  and  a  pow¬ 
erful  land  force.  The  English,  under  General 
Murray,  marched  out  of  Quebec,  and  met  him 
at  Sillery,  three  miles  above  the  city;  and 
there  was  fought  (April  4)  one  of  the  most 
sanguinary  battles  of  the  war.  Murray  was 
defeated.  He  lost  about  one  thousand  men, 
and  all  his  artillery,  but  succeeded  in  retreat¬ 
ing  to  the  city  with  the  remainder  of  his  army. 
Levi  laid  siege  to  Quebec,  and  Murray’s  condi¬ 
tion  was  becoming  critical,  when  an  English 
squadron  appeared  ( May  9 )  with  reinforce¬ 
ments  and  provisions.  Supposing  it  to  be 
the  whole  British  fleet,  Levi  raised  the  siege 
(May  10),  and  fled  to  Montreal,  after  losing 
most  of  his  shipping.  Now  came  the  final 
struggle.  Three  armies  were  soon  in  motion 
towards  Montreal,  where  Vaudreuil  had  gath¬ 
ered  all  his  forces.  Amherst,  with  10,000  Eng¬ 
lish  and  provincial  troops,  and  1000  Indians  of 
the  Six  Nations,  led  by  Johnson,  embarked  at 
Oswego,  went  down  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  Montreal,  where  he  met  Murray 
(Sept.  6),  who  had  come  up  from  Quebec  with 
4000  men.  The  next  day,  Colonel  Havilaud  ar¬ 
rived  with  3000  troops  from  Crown  Point,  hav¬ 
ing  taken  possession  of  Isle  aux  Noix  on  the 
way.  Resistance  to  such  a  crushing  force 
would  have  been  in  vain,  and,  on  Sept.  8,  1760, 
Vaudreuil  signed  a  capitulation  surrendering 
Montreal  and  all  French  posts  in  Canada  and 
on  the  border  of  the  lakes  to  the  English. 
General  Gage  was  made  military  governor  of 
Montreal,  and  General  Murray,  with  4000  men, 
garrisoned  Quebec.  The  conquest  of  Canada 
was  now  completed. 

Canada,  Grand  Plan  for  its  Emancipa¬ 
tion.  A  grand  campaign  for  liberating  Cana¬ 
da  from  British  rule  was  conceived  late  in 
1778.  From  Boston,  D’Estaing,  in  the  name  of 
Louis  XVI.,  had  summoned  the  Canadians  to 
throw  off1  British  rule.  Lafayette  exhorted  (De¬ 
cember)  the  barbarians  of  Cauada  to  look  upon 
the  English  as  their  enemies.  The  Congress 
became  inflamed  with  zeal  for  the  projected 
measure,  formed  a  plan,  without  consulting  a 
single  military  officer,  for  the  “Emancipation 
of  Canada,”  in  co-operation  with  an  army  from 
France.  One  American  detachment  from  Pitts¬ 
burgh  was  to  capture  Detroit ;  another  from 
Wyoming  was  to  seize  Niagara;  a  third  from 
the  Mohawk  Valley  was  to  capture  Oswego  ;  a 
fourth  from  Now  England  was  to  enter  Mon¬ 
treal  by  way  of  the  St.  Francis  ;  a  fifth  to  guard, 
the  approaches  from  Quebec;  while  to  France 
was  assigned  the  task  of  reducing  Halifax  and 


CANADA,  INVASION  OF  199  CANADA,  INVASION  OF 


Quebec.  Lafayette  offered  to  use  his  influence 
at  the  French  court  in  furtherance  of  this  grand 
scheme ;  but  the  cooler  judgment  and  strong 
common-sense  of  Washington  interposed  the  ob¬ 
jection  that  the  part  which  the  United  States 
had  to  perform  in  the  scheme  was  far  beyond 
its  resources.  It  was  abandoned,  as  was  an¬ 
other  scheme  for  a  like  result,  early  in  the 
year.  ( See  Canada,  Scheme  for  a  Winter  Expedi¬ 
tion  against.) 

Canada,  Invasion  of  (1775).  There  was  a 
decided  war  spirit  visible  in  the  second  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress,  yet  it  was  cautious  and  pru¬ 
dent.  Immediately  after  the  seizure  of  Ticon- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point  (May  10-12, 1775),  the 
Congress  was  urged  to  authorize  the  invasion 
and  seizure  of  Canada.  That  body  hoped  to 
gain  a  greater  victory  by  making  the  Cana¬ 
dians  their  friends  and  allies.  To  this  end 
they  sent  a  loving  address  to  them,  and  re¬ 
solved,  on  the  1st  of  June,  “that  no  expedi¬ 
tion  or  incursion  ought  to  be  undertaken  or 
made  by  any  colony  or  body  of  colonists 
against  or  into  Canada.”  The  Provincial  Con- 


tioned  at  Harlem,  wras  ordered  to  Albany. 
The  New-Yorkers  were  joined  by  “Green  Moun¬ 
tain  Boys.”  Schuyler  sent  into  Canada  an  ad¬ 
dress  to  the  inhabitants,  in  the  French  lan¬ 
guage,  informing  them  that  “the  only  views 
of  Congress  were  to  restore  to  them  those 
rights  which  every  subject  of  the  British  em¬ 
pire,  of  whatever  religious  sentiments  he  may 
be,  is  entitled  to aud  that,  in  the  execution  of 
these  trusts,  he  had  received  the  most  positive 
orders  to  “cherish  uvery  Canadian,  and  every 
friend  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  sacredly  to 
guard  their  property.”  It  was  now  too  late. 
Had  the  Congress  listened  to  Allen  aud  Ar¬ 
nold  at  the  middle  of  May,  and  moved  upon 
Canada,  its  conquest  would  have  been  easy, 
for  there  were  very  few  troops  there.  When, 
near  the  close  of  August,  an  expedition  against 
Canada,  under  Schuyler,  was  ready  to  move, 
preparations  had  been  made  to  thwart  it. 
The  clergy  and  seigniors  of  Canada,  satisfied 
with  the  Quebec  Act  (which  see),  were  dis¬ 
posed  to  stand  by  the  British  government.  The 
invading  army  first  occupied  Isle  aux  Noix,  on 


ISLE  AUX  NOIX,  IN  THE  SOREL. 


gress  of  New  York  had 
expressly  disclaimed 
any  intention  to  make 
war  on  Canada.  But 
Gage’s  proclamation  (June  10)  that  all  Ameri¬ 
cans  in  arms  were  rebels  and  traitors,  and  es¬ 
pecially  the  battle  on  Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill, 
made  a  radical  change  in  the  feelings  of  the 
people  and  in  Congress.  It  was  also  ascer¬ 
tained  that  Guy  Carleton,  governor  of  Canada, 
had  received  a  commission  to  muster  and  arm 
the  people  of  the  province,  and  to  march  them 
into  any  province  in  America  to  arrest  and  put 
to  death,  or  spare,  “rebels”  and  other  offend¬ 
ers.  Here  was  a  menace  that  could  not  go  un¬ 
heeded.  Colonels  Ethan  Allen,  Benedict  Ar¬ 
nold,  aud  others  renewed  their  efforts  to  in¬ 
duce  the  Congress  to  send  an  expedition  into 
Canada.  The  latter  perceived  the  importance 
of  securing  Canada  either  by  alliance  or  by 
conquest.  At  length  the  Congress  prepared  for 
an  invasion  of  Canada.  Major-general  Philip 
Schuyler  had  been  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Northern  Department,  which  included 
the  whole  province  of  New  York.  General 
Richard  Montgomery  was  his  chief  lieutenant. 
The  regiments  raised  by  the  province  of  New 
York  were  put  in  motion,  and  General  Woos¬ 
ter,  with  Connecticut  troops,  who  were  sta¬ 


the  Sorel  River;  but  the  expedition  made  lit¬ 
tle  advance  beyond  until  November.  Colonel 
Allen  had  attempted  to  take  Montreal,  with¬ 
out  orders,  and  was  made  a  prisoner  and  sent 
to  England.  A  detachment  of  Schuyler’s  army 
captured  Fort  Chambly,  twelve  miles  from  St. 
Johns,  on  the  Sorel  (Nov.  3),  and,  on  the  same 
day,  the  fort  at  the  latter,  which  Montgomery 
had  besieged  for  some  time,  cut  off  from  sup¬ 
plies,  also  surrendered.  Montreal  fell  before 
the  patriots  on  the  13th,  and  Montgomery, 
leaving  a  garrison  at  both  places,  prepared  to 
move  on  Quebec.  Meanwhile  Colonel  Arnold 
had  led  an  expedition  by  way  of  the  Kennebec 
and  Chaudibre  rivers,  through  a  terrible  wil¬ 
derness,  to  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  (Nov. 
9)  opposite  Quebec.  He  crossed  the  river,  as¬ 
cended  to  the  Plains  of  Abraham  (Nov.  13), 
and,  at  the  head  of  only  seven  hundred  and 
fifty  half-naked  men — with  not  more  than  four 
hundred  muskets — demanded  the  surrender  of 
the  city.  Intelligence  of  an  intended  sortie 
caused  Arnold  to  move  twenty  miles  farther 
up  the  river,  where  he  was  soon  joined  by 
Montgomery.  The  combined  forces  returned 
to  Quebec,  and  began  a  siege.  At  the  close 
of  flie  year  (1775),  in  an  attempt  to  take  the 
city  by  storm,  the  invaders  were  repulsed,  and 
Montgomery  was  killed.  Arnold  took  the  com- 


CANADA.  INVASION  OF  200  CANADIAN  REBELLION 


maud,  and  was  relieved  by  General  Wooster,  in 
April  (1776).  A  month  later,  General  Thomas 
took  the  command,  and,  hearing  of  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  a  large  armament,  land  and  naval, 
to  Quebec,  he  retreated  up  the  river.  Driven 
from  one  post  to  another,  the  Americans  were 
finally  expelled  from  Canada,  the  wretched 
remnant  of  the  army,  reduced  by  disease,  ar¬ 
riving  at  Crown  Point  in  June,  1776. 

Canada,  Invasion  of  (1814).  At  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  third  year  of  the  second  war  for  in¬ 
dependence,  a  favorite  project  with  the  United 
States  government  was  the  conquest  of  Canada. 
The  principal  military  forces  in  Upper  Canada 
were  under  Lieutenant-general  Drummond. 
When  the  Army  of  the  North,  commanded  by 
Major-general  Brown,  reached  the  Niagara  fron¬ 
tier,  Drummond’s  headquarters  were  at  Bur¬ 
lington  Heights,  at  the  western  end  of  Lake 
Ontario.  General  Riall  was  on  the  Niagara 
River,  at  Fort  George  and  Queenstown ;  but 
when  he  heard  of  the  arrival  of  the  Americans 
at  Buffalo,  under  General  Scott,  he  advanced  to 
Chippewa  and  established  a  fortified  camp.  At 
the  close  of  June,  General  Brown  arrived  at 
Buffalo,  and  assumed  chief  command,  and,  be¬ 
lieving  his  army  to  be  strong  enough,  he  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  invade  Canada.  His  army  consisted 
of  two  brigades,  commanded  respectively  by 
Generals  Scott  and  Ripley,  to  each  of  which 
was  attached  a  train  of  artillery,  commanded 
by  Captain  N.  Tovvson  and  Major  J.  Hindman. 
He  had  also  a  small  corps  of  cavalry,  under 
Captain  S.  D.  Harris.  These  regulars  were  well 
disciplined  and  in  high  spirits.  There  were  also 
volunteers  from  Pennsylvania  and  New  York, 
one  hundred  of  them  mounted,  and  nearly  six 
hundred  Seneca  Indians — almost  the  entire  mil¬ 
itary  force  of  the  Six  Nations  remaining  in  the 
United  States.  These  had  been  stirred  to  ac¬ 
tion  by  the  venerable  Red  Jacket,  the  great  Sen¬ 
eca  orator.  The  volunteers  and  Indians  were 
under  the  chief  command  of  General  Peter  B. 
Porter,  then  quartermaster -general  of  the  New 
York  militia.  Major  McRee,  of  North  Carolina, 
was  chief- engineer,  assisted  by  Major  E.  D. 
Wood.  On  the  Canada  shore,  nearly  opposite 
Buffalo,  stood  Fort  Erie,  then  garrisoned  by 
one  hundred  and  seventy  men,  under  the  com¬ 
mand  of  Major  Buck.  Ou  the  1st  of  July 
Brown  received  orders  to  cross  the  Niagara, 
capture  Fort  Erie,  march  on  Chippewa,  menace 
Fort  George,  and,  if  he  could  have  the  co-op¬ 
eration  of  Chauncey’s  fleet,  to  seize  and  fortify 
Burlington  Heights.  Accordingly,  Brown  ar¬ 
ranged  for  General  Scott  and  his  brigade  to 
cross  on  boats  and  land  a  mile  below  the  fort, 
while  Ripley,  with  his  brigade,  should  be  laud¬ 
ed  a  mile  above  it.  This  accomplished,  the 
boats  were  to  return  and  carry  the  remainder 
of  the  army,  with  its  ordnance  and  stores,  to  the 
Canada  shore.  The  order  for  this  movement 
was  given  on  the  2d  of  July.  It  was  promptly 
obeyed  by  Scott,  and  tardily  by  Ripley,  on  the 
3d.  When  Scott  had  pressed  forward  to  invest 
the  fort,  he  found  Ripley  had  not  crossed,  and  no 
time  was  lost  in  crossing  the  ordnance  and  se¬ 
lecting  positions  for  batteries.  These  prepara¬ 


tions  alarmed  the  garrison,  and  the  fort,  which 
was  in  a  weak  condition,  was  surrendered. 
Nearly  two  hundred  men,  including  officers,  be¬ 
came  prisoners  of  war,  and  were  sent  across 
the  river. 

Canada,  Scheme  for  a  Winter  Invasion 
of.  The  Board  of  War,  General  Gates  presi¬ 
dent,  arranged  a  plan,  late  in  1777,  for  a  winter 
campaign  against  Canada,  and  appointed  Lafay¬ 
ette  to  the  command.  (See  Conspiracy  against 
Washington.')  The  Marquis  was  cordially  re¬ 
ceived  at  Albany  by  General  Schuyler,  then  out 
of  the  military  service.  General  Conway,  who 
had  been  appointed  inspector-general  of  the 
army,  was  there  before  him.  Lafayette  was 
utterly  disappointed  and  disgusted  by  the  lack 
of  preparation  and  the  delusive  statements  of 
Gates.  “I  do  not  believe,”  he  wrote  to  Wash¬ 
ington,  “  I  can  find  twelve  hundred  men  fit 
for  duty  —  and  the  quarter  part  of  these  are 
naked — even  for  a  summer  campaign.”  The 
Marquis  soon  found  the  whole  affair  to  be  only 
a  trick  of  Gates  to  detach  him  from  Washington. 
General  Schuyler  had,  in  a  long  letter  to  Con¬ 
gress  (Nov.  4, 1777),  recommended  a  winter  cam¬ 
paign  against  Canada,  but  it  was  passed  unno¬ 
ticed  by  the  Congress,  and  Gates  appropriated 
the  thoughts  as  his  own  in  forming  the  plan, 
on  paper,  which  he  never  meant  to  carry  out. 

Canadian  Rebellion.  A  movement  for  a 
separation  of  the  Canadas  from  the  Crown  of 
Great  Britain,  and  their  political  independence, 
was  begun  simultaneously  in  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada  in  1837.  In  the  former  province,  the 
most  conspicuous  leader  was  William  Lyon 
McKenzie,  a  Scotchman,  a  journalist  of  rare 
ability  and  a  great  political  agitator;  in  the 
Lower  Province,  the  chief  leader  was  Joseph 
Papiueau,  a  large  land-owner,  and  a  very  influ¬ 
ential  man  among  the  French  inhabitants.  Both 
leaders  wej;e  republican  in  sentiment.  The 
movements  of  the  revolutionary  party  were  well 
planned,  but  local  jealousies  prevented  unity  of 
action,  and  the  effort  failed.  It  was  esteemed 
highly  patriotic,  and  elicited  the  warmest  sym¬ 
pathy  of  the  American  people,  especially  of  those 
of  the  Northern  States.  Banded  companies  and 
individuals  joined  the  “rebels,”  as  they  were 
called  by  the  British  government,  and  “  patri¬ 
ots”  by  their  friends;  and  so  general  became 
the  active  sympathy  on  the  northern  frontier, 
that  peaceful  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  were  endangered. 
President  Van  Boren  issued  a  proclamation, 
calling  upon  all  persons  engaged  in  the  schemes 
of  invasion  of  the  Canadian  territory  to  aban¬ 
don  the  design,  and  warning  them  to  beware 
of  the  penalties  that  must  assuredly  follow  such 
infringement  of  international  laws.  General 
Winfield  Scott  was  finally  sent  to  the  northern 
frontier  to  preserve  order,  and  was  assisted  by 
a  proclamation  by  the  governor  of  New  York. 
Yet  secret  associations,  known  as  “Hunters’ 
Lodges,”  continued  quite  active  for  some  time. 
Against  the  members  of  these  lodges,  President 
Tyler  issued  an  admonitory  proclamation,  which 
prevented  further  aggressive  movements.  For 


201 


CANONICUS 


CANADIANS,  ADDRESS  TO  THE 

four  years  this  omiuous  cloud  hung  upon  our  hor¬ 
izon.  It  disappeared  in  1842,  when  the  leaders 
of  the  movement  were  either  dead  or  in  exile. 

Canadians,  Address  to  the.  On  May  1, 
1775,  the  Quebec  Act  (which  see)  went  into 
operation,  and  on  the  29th  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress  adopted  an  address  to  the  Canadians,  pre¬ 
pared  by  John  Jay.  It  was  deemed  highly 
important  to  secure  their  co-operation.  The 
address  appealed  to  their  pride,  their  affection 
for  France,  their  courage,  and  the  regard  for 
their  common  welfare,  and  saying,  “By  your 
present  form  of  government,  or  rather  present 
form  of  tyranny,  you  aud  your  wives  and  your 
children  are  made  slaves.”  The  Canadians,  as 
Frenchmen,  feared  the  haughty  rule  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish,  and  the  Protestant  portion  of  them  cher¬ 
ished  the  exclusive  rule  of  Protestants  :  but  as 
Congress  offered  them  no  hope  of  a  uuion  for 
independence,  or  a  promise  of  institutions  of 
their  own,  nor  any  adequate  motive  for  rising, 
they  were  unmoved  by  the  address.  To  the 
French  Canadians  the  Quebec  Act  was  really 
an  improvement  on  their  former  condition. 

Canal  System  (in  the  United  States). 
General  Philip  Schuyler  may  justly  be  regarded 
as  the  father  of  our  caual  system.  So  early  as 
1761,  when  he  was  in  England  settling  the  ac¬ 
counts  of  General  John  Bradstreet  with  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  he  visited  the  famous  canal  which 
the  Duke  of  Bridgewater  had  just  completed, 
and  he  became  profoundly  impressed  with  the 
importance  of  such  aqueous  highways  in  the 
work  of  developing  the  internal  resources  of 
our  country.  On  his  return,  he  urged  the  matter 
upon  the  attention  of  his  countrymen.  Mean¬ 
while,  the  active  mind  of  Elkanah  Watson 
(which  see)  had  been  deeply  interested  in  the 
subject.  In  1785  he  visited  Mount  Vernon, 
where  he  found  Washington  engaged  in  a  proj¬ 
ect  for  connecting  the  waters  of  the  Potomac 
with  those  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 
He  and  General  Schuyler  projected  canals  be¬ 
tween  the  Hudson  River  and  lakes  Champlain 
and  Ontario,  and  in  1792  the  Legislature  of 
New  York  chartered  two  companies,  known,  re¬ 
spectively,  as  the  “Western  Inland  Lock  Navi¬ 
gation  Company”  and  “Northern  Inland  Lock 
Navigation  Company,”  of  both  of  which  Schuy¬ 
ler  was  made  president,  and,  at  his  death,  in 
1804,  he  was  actively  engaged  in  the  promotion 
of  both  these  projects.  The  Western  Caual  was 
never  completed,  according  to  its  original  con¬ 
ception,  but  was  supplemented  by  the  great  Erie 
Caual,  suggested  by  Governeur  Morris  about 
the  year  1801.  In  a  letter  to  David  Parish, 
of  Philadelphia,  that  year,  he  distinctly  fore¬ 
shadowed  that  great  work.  So  early  as  1774 
Washington  favored  the  passage  of  a  law  by 
the  Legislature  of  Virginia  for  the  construction 
of  works  —  canals  and  good  wagon-roads  —  by 
which  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers  might  be 
connected  by  a  chain  of  commerce.  After  the 
Revolution,  the  States  of  Virginia  and  Maryland 
took  measures  which  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  the  famous  Potomac  Company,  to  carry  out 
Washington’s  project.  In  1784  Washington  re¬ 


vived  a  project  for  making  a  canal  through  the 
Dismal  Swamp,  not  only  for  drainage,  but  for 
navigation  between  the  Elizabeth  River  and 
Albemarle  Sound.  The  oldest  work  of  the  kind 
in  the  United  States  is  a  canal,  begun  in  1792, 
five  miles  in  extent,  for  passing  the  falls  of  the 
Connecticut  River  at  South  Hadley.  The  earli¬ 
est  completed  and  most  important  of  the  great 
canals  of  our  country  is  the  Erie,  connecting  the 
waters  of  Lake  Erie  with  those  of  the  Hudson 
River.  It  was  built  by  the  State  of  New  York  at 
a  cost  of  $9,OUO,UOO,  from  the  operation  of  which 
untold  wealth  has  been  derived  by  the  City  and 
State  of  New  York.  It  was  completed  and  for¬ 
mally  opened  by  Governor  De  Witt  Clinton,  its 
great  advocate,  in  1825.  The  canal  changed  the 
whole  aspect  of  commercial  affairs  in  the  Lake 
region.  The  total  area  of  these  five  great  in¬ 
land  seas  is  about  90,000  square  miles,  and  their 
inlets  drain  a  region  estimated  at  about  336,- 
000  square  miles.  (See  Erie  Canal.) 

Canby,  Edward  Richard  Sprigg,  was  born 
in  Kentucky,  1819;  killed  by  Indians,  April  11, 
1873.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839 ; 
served  iu  the  Seminole  War  (which  see)  and 
the  war  with  Mexico.  He  was  twice  breveted 


E.  R.  S.  CANBY. 


for  eminent  services  iu  the  latter  war.  He  was 
promoted  to  major  in  1855,  and  colonel  in  1861. 
In  1861  he  was  in  command  in  New  Mexico  until 
late  in  1862,  and,  in  March  of  that  year,  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was 
promoted  to  major-general  of  volunteers  in  May, 
1864,  and  took  command  of  the  Department  of 
West  Mississippi.  He  captured  Mobile,  April 
12,  1865  (see  Mobile ),  and  afterwards  received 
the  surrender  of  the  Confederate  armies  of  Gen¬ 
erals  Taylor  and  E.  Kirby  Smith.  On  July  28, 
1866,  he  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  regular  army,  and  in  1869  took  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Department  of  the  Columbia,  on 
the  Pacific  coast.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
settlement  of  difficulties  with  the  Modoc  In¬ 
dians  (which  see),  and,  while  so  doing,  was 
treacherously  murdered  by  Captain  Jack,  their 
leader. 

Canonicus,  sachem  or  king  of  the  Narragan- 
sets,  treated  the  Pilgrims,  at  first,  with  much 


CANONICUS  AND  HIS  CHALLENGE  202  CAPITAL  OF  MARYLAND  FOUNDED 


arrogance.  He  was  born  about  1565;  died  June 
4,  1647.  His  tribe  bad  been  exempted  from 
the  scourge  which  swept  away  Massasoit’s  peo¬ 
ple,  aud  the  latter  stood  in  awe  of  him.  Ca- 
uonicus,  by  way  of  defiance,  sent  to  Plymouth  a 
bundle  of  arrows,  tied  with  a  rattlesnake’s  skin. 
Bradford  immediately  sent  the  skin  back,  stuffed 
with  gunpowder  and  bullets.  The  superstitious 
Indians  took  it  for  some  fatal  charm,  aud,  in 
terror,  passed  it  from  village  to  village  until  it 
returned  to  Plymouth.  The  authorities  of  the 
latter,  however,  took  the  precaution  to  surround 
the  village  with  palisades.  (See  Plymouth.) 
Canonicus  became  the  firm  friend  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  especially  of  Roger  Williams,  who  found  a 
retreat  in  his  dominions.  Before  Williams’s  ar¬ 
rival,  there  had  been  war  between  the  Narra- 
gansets  and  Pequods,  concerning  the  ownership 
of  lands,  in  which  a  son  of  Canonicus  was  slain. 
In  his  grief,  the  king  burned  his  own  house  and 
all  his  goods  in  it.  Roger  Williams,  who  often 
experienced  his  kindness,  spoke  of  Canonicus  as 
“  a  wise  aud  peaceable  prince.”  He  was  uncle 
of  Miautonomoh,  who  succeeded  him  as  sachem 
of  the  Narragausets  in  1638.  (See  Miantonom'oh.) 

Canonicus  and  his  Challenge.  The  haughty 
chief  of  the  Narragansets,  living  on  Canonicus 
Island,  opposite  the  site  of  Newport,  R.  I.,  was 
at  first  unwilling  to  be  friendly  with  the  Pil¬ 
grims  at  New  Plymouth.  To  show  his  contempt 
and  defiance  of  the  English,  he  sent  a  message 
to  Governor  Bradford  with  a  bundle  of  arrows 
in  a  rattlesnake’s  skin.  That  was  at  the  dead 
of  winter,  1622.  It  was  a  challenge  to  engage 
in  war  in  the  spring.  Like  the  venomous  ser¬ 
pent  that  wore  the  skin,  the  symbol  of  hostility 
gave  warning  before  the  blow  should  be  struck 
—  a  virtue  seldom  exercised  by  the  Indians. 
Bradford  acted  wisely.  He  accepted  the  chal¬ 
lenge  by  sending  the  significant  quiver  back 
filled  with  guupowder  aud  shot.  “  What  can 
these  things  be?”  inquired  the  ignorant  and 
curious  savage  mind,  as  the  ammunition  was 
carried  from  village  to  village,  in  superstitious 
awe,  as  objects  of  evil  omen.  They  had  heard 
of  the  great  guns  at  the  sea-side,  and  they  dared 
not  keep  the  mysterious  symbols  of  the  govern¬ 
or’s  anger,  but  sent  them  back  to  Plymouth  as 
tokens  of  peace.  The  chief  and  his  associates 
honorably  sued  for  the  friendshi|>  of  the  white 
people. 

Cape  Ann  (now  Gloucester)  was  chosen  as  a 
place  of  settlement  for  a  fishing  colony  by  Rev. 
John  White  (a  long  time  Rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  Dorchester,  Eng.)  aud  several  other 
influential  persons.  Through  the  exertions  of 
Mr.  White,  a  joint-stock  association  was  form¬ 
ed,  called  the  u  Dorchester  Adventurers,”  with  a 
capital  of  about  $14,000.  Cape  Anne  was  pur¬ 
chased,  and  fourteen  persons,  with  live-stock, 
were  sent  out  in  1623,  who  built  a  house  and 
made  preparations  for  curing  fish.  Affairs  were 
not  prosperous  there.  Roger  Conant  was  chosen 
governor  in  1625,  but  the  Adventurers  became 
discouraged  and  concluded  on  dissolving  the  col¬ 
ony.  Through  the  encouragement  of  Mr.  White, 
some  of  the  colonists  remained,  but,  not  liking 


their  seat,  they  went  to  Naumkeag,  now  Salem, 
where  a  permanent  colony  was  settled.  (Set 
Salem.) 

Cape  Fear,  Confederates  driven  from. 
Bragg  was  in  general  command  in  the  Cape 
Fear  region  at  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Fort  Fisher, 
aud  General  Hoke  was  his  most  efficient  lead¬ 
er.  He  held  Fort  Anderson,  a  large  earthwork 
about  half-way  between  Fort  Fisher  and  Wil¬ 
mington.  Terry  did  not  think  it  prudent  to 
advance  on  Wilmington  until  he  should  be  re¬ 
inforced.  To  effect  this,  General  Grant  ordered 
Schofield  from  Tennessee  to  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina,  where  he  arrived,  with  the  Twenty- 
third  Corps,  on  Feb.  9, 1865,  and  swelled  Terry’s 
force  of  8000  to  20,000.  Schofield,  outranking 
Terry,  took  the  chief  command.  The  Depart¬ 
ment  of  North  Carolina  had  just  been  created, 
and  he  was  made  its  commander.  The  chief  ob¬ 
ject  now  was  to  occupy  Goldsborougli,  in  aid 
of  Sherman’s  march  to  that  place.  Terry  was 
pushed  forward  towards  Hoke’s  right,  and,  with 
gunboats,  attacked  Fort  Anderson  (Feb.  18) 
aud  drove  the  Confederates  from  it.  The  fleeing 
garrison  were  pursued,  struck,  and  dispersed, 
with  a  loss  of  375  men  and  two  gnus.  The  Na¬ 
tional  troops  pressed  up  both  sides  of  the  Cape 
Fear  River,  pushed  Hoke  back,  while  gunboats 
secured  torpedoes  in  the  stream  and  erected  bat¬ 
teries  on  both  banks.  Hoke  abandoned  Wil¬ 
mington  Feb.  22,  1865,  after  destroying  all  the 
steamers  and  naval  stores  there.  Among  the 
former  were  the  Confederate  privateers  Chicka- 
mauga  and  Tallahassee.  Wilmington  was  occu¬ 
pied  by  National  troops,  and  the  Confederates 
abandoned  the  Cape  Fear  region. 

Capital  of  Maryland,  Change  of  Location 
of.  In  1694  the  seat  of  government  in  Mary¬ 
land  was  removed  from  St.  Mary  to  Anne  Arun¬ 
del  Town  (afterwards  Annapolis),  for  the  better 
accommodation  of  the  great  majority  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  Maryland.  This  was  the  ostensible  mo¬ 
tive;  the  controlling  object  doubtless  was  for 
the  punishment  of  the  adherents  of  Lord  Balti¬ 
more,  who  constituted  a  greater  portion  of  the 
population  of  St.  Mary.  In  1695  the  name  of 
Anne  Arundel  Town  was  changed  to  Annapolis, 
and  the  naval  station  of  the  province  was  es¬ 
tablished  there.  The  United  States  Naval  Acad¬ 
emy  is  also  located  there. 

Capital  of  Maryland  Founded.  In  the 

spring  of  1634  Leonard  Calvert  and  his  little 
baud  of  colonists  went  up  a  pleasant  tributary 
of  the  Potomac,  called  Wicomico,  twelve  miles, 
anchored  at  an  Indian  village  of  the  same  name, 
and  there  held  a  friendly  conference  with  the 
ruler  of  the  barbarians.  The  interpreter  ex¬ 
plained  the  object  of  Calvert’s  visit.  The  lat¬ 
ter,  pleased  with  the  situation  and  the  country 
around,  purchased  the  site  of  the  village,  giv¬ 
ing  in  payment  English  cloth,  axes,  hoes,  rakes, 
knives,  and  some  trinkets  for  the  women,  of  lit¬ 
tle  value.  The  domain  thus  bought  included 
about  thirty  square  miles  of  territory,  which 
was  named  Augusta  Carolina,  in  compliment  to 
King  Charles.  On  March  27  (O.  S.)  Calvert  took 
formal  possession  of  the  land.  The  emigrants 


203 


CAPTOES  OF  ANDE£ 


CAPITAL,  THE,  IN  DANGEE 

left  behind  at  another  place  came  there.  They 
built  a  store-house ;  and  on  a  warm  day  in  April 
the  governor,  with  bis  followers,  weut  to  a  spot, 
fragrant  with  wild  flowers,  about  a  mile  from 
the  little  river,  and  there  laid  out  a  town,  which 
they  named  St.  Mary’s,  aud  dedicated  it  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  as  the  capital  of  the  new  prov¬ 
ince.  The  friendly  Indians  assisted  the  settlers 
in  building  houses.  (See  Maryland.) 

Capital,  The,  in  Danger  (1861).  Washing¬ 
ton  wras  swarming  with  Secessionists.  They 
were  yet,  in  large  numbers,  in  the  public  of¬ 
fices;  and  after  the  evacuation  of  Sumter  aud 
the  possession  of  Harper’s  Ferry  aud  Norfolk  by 
the  insurgents,  their  friends  in  the  national  cap¬ 
ital  were  buoyant  with  hope  that  the  Confeder¬ 
ate  government  would  soon  be  transferred  from 
the  banks  of  the  Alabama  to  those  of  the  Poto¬ 
mac.  The  minute  -  meu  of  Maryland  aud  Vir¬ 
ginia  were  unusually  active.  The  leading  Se¬ 
cessionists  in  Baltimore,  comprising  the  “  States 
Eights  Association,”  were  in  conference  every 
evening;  aud  Governor  Hicks  was  contiuually 
importuned  to  call  an  extraordinary  session  of 
the  Legislature,  that  a  secession  convention 
might  be  authorized.  The  government  was 
soon  made  painfully  aware  that  the  President’s 
call  for  troops  was  not  made  an  hour  too  soon. 
There  was  a  general  impression  in  the  free-labor 
states  that  the  capital  would  be  the  first  point 
of  attack,  and  towards  that  city  volunteers  in¬ 
stantly  began  to  march  in  hourly  increasing 
numbers.  Withiu  three  days  after  the  Presi¬ 
dent’s  call  for  troops  (April  15,  1861)  probably 
not  less  than  one  hundred  thousand  young  men 
had  left  their  avocations  and  were  preparing 
for  war.  The  movement  was  simultaneous  all 
over  the  free-labor  states. 

Capitol,  Eebuilding  of  the  National. 
When,  early  in  1815,  an  appropriation  for  re¬ 
building  the  Capitol  at  Washington  (burned  by 
the  British)  was  proposed,  there 
were  bursts  of  indignant  elo¬ 
quence  on  the  floor  of  Congress, 
not  unmixod  with  interested 
motives.  Mr.  Eliea,  a  member 
from  Pennsylvania,  proposed  to 
encircle  the  blackened  walls  of 
the  Capitol  with  an  iron  balus¬ 
trade  ;  to  let  the  ivy  grow  over 
them ;  and  to  place  on  their  front, 
in  letters  of  brass,  this  inscrip¬ 
tion  :  “  Americans !  this  is  the 
effect  of  British  barbarism !  Let 
us  swear  eternal  hatred  to  Eng¬ 
land  !”  This  display  of  patriotic 
indignation  electritied  the  audi¬ 
ence;  but  when  it  was  consid¬ 
ered  that  the  Pennsylvanians 
wished  to  remove  the  seat  of 
governmen t  to  Philadelphia, there 
was  less  enthusiasm  displayed, 
and  an  appropriation  was  made  for  rebuilding 
the  Capitol  on  the  ruins  of  the  old. 

Capitol,  The,  at  Washington,  was  built  of 
white  freestone.  It  is  upon  an  eminence,  about 
eighty  feet  above  tide-water,  in  the  centre  of  a 
large  square.  It  is  composed  of  a  central  edi¬ 


fice,  with  two  wings.  The  north  wing  wras  be¬ 
gun  in  1793,  and  finished  in  1800,  at  a  cost  of 
$480,000.  The  corner-stone  was  laid  by  Presi¬ 
dent  Washington.  The  south  wing  wTas  com¬ 
menced  in  1803,  and  completed  in  1808,  at  an  ex¬ 
pense  of  about  $309,000.  The  central  building 
was  not  begun  when  the  two  wings  were  burned 
by  the  British  in  1814.  The  length  of  the  front, 
including  the  two  wings,  was  352  feet.  The  con¬ 
struction  of  the  central  building  was  begun  in 
1818,  and  completed  in  1827,  at  a  cost  of  $958,000. 
The  wings  were  rebuilt,  and  were  ready  for 
occupancy  and  were  first  occupied  by  the  two 
Houses  of  Congress  Dec.  6,  1819.  The  whole 
edifice  covered  the  space  of  an  acre  and  a 
half,  exclusive  of  the  circular  enclosure  for  fuel, 
which  forms  an  elegant  area  and  glacis  on  the 
western  frout.  An  enlargement  of  the  Capitol 
was  begun  in  1851,  when  the  Grand  Master  Ma¬ 
son  (B.  B.  French)  used  the  apron  and  trowel,  in 
laying  the  corner-stone  of  the  enlargement  (July 
4,  1851),  made  use  of  by  Washington  in  1793. 
The  corner -stone  was  then  laid  by  President 
Fillmore.  The  extension,  made  at  each  end  of 
the  old  Capitol,  was  finished  in  1867.  The  old 
building  now  forms  its  centre,  writh  a  grand 
portico  composed  of  twenty-four  Corinthian  col¬ 
umns.  The  entire  length  of  the  Capitol  is  now 
751  feet,  aud  the  greatest  depth,  including  por¬ 
ticos  aud  steps,  348  feet.  From  the  centre  rises 
a  cast-iron  dome,  135^  feet  in  diameter,  to  a 
height  of  287^  feet  above  the  basement  floor  of 
the  building.  The  dome  is  surmounted  by  a 
bronze  statue  of  Liberty,  by  Crawford,  19^  feet 
in  height.  Beneath  the  dome  is  the  rotuuda, 
96  feet  in  diameter,  containing  several  histori¬ 
cal  paintings. 

Captors  of  Andre,  The,  were  John  Paul¬ 
ding,  David  Williams,  aud  Isaac  Van  Wart. 
Washington  recommended  Congress  to  reward 
them  for  their  fidelity.  They  were  each  pre¬ 


sented  with  a  silver  medal,  and  they  wore  voted 
a  pension  of  two  hundred  dollars  a  year  each  iu 
silver  or  its  equivalent.  Monuments  have  been 
erected  to  the  memory  of  the  captors — to  Paul¬ 
ding  ( which  see  ),  in  St.  Peter’s  church  -  yard, 
near  Peekskill;  to  Van  Wart,  by  the  citizens 


THE  CAI>TORS7  MEDAL. 


CAPTURE  OF  GENERAL  LEE 


204 


CARLETON  AND  THE  INDIANS 


of  Westchester  County,  in  1829,  in  the  Presby¬ 
terian  church -yard  at  Greenburg,  of  which 
church  the  captor  was  an  active  officer  and 

chorister  for  many 
years ;  and  to  Will¬ 
iams,  in  Schoharie 
County,  N.  Y. 

Capture  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Charles  Lee. 
On  the  morning  of 
Dec.  13,  1776,  Gen¬ 
eral  Lee,  who  had 
persistently  dis¬ 
obeyed  the  orders 
of  Washington  to 
join  him,  was  capt¬ 
ured  at  an  inn  at 
Baskingridge,  New 
Jersey,  where  he 
was  lodging,  near¬ 
ly  three  miles  from 
his  army.  Lee  had 
just  finished  a  letter  to  General  Gates,  in  which  he 
had  spoken  disparagingly  of  Washington,  when 
Colonel  Harcourt,  at  the  head  of  a  British  scout¬ 
ing  party,  surrounded  the  house  and  made  him 
a  prisoner.  He  had  gone  out  of  the  house,  on 
hearing  a  tumult,  unarmed,  bareheaded,  in  slip¬ 
pers,  without  a  coat,  in  a  blanket  -  cloak,  his 
shirt -collar  open,  and  his  linen  much  soiled, 
and  gave  himself  up.  In  this  plight  he  was 
hurried,  on  horseback,  to  the  camp  of  Cornwal¬ 
lis,  at  New  Brunswick,  and  was  sent  by  him  to 
New  York.  (See  Treason  of  General  Charles  Lee.) 

Captured  Vessels  during  the  War  of 
1812-15.  The  whole  number  of  captured  Brit¬ 
ish  vessels  during  the  war,  on  the  lakes  and  on 
the  ocean,  including  those  taken  by  privateers 
(of  which  there  remained  forty  or  fifty  at  sea 
when  peace  was  proclaimed),  and  omitting  those 
recaptured,  w  as  reckoned  at  1750.  There  were 
captured  or  destroyed  by  British  ships  42  Amer¬ 
ican  national  vessels  (including  22  gunboats), 
133  privateers,  and  511  merchant-vessels — in  all 
686,  and  manned  by  18,000  seamen. 

Card-cloth.  The  manufacture  of  cards  for 
carding  wool  by  hand  was  quite  an  important 
industry  in  our  couutry  before  the  Revolution, 
and  was  carried  on  successfully  during  that 
war.  In  1787,  Oliver  Evans,  the  pioneer  Amer¬ 
ican  inventor,  then  ouly  twenty-two  years  of 
age,  and  engaged  in  making  card-teetli  by  hand, 
invented  a  machine  that  produced  three  hun¬ 
dred  a  minute.  Already  Mr.  Critteudon,  of  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  had  invented  a  machine  (1784) 
which  produced  eighty-six  thousand  card-teeth, 
cut  and  bent,  in  an  hour.  These  inventions  led 
to  the  contrivance  of  machines  for  making  card- 
cloth —  that  is,  a  species  of  comb  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  or  cotton  cloths,  for  the 
purpose  of  carding  and  arranging  the  fibres 
preparatory  to  spinning.  It  consists  of  stout 
leather  filled  with  wire  card -teeth,  and  is  the 
chief  part  of  the  carding-machine  in  factories. 
A  machine  for  making  the  card-cloth  complete 
was  invented  by  Eleazar  Smith,  of  Walpole, 
Mass.,  at  or  near  the  close  of  the  last  century,  for 


which  invention  Amos  Whittemore  received  the 
credit  and  the  profit.  (See  Whittemore,  Amos.) 
This  invention  was  imperfect.  About  1836  Will¬ 
iam  B.  Earle  made  improvements,  which  w  ere 
modified  in  1843.  The  card-cloth  made  by  this 
machine  is  considered  the  best  in  use. 

Carey,  Matthew,  was  born  in  Dublin,  Ire¬ 
land,  Jan.  28,  1760  ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
16,  1839.  He  learned  the  busiuess  of  printer 
and  bookseller,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
wrote  and  published  a  pamphlet  on  duelling. 
This  was  soon  followed  by  an  address  to  the 
Roman  Catholics  in  Ireland  on  their  oppres¬ 
sions  by  the  penal  code.  This  was  so  seditious 
and  inflammatory  that  he  w'as  compelled  to  fly 
to  Paris,  but  returned  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
where,  in  1783,  he  edited  the  Freeman ’s  Journal, 
and  established  the  Volunteer’s  Journal.  Because 
of  a  violent  attack  on  Parliament,  he  was  con¬ 
fined  in  Newgate  Prison ;  and  after  his  release 
he  sailed  for  America,  arriving  in  Philadelphia 
Nov.  15, 1784.  There  he  started  the  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  Herald,  the  first  newspaper  in  America  that 
gave  accurate  reports  of  legislative  proceedings. 
He  was  always  aggressive  with  his  pen.  He 
fought  a  duel  with  Colonel  Oswald,  editor  of  a 
rival  newspaper.  He  married  in  1791,  and  be¬ 
gan  busiuess  as  a  bookseller.  He  was  active 
in  works  of  benevolence  during  the  prevalence 
of  yellow-fever  in  Philadelphia,  and  wrote  and 
published  a  history  of  that  epidemic.  He  was 
an  associate  of  Bishop  White  and  others  in  the 
formation  of  the  first  American  Sunday-school 
society.  While  the  War  of  1812-15  was  kin¬ 
dling  he  wrote  much  on  political  subjects,  and  in 
1814  his  Olive  Branch  appeared,  in  which  he  at¬ 
tempted  to  harmonize  the  contending  parties  in 
the  United  States.  It  passed  through  ten  edi¬ 
tions.  In  1819  appeared  his  vindication  of  his 
countrymen,  entitled  Vindicce  Hihernicce.  In  1820 
he  published  his  New  Olive  Branch,  which  was 
followed  by  a  series  of  tracts  extending  to  more 
than  two  thousand  pages,  the  object  being  to 
demonstrate  the  necessity  of  a  protective  sys¬ 
tem.  His  writings  on  political  economy  were 
widely  circulated.  In  this  field  of  literature  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  Charles,  who 
died  in  the  autumn  of  1879.  His  advocacy  of 
internal  improvements  led  to  the  construction 
of  the  Pennsylvania  canals.  He  published 
Bibles,  which,  with  others  of  his  publications, 
were  sold  by  the  emiuent  early  “  book-ageut,” 
Rev.  Mason  L.  Weems. 

Carleton  and  the  Indians.  Personally  Guv 
Carleton,  Governor  of  Canada,  was  averse  to  the 
employment  of  Indians  in  war.  He  knew  them 
too  well ;  but  he  was  compelled  to  obey  the  sav¬ 
age  orders  of  his  king  through  the  secretary, 
Germain.  The  unusually  mild  Canadian  wiu- 
ter  of  1776-77  was  employed  by  Carleton  in 
preparations  for  the  next  campaign.  On  the 
30th  of  April  he  gave  audience  to  the  deputies 
of  the  Six  Nations,  and  accepted  their  services 
with  thanks  and  gifts.  Other  large  bodies  of 
Indians  were  also  engaged,  and  these  after¬ 
wards  joined  the  forces  under  Burgoyne.  The 
Baron  de  Riedesel,  the  Brunswick  general,  who 


CARLETON 


205 


CARLIN 


thought  that  campaign  would  end  the  war,  aud 
to  whom  King  George  appeared  as  “the  adora¬ 
tion  of  all  the  universe,”  said,  with  a  sigh, 
“  Wretched  colonists !  if  these  wild  souls  are 
engaged  in  war.”  General  Gates,  at  a  council 
of  the  Mohawks,  near  the  close  of’May,  tried  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  Joseph  Brant,  the 
young  chief,  by  a  speech  in  which  he  denounced 
the  leaders  w'ho  had  attempted  to  lead  them  into 
the  British  service,  and  declared  that  “  before 
many  moons  should  pass  away  the  pride  of 
England  would  be  laid  low.”  But  the  Mohawks 
generally  listened  to  Brant  and  took  up  arms 
against  the  American  “rebels.” 

Carleton,  Guy  (Lord  Dorchester),  was  born 
at  Strabane,  Ireland,  iu  1722 ;  died  Nov.  10, 1808. 
He  entered  the  Guards  at  au  early  age,  and  be¬ 
came  a  lientenant-colouel  iu  1748.  He  was  aid 


GUY  CARLETON. 


to  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  in  the  German  cam¬ 
paign  of  1757  ;  was  with  Amherst  in  the  siege  of 
Louisburg  in  1758;  wras  with  Wolfe  at  Quebec 
(1759)  as  quartermaster- general ;  and  was  a 
brigadier-general  at  the  siege  of  Belle  Isle,  where 
he  was  wounded.  He  was  also  quartermaster- 
general  in  the  expedition  against  Havana  in 
1762,  and  in  1767  he  was  made  lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor  of  Quebec.  The  next  year  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  governor.  In  1772  he  was  promoted  to 
major-general,  and  in  1774  was  made  governor- 
general  of  the  Province  of  Quebec.  In  an  ex¬ 
pedition  against  the  forts  on  Lake  Champlain 
in  1775  he  narrowly  escaped  capture ;  and  at 
the  close  of  the  year  he  successfully  resisted  a 
siege  of  Quebec  by  Montgomery.  (See  Siege  of 
Quebec.)  The  next  spring  and  summer  he  drove 
the  Americans  out  of  Canada,  and  totally  de¬ 
feated  the  American  flotilla  in  an  engagement 
on  Lake  Champlain  in  October.  Burgoyne  su¬ 
perseded  him  as  military  leader  in  1777,  when  he 
was  created  a  baronet.  He  was  made  lieu¬ 
tenant-general  in  1778;  was  appointed  com¬ 
mander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  America 
iu  1781 ;  and  sailed  for  England  Nov.  25,  1783. 


Iu  1786  he  was  created  Baron  Dorchester,  and 
from  that  year  until  1796  he  was  governor  of 
British  North  America. 

Carleton  Superseded  in  Command.  Sir 

John  Burgoyne  had  been  in  England  during 
the  earlier  part  of  1777,  and  managed,  by  the 
help  of  Sir  Jeffrey  Amherst,  to  obtain  a  commis- 
siou  to  take  command  of  all  the  British  forces 
in  Canada.  To  do  this  he  played  the  sycophant 
to  Germain,  and  censured  Carleton.  When  Sir 
John  arrived  at  Quebec  (May  6, 1777),  Carleton 
was  amazed  at  despatches  brought  by  him  re¬ 
buking  the  governor  for  his  conduct  of  the  last 
campaign,  and  ordering  him,  “for  the  speedy 
quelling  of  the  rebellion,”  to  make  over  to  Bur¬ 
goyne,  his  inferior  officer,  the  command  of  the 
Canadian  army  as  soon  as  it  should  leave  the 
boundary  of  the  Province  of  Quebec.  The  un¬ 
just  reproaches  and  the  deprivation  of  his  mili¬ 
tary  command  greatly  irritated  Carleton,  but, 
falling  back  on  his  civil  dignity  as  governor,  he 
implicitly  obeyed  all  commands  and  answered 
the  requisitions  of  Burgoyne.  As  a  soothing 
opiate  to  his  wounded  pride,  Burgoyne  convey¬ 
ed  to  the  governor  the  patent  and  the  jewel  of 
a  baronet,  aud  henceforth  he  was  “  Sir  Guy  Carle¬ 
ton.” 

Carleton’s  Retaliation.  Governor  Carletou 
was  a  strict  disciplinarian,  and  always  obeyed 
instructions  to  the  letter.  When  Burgoyne, 
after  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  (July,  1777), 
pushing  on  towards  the  valley  of  the  Hudson, 
desired  Carletou  to  hold  that  post  with  the 
th  ree  thousaud  troops  which  had  been  left  in 
Canada,  the  governor  refused,  pleading  his  in¬ 
structions,  which  confined  him  to  his  own  prov¬ 
ince.  This  unexpected  refusal  was  the  first  of 
the  embarrassments  Burgoyne  endured  after 
leaving  Lake  Champlain.  He  was  compelled, 
he  said,  to  “drain  the  life-blood  of  his  army”  to 
garrison  Ticonderoga  and  hold  Lake  George. 
No  doubt  this  weakening  of  his  army  at  that 
time  was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  his  de¬ 
feat  near  Saratoga.  If  Carleton  wished  to  grat¬ 
ify  a  spirit  of  retaliation  because  of  Burgoyne’s 
intrigues  against  him,  the  surrender  of  the  lat¬ 
ter  must  have  fully  satisfied  him.  (See  Carleton 
Superseded. ) 

Carlin,  William  P.,  was  born  in  Greene  Coun¬ 
ty,  III.,  Nov.  24,  1829.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1850,  and  was  in  the  Sioux  expeditions 
under  General  Harney  iu  1855,  and  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Sumner  against  the  Cheyennes  in  1857. 
He  was  in  the  Utah  expedition  in  1858;  and  did 
efficient  service  in  Missouri  for  the  Union  iu  the 
early  part  of  the  Civil  War,  where  he  command¬ 
ed  a  district  until  March,  1862.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  under  Generals  Steele  and  Pope,  and 
it  bore  a  prominent  part  iu  the  battle  of  Stone 
River  (which  see).  In  the  operations  in  north¬ 
ern  Georgia  late  in  1863,  and  in  the  Atlanta  cam¬ 
paign  the  next  year,  he  was  very  active.  In 
the  famous  march  to  the  sea  he  commanded  a 
division  in  the  Fourteenth  Corps;  and  was  with 
Sherman  in  his  progress  through  the  Carolinas, 
fighting  at  Bentonville.  He  was  breveted  ma- 
jor-general  in  March,  1865. 


CARLISLE 


206 


Carlisle  (Frederick  Howard),  Fifth  Eare 
of,  one  of  the  three  commissioners  sent  on  a 
conciliatory  errand  to  America  in  1778.  (See 
Peace.  Commissioners. )  He  was  born  in  May, 
1748;  died  Sept.  4,  1825.  He  was  lord-lieuten¬ 
ant  of  Ireland  in  1780-82.  Lord  Carlisle  was  a 
poet,  and  was  the  uncle  aud  guardian  of  Lord 
Byron. 

Carmichael,  William,  diplomatist,  born  in 
Maryland,  died  early  in  1795.  He  was  a  man 
of  fortune.  He  was  in  Europe  in  1776,  and  as¬ 
sisted  Silas  Deane  in  his  political  and  com¬ 
mercial  operations  in  France.  He  also  assist¬ 
ed  the  American  commissioners  in  Paris.  In 
1778-80  he  was  in  Congress,  and  was  secretary 
of  legation  to  Jay’s  mission  to  Spain.  When 
the  latter  left  Europe  (1782)  Carmichael  re¬ 
mained  as  charge  d'affaires,  aud  retained  the  of¬ 
fice  about  thirteen  years. 

Carnifex  Ferry,  Battle  at.  The  troops  left 
by  Garnett  and  Pegram  in  western  Virginia  in 
the  summer  of  1861  were  placed  in  charge  of 
Geueral  Robert  E.  Lee.  (See  Rich  Mountain  and 
Carricksford.)  At  the  beginning  of  August  he 
was  at  the  head  of  sixteen  thousand  fighting 
men.  John  B.  Floyd,  the  late  Secretary  of  War, 
was  placed  iu  command  of  the  insurgents  in  the 
region  of  the  Gauley  Ris  er.  From  him  much 
was  expected,  for  he  promised  much.  He  was 
to  drive  General  Cox  out  of  the  Kanawha  Val¬ 
ley,  while  Lee  should  disperse  the  army  of  ten 
thousand  men  under  Rosecrans  at  Clarksburg, 
on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  and  so 
open  a  way  for  an  invading  force  of  Confeder¬ 
ates  into  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio. 
Early  in  September  Rosecrans  marched  south¬ 
ward  in  search  of  Floyd.  He  scaled  the  Gauley 
Mountains,  and  on  the  10th  found  Floyd  at  Car¬ 
nifex  Ferry,  on  the  Gauley  River,  eight  miles 
from  Summersville,  the  capital  of  Nicholas 
County,  Va.  Already  a  detachment  of  Floyd’s 
men  had  surprised  aud  dispersed  (Aug.  26, 1861) 
some  Nationals,  under  Colonel  E.  B.  Taylor,  not 
far  from  Summersville.  At  the  summit  of  Gau¬ 
ley  Mountain  Rosecrans  encountered  Floyd’s 
scouts  and  drove  them  before  him ;  and  on 
Sept.  10,  Floyd’s  camp  having  been  reconnoi¬ 
tred  by  General  Benham,  Rosecrans  fell  upon 
him  with  his  whole  force  (chiefly  Ohio  troops), 
and  for  three  hours  a  desperate  battle  raged. 
It  ceased  only  when  the  darkness  of  night  came 
on.  Rosecrans  intended  to  renew  it  in  the 
morning,  and  his  troops  lay  on  their  arms  that 
night.  Under  cover  of  darkness,  Floyd  stole 
away,  and  did  not  halt  in  his  flight  until  he 
reached  Big  Sewell  Mountain,  near  New  River, 
thirty  miles  distant.  The  battle  at  Carnifex 
Ferry  was  regarded  as  a  substantial  victory  for 
the  Nationals.  The  latter  lost  fifteen  killed 
and  seventy  wounded  ;  the  Confederates  lost 
one  killed  and  ten  wounded. 

Carolina,  Grant  of.  Charles  I.  granted  the 
immense  tract  south  of  Virginia  to  Robert 
Heath  in  1630.  ( See  North  Carolina.)  It  re¬ 

mained  unsettled,  and  the  charter  was  declared 
void  iu  1663.  In  March,  1663,  the  king  granted 
this  domain  to  several  of  his  courtiers.  (See 


CAROLINAS,  SHERMAN  IN  THE 

Grantees  of  North  Carolina.)  The  domain  was 
defined  as  lying  between  latitude  30°  and  36° 
north.  The  grantees  were  made  absolute  lords 
aud  proprietors  of  the  country,  the  king  reserv¬ 
ing  to  himself  and  his  successors  sovereign  do¬ 
minion.  They  were  empowered  to  enact  aud 
publish  laws,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  freemen  ;  to  erect  courts  of  judicature,  and 
appoint  civil  judges,  magistrates,  and  other  of¬ 
ficers  ;  to  erect  forts,  castles,  cities,  and  towns; 
to  make  war,  and,  iu  cases  of  necessity,  to  exer¬ 
cise  martial  law  ;  to  construct  harbors,  make 
ports,  and  enjoy  custodies  and  subsidies  on 
goods  loaded  aud  unloaded,  by  consent  of  the 
freemen.  The  charter  granted  freedom  in  re¬ 
ligious  worship,  and  so  made  Carolina  an  asy¬ 
lum  for  the  persecuted. 

Carolinas,  Sherman’s  March  through  the. 
Sherman  appointed  the  15th  of  January,  1865, 
as  the  day  for  beginning  his  march  northward 
from  Savannah.  The  Seventeenth  Corps  was 
sent  by  water  to  a  point  on  the  Charleston  and 
Savannah  Railway,  where  it  seriously  menaced 
Charleston.  The  left  wing,  under  Slocum,  ac¬ 
companied  by  Kilpatrick’s  cavalry,  was  to  have 
crossed  the  Savannah  on  a  pontoon  bridge  at 
that  city  ;  but  incessant  rains  had  so  flooded  the 
swamps  aud  raised  the  streams  that  the  army 
was  compelled  to  cross  higher  up,  and  did  not 
effect  the  passage  until  the  first  week  in  Feb¬ 
ruary.  Savannah  and  its  dependencies  were 
transferred  to  Geueral  Foster,  then  in  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  South,  with  instruc¬ 
tions  to  co-operate  with  Sherman’s  inland  move¬ 
ments  by  occupying,  iu  succession,  Charleston 
and  other  places.  Sherman  notified  General 
Grant  that  it  was  his  intention,  after  leaving 
Savannah,  “  to  undertake,  at  one  stride,”  to 
make  Goldsborongh  an  open  communication 
with  the  sea  by  the  Newbern  Railway.  Feints 
of  attacks  on  Charleston  kept  Hardee  from  in¬ 
terfering  with  Sherman’s  inland  march.  Wheel¬ 
er  had  been  putting  obstructions  in  his  path¬ 
way  to  Columbia ;  but  the  movements  of  the 
Nationals  were  so  mysterious  that  it  distract¬ 
ed  the  Confederates,  who  could  not  determine 
whether  Sherman’s  objective  was  Charleston  or 
Augusta.  His  invasion  produced  widespread 
alarm.  Sherman’s  army  steadily  advanced  in 
the  face  of  every  obstacle.  They  drove  the 
Confederates  from  their  position  at  Orangeburg 
and  began  destroying  the  railway  there.  On 
Feb.  18  they  began  a  march  directly  to  Colum¬ 
bia,  the  capital  of  South  Carolina,  driving  the 
Confederates  before  them  w'herever  they  ap¬ 
peared.  Sherman’s  march  was  so  rapid  that 
troops  for  the  defence  of  the  capital  could  not 
be  gathered  in  time.  He  was  iu  front  of  Co¬ 
lumbia  before  any  adequate  force  for  its  defence 
appeared.  .Beauregard  was  in  command  there, 
and  had  promised  much,  but  did  little.  On  Feb. 
17  the  Nationals  entered  Columbia  ;  and  on  the 
same  day  Charleston,  flanked,  was  evacuated  by 
Hardee.  ( See  Charleston ,  Evacuation  of.)  The 
rear  guard  of  the  Confederates,  under  Wade 
Hampton,  on  retiring,  set  fire  to  cotton  in  the 
streets ;  and  the  high  wind  sent  the  burning 
fibre  into  the  air,  setting  fire  to  the  dwellings, 


CARR 


207 


CARROLL 


and  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  that  beautiful 
city  was  in  ruins.  (See  Columbia.)  Sherman, 
after  destroying  the  arsenal  at  Columbia,  left 
the  ruined  city  and  pressed  on  with  his  forces 
to  Fayetteville,  N.  C.,  his  cavalry,  under  Kilpat¬ 
rick,  lighting  the  Confederate  cavalry  led  by 
Wheeler  many  times  on  the  way.  He  left  a 
black  path  of  desolation  through  the  Carolinas 
forty  miles  in  width.  The  army  “lived  off  the 
country.”  They  crossed  the  rivers  on  pontoon 
bridges.  Arriving  at  Fayetteville,  Sherman 
opened  communications  with  the  National 
troops  at  Wilmington,  and  thenceforward  they 
all  joined  in  an  elfort  to  crush  the  great  insur¬ 
rection,  which  was  done  early  in  April,  1865. 

Carr,  Eugene  A.,  was  born  in  Erie  County, 
N.  Y.,  March  20,  1830,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1850.  As  a  member  of  mounted  rifles, 
he  was  engaged  in  Indian  warfare  in  New  Mex¬ 
ico,  Texas,  and  the  West ;  and  in  1861  he  served 
under  Lyon,  in  Missouri,  as  colonel  of  Illinois 
cavalry.  He  commanded  a  division  in  the  bat¬ 
tle  at  Pea  Ridge  (which  see),  and  was  severely 
wounded.  He  was  made  a  brigadier- general 
of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a  division  in 
the  battle  at  Port  Gibson  (which  see)  and  others 
preceding  the  capture  of  Vicksburg;  also  in  the 
assaults  on  that  place.  He  assisted  in  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  Little  Rock  (Ark.)  and  the  defences  of 
Mobile,  and  was  breveted  major-general. 

Carricksford,  Battle  at.  After  the  battle 
on  Rich  Mountain  (which  see),  Pegram,  threat¬ 
ened  by  McClellan,  stole  away  to  Garnett’s  camp, 
when  the  united  forces  hastened  to  Carricksford, 
on  a  branch  of  the  Cheat  River,  pursued  by  the 
Nationals.  After  crossing  that  stream,  Garnett 
made  a  stand.  He  was  attacked  by  Ohio  and 
Indiana  troops.  After  a  short  engagement,  the 
insurgents  fled.  While  Garnett  was  trying  to 
rally  them,  he  was  shot  dead.  The  Confeder¬ 
ates  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  were  pursued 
about  two  miles. 

Carrington,  Edward,  was  born  in  Virginia, 
Feb.  11,  1749 ;  died  iu  Richmond,  Va.,  Oct.  28, 
1810.  Was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  Vir¬ 
ginia  artillery  regiment  in  1776 ;  was  sent  to 
the  South,  and  was  made  a  prisoner  at  Charles¬ 
ton  in  1780.  He  was  Gates’s  quartermaster- 
general  in  his  brief  Southern  campaign.  Car¬ 
rington  prepared  the  way  for  Greene  to  cross 
the  Dan,  and  was  an  active  and  efficient  officer 
in  Greene’s  famous  retreat  (which  see).  He 
commanded  the  artillery  at  Hobkirk’s  Hill 
(which  see),  and  also  at  Yorktown.  (See  Siege 
of  Yorktown.)  Colonel  Carrington  was  foreman 
of  the  jury  in  the  trial  of  Burr  (which  see). — II. 
Paul,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  boru  Feb. 
24, 1733 ;  died  in  Charlotte  County,  Va.,  June  28, 
1818.  He  became  an  eminent  lawyer;  was  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses,  and  voted 
against  Henry’s  Stamp  Act  resolutions  (which 
see)  ;  but  was  patriotic,  and  helped  along  the 
cause  of  independence  in  an  efficient  manner. 

Carroll,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  was  born 
at  Annapolis,  Md.,  Sept.  20,  1737  ;  died  in  Balti¬ 
more  Nov.  14,  1832.  His  family  were  wealthy 
Roman  Catholics,  the  first  appearing  in  America 


at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  Omer’s  and  at  a  Jesuit  col¬ 
lege  at  Rheims;  and  he  studied  law  in  France 
and  at  the  Temple,  London.  He  returned  to 
America  in  1764,  when  he  found  the  colonies 
somewhat  agitated  by  momentous  political 


CHARLES  CARROLL. 


questions,  into  which  he  soon  entered — a  writer 
on  the  side  of  the  liberties  of  the  people.  He 
inherited  a  vast  estate,  and  was  considered  one 
of  the  richest  men  in  the  colonies.  Mr.  Carroll 
was  a  member  of  one  of  the  first  vigilance  com¬ 
mittees  established  at  Annapolis,  and  a  member 
of  the  Provincial  Convention.  Early  in  1776,  he 
was  one  of  a  committee  appointed  by  Congress 
to  visit  Canada  to  persuade  the  Canadians  to 
join  the  other  colonies  in  resistance  to  the 
measures  of  Parliament.  His  colleagues  were 
Dr.  Franklin  and  Samuel  Chase.  The  commit¬ 
tee  were  accompanied  by  Rev.  John  Carroll. 
The  mission  was  fruitless;  and  when,  in  June, 
the  Committee  returned  to  Philadelphia,  they 
found  the  subject  of  independence  under  consid¬ 
eration  in  Congress.  Carroll  and  Chase  in¬ 
duced  Maryland  to  change  its  attitude.  (See 
Independence.)  Carroll  took  his  seat  in  Con¬ 
gress  in  time  to  vote  for  the  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dependence.  He  signed  that  document,  and 
was  the  last  survivor  of  that  band  of  fifty-six 
patriots  who  bravely  took  the  responsibility  of 
dismembering  the  British  empire.  Mr.  Carroll 
served  his  state  in  its  Assembly,  in  the  National 
Congress,  and  in  other  responsible  offices,  with 
fidelity  and  ability.  At  the  age  of  over  ninety 
years  (July  4, 1828)  he  laid  the  corner-stone  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway,  attended  by 
an  imposing  civic  procession.  The  story  that 
he  appended  “of  Carrollton”  to  his  name  de¬ 
fiantly,  to  enable  the  British  crown  to  identify 
him,  is  a  fiction.  He  was  accustomed  to  sign  it 
so  to  prevent  confusion,  as  there  was  another 
Charles  Carroll. 

Carroll,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Upper 
Marlborough,  Md.,  Jan.  8,  1735 ;  died  in  Balti¬ 
more,  Dec.  3,  1815.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Omer’s,  Liege,  and  Bruges;  ordained  a  priest  in 
1769,  and  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  soon  af¬ 
terwards.  He  travelled  through  Europe  with 
young  Lord  Staunton  in  1770  as  private  tutor, 


CARRONADES 


208 


and  in  1773  became  a  professor  in  the  college  at 
Bruges.  In  1775  lie  returned  to  Maryland,  and 
the  next  year,  by  desire  of  Congress,  lie  accom¬ 
panied  a  committee  of  that  body  on  a  mission 
to  Canada.  That  committee  was  composed  of 
Dr.  Franklin,  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  and 
Samuel  Chase.  He  was  appointed  the  papal 


JOHN  CARROLL. 


vicar-general  for  the  United  States  in  1786,  and 
made  Baltimore  his  lixed  residence.  In  1790 
he  was  consecrated  the  first  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  in  the  United  States,  and  established 
the  seat  of  his  episcopal  see  at  Baltimore.  He 
founded  St.  Mary’s  College  in  1791,  and  in  1804 
he  obtained  a  charter  for  Baltimore  College. 
Liberal  in  his  views,  he  maintained  the  friend¬ 
ship  of  all  Protestant  sects.  A  few  years  before 
his  death  he  was  made  archbishop. 

Canonades  were  much  used,  during  the  War 
of  1812-15,  on  the  ocean.  They  are  a  kind  of 
short  iron  cannon,  which  is  attached  to  its  car¬ 
riage  by  a  joint  and  bolt  underneath  the  piece, 
instead  of  trunnions.  It  is  only  in  this  respect 
and  in  its  dimensions  that  it  differs  from  other 
heavy  guns  and  howitzers.  The  name  is  de¬ 
rived  from  Carron,  a  village  in  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland,  where  this  gun  was  first  made. 

Carteret  and  Andros.  Governor  Andros,  of 
New  York,  claimed  political  jurisdiction,  in  the 
name  of  the  Duke  of  York,  over  all  New  Jersey. 
Philip  Carteret,  Governor  of  East  Jersey,  denied 
it,  and  the  two  governors  were  in  open  opposi¬ 
tion.  A  friendly  meeting  of  the  two  magistrates, 
on  Staten  Island,  was  proposed.  Carteret  de¬ 
clined  it ;  and  Andros  warned  him  to  forbear 
exercising  any  jurisdiction  in  East  Jersey,  and 
announced  that  he  should  erect  a  fort  to  aid 
him  (Andros)  in  the  exercise  of  his  authority. 
Carteret  defied  him ;  and  when,  a  mouth  later, 
Andros  went  to  New  Jersey,  seeking  a  peaceful 
conference,  Carteret  met  him  with  a  military 
force.  As  Andros  came  without  troops,  he  was 
permitted  to  land.  The  conference  was  fruit¬ 
less.  A  few  weeks  later  Carteret  was  taken 
from  bis  bed,  in  bis  house  at  Elizabethtown, 
at  night,  by  New  York  soldiers,  and  carried  to 
that  city  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  sheriff. 
He  was  tried  in  May  (1678),  and  though  Andros 
sent  the  jurors  out  three  times,  with  instruc- 


CARTHAGE,  BATTLE  OF 

tions  to  bring  in  a  verdict  of  guilty,  he  was  ac¬ 
quitted.  But  he  was  compelled  to  give  security 
that  he  would  not  again  assume  political  au¬ 
thority  in  New  Jersey.  The  Assembly  of  New 
Jersey  were  asked  to  accept  the  duke’s  laws 
(which  see),  but  they  preferred  their  own.  At 
the  same  time  they  accepted  the  government  of 
Andros,  but  with  reluctance.  Carteret  went  to 
England  with  complaints,  and  the  case  was  laid 
before  the  duke  by  the  widow  of  Sir  George 
Carteret.  The  Friends,  of  West  Jersey,  had  al¬ 
ready  presented  their  complaints  against  An¬ 
dros,  and  the  case  was  referred  to  the  duke’s 
commissioners.  These,  advised  by  Sir  William 
Jones,  decided  that  James’s  grant  reserved  no 
jurisdiction,  and  that  none  could  be  rightly 
claimed.  This  decided  the  matter  for  East  Jer¬ 
sey  also,  and  in  August  and  October,  1680,  the 
duke  signed  documents  relinquishing  all  rights 
over  East  and  West  Jersey  (which  see). 

Carteret,  Sir  George,  was  an  English  naval 
officer  of  high  repute,  of  imperious  deportment, 
and  “  the  most  passionate  man  iu  the  world.” 
Charles  I.  appointed  him  governor  of  the  Island 
of  Jersey,  iu  the  English  Channel ;  and  when 
the  civil  war  broke  out  he  was  controller  of 
the  navy,  and  esteemed  by  all  parties.  Leaving 
the  sea,  he  went  with  his  family  to  Jersey,  but 
soon  afterwards  returned  to  help  his  royal  mas¬ 
ter.  In  1645  he  was  created  a  baronet,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  his  government  of  Jersey,  where  he 
received  and  sheltered  the  Prince  of  Wales  (af¬ 
terwards  Charles  II.)  when  the  royal  cause  was 
mined  in  England.  Other  refugees  of  distinc¬ 
tion  were  there,  and  he  defended  the  island  gal¬ 
lantly  against  the  forces  of  Cromwell.  At  the 
Restoration  he  rode  with  the  king  in  his  tri¬ 
umphant  entry  into  London.  Carteret  became 
one  of  the  privy  council,  vice-chamberlain,  and 
treasurer  of  the  navy.  Being  a  personal  friend 
of  James,  Duke  of  York,  to  whom  Charles  II. 
granted  New  Netherlands,  Carteret  and  Berkeley 
(another  favorite)  easily  obtained,  for  a  money 
consideration,  a  grant  of  the  territory  between 
the  Hudson  and  Delaware  rivers,  which,  in  grat¬ 
itude  for  his  services  iu  tbe  Island  of  Jersey, 
was  called  New  Jersey.  Carteret  retained  bis 
share  of  the  province  until  his  death,  which 
occurred  iu  1680,  leaving  his  widow,  Lady  Eliz¬ 
abeth,  executrix  of  liis  estate.  Sir  George  was 
one  of  the  grantees  of  the  Carolinas,  and  a  por¬ 
tion  of  that  domain  was  called  Carteret  colony. 

Carthage,  Battle  of  (1861).  General  Lyon 
sent  Colonel  Franz  Sigel  in  pursuit  of  the  Con¬ 
federates  under  Governor  Price  in  southeastern 
Missouri.  ( See  Early  Military  Operations  in 
Missouri. )  His  force  consisted  of  nearly  one 
thousand  loyal  Missourians  (of  his  own  and  Sal¬ 
omon’s  regiments)  with  two  batteries  of  artillery 
of  four  field-pieces  each — in  all  about  fifteen  hun¬ 
dred  men.  Though  the  insurgents  were  report¬ 
ed  to  be  more  than  four  thousand  in  number, 
Sigel  diligently  sought  them.  On  the  morning 
of  July  5,  1861,  he  encountered  large  numbers 
of  mounted  riflemen,  who  seemed  to  be  scout¬ 
ing,  and  a  few  miles  from  Carthage,  the  capital 
of  Jasper  County,  he  came  upon  the  main  body 


CARTIER 


*209 


CARTIER 


of  the  Confederates,  under  General  Jackson, 
who  was  assisted  hy  General  Rains  and  three 
other  brigadiers.  They  were  drawn  up  in  battle 
order  on  the  crown  of  a  gentle  hill.  A  battle 
commenced  at  a  little  past  10  o’clock,  by  Sigel’s 
field-pieces,  and  lasted  about,  three  hours,  when, 
seeing  his  baggage  in  danger  and  his  troops  in 
peril  of  being  outflanked,  Sigel  fell  back  and  re¬ 
treated,  in  perfect  order,  to  the  heights  near  Car¬ 
thage,  having  been  engaged  in  a  running  light, 
nearly  all  the  way.  The  Confederates  pressed 
him  sorely,  and  he  continued  the  retreat  (being 
outnumbered  three  to  one)  to  Springfield,  where 
he  was  joined  by  General  Lyon  (July  13),  who 
took  the  chief  command  of  the  combined  foi'ces. 
This  junction  was  timely, for  the  combined  forces 
of  Generals  McCulloch,  Rains,  and  others  had 
joined  those  of  Price,  making  the  number  of 
insurgents  in  that  region  about  twenty  thou¬ 
sand. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  a  French  navigator,  was 
born  at  St.  Malo,  France,  Dec.  31,  1494.  He  was 
commissioned  by  Francis  I.,  King  of  France,  to 
command  an  expedition  to  explore  the  Western 
Continent.  On  the  20th  of  April,  1534,  after  ap¬ 
propriate  ceremonies  in  the  cathedral  at  St. 


JACQUES  CAR  n  EH. 

Malo,  he  sailed  from  that  port  with  two  ships, 
having  each  a  crew  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
men,  and,  after  a  prosperous  voyage  of  twenty 
days,  they  arrived  at  Newfoundland.  Sailing 
northward,  he  entered  the  Strait  of  Bello  Isle, 
I.— 14 


and,  touching  the  coast  of  Labrador,  he  formal¬ 
ly  took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name 
of  his  king,  and  erected  a  cross,  upon  which  he 
hung  the  arms  of  France.  Turning  south¬ 
ward,  he  followed  the  west  coast  of  Newfound- 
laud  to  Cape  Race.  Then  he  explored  the  Bay 
of  Chaleurs,  landed  in  Gasp6  Bay,  held  friendly 
intercourse  with  the  natives,  and  induced  a 
chief  to  allow  two  of  his  sons  to  go  with  him  to 
France,  promising  to  return  them  the  next  year. 
There,  also,  he  planted  a  cross  with  the  French 
arms  upon  it,  and,  sailing  thence  northeast 
across  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  entered  the 
branch  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  north  of  An¬ 
ticosti  Islaud.  Unconscious  of  having  discov¬ 
ered  a  magnificent  river,  he  turned  and  sailed 
for  France  to  avoid  the  autumn  storms,  and  ar¬ 
rived  at  St.  Malo  on  the  5th  of  September,  1534. 
Encouraged  by  the  success  of  this  voyage,  the 
king  placed  Cartier  in  command  of  three  ships, 
which  left  St.  Malo  at  the  middle  of  May,  1535, 
bearing  some  of  the  young  nobility  of  France. 
Separated  by  storms,  they  met  at  the  appointed 
rendezvous,  in  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  in  July, 
and  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  mouth  of 
a  river  (now  St.  Charles)  at  the  site  of  Quebec, 
which  they  reached  on  the  14th  of 
September.  His  squadron  consisted 
of  the  Great  Hermine,  120  tons ;  Little 
Hermine,  60  tons ;  and  L’Emerillon,  a 
small  ci'aft.  On  the  day  after  their 

_ arrival,  they  were  visited  by  Donna- 

Bal^gBhsgiiij  couna,  “King  of  Canada,”  who  received 
them  with  the  greatest  kindness,  and, 
through  the  two  young  men  whom 
Cartier  had  brought  back,  they  were 
enabled  to  converse.  Mooring  the 
larger  vessels  in  the  St.  Croix  (as  Car- 
tier  named  the  St. Charles),  he  went  up 
the  river  in  the  smaller  one,  with  two 
or  three  volunteers,  and,  with  a  small 
boat,  they  reached  the  Huron  ( see 
Huron-Iroquois )  village  called  Hoche- 
laga,  on  the  site  of  Montreal.  He  called 
the  mountain  back  of  it  Mount  Real 
(Royal  Mountain),  hence  the  name  of 
Montreal.  There  he  enjoyed  the  kind¬ 
est  hospitality,  and  bore  away  with  him 
a  pretty  little  girl,  eight  years  old, 
daughter  of  one  of  the  chiefs,  who  lent 
her  to  him  to  take  to  France.  Returning 
to  Stadacona  (now  Quebec)  early  in 
October,  the  Frenchmen  spent  a  severe 
winter  there,  during  which  twenty- 
five  of  them  died  of  scurvy.  Nearly 
every  one  of  them  had  the  disease. 
When  Cartier  was  prepared  to  leave 
for  France,  in  the  spring,  the  Little 
Hermine  was  found  to  be  rotten  and 
unseawortliy,  and,  as  the  other  two 
vessels  could  carry  his  reduced  com¬ 
pany,  she  was  abandoned.  He  formally 
took  possession  of  the  country  in  the 
name  of  his  king,  and,  just  before  his  departure 
(May  9, 1536),  he  invited  Donnaeonna  and  eight 
chiefs  on  board  the  flag-ship  to  a  feast.  They 
came, and  Cartiertreacherously  sailedaway  with 
them  to  France  as  captives,  where  they  all  died  ot 


CARVER 


210 


CASS 


grief.  Cartier  reached  St.  Malo  July  16.  There 
was  uow  a  pause  iu  this  enterprise,  but  finally 
Francis  de  la  Roque,  Lord  of  Roherval,  Picardy, 
prevailed  upon  the  king  to  appoint  him  vice¬ 
roy  and  lieutenant-general  of  the  new  territory, 
and  Cartier  captain-general  and  chief-pilot  of 
the  royal  ships.  Five  vessels  were  fitted  out,  and 
Cartier,  with  two  of  them,  sailed  from  St.  Malo 
in  May,  1541.  Late  iu  August  these  reached 
Stadacona.  The  people  there  eagerly  pressed  to 
the  ships  to  welcome  their  monarch,  whom  Car- 
tier  had  promised  to  bring  back.  They  shook 
their  heads  incredulously  when  he  told  them 
Donnaconna  was  dead.  To  show  his  good  faith, 
he  showed  them  the  pretty  little  Huron  maiden 
whom  he  was  to  return  to  her  friends  at  Hoche- 
laga.  But  they  grew  more  sullen  every  hour, 
and  became  positively  hostile.  After  visiting 
Hochelaga,  Cartier  returned  to  Stadacona,  and, 
on  an  island  (Orleans)  just  below,  he  caused  a 
fort  to  be  built  for  protection  through  the  en¬ 
suing  winter,  where  he  waited  patiently  for 
the  viceroy,  but  he  came  not.  Towards  the 
end  of  May  the  ice  moved  out  of  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  and  Cartier  departed  for  France.  He  ran 
into  the  harbor  of  St.  Johns,  N.  F.,  where  he 
found  De  la  Roque  on  his  way  to  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence.  Cartier  tried  to  induce  him  to  turn  back 
by  giving  him  most  discouraging  accounts  of 
the  country,  but  he  ordered  the  navigator  to 
go  back  with  him  to  the  great  river.  Cartier 
disobeyed  and  sailed  for  France.  The  viceroy 
went  above  the  site  of  Quebec,  where  he  built 
a  fort  and  spent  the  next  winter  in  great  suffer¬ 
ing,  returning  to  France  in  the  autumn  of  1543. 
Cartier  had  arrived  the  previous  summer,  and 
did  not  make  another  voyage.  He  died  in 
1555,  at  the  age  of  about  sixty-one  years.  De 
la  Roque  started  on  another  voyage  to  Canada 
in  1549,  and  was  never  heard  of  afterwards. 

Carver,  John,  first  governor  of  New  Plym¬ 
outh  (which  see),  was  born  in  England ;  died 
at  New  Plymouth,  Mass.,  April  5,  1621.  He 
spent  a  considerable  estate  in  forwarding  the 
scheme  of  the  “  Pilgrims  ”  (which  see)  for  emi¬ 
grating  to  America,  and  accompanied  them  in 
the  Mayflower.  He  was  a  deacon  or  elder  in 
Robinson’s  church  at  Leyden,  and  was  one  of 
the  committee  sent  to  London  to  effect  a  treaty 
with  the  Virginia  Company  (which  see)  concern¬ 
ing  colonization  in 
America.  When  the 
written  instrument 
for  the  government 
of  the  colony  was 
subscribed  on  board 
the  Mayflower,  Mr. 
Carver  was  chosen 
to  he  governor.  His 
wife  died  during  the 
succeeding  winter, 
and,  in  the  first 
warm  days  of  the 
spring,  he,  too,  de¬ 
parted.  Governor 
Carver’s  chair  (the  first  throne  of  a  chief  magis¬ 
trate  set  up  in  New  England)  is  preserved  by 
the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 


Carver,  Jonathan,  traveller,  was  born  at 
Stillwater,  Conn.,  in  1752;  died  in  London  in 
1780.  He  served  in  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
and  afterwards  attempted  to  explore  the  vast 
region  in  America  which  the  English  had  ac¬ 
quired  from  the  French.  He  penetrated  the 
country  to  Lake  Superior  and  its  shores  and 
tributaries,  and,  after  travelling  about  seven 
thousand  miles,  he  returned  to  Boston  (wheuce 
he  departed  in  1766)  and  sailed  for  England,  to 
communicate  his  discoveries  to  the  government, 
and  to  petition  the  king  for  a  reimbursement 
of  his  expenses.  His  Travels  were  published  in 
1778.  He  was  badly  used  in  England,  and,  by 
utter  neglect,  was  reduced,  early  iu  1780,  to  a 
state  of  extreme  destitution,  and  was  prostrated 
with  dysentery. 

Casey,  Silas,  was  born  at  East  Greenwich, 
R.  I.,  July  12,  1807,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1826.  He  served  with  Worth  iu  Flori¬ 
da  (1837-41)  and  under  Scott  in  the  war  with 
Mexico  (1847-48).  He  was  also  in  the  operations 
against  the  Indians  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  1856. 
Early  in  the  Civil  War  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  organized  and  disci¬ 
plined  the  volunteers  at  and  near  the  capital. 
He  was  made  major-general  in  May,  1862,  and 
commanded  a  division  in  General  Keyes’s  corps 
on  the  Peninsula,  and  received  the  first  attack 
of  the  Confederates  iu  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks 
( which  see).  General  Casey  was  breveted  major- 
general  United  States  Army  in  March,  1865,  for 
“  meritorious  service  during  the  rebellion,”  and 
the  Legislature  of  Rhode  Island  gave  him  a  vote 
of  thanks  in  1867.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Sys¬ 
tem  of  Infantry  Tactics  (1861)  and  Infantry  Tactics 
for  Colored  Troops  (1863).  Died  Jan.  22, 1882. 

Cass,  Lewis,  was  born  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  Oct. 
9,  1782  ;  died  in  Detroit,  June  17,  1866.  He  en¬ 
tered  upon  the  practice  of  law  about  1802,  in 
Zanesville,  Ohio,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five 


LEWIS  CASS. 


was  a  member  of  the  Legislature.  He  was  colo¬ 
nel  of  an  Ohio  regiment,  under  General  Hull, 
in  1812,  and  was  with  the  troops  surrendered 
at  Detroit  (which  see).  In  March,  1813.  he  was 
made  a  brigadier-general,  and  was  voluntary 
aid  to  General  Harrison  at  the  battle  of  the 


GOVERNOR  CARVER’S  CHAIR. 


211 


CASTLE  WILLIAM 


CASTINE,  CAPTURE  OF 

Thames  (which  see),  when  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Michigan  Territory.  As  Superin¬ 
tendent  of  Indian  affairs  in  that  region,  he  ne¬ 
gotiated  nineteen  treaties  with  the  barbarians. 
In  1829  he  organized  a  scientific  expedition  to 
explore  the  Upper  Mississippi.  In  1831  he  re¬ 
signed  the  governorship  and  became  Secretary 
of  War,  under  President  Jackson.  From  1836  to 
1842  he  was  United  States  Minister  to  France, 
and  from  1845  to  1848  United  States  Senator.  He 
received  the  Democratic  nomination  for  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States  in  1848,  but  was  de¬ 
feated,  and  was  again  in  the  United  States  Sen¬ 
ate  from  1851  to  1857,  when  President  Buchanan 
called  him  to  his  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  State  ; 
but  when  the  President  refused  to  reinforce  the 
garrison  in  Fort  Sumter,  he  resigned.  General 


mation  assuring  the  inhabitants  of  their  inten¬ 
tion  to  take  possession  of  the  country  between 
the  Penobscot  and  Passamaquoddy  Bay,  and  of¬ 
fering  them  protection  on  condition  of  their  ac¬ 
quiescence.  All  persons  taken  in  arms  were  to 
be  punished,  and  all  who  should  supply  the 
British  with  provisions  were  to  be  paid  and  pro¬ 
tected.  General  Gosselin  was  apj>ointed  mili¬ 
tary  governor. 

Castine,  Vincent,  Baron  de,  was  horn  at 
Orleans,  France,  a  scion  of  a  noble  family.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen  years,  he  was  colonel  of 
the  king’s  body-guard,  and  when  the  regiment 
to  which  he  belonged  was  sent  to  Canada  (1665) 
he  came  with  it  and  remained  after  it  was  dis¬ 
banded.  In  1667  he  established  a  trading-post 
and  built  a  fort  at  or  near  the  mouth  of  the  Pe- 


KEMAINS  OF  FORT  CASTINE. 


Cass  favored  the  compromise  of  1850  (which 
see),  and  also  favored  a  compromise  with  the 
disuniouists  until  they  became  insurgents,  when 
he  favored  the  supporters  of  the  Union.  He 
w'as  author  of  a  work  entitled  France;  its  King, 
Court,  arid  Government. 

Castine,  Capture  of.  A  British  fleet,  con¬ 
sisting  of  four  74-gun  ships,  2  frigates,  2  sloops- 
of-war,  aud  1  schooner,  with  10  transports, 
sailed  from  Halifax  (Aug.  26,  1814),  the  latter 
hearing  almost  four  thousand  troops,  under  the 
command  of  Lieutenant-general  Sir  John  Cope 
Sherbrooke,  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  assisted 
by  Major-general  Gerard  Gosselin.  The  fleet 
was  in  command  of  Rear-admiral  Edward  Grif¬ 
fith.  The  destination  of  the  armament  was  the 
Penobscot  River, with  a  design  to  take  possession 
of  the  country  between  that  river  and  Passama¬ 
quoddy  Bay.  Sherbrooke  intended  to  stop  and 
take  possession  of  Macliias,  but, learning  that  the 
corvette  John  Adams,  24  guns,  had  entered  the 
Penobscot,  he  hastened  to  overtake  her.  On  the 
morning  of  the  first  of  September  they  arrived 
in  the  harbor  of  Castine.  There  was  a  small 
American  force  there,  under  Lieutenant  Lewis, 
occupying  a  little  battery.  Lewis,  finding  re¬ 
sistance  would  he  in  vain,  spiked  the  guns, 
blew  up  the  battery,  and  fled.  About  six  hun¬ 
dred  British  troops  landed  and  took  quiet  pos¬ 
session  of  the  place.  The  John  Adams  had  just 
returned  from  a  long  cruise,  much  crippled  by 
striking  on  a  rock  on  entering  the  bay.  It  was 
with  difficulty  that  she  was  kept  afloat  until 
she  reached  Hampden,  far  up  the  river,  to  which 
she  fled.  The  British  immediately  detached  a 
land  and  naval  force  to  seize  or  destroy  her. 
Sherbrooke  aud  Griffith  issued  a  joint  procla- 


nobscot  River,  and  married  the  daughter  of  a 
Peuobscot  chief.  By  him  Christianity  was  first 
introduced  among  the  natives  of  that  region. 
He  gained  great  influence  over  them.  During 
his  absence  in  1688,  his  establishment  was  pil¬ 
laged  by  the  English,  and  he  became  their  bitter 
foe.  He  taught  the  Indians  around  him  the  use 
of  fire-arms,  aud  he  frequently  co-operated  with 
them  in  their  attacks  on  the  northeastern  fron¬ 
tier.  In  1696,  with  two  hundred  Indians,  he 
assisted  Iberville  in  the  capture  of  the  fort  at 
Pemaquid.  In  1706-7  he  assisted  in  the  defence 
of  Port  Royal,  and  was  wounded.  He  lived  in 
America  thirty  years,  when  he  returned  to  France, 
leaving  Fort  Castine  and  the  domain  around  it 
to  his  half-breed  son  aud  successor  in  title.  The 
young  baron  was  really  a  friend  to  the  English, 
but,  being  at  the  head  of  the  Penobscot  Indians, 
and  suspected  of  being  an  enemy,  he  was  sur¬ 
prised  and  captured,  in  1721,  taken  to  Boston, 
and  imprisoned  several  months.  His  name  is 
perpetuated  in  the  town  of  Castine,  at  which 
place  slight  traces  of  his  fort  are  yet  visible. 

Castle  Thunder  was  a  Confederate  prison 
at  Richmond  during  the  Civil  War,  in  which 
civilians  who  were  suspected  or  known  to  be 
in  opposition  to  the  insurgents  were  confined. 
It  was  to  the  offenders  against  Confederate 
authority  what  Forts  Lafayette  aud  Warren 
were  to  like  offenders  against  the  National 
government.  Castle  Thunder  was  a  tobacco 
warehouse  on  the  corner  of  Carey  and  Nine¬ 
teenth  Streets.  It  was  burned  early  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1879.  (See  following  page.) 

Castle  William,  Surrender  of.  In  Sep¬ 
tember,  1770,  the  harbor  of  Boston  was  made 
the  place  of  rendezvous  of  all  the  British  war 


CASWELL 


212 


CATTLE-STEALING  GOVERNOR 


ships  stationed  in  America,  and  Hutchinson  was 
ordered  by  Gage  to  deliver  Castle  William,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  to  Colonel  Dalrym- 
ple.  This  was  by  order  of  the  king  in  council, 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the  charter,  which 


CASTLE  THUNDER. 


emphatically  reserved  to  the  Governor  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  the  command  of  all  the  militia  of 
the  province  and  of  its  forts.  The  castle  had 
been  built  and  garrisoned  at  the  expense  of  the 
colony;  and  to  take  it  from  the  governor  and 
place  it  at  the  disposal  of  the  military  chief 
was  a  gross  violation  of  the  charter.  It  was 
a  part  of  a  new  system  of  action  to  prevent 
American  independence,  planned  by  the  king  in 
council  in  the  previous  July. 

Caswell,  Richard,  was  born  in  Maryland, 
Aug.  3,  1729 ;  died  at  Fayetteville,  N.  C.,  Nov. 
20,  1789.  He  went  to  North  Carolina  in  1746, 
and  practised  law  there,  serving  in  the  Assem¬ 
bly  from  1754  to  1771,  and  being  speaker  in 
1770.  In  the  battle  of  the  Allamauce  (which 
see)  he  commanded  Tryou’s  right  wing,  but 
soon  afterwards  identified  himself  with  the 
cause  of  the  patriots,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  (1774-75).  For  three 
years  he  was  president  of  the  Provincial  Con¬ 
gress  of  North  Carolina,  and  was  governor  of 
the  state  from  1777  to  1779.  In  February,  1776, 
he  was  in  command  of  the  patriot  troops  in  the 
battle  of  Moore’s  Creek  Bridge  (which  see),  and 
received  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  the  com¬ 
mission  of  major-general  for  the  victory  there 
achieved.  He  led  the  state  troops  in  the  bat¬ 
tle  near  Camden  (August,  1780);  and  was  con¬ 
troller-general  in  1782.  He  was  again  govern¬ 
or  in  1784-86 ;  and  a  member  of  the  Conven¬ 
tion  that  framed  the  National  Constitution. 
While  presiding  as  speaker  in  the  North  Caro¬ 
lina  Assembly  he  was  struck  with  paralysis. 

Catawbas.  One  of  the  eight  Indian  nations 
of  North  America  discovered  by  the  Europeans 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  when  they  had 
fifteen  hundred  warriors.  They  occupied  the 
beautiful  region  between  the  Yadkin  and  Ca¬ 
tawba  Rivers,  on  each  side  of  the  boundary-line  j 
between  North  and  South  Carolina.  They  were  ! 
southward  of  the  Tuscaroras,  and  were  gener¬ 
ally  on  good  terms  with  them.  They  were 
brave,  but  not  warlike,  and  generally  acted  on 
the  defensive.  In  1672  they  expelled  the  fugi¬ 
tive  Shawnoese ;  but  their  country  was  deso¬ 
lated  by  bands  of  the  Five  Nations  in  1701. 


They  assisted  the  Carolinians  against  the  Tus¬ 
caroras  and  their  confederates  in  1711 ;  but 
four  years  afterwards  they  joined  the  power¬ 
ful  league  of  the  Southern  Indians  in  endeav¬ 
ors  to  extirpate  the  white  people.  They  were 
again  the  active  allies  of  the  Carolinians  in 
1760,  when  the  Cherokees  made  war  upon 
them,  and  were  friends  of  the  “  pale  faces  ” 
ever  afterwards.  In  the  Revolution  they 
joined  the  Americans,  though  few  iu  num¬ 
bers.  They  have  occupied  a  reservation  only 
a  few  miles  square  upon  the  Catawba  River, 
near  the  mouth  of  Fishing  Creek,  and  are  now 
nearly  extinct. 

Catawbas  and  Iroquois,  Treaty  between 
the.  A  long  and  virulent  war  was  carried  on 
between  the  Catawbas  in  South  Carolina  and 
the  Iroquois.  The  English  endeavored  to 
bring  about  peace  between  them,  and  succeed¬ 
ed.  When,  iu  1751,  William  Bull,  commission¬ 
er  for  South  Carolina,  attended  a  convention 
at  Albany,  he  was  attended  by  the  chief  sa¬ 
chem  of  the  Catawbas  and  several  chiefs.  The 
hatred  between  the  two  nations  was  so  bit¬ 
ter  that  the  English  commissioners  deemed  it 
prudent  to  keep  the  Catawbas  alone  in  a  cham¬ 
ber  until  the  opening  of  the  convention,  to  pre¬ 
vent  violence.  Iu  the  convention, after  a  speech 
by  Mr.  Bull,  attended  by  the  usual  presents  of 
wampum,  the  Catawba  “  king  ”  and  his  chiefs 
approached  the  grand  council,  singing  a  song 
of  peace,  and  bearing  their  ensigns  —  colored 
feathers  carried  horizontally.  A  seat  was  pre¬ 
pared  for  them  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  company.  The  singers  continued  their 
song,  half  fronting  the  old  sachems  to  whom 
Their  words  were  addressed,  pointing  their 
feathers,  and  shaking  their  musical  calabashes, 
while  their  “king”  was  preparing  and  light¬ 
ing  the  calumet,  or  pipe  of  peace.  The  king 
first  smoked,  and  then  presented  the  pipe  to 
King  Hendrick,  of  the  Mohawks,  who  grace¬ 
fully  accepted  and  smoked  it.  Then  each  sa¬ 
chem  smoked  it  in  turn,  when  the  Catawba 
monarch  addressed  the  Six  Nations — the  sing¬ 
ers  having  fastened  their  feathers,  calabashes, 
and  pipes  to  their  tent-pole. 

Cathay.  The  old  name  of  China,  so  called 
by  the  Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo,  who,  in 
the  employ  of  the  Khan  of  Tartary,  visited  it 
early  iu  the  13th  century.  It  was  the  land 
Columbus  expected  to  find  by  sailing  west¬ 
ward  from  Spain.  (See  Zipangi.') 

Cattle,  First,  in  New  England.  In  1623, 
Edward  Winslow  went  back  to  England  to  ob¬ 
tain  a  supply  of  goods  for  the  colony,  and,  re¬ 
turning  in  March,  1624,  he  brought  with  him  a 
few  cattle.  The  story  of  John  Aldeu  taking 
his  bride  home  on  a  bull  is  a  pleasant  romance 
— nothing  more. 

Cattle-stealing  Governor.  Dr.  John  Potts 
was  chosen  by  the  Council  of  Virginia  tempo¬ 
rary  governor,  in  1629,  which  office  he  held  un¬ 
til  the  arrival  of  Sir  John  Harvey.  Soon  after 
Harvey  came  Potts  was  tried  by  a  jury  of  thir¬ 
teen  (of  whom  three  were  councillors)  for  cat¬ 
tle-stealing,  and  found  guilty;  but,  “in  regard 


CAUCUS 


213 


CAYUGAS 


of  his  quality  and  practice,”  the  record  says 
(he  was  the  only  physician  at  Jamestown),  sen¬ 
tence  was  respited  until  the  pleasure  of  the 
king  should  be  known. 

Caucus.  This  word  in  the  vocabulary  of 
the  politics  of  the  United  States  was  probably 
a  corruption  of  the  word  calkers — men  who  drive 
oakum  or  old  ropes  untwisted  into  the  seams  of 
vessels.  These  men  naturally  associat¬ 
ed  much  with  rope-makers  in  seaports. 

In  Boston  they  had  formed  an  associa¬ 
tion  of  which  the  father  of  Samuel 
Adams,  and  Samuel  Adams  himself  af¬ 
terwards,  were  members.  After  the 
Boston  Massacre  (which  see),  this  soci¬ 
ety  at  their  meetings,  in  speeches  and 
resolutions,  took  strong  grounds  against 
the  British  government,  its  acts,  and 
its  instruments  in  America,  and  planned 
schemes  for  relieving  their  country  of 
oppression.  The  Tories,  in  derision, 
called  these  assemblies  “  calkers’  meet¬ 
ings,”  which  became  corrupted  to  “cau¬ 
cus  meetings”  —  gatherings  at  which 
politicians  of  the  same  creed  meet,  con¬ 
sult,  and  lay  plans  for  political  action. 

Cavaliers  in  Virginia.  The  cavaliers 
were  the  adherents  of  the  fortunes  of  the 
Stuarts — the  nobility,  and  the  bitter  opposers  of 
the  Puritans.  On  the  death  of  Charles  I.  (1649), 
they  fled  to  Virginia  by  hundreds,  where  only, 
in  America,  their  church  and  their  king  were 
respected.  They  made  an  undesirable  addition 
to  the  population,  excepting  their  introduction 
of  more  refinement  of  manner  than  the  ordinary 
colonist  possessed.  They  were  idle,  inclined  to 
luxurious  living,  and  haughty  in  their  deport¬ 
ment  towards  the  “  common  people.”  It  was 
they  who  rallied  around  Berkeley  in  his  strug¬ 
gles  with  Bacon  (see  Bacon’s  Rebellion),  and  j 
gave  him  all  his  strength  in  the  Assembly. 
They  were  extremely  social  among  their  class, 
and  gatherings  and  feastings  and  wine-driuk- 
ing  were  much  indulged  in  until  poverty 
pinched  them.  They  gave  a  stimulus  to  the 
slave-trade,  for,  unwilling  to  work  themselves, 
they  desired  servile  tillers  of  their  broad  acres ; 
and  so  were  planted  the  seeds  of  a  landed  oli¬ 
garchy  in  Virginia  that  ruled  the  colony  until 
the  Revolution  in  1775,  and  in  a  measure  until 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War  in  1865. 

Cavalry  Obstructions.  Among  the  devices 
used  in  the  old  war  for  independence  for  ob¬ 
structing  the  progress  of  cavalry  was  an  ugly 
sharp  four-pronged  piece  of  iron,  so  arranged 
that  whatever  way  it  might  fall  upon  the 
ground  one  of  the  sharp  prongs  would  be  erect 
to  penetrate  the  foot  pressed  upon  it.  These 
were  scattered  over  the  ground  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy’s  cavalry  to 
attack.  It  was  called  a  Caltrop. 

Cave  Life  in  Vicksburg.  The  city  is  built 
upon  hills  of  clay,  through  which  streets  are 
cut.  At  these  places,  when  Grant  began  the 
siege  of  Vicksburg  (which  see),  caves  were  dug 
in  the  steep  sides  of  the  streets,  in  which  whole 
families,  bond  and  free,  took  shelter  from  shot 


and  shell  rained  upon  the  city  day  and  night, 
from  laud  and  water,  during  the  long  siege. 
In  these,  men,  women,  and  children  found  pro¬ 
tection,  while  their  houses  were  perforated  and 
the  streets  ploughed  by  balls  aud  shells.  It  was 
a  terrible  ordeal  for  the  inhabitants.  These 
caves  were  made  large  enough  to  accommodate 
whole  families,  and,  in  several  instances,  one 


CAVE  LIFE  IN  VICKSBURG. 

communicated  with  others  by  means  of  a  sub¬ 
terranean  corridor.  In  these  caves,  two  or 
three  children  were  born  during  the  siege.  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  during  that  siege 
only  a  few  people  in  the  city,  not  in  the  army, 
lost  their  lives. 

Cayugas.  These  composed  the  fourth  nation 
of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy  (which  see),  and 
called  themselves  Goiogwen,  or  “  Men  of  the 
Woods.”  Tradition  says  that  at  the  formation 
of  the  confederacy,  Hi-a-wat-ha  said  to  the  Ca¬ 
yugas  :  “You,  Cayugas, a  people  whose  habita¬ 
tion  is  the  ‘  Dark  Forest,’  aud  whose  home  is 
everywhere,  shall  be  the  fourth  nation,  because 
of  your  superior  cunning  in  hunting.”  They 


inhabited  the  pleasant  country  about  Cayuga 
Lake  in  central  New  York,  and  numbered  about 
three  hundred  warriors  when  first  discovered 
by  the  French  at  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  nation  was  composed  of  the  fam- 


CEDAR  CREEK,  BATTLE  OF  214  CEDAR  CREEK,  BATTLE  OF 


ilies  of  the  Turtle,  Bear,  and  Wolf,  like  the  other 
cantons,  and  also  those  of  the  Beaver,  Snipe, 
Heron,  and  Hawk.  They  were  represented  in 
the  congress  of  the  league  by  ten  sachems. 
Through  Jesuit  missionaries  the  French  made 
fruitless  attempts  to  Christianize  the  Cayugas 
and  win  them  over  to  the  Freuch  interest,  but 
found  them  uniformly  enemies.  During  the  old 
war  for  independence  the  Cayugas  were  against 
the  colonists.  They  fought  the  Virginians  at 
Point  Pleasant  in  1774.  They  hung  upon  the 
flank  and  rear  of  the  army  under  Sullivan  that 
invaded  the  territory  of  the  Senecas  in  1779 ; 
but  they  soon  had  their  own  villages  destroyed, 
which  greatly  annoyed  them.  After  the  war  they 
ceded  their  lands  to  the  State  of  New  York,  ex¬ 
cepting  a  small  reservation,  which  they  aban¬ 
doned  in  the  year  1800,  wrhen  some  of  them 
joined  the  Senecas,  some  went  to  the  Grand 
River  in  Canada,  and  some  to  Sandusky,  Ohio, 
when  they  were  removed  to  the  Indian  Terri¬ 
tory  (which  see).  In  1876  they  numbered  only 
a  little  over  two  hundred. 

Cedar  Creek,  Battle  of.  In  October,  1864, 
the  National  army,  commanded  by  General 
Wright,  in  the  temporary  absence  of  Sheridan 
(see  Fiaher’s  Hill )  at  the  capital,  were  so  strong- 


of  the  divisions  of  Kershaw  and  Wharton.  At 
dawn  these  moving  columns  fell  upon  the  right, 
left,  and  rear  of  the  Nationals.  It  was  a  sur¬ 
prise.  So  furious  was  the  assault  before  the 
Nationals  had  time  to  take  battle  order,  that 
in  fifteen  minutes  Crook’s  corps,  that  held  a 
position  in  front,  and  had  heard  mysterious 
sounds  like  the  dull,  heavy  tramp  of  an  army, 
wms  broken  into  fragments,  and  sent  flying  back 
in  disorder  upon  the  corps  of  Emory  and  Wright. 
Crook  left  seven  hundred  men  as  prisoners,  with 
many  cannons,  small-arms,  and  munitions  of 
war  in  the  hands  of  the  Confederates.  Emory 
tried  in  vain  to  stop  the  fugitives,  but  very  soon 
his  own  corps  gave  way,  leaving  several  guns 
behind.  These,  with  Crook’s,  eighteen  in  all, 
were  turned  upon  the  fugitives  with  fearful 
effect,  while  Early’s  right  column,  led  by  Gor¬ 
don,  continued  their  flanking  advance  with 
vigor,  turning  the  Nationals  out  of  every  posi¬ 
tion  where  they  attempted  to  make  a  stand. 
Seeing  the  peril  of  his  army,  Wright  ordered  a 
general  retreat,  which  was  covered  by  the  Sixth 
Corps,  under  the  command  of  Ricketts,  which 
remained  unbroken.  The  whole  army  retreated 
to  Middletown,  a  little  village  five  miles  north 
of  Strasburg,  where  Wright  rallied  his  broken 


VIEW  AT  CEDAR  CREEK  BATTLE-GROUND. 


ly  posted  behind  Cedar  Creek  that  they  had  no 
expectation  of  an  attack.  They  were  mistaken. 
Early  felt  keenly  his  misfortune,  and,  having 
been  reinforced  by  Kershaw’s  division  and  six 
hundred  cavalry  sent  by  Lee,  he  determined  to 
make  a  bold  movement,  swiftly  and  stealthily, 
against  the  Nationals.  He  secretly  gathered 
his  forces  at  Fisher’s  Hill  behind  a  mask  of 
thick  woods,  and  formed  them  in  two  columns 
to  make  a  simultaneous  attack  upon  both  flanks 
of  the  Nationals.  He  moved  soon  after  mid¬ 
night  (Oct.  19,  1864),  with  horse,  foot,  and  ar¬ 
tillery,  along  rugged  paths  over  the  hills,  for 
he  shunned  the  highways  for  fear  of  discovery. 
The  divisions  of  Gordon,  Ramseur,  and  Pegram 
formed  his  right  column ;  his  left  was  composed 


columns,  and,  falling  back  a  mile  or  more,  left 
Early  in  possession  of  Middletown.  The  Na¬ 
tionals  had  lost  since  daybreak  (it  was  now  ten 
o’clock)  twelve  hundred  men  made  captive,  be¬ 
sides  a  large  number  killed  and  wounded ;  also 
camp  equipage,  lines  of  defence,  and  twenty-four 
cannons.  There  being  a  lull  in  the  pursuit, 
Wright  had  re-formed  his  troops  and  changed 
his  front,  intending  to  attack  or  retreat  to  Win¬ 
chester  as  circumstances  might  dictate.  At  that 
critical  moment  Sheridan  appeared  on  the  field. 
He  had  returned  from  Washington,  and  had  slept 
at  Winchester.  Early  in  the  morning  he  heard 
the  booming  of  cannon  up  the  valley,  and  sup¬ 
posed  it  to  be  only  a  reconnoissance.  After  break¬ 
fast  he  mounted  his  horse  —  a  powerful  black 


215 


C^LORON’S  EXPEDITION 


CEDAR  MOUNTAIN,  BATTLE  OF 

charger — and  moved  leisurely  out  of  the  city 
southward.  He  soou  met  the  van  of  fugitives, 
who  told  a  dreadful  tale  of  disaster.  He  imme¬ 
diately  ordered  the  retreating  artillery  to  be 
parked  on  each  side  of  the  turnpike.  Then, 
ordering  his  escort  to  follow,  he  put  his  horse  on 
a  swinging  gallop,  and  at  that  pace  rode  nearly 
twelve  miles  to  the  front.  The  fugitives  be¬ 
came  thicker  and  thicker  every  moment.  He 
did  not  stop  to  chide  or  coax,  but,  waving  his 
hat  as  his  horse  thundered  on  over  the  magnifi¬ 
cent  stone  road,  he  shouted  to  the  cheering 
crowds,  “Face  the  other  way,  boys!  face  the 
other  way  !  We  are  going  back  to  our  camp. 
We  are  going  to  lick  them  out  of  their  boots !” 
Instantly  the  tide  of  retreating  troops  turned 
and  followed  after  the  young  general.  As  he 
dashed  along  the  lines  and  rode  in  front  of 
forming  regiments,  he  gave  a  word  of  cheer  to 
all.  He  declared  they  should  have  all  those 
camps  and  cannons  back  again.  They  believed 
the  prophecy,  and  fought  fiercely  for  its  fulfil¬ 
ment.  The  re-formed  army  advanced  in  full 
force.  Already  (ten  o’clock  A.M.)  Emory  had 
quickly  repulsed  an  attack,  which  inspirited  the 
whole  corps.  A  general  and  severe  struggle  en¬ 
sued.  The  whole  Coufederate  army  were  soon 
in  full  and  tumultuous  retreat  up  the  valley 
towards  Fisher’s  Hill,  leaving  guns,  trains,  and 
other  hinderances  to  flight  behind.  Early’s 
army  was  virtually  destroyed  ;  and,  with  the 
exception  of  two  or  three  skirmishes  between 
cavalry,  there  was  no  more  fighting  in  the  Shen¬ 
andoah  Valley.  That  night  the  Nationals  occu¬ 
pied  their  old  position  at  Cedar  Creek.  The 
promise  of  Sheridan,  “  We  will  have  all  the 
camps  and  cannons  back  again”  was  fulfilled. 
Sheridan  was  rewarded  by  the  commission  of  a 
major-general  in  the  regular  army,  dated  Nov. 
4,  1864.  “  Sheridan’s  Ride”  was  made  the  theme 
of  poetry  and  painting. 

Cedar  Mountain,  Battle  of.  Pope’s  main 
army  (see  Army  of  Virginia)  was  near  Culpepper 
Court-house,  and  “Stonewall  Jackson”  was  at 
Gordonsville,  with  a  heavy  force,  at  the  close  of 
July,  1862.  Pope  had  taken  command  on  June 
28,  and  assumed  the  control  in  the  field  on  the 
29th  of  July.  Both  armies  advanced  early  in 
August.  Jackson,  reinforced,  had  thrown  his 
army  across  the  Rapid  Anna  River  on  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  the  8th,  and  driven  the  National  cavalry 
back  on  Culpepper  Court-house.  General  S.  W. 
Crawford  was  sent  with  his  brigade  to  assist  the 
latter  in  retarding  Jackson’s  march,  and  to  as¬ 
certain  his  real  intentions,  if  possible.  The 
movements  of  the  Confederates  were  so  myste¬ 
rious  that  it  was  difficult  to  guess  Avhere  they 
intended  to  strike.  On  the  morning  of  Aug.  9, 
Pope  sent  General  Banks  forward  with  about 
eight  thousand  men  to  join  Crawford  near  Ce¬ 
dar  Mountain,  eight  miles  southward  of  Cul¬ 
pepper  Court-house,  and  Sigel  was  ordered  to 
advance  from  Sperryville  at  the  same  time  to 
the  support  of  Banks.  Jackson  had  now  gained 
the  commanding  heights  of  Cedar  Mountain,  and 
he  sent  forward  General  Ewell  under  the  thick 
mask  of  the  forest.  Early’s  brigade  of  that  di¬ 
vision  was  thrown  upon  the  Culpepper  road. 


The  Confederates  planted  batteries,  and  opened 
fire  upon  Crawford’s  batteries.  Before  Crawford 
and  Banks  were  about  twenty  thousand  veteran 
soldiers  in  line  of  battle.  Against  these  Banks 
moved  towards  evening,  and  almost  simultane¬ 
ously  fell  upon  Jackson’s  right  and  left.  The 
attacking  force  was  composed  of  the  division  of 
General  Auger  (the  advance  led  by  General 
Geary)  aud  the  division  of  General  Williams, 
of  which  Crawford’s  brigade  was  a  part.  The 
battle  now  became  general,  and  raged  for  an 
hour  and  a  half,  during  which  deeds  of  great 
valor  were  performed  on  both  sides.  The  Na¬ 
tionals,  outnumbered,  were  pushed  back  after 
much  loss  by  both  parties.  At  dusk  Ricketts’s 
division  of  McDowell’s  corps  came  upon  the  field, 
and  checked  the  pursuit.  Artillery  firing  was 
kept  up  until  near  midnight.  Later  in  the 
evening  Sigel’s  corps  arrived,  and  these  rein¬ 
forcements  kept  Jackson  in  check.  On  the 
night  of  the  11th,  informed  of  the  approach  of 
National  troops  from  the  Rappahannock,  and 
alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his  communications 
with  Richmond,  he  fled  beyond  the  Rapid  Anna, 
leaving  a  part  of  his  dead  uu buried. 

Cedars,  Affair  at  the  (1776).  There  was  a 
small  American  party  posted  at  the  Cedars  Rapids 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  under  Colonel  Bedel, 
of  New  Hampshire.  While  the  colonel  was  sick 
at  Lachiue,  Captain  Foster,  with  some  regulars, 
Canadians,  and  five  hundred  Mohawks,  under 
Brant,  came  down  the  river  and  attacked  and 
captured  this  post  without  resistance.  Arnold 
went  out  from  Montreal  with  a  force  to  attack 
the  captors ;  but,  to  prevent  the  Indians  mur¬ 
dering  the  prisoners,  he  consented  to  a  compro¬ 
mise  for  an  exchange.  Congress  refused  to  ratify 
this  agreement,  aud  trouble  ensued. 

Celoron’s  Expedition.  The  treaty  of  peace 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748  did  not  touch  the 
subject  of  boundaries  between  the  French  aud 
English  colonies  in  America.  The  Ohio  Com¬ 
pany  was  formed  partly  for  the  purpose  of 
planting  English  settlements  in  the  disputed 
territory.  (See  Ohio  Company.)  The  French 
determined  to  counteract  the  movement  by  pre¬ 
occupation  ;  and  in  1749  the  Governor  of  Canada, 
the  Marquis  de  la  Galissoui&re,  sent  Bienville  de 
Cffioron  with  subordinate  officers,  cadets,  twenty 
soldiers,  one  hundred  and  eighty  Canadians, 
thirty  Iroquois,  aud  twenty-five  Abenakes,  with 
instructions  to  go  down  the  Ohio  River  and  take 
formal  possession  of  the  surrounding  country 
in  the  name  of  the  King  of  France.  Contrecceur, 
afterwards  in  command  at  Fort  Duquesne  (see 
Duquesne,  Fort),  and  Coulon  de  Villiers  accom¬ 
panied  him  as  chief  lieutenants.  C61oron  was 
provided  with  a  number  of  leaden  tablets,  prop¬ 
erly  inscribed  (see  Froces  Verbal),  to  bury  at  dif¬ 
ferent  places  as  a  record  of  pre-occupation  by 
the  French.  The  expedition  left  Lachine  on 
the  15th  of  June,  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence, 
crossed  Lake  Ontario,  arrived  at  Niagara  July 
6,  coasted  some  distance  along  the  southern 
shores  of  Lake  Erie,  and  then  made  an  overland 
journey  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Alleghany 
River.  Following  that  stream  to  its  junction 


216 


CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION 


CENSUS,  THE  FIRST 


with  the  Monongahela,  they  went  down  the 
Ohio  to  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Miami,  below 
Cincinnati,  proclaiming  French  sovereignty,  and 
burying  six  leaden  tablets  at  as  many  different 
places.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Miami  they 
made  an  overland  journey  to  Lake  Erie,  and 
reached  Fort  Niagara  Oct.  19, 1749. — Monograph 
of  0.  M.  Marshall. 

Census,  The  first.  The  Constitution  hav¬ 
ing  prescribed  that  an  enumeration  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  the  United  States  should  be  made, 
and  that  the  representation  should  be  appor¬ 
tioned  in  the  manner  specified  in  Section  2, 
Article  I.,  the  House  of  Representatives  ap¬ 
pointed  a  committee  (May  18,  1789)  to  prepare 
and  bring  in  a  bill  for  the  purpose.  That  com¬ 
mittee  never  reported.  On  Jan.  11,  1790,  an¬ 
other  committee  was  appointed ;  and  on  the 
18th  Mr.  Foster  from  this  committee  reported  a 
bill,  and  it  became  law,  March  1,  1790.  The 
census  was  taken,  and  the  returns  were  laid  be¬ 
fore  Congress  by  the  President,  Oct.  27,  1791, 
showing  that  in  the  fifteen  states  (Vermont  and 
Kentucky  having  been  added  to  the  original  thir¬ 
teen),  and  in  the  “ Northwest”  and  “Southwest” 
Territory,  there  were  .‘5,921,326  persons  (excepting 
Indians  not  taxed),  of  whom  697,697  were  slaves. 

Centennial  Exhibition.  A  “World’s  Fair” 
was  held  at  Philadelphia  for  six  months  in  1876, 
the  centennial  year  of  the  political  existence  of 
the  North  American  Republic.  The  first  sug¬ 
gestion  for  such  a  celebration  was  made  several 
years  before,  and  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  where 
the  Continental  Congress  adopted  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Independence  (July  4,  1776),  and  so  laid 
the  corner-stone  of  our  national  structure,  was 
chosen  as  the  most  appropriate  place  for  the 
exhibition.  The  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania 
asked  Congress  to  take  action  in  favor  of  a  cen¬ 
tennial  celebration  to  be  held  in  Philadelphia. 


I  at  Philadelphia  and  organized  a  “Centennial 
Commission,”  with  General  Joseph  R.  Hawley, 
President ;  Orestes  Cleveland,  John  D.  Creigli, 
Robert  Lowrey,  Thomas  Caldwell,  John  McNeil, 
and  William  Gurney,  Vice-Presidents  ;  Alfred  T. 
Goshorn,  Director-general ;  John  L.  Campbell, 
Secretary  ;  and  John  L.  Shoemaker,  Solicitor. 
On  June  1, 1872,  Congress  passed  an  act  provid¬ 
ing  for  a  Centennial  Board  of  Finance.  The 
members  of  this  board  were  authorized  to  pro¬ 
cure  subscriptions  to  a  capital  stock  not  ex¬ 
ceeding  $10,000,000,  in  shares  of  $10  each.  Will¬ 
iam  Welsh,  of  Philadelphia,  was  chosen  presi¬ 
dent  of  this  board.  William  Seilers  and  John 
S.  Barbour  were  appointed  vice-presidents,  and 
Frederick  Freleigh  treasurer.  An  official  seal 
was  adopted,  simple  in  design.  The  words 
United  States  Centennial  Commission  were 
placed  in  concentric  circles  around  the  edge  of 
the  seal.  In  the  centre  was  a  view  of  the  old 
j  State-house  in  Philadelphia;  and  beneath  the 
building  were  the  words  (cast  on  the  State-house 
bell  ten  years  before  the  Revolution)  “Pro¬ 
claim  Liberty  throughout  the  Land,  and 

TO  ALL  THE  INHABITANTS  THEREOF.”  It  was 
soon  decided  to  make  the  affair  international, 
instead  of  national — an  exhibition  of  the  prod¬ 
ucts  of  all  nations.  Fairmount  Park,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  was  chosen  as  the  place  to  hold  the 
great  fair.  Suitable  buildings  were  erected,  five 
in  number — namely,  Main  Exhibition  Building, 
Memorial  Hall  (or  Art  Gallery),  Machinery  Hall, 
Horticultural  Hall,  and  Agricultural  Hall.  The 
aggregate  cost  of  these  buildings  was  about 
$4,444,000.  The  space  occupied  by  them  was 
about  forty-niue  acres  of  ground,  and  their  an¬ 
nexes  covered  twenty-six  acres  more,  making  a 
total  of  seventy-five  acres.  The  main  building 
alone  covered  over  twenty-one  acres.  The  na¬ 
tional  government  issued  invitations  to  the  ex¬ 
hibitors  of  all  foreign  nations  having  diplomat- 


CENTENNIAL  BUILDINGS. 


A  bill  to  that  effect  received  the  signature  of 
President  Grant  and  became  a  law  March  3, 
1871.  It  was  at  first  proposed  to  make  it  a 
purely  national  affair — the  occasion  of  a  dis¬ 
play  of  the  products  of  the  United  States  only. 
The  bill  provided  for  a  national  commission,  to 
be  composed  of  one  commissioner  and  one  alter¬ 
nate  commissioner  from  every  state  and  terri¬ 
tory  in  the  Union.  These  were  appointed  by 
the  President.  On  March  24,1872,  such  repre¬ 
sentatives,  from  twenty-four  states,  three  terri¬ 
tories,  and  the  District  of  Columbia,  assembled 


ic  relations  with  the  United  States  to  partici¬ 
pate  in  the  exhibition  by  sending  the  products 
of  their  industries.  There  was  a  generous  re¬ 
sponse,  and  thirty-three  nations,  besides  that  of 
the  United  States,  were  represented  by  products 
of  their  industry — namely,  Argentine  Republic, 
Austria,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Canada,  Chili,  China, 
Denmark,  Egypt,  France,  Germany,  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  and  Ireland,  India  and  British  colonies,  Ha¬ 
waiian  Islands,  Hungary,  Italy,  Japan,  Liberia, 
Luxemburg  Grand  Dnchy,  Mexico,  Netherlands, 
Norway,  Orange  Free  State,  Peru,  Portugal,  Rns- 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 


217 


sia,  Santo  Domingo,  Spain  and  Spanish  colonies, 
Siam,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Tunis,  Turkey,  and 
Venezuela.  A  “Woman’s  Executive  Commit¬ 
tee”  was  formed,  composed  of  Philadelphians, 
who  raised  money  sufficient  among  the  women 
of  the  Union  for  the  erection  of  a  building  for 
the  exhibition  exclusively  of  women’s  work — 
sculpture,  paiuting,  engraving,  lithography,  lit¬ 
erature,  telegraphy,  needlework  of  all  kinds, 
etc. — at  a  cost  of  $30,000.  The  women  of  the 
republic  also  contributed  to  the  general  fund  of 
the  Centennial  Commission  more  than  $100,000. 
The  building  was  called  the  “  Women’s  Pavil¬ 
ion.”  In  it  were  exhibited  beautiful  needle¬ 
work  from  England  and  etchings  from  the  hand 
of  Queen  Victoria.  The  great  exhibition  was 
opened  May  10,  1876,  and  was  closed  Nov.  10, 
the  same  year.  The  opening  ceremonies  were 
grand  and  imposing.  Representatives  of  many 
nations  were  present.  Dom  Pedro  II.,  Emper¬ 
or  of  Brazil  (with  his  empress),  was  the  only 
crowned  head  present.  The  American  Con¬ 
gress  and  foreign  diplomats  were  largely  rep¬ 
resented.  The  President  of  the  United  States 
(General  Grant),  in  the  presence  of  full  one 
hundred  thousand  people,  appeared  upon  the 
great  platform  erected  for  the  occasion,  accom¬ 
panied  by  his  wife,  when  the  “  Grand  Centen¬ 
nial  March,”  composed  by  Richard  Wagner,  the 
great  German  musical  composer,  was  performed 
by  the  orchestra  of  Theodore  Thomas.  Then 
Bishop  Simpson,  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  uttered  a  comprehensive  prayer,  with 
praise  and  thanksgiving,  and  was  followed  by  a 
thousand  voices  chanting  an  impressive  “Cen¬ 
tennial  Hymn,”  composed  by  John  Greenleaf 
Whittier,  accompanied  by  a  grand  organ  and 
the  whole  orchestra.  When  the  chanting  was 
ended  the  chairman  of  the  “  Centennial  Board 
of  Finance”  formally  presented  the  building  to 
the  “  United  States  Centennial  Commission.” 
Then  a  cantata,  composed  by  Sidney  Lanier,  of 
Georgia,  was  sung ;  when  General  Hawley,  Pres¬ 
ident  of  the  Commission,  in  a  short  speech,  pre¬ 
sented  the  exhibition  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  after  which  the  latter  made  a  brief 
response.  The  American  flag  was  then  unfurled 
over  the  Main  Building,  which  gave  notice  to  the 
multitude  that  the  Centennial  Exhibition  was 
opened.  The  government  of  the  United  States, 
separate  states,  foreign  governments,  different 
industries,  corporations,  and  individuals  erected 
buildings  on  the  grounds,  making  the  whole 
number  of  structures  190.  The  exhibition  was 
open  for  pay  admissions  159  days,  the  pay-gates 
being  closed  on  Sundays.  The  total  number  of 
cash  admissions  at  fifty  cents  each  was  7,250,620 ; 
and  at  twenty-five  cents,  753,654.  The  number 
of  free  admissions  was  1,906,692,  making  the 
grand  total  of  admissions  9,910,966.  The  larg¬ 
est  number  of  admissions  in  a  full  month  was 
in  October,  when  it  reached  2,663,911.  The 
largest  number  admitted  in  a  single  day  — 
“Pennsylvania  Day” — was  274,919.  The  total 
amount  of  cash  receipts  was  $3,813,725.50.  The 
exhibition  closed,  with  imposing  ceremonies,  on 
Nov.  10, 1876. 

Central  America  was  discovered  by  Colum- 


CERRO  GORDO,  BATTLE  OF 

bus,  in  his  fourth  voyage,  in  1502.  He  discov¬ 
ered  the  bay  of  Honduras,  where  he  lauded , 
then  proceeded  along  the  main  shore  to  Cape 
Gracias  a  Dios;  and  thence  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  hoping,  but  in  vain,  to  obtain  a  passage 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  At  the  isthmus  he  found 
a  harbor,  an<J,  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  se¬ 
curity,  he  called  it  Porto  Bello.  At  another 
place  in  that  country,  on  the  Dureka  River,  he 
began  a  settlement  with  sixty-eight  men  ;  but 
they  were  driven  off  by  a  warlike  tribe  of  In¬ 
dians — the  first  repulse  the  Spaniards  had  ever 
met  with.  But  for  this  occurrence,  caused  by 
the  rapacity  and  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards,  Co¬ 
lumbus  might  have  had  the  honor  of  planting 
the  first  European  colony  on  the  continent  of 
America. 

Central  America,  First  attempt  at  Set¬ 
tlement  in.  In  1509  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  with 
three  hundred  soldiers,  began  a  settlement  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  At  the 
same  time  Diego  Nicuessa,  with  six  vessels  and 
seven  hundred  and  eighty  men,  began  another 
settlement  on  the  west  side.  Both  were  broken 
up  by  the  fierce  natives  ;  and  thus  the  Span¬ 
iards,  for  the  first  time,  were  taught  to  dread 
the  dusky  people  of  the  New  World.  This  was 
the  first  attempt  of  Europeans  to  make  a  per¬ 
manent  lodgment  on  the  continent  of  America. 

Cerro  Gordo,  Battle  of.  Cerro  Gordo  is  a 
difficult  mountain  pass,  at  the  foot  of  the  east¬ 
ern  slope  of  the  Cordilleras,  on  the  great  na¬ 
tional  road  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Mex¬ 
ico.  Santa  Ana,  by  extraordinary  efforts  after 
the  battle  of  Buena  Vista  (which  see),  had  gath¬ 
ered  a  force  of  about  12,000  men  from  among  the 
sierras  of  Orizaba,  concentrated  them  upon  the 
heights  of  Cerro  Gordo,  and  strongly  fortified 
the  position.  When  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz 
(which  see)  was  completed,  General  Scott  pre¬ 
pared  to  march  upon  the  Mexican  capital,  along 
the  national  road.  He  left  General  Worth  as 
temporary  governor  of  Vera  Cruz,  with  a  suffi¬ 
cient  garrison  for  the  Castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa, 
and  moved  forward  (April  8,1847)  with  about 
8000  men,  the  division  of  General  D.  A.  Twiggs 
in  advance.  Twiggs  approached  Cerro  Gordo 
on  the  13th,  and  found  Santa  Ana  iu  his  path. 
Scott  arrived  the  next  morning  and  prepared  to 
attack  the  stronghold.  On  the  17th  he  issued 
a  remarkable  general  order,  directing,  in  detail, 
the  movements  of  the  army  in  the  coming  bat¬ 
tle.  These  directions  followed,  secured  a  vic¬ 
tory.  That  order  appeared  almost  prophetic. 
On  the  18th  the  attack  commenced,  and  very 
severe  was  the  struggle.  It  was  fought  in  a 
wild  place  in  the  mountains.  On  one  side  was 
a  deep,  dark  river;  on  the  other  was  a  frowning 
declivity  of  rock  a  thousand  feet  in  height, 
bristling  with  batteries;  while  above  all  arose 
the  strong  fortress  of  Cerro  Gordo.  The  place 
had  to  be  taken  by  storm ;  and  the  party  chos¬ 
en  to  do  the  work  was  composed  of  the  regu¬ 
lars  of  Twiggs’s  division,  led  by  Colonel  Harney. 
Victory  followed  the  efforts  of  skill  and  bra¬ 
very,  and  strong  Cerro  Gordo  fell.  Velasquez, 
the  commander  of  the  fortress,  was  killed ;  and 


CESSION  OF  TERRITORY  218  CHAMPION  HILLS,  BATTLE  OF 


the  Mexican  standard  was  hauled  down  by  Ser¬ 
geant  Thomas  Henry.  Santa  Ana,  with  Almon¬ 
te  and  other  generals.,  and  8000  troops,  escaped  ; 
the  remainder  were  made  prisoners.  Santa  Ana 
attempted  to  fly  with  his  carriage,  which  con¬ 
tained  a  large  amount  of  specie ;  but  it  was 
overturned,  when,  mounting  a  mule  taken  from 
the  carriage  harness,  he  fled  to  the  moun¬ 
tains,  leaving  behind  him  his  wooden  leg — 
a  substitute  for  the  real  one  which  was  am¬ 
putated  after  a  wound  received  in  the  defence 
of  Vera  Cruz  in  1837.  In  the  vehicle  were 
found  his  papers,  clothing,  and  a  pair  of  wom¬ 
an’s  satin  slippers.  The  victory  of  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  was  complete  and  decisive.  The  trophies 
were  3000  prisoners  (who  were  paroled),  43 
pieces  of  bronze  artillery  (cast  in  Seville,  Spain), 
5000  stand  of  arms  (which  were  destroyed),  and 
a  large  quantity  of  munitions  of  war.  The  fu¬ 
gitives  were  pursued  towards  Jalapa  with  vigor. 
Iu  that  battle  the  Americans  lost  431  men.  The 
loss  of  the  Mexicans  was  about  1200  killed  and 
wounded  and  3000  prisonei's.  (See  Mexico,  War 
■with.) 

Cession  of  Territory  by  South  Carolina. 

In  1787  the  Legislature  of  South  Carolina  pass- 


governor  of  Maine  in  1806-70,  was  born  at  Ban¬ 
gor,  Sept.  8,  1828,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1852.  He  had  attended  a  military 
academy  in  his  boyhood.  He  was  a  professor 
in  his  alma  mater  from  1855  to  1862,  when  he 
was  appointed  lieutenant -colonel  of  a  Maine 
regiment,  and  rose  to  brigadier-general  in  the 
summer  of  1864.  He  was  severely  wounded  in 
the  siege  of  Petersburg,  and  again  at  Quaker 
Road  iu  March,  1865.  In  the  tinal  operations 
ending  in  Lee’s  surrender  he  commanded  a  di¬ 
vision  of  the  Fifth  Corps.  General  Chamber- 
lain  was  a  most  active  and  efficient  officer,  and 
was  iu  twenty-four  pitched  battles.  He  was  six 
times  wounded — three  times  severely.  He  was 
designated  to  receive  the  formal  surrender  of 
the  weapons  and  colors  of  Lee’s  army.  He  re¬ 
sumed  his  professional  duties  iu  the  college  iu 
1865 ;  was  elected  governor  of  Maine  in  1866 ; 
and  in  1871  was  chosen  president  of  Bowdoin 
College. 

Chambly,  Fort,  Capture  of  (1775).  It  was 
supposed  by  General  Carleton  that  the  fort  at 
Chambly,  twelve  miles  below  St.  John,  at  the 
rapids  of  the  Sorel,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Cham¬ 
plain,  could  not  be  reached  by  the  republicans 


FORT  AT  CHAMBLY. 


ed  an  act  for  ceding  to  the  United  States  the 
western  territory  of  that  state  towards  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi. 

Chain  and  Boom  at  Fort  Montgomery. 

In  1776  the  Committee  of  Safety  of  New  York 
caused  a  chain  and  boom,  eighteen  hundred  feet 
in  length,  of  about  half  the  strength  of  one 
which  was  afterwards  placed  at  West  Point,  to  be 
stretched  across  the  Hudson  between  Anthony’s 
Nose,  on  the  eastern  side,  and  Fort  Montgomery, 
on  the  western  shore.  Twice  the  river  cur¬ 
rents  swept  away  these  obstructions ;  but  a 
third  one,  constructed  in  the  spring  of  1777,  en¬ 
dured  until  the  capture  of  forts  Clinton  aud 
Montgomery,  iu  the  autumn  of  that  year,  by  the 
British,  who  destroyed  it,  thus  permitting  Brit¬ 
ish  vessels  to  pass  up  the  Hudson  bearing  the 
marauders  who  burned  Kingston.  (See  Kings¬ 
ton,  Burning  of.)  Most  of  the  obstacles  placed 
in  the  Hudson  were  put  thei’e  under  the  super¬ 
intendence  of  Captain  Thomas  Machin. 

Chamberlain,  Joshua  Lawrence,  LL.D., 


so  long  as  the  British  held  the  post  above  and 
kept  only  a  feeble  garrison  there.  Informed 
of  this  by  Canadian  scouts,  Montgomery,  be¬ 
sieging  St.  John,  sent  Colonel  Bedel,  of  New 
Hampshire,  with  troops  to  capture  the  post. 
He  was  assisted  by  Majors  Brown  aud  Living¬ 
ston.  The  attack  was  planned  by  Canadians 
familiar  with  the  place.  Artillery  was  placed  in 
batteaux,  and,  during  a  dark  night,  was  conveyed 
past  the  foi’t  at  St.  John  to  the  head  of  Cham¬ 
bly  Rapids,  where  the  guns  were  mounted  and 
taken  to  the  place  of  attack.  The  garrison  sur¬ 
rendered  after  making  slight  resistance.  The 
spoils  were  a  large  quantity  of  provisions  and 
military  stoi’es ;  also  the  colors  of  the  Seventh 
Regiment  of  British  regulax-s,  which  were  sent 
to  the  Continental  Congress,  and  were  the  first 
trophies  of  war  received  by  that  body.  This 
disaster  hastened  the  downfall  of  St.  John. 
(See  St.  John,  Siege  of.) 

Champion  Hills,  Battle  of.  Grant,  at  Jack- 
sou  (which  see),  hearing  of  the  arrival  of  John- 


CHAMPLAIN 


219 


CHAMPLAIN 


ston  and  his  order  for  Pemberton  to  strike  his 
rear,  perceived  the  reason  for  the  sudden  evacu¬ 
ation  of  their  post  by  the  troops  at  the  capital. 
No  doubt  they  had  been  sent  to  join  Pemberton 
that  the  latter  might  crush  Grant  by  the  weight 
of  superior  numbers.  The  latter  comprehended 
his  peril,  and  instantly  took  measures  to  meet 
Pemberton  before  such  junction  could  take 
place.  He  ordered  a  concentration  of  his  forces 
at  Edwards’s  Station,  two  miles  from  the  rail¬ 
way  bridge  over  the  Big  Black  River.  While 
Sherman  tarried  in  Jackson  long  enough  to  de¬ 
stroy  the  railways,  military  factories,  arsenal, 
bridges,  cotton  factories,  stores,  and  other  pub¬ 
lic  property,  the  remainder  of  the  army  turned 
their  faces  towards  Vicksburg.  Pemberton  was 
at  or  near  Edwards’s  Station,  with  about  25,000 
troops  aud  ten  batteries  of  artillery.  Blair 
moved  towards  the  station,  followed  by  McCler- 
nand  and  Osterhaus ;  while  McPher¬ 
son,  on  another  road,  kept  up  com¬ 
munication  with  McClernand.  Pem¬ 
berton  had  advanced  to  Champion 
Hills,  when  a  note  from  Johnston 
caused  him  to  send  his  trains  back 
to  the  Big  Black  River ;  and  he  was 
about  to  follow  writh  his  troops, 
wheu  Grant,  close  upon  him,  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  remain  aud  light 
(May  16,  1863).  General  Hovey’s 
division  now  held  the  advance  di¬ 
rectly  in  front  of  Pemberton.  At 
eleven  o’clock  a  battle  began,  Ho¬ 
vey’s  division  bearing  the  brunt, 
and,  after  a  severe  contest  of  an 
hour  aud  a  half,  his  infantry  were 
compelled  to  hill  back  half  a  mile 
to  the  position  of  his  artillery. 

Reinforced,  he  renewed  the  battle 
with  great  energy.  Finally  Pem¬ 
berton’s  left  began  to  bend  under 
Logan’s  severe  pressure,  and,  at  live 
o’clock,  gave  way.  The  rest  of  his 
army  became  so  confused  and  dis¬ 
heartened  that  they  began  to  fly. 

Seeing  this,  Pemberton  ordered  his 
whole  army  to  retreat  towards  the 
Big  Black  River;  when  Grant  or¬ 
dered  the  fresh  brigades  of  Oster¬ 
haus  and  Carr  to  follow  with  all 
speed,  and  cross  the  river,  if  possi¬ 
ble.  In  the  retreat  Pemberton 
lost  many  of  his  troops,  made  prisoners.  This 
battle  was  fought  mainly  by  Hovey’s  division 
of  McClernand’s  corps  and  Logan’s  and  Quiu- 
by’s  divisions  (the  latter  commanded  by  Crock¬ 
er)  of  McPherson’s  corps.  The  National  loss 
was  2457,  of  whom  426  were  killed.  The  loss 
of  the  Confederates  was  estimated  to  have  been 
quite  equal  to  that  of  the  Nationals  in  killed 
and  wounded,  besides  almost  2000  prisoners,  18 
guns,  and  a  large  quantity  of  small  -  arms. 
Among  the  killed  was  General  Tilghman,  who 
was  captured  at  Fort  Henry  (which  see)  the 
year  before. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de,  a  French  navigator, 
was  born  at  Brouage,  France,  in  1567 ;  died  Dec. 
25, 1635.  His  family  had  many  fishermen  aud 


mariners,  and  he  was  carefully  educated  for  a 
navigator.  In  early  life  he  was  in  the  cavalry 
of  Brittany,  and  was  with  his  uncle,  pilot-gen¬ 
eral  of  the  fleets  of  Spaiu,  wheu  that  officer  con¬ 
ducted  back  to  that  country  the  troops  who  had 
served  in  France.  In  1599  he  commauded  a 
vessel  of  the  Spanish  fleet  that  sailed  to  Mex¬ 
ico,  and  he  drew  up  a  faithful  account  of  the 
voyage.  On  his  return  he  received  a  pension 
from  Henry  IV.  of  France ;  and  he  was  induced 
by  M.  de  Chastes,  Governor  of  Dieppe,  to  ex¬ 
plore  and  prepare  the  way  foi^a  French  colony 
in  America.  Chastes  had  received  a  charter  from 
the  king  to  found  settlements  in  New  France 
(which  see),  and  the  monarch  commissioned 
Champlain  lieutenant-geueral  of  Canada.  With 
this  authority,  he  sailed  from  Honfleur  on  the 
5th  of  March,  1603,  with  a  single  vessel,  com¬ 
manded  by  Pont-Greve,  a  skilful  navigator.  In 


SAMUEL  DE  CHAMPLAIN. 

May  they  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  and  landed 
near  the  site  of  Quebec,  from  which  place  Pont- 
Grevti  and  five  men  ascended  the  river  in  a  canoe 
to  La  Chine  Rapids, above  Montreal.  The  Indians 
at  Stadacona  yet  remembered  Cartier’s  perfidy 
(see  Cartier),  but  were  placable.  Champlain,  on 
his  return  to  France  in  the  autumn,  found  Chas¬ 
tes  dead  and  his  concessions  transferred  by  the 
king  to  Pierre  de  Gast,  the  Sieur  de  Monts,  a 
wealthy  Huguenot,  who  had  received  the  com¬ 
mission  of  vicei’oy  of  New  France.  (  See  De 
Monts.)  The  latter  made  a  new  arrangement 
with  Champlain,  and  in  March,  1604,  he  sailed 
with  the  navigator  from  France  with  four  ves¬ 
sels.  They  landed  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  remain¬ 
ed  there  some  time  planting  a  settlement  and 


CHAMPLAIN 


220  CHAXCELLORSVILLE,  BATTLE  OF 


exploring  the  neighboring  regions ;  and  when 
De  Monts  returned  to  France,  he  left  Champlain 
to  explore  the  New  England  coast.  (See  New 
England.)  He  went  as  far  south  as  Cape  Cod, 
and  in  1607  returned  to  France.  Having  sug¬ 
gested  to  De  Monts  that  a  point  on  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  would  be  a  more  eligible  site  for  the  seat 
of  the  projected  new  empire,  Champlain  was 
sent  to  the  river  in  1608  with  Pont-Grevti,  and, 
at  Stadacona,  founded  Quebec,  the  Indian  name 
for  “  the  narrows,”  and  pronounced  Kebec.  There 
the  colonists  built  cabins  and  prepared  to  plant. 
In  1609  Champlain,  who  had  made  the  Montag- 
nais  Indians  on  the  St.  Lawrence  his  friends, 
marched  with  them  against  their  enemies,  the 
Iroquois.  (  See  Iroquois  Confederacy. )  They 
were  joined  by  a  party  of  Hurons  and  Algon- 
quins  (see  Algonquins),  and  ascended  the  Sorel 
to  the  Chambly  Rapids,  whence  Champlain  pro¬ 
ceeded  in  a  canoe  and  discovered  a  great  lake, 
and  gave  it  his  own  name.  On  its  borders  he 
fought  and  defeated  the  Iroquois,  who  fled  in 
terror  before  the  fire  of  his  arquebuses.  He  re¬ 
turned  to  France,  but  came  back  in  1610,  aud  the 
same  year  was  wounded  by  an  arrow  in  a  fight 
with  the  Iroquois.  Again  returning  to  France, 
he,  at  the  age  of  forty-four  years,  married  a  girl 
of  twelve ;  and  in  1612  he  went  back  to  Canada, 
with  the  title  and  powers  of  lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor,  under  the  Prince  of  Cond6,  Avho  had  suc¬ 
ceeded  De  Soissons,  the  successor  of  De  Monts, 
as  viceroy.  He  explored  the  Ottawa  River  and 
lakes  Huron  and  Ontario;  made  good  arrange¬ 
ments  for  carrying  on  the  fur-trade  with  the 
Indians;  attacked  the  Onondagas;  aud,  return¬ 
ing  to  France,  organized  a  fur-company  in  1616. 
He  took  back  with  him  to  Canada  some  Recol¬ 
let  priests  to  minister  to  the  colonists  and  the 
pagans.  The  colony  languished  until  1620,  when 
a  more  energetic  viceroy  gave  it  a  start.  Cham¬ 
plain  got  permission  to  fortify  it,  and  he  returned 
with  the  title  and  power  of  governor,  taking  with 
him  his  child-wife.  Jesuit  priests  were  sent  to 
Canada  as  missionaries  (see  Jesuits  in  America), 
and  Champlain  worked  energetically  for  the 
cause  of  religion  and  the  expansion  of  French 
dominion.  In  1628  Sir  David  Kertk  appeared 
with  an  English  fleet  before  Quebec  and  demand¬ 
ed  its  surrender.  Champlain’s  bold  refusal  made 
Kertk  retire,  but  on  his  way  down  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  he  captured  the  French  supply  -  ships. 
This  produced  great  distress  in  Quebec  ;  aud  in 
July  of  next  year  Champlain  was  compelled  to 
surrender  to  Kertk’s  brothers,  and  was  carried  to 
England.  By  a  treaty  in  1632,  Canada  was  re¬ 
stored  to  the  French.  Champlain  was  reinstated 
as  governor,  and  sailed  for  the  St.  Lawrence  in 
1633.  He  did  not  long  survive,  but  worked  ener¬ 
getically  and  faithfully  until  the  last.  His  wife 
survived  him.  She  was  a  Protestant  when  she 
was  married,  but  died  an  Ursuliue  nun.  Cham¬ 
plain’s  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
was  intense.  A  college  was  established  at  Que¬ 
bec,  in  which  the  children  of  the  savages  were 
taught  and  trained  in  the  habits  of  civilization. 
In  1603  Champlain  published  an  account  of  his 
first  voyage,  and,  in  1613  and  1619,  a  continuation 
of  his  narrative.  In  1632  they  were  included  in 


a  work  of  his  then  published,  which  comprised 
a  history  of  New  France  from  the  time  of  Verra- 
zani’s  discoveries  to  1631,  entitled  Les  Voyages  d  la 
Nouvelle  France  Occidentals  et  Canada.  In  1870  a 
complete  collection  of  his  works,  including  his 
voyage  to  Mexico,  with  fac-similes  of  his  maps, 
was  published  in  Quebec,  edited  by  Abb6sLaver- 
diere  and  Casgrain. 

Champlain’s  Expedition  to  the  Ononda¬ 
gas  (1615).  Champlain  had  followed  Father 
Le  Caron  and  his  party  to  Lake  Huron  (see 
First  French  Missionary  in  America),  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  Mer  Douce.  Returning  across 
the  great  forests,  he  sailed  with  several  hun¬ 
dred  canoes  down  a  stream  into  the  Bay  of 
Quints,  and  entered  the  broad  Lake  Ontario, 
which  Champlain  named  Lac  St.Louis.  With  a 
considerable  war  party , chiefly  Hurons,  he  crossed 
the  lake  into  the  country  of  the  Iroquois,  in 
(present)  New  York.  Hiding  their  canoes  in 
the  forest,  they  pressed  onward  to  the  Indian  post 
on  the  shore  of  Onondaga  Lake.  It  was  at  the 
time  of  the  maize  harvest,  and  the  Iroquois  were 
attacked  in  the  fields.  They  retired  to  their 
town,  which  was  fortified  with  four  rows  of 
palisades.  On  the  inside  of  these  were  galleries 
furnished  with  stones  aud  other  missiles,  and  a 
supply  of  water  to  extinguish  a  fire  if  kindled 
beneath  these  wooden  walls.  The  Hurons  were 
rather  insubordinate,  and  the  attack  was  inef¬ 
fectual.  Champlain  had  constructed  a  wooden 
tower,  which  was  dragged  near  the  palisades, 
and  from  the  top  of  which  his  marksmen  swept 
the  galleries  filled  with  naked  Iroquois.  But  he 
could  not  control  the  great  body  of  the  Hurons, 
and,  in  their  furious  and  tumultuous  assault 
upon  the  palisades,  they  were  thrown  back  iu 
confusion,  and  could  not  be  induced  to  repeat 
the  onset,  but  resolved  to  retreat.  Champlain, 
wounded  in  the  leg,  was  compelled  to  acquiesce, 
and  he  made  his  way  back  to  Quebec  (1616),  af¬ 
ter  a  year’s  absence. — See  O.  H.  Marshall’s  Mono¬ 
graph  on  this  topic. 

Champlin,  Stephen,  United  States  Navy, 
was  born  at  South  Kingston,  R.  I.,  Nov.  17, 1789 ; 
died  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  20,  1870.  He  went  to 
sea  when  sixteen  years  old,  and  commanded  a 
ship  at  twenty-two.  In  May,  1812,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  sailing-master  iu  the  navy,  and  was 
first  in  command  of  a  guuboat  under  Perry,  at 
Newport,  R.  I.,  and  was  in  service  on  Lake  On¬ 
tario  in  the  attacks  on  Little  York  (Toronto) 
and  Fort  George,  in  1813.  He  joined  Perry  on 
Lake  Erie,  and  commanded  the  sloop-of-war 
Scorpion  in  the  battle  ou  Sept.  10, 1813,  firing  the 
first  and  last  gun  in  that  action.  He  was  the 
last  surviving  officer  of  that  engagement.  Iu 
the  following  spring,  while  blockading  Mack¬ 
inaw  with  the  Tigress ,  he  was  attacked  in  the 
night  by  an  overwhelming  force,  severely  wound¬ 
ed,  and  made  prisoner.  His  wound  troubled  him 
until  bis  death,  and  he  was  disabled  for  any  ac¬ 
tive  service  forever  afterwards.  From  1834  he 
was  a  resident  of  Buffalo. 

Chancellorsville,  Battle  of.  Early  in  April, 
Hooker,  iu  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto¬ 
mac,  became  impatient,  and  resolved  to  put  it 


CHANCELLORSVILLE,  BATTLE  OF  221  CHANCELLORSVILLE,  BATTLE  OF 


in  motion  towards  Richmond,  notwithstanding 
his  ranks  were  not  full.  Cavalry  under  Stone- 
man  were  sent  to  destroy  railways  in  Lee’s 
rear,  but  were  foiled  by  the  high  water  in  the 
streams.  After  a  pause,  Hooker  determined  to 
attempt  to  turn  Lee’s  flank,  and,  for  that  pur¬ 
pose,  sent  ten  thousand  mounted  men  to  raid  in 
his  rear.  Then  he  moved  thirty-six  thousand  of 
the  troops  of  his  right  wing  across  the  Rappa¬ 
hannock,  with  orders  to  halt  and  intrench  at 
Chancellorsville,  between  the  Confederate  army 
near  Fredericksburg  and  Richmond.  This  move¬ 
ment  was  so  masked  by  a  demonstration  on 
Lee’s  front  by  Hooker’s  left  wing,  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Sedgwick,  that  the  right  was  well  advanced 
before  Lee  was  aware  of  his  peril.  These  troops 
reached  Chancellorsville,  in  a  region  known  as 
“  The  Wilderness,”  on  the  evening  of  April  30, 
1863,  when  Hooker  expected  to  see  Lee,  con¬ 
scious  of  danger,  fly  towards  Richmond.  He  did 
no  such  thing,  but  proceeded  to  strike  the  Na¬ 
tional  army  a  heavy  blow,  for  the  twofold  pur¬ 
pose  of  seizing  the  communications  between 
the  two  parts  of  that  army  and  compelling  its 
commander  to  fight  at  a  disadvantage,  with 
only  a  part  of  his  troops  in  hand.  Hooker  had 
made  his  headquarters  in  the  spacious  brick 
house  of  Mr.  Chancellor,  and  sent  out  Pleasan¬ 
ton’s  cavalry  to  recouuoitre.  A  part  of  these 
encountered  the  Confederate  cavalry,  under  Stu¬ 
art,  and  were  defeated.  Lee  had  called  “  Stone¬ 
wall  ”  Jackson’s  large  force  to  come  up  when 
he  perceived  Sedgwick’s  movements.  Lee  left 
General  Early  with  9000  men  and  30  cannons  to 
hold  his  fortified  position  at  Fredericksburg 
against  Sedgwick,  and,  at  a  little  past  midnight 
(May  1,  1863),  he  put  Jackson’s  column  in  mo¬ 
tion  towards  Chancellorsville.  It  joined  another 
force  under  General  Anderson  at  eight  o’clock 
in  the  morning,  and  he,  in  person,  led  the  Con¬ 
federates  to  attack  the  Nationals.  Hooker  had 
also  disposed  the  latter  in  battle  order.  Aware 
of  the  peril  of  fighting  with  the  Wilderness  at 
his  back,  he  had  so  disposed  his  army  as  to 
fight  in  the  open  country,  with  a  communica¬ 
tion  open  with  the  Rappahannock  towards  Fred¬ 
ericksburg.  At  eleven  o’clock,  the  divisions  of 
Griffin  and  Humphreys,  of  Meade’s  corps,  pushed 
out  to  the  left,  in  the  direction  of  Banks’s  Ford, 
■while  Sykes’s  division  of  the  same  corps,  sup¬ 
ported  by  Hancock’s  division,  and  forming  the 
centi’e  column,  moved  along  a  turnpike.  Slo¬ 
cum’s  entire  corps,  with  Howard’s,  and  its  bat¬ 
teries,  massed  in  its  rear,  comprising  the  right 
column,  marched  along  a  plank  road.  The  bat¬ 
tle  was  begun  about  a  mile  in  advance  of  the 
National  works  at  Chancellorsville,  by  the  van 
of  the  centre  column  and  Confederate  cavalry. 
Sykes  brought  up  his  entire  column,  with 
artillery,  and,  after  a  severe  struggle  with 
McLaws,  he  gained  an  advantageous  position, 
at  noon,  on  one  of  the  ridges  back  of  Fredericks¬ 
burg.  Banks’s  Ford,  which  Leo  had  strenuous¬ 
ly  sought  to  cover,  was  now  virtually  in  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  Nationals,  and  the  distance  between 
Sedgwick,  opposite  Fredericksburg,  and  the  army 
at  Chancellorsville  was  shortened  at  least  twelve 
miles.  Meanwhile,  Slocum  and  Jackson  had  met 


and  struggled  fiercely  on  the  plank  road.  Per¬ 
ceiving  Jackson  endeavoring  to  flank  Slocum, 
and  his  strong  column  overlapping  Sykes’s  flank, 
Hooker,  fearing  his  army  might  be  beaten  in 
detail  before  he  could  successfully  resist  the  fu¬ 
rious  onslaught  of  Jackson,  ordered  its  with¬ 
drawal  behind  his  works  at  Chancellorsville,  the 
Confederates  following  close  in  the  rear  of  the\ 
retreating  troops.  So  ended  the  movements  of 
the  day.  Hooker’s  position  was  a  strong  one. 
The  National  line  extended  from  the  Rappahan¬ 
nock  to  the  Wilderness  church,  two  miles  west  of 
Chancellorsville.  Meade’s  corps,  with  Couch’s, 
formed  his  left ;  Slocum’s,  and  a  division  of 
Sickles’s,  his  centre,  and  Howard’s  his  right, 
with  Pleasanton’s  cavalry  near.  Lee’s  forces 
had  the  Virginia  cavalry  of  Owen  and  Wickham 
on  the  right,  and  Stuart’s  and  a  part  of  Fitz- 
liugh  Lee’s  on  the  left.  McLaws’s  forces  occu¬ 
pied  the  bridge  on  the  east  of  the  Big  Meadow 
Swamp,  and  Anderson’s  continued  the  line  to 
the  left  of  McLaws.  Such  was  the  general  dis¬ 
position  of  the  opposing  armies  on  the  morning 
of  May  2d.  Lee  was  unwilling  to  risk  a  direct 
attack  on  Hooker,  and  Jackson  advised  a  secret 
flank  movemeut  with  his  entire  corps,  so  as  to 
fall  on  Hooker’s  rear.  Lee  hesitated,  but  so 
much  did  he  lean  on  Jackson  as  adviser  and  ex¬ 
ecutor,  that  he  consented.  With  twenty-five 
thousand  men  Jackson  made  the  perilous  move¬ 
ment,  marching  swiftly  and  steadily  through  the 
thick  woods,  with  Stuart’s  cavalry  between  his 
forces  and  those  of  the  Nationals.  But  the 
movement  was  early  discovered  ;  the  Nationals, 
however,  believing  it  to  be  a  retreat  of  the  Con¬ 
federates  towards  Richmond.  Sickles  pushed 
forward  Birney’s  division  to  reconnoitre,  follow¬ 
ed  by  two  brigades  of  Howard’s  corps.  Birney 
charged  upon  the  passing  column,  and  captured  a 
Georgia  regiment,  five  hundred  strong,  but  was 
checked  by  Confederate  artillery.  The  Na¬ 
tionals  now  held  the  road  over  which  Jackson 
was  moving.  Disposition  was  made  to  pursue 
the  supposed  fugitives,  when  Jackson  made  a 
quick  and  startling  movement  towards  Chan¬ 
cellorsville,  concealed  by  the  thick  woods,  at 
six  o’clock  in  the  evening,  suddenly  burst  from 
the  thickets  with  his  whole  force,  like  an  unex¬ 
pected  and  terrible  tornado,  and  fell  with  full 
force  upon  Howard’s  corps  (eleventh),  with  tre¬ 
mendous  yells,  just  as  they  were  preparing  for 
supper  and  repose.  Devens’s  division,  on  the  ex¬ 
treme  right,  received  the  first  blow,  and,  almost 
instantly,  the  surprised  troops,  panic  stricken, 
fled  to  the  rear,  communicating  their  emotions 
of  alarm  to  the  other  divisions  of  the  corps. 
The  Confederates  captured  men  and  guns  and 
a  commanding  position,  while  the  fugitives, 
in  evident  confusion,  rushed  towards  Chancel¬ 
lorsville,  upon  the  jmsition  of  General  Schurz, 
whose  division  had  already  retreated.  The  tide 
of  affrighted  men  rolled  back  upon  General 
Steinwehr.  While  the  divisions  of  Devens 
and  Schurz  were  re-forming,  Steinwehr  quick¬ 
ly  changed  front,  threw  his  men  behind  some 
works,  rallied  some  of  Sclmrz’s  men,  and 
checked  the  pursuit  for  a  brief  space.  But  the 
overwhelming  number  of-  the  Confederates 


CHANCELLORSVILLE,  BATTLE  OF  222  CHANCELLORSVILLE,  BATTLE  OF 


speedily  captured  the  works.  These  disasters 
on  the  right  were  partially  relieved  by  Hooker, 
who  sent  forward  troops  at  the  double-quick, 
under  Generals  Berry  and  French,  and  also  a 
courier  to  apprise  Sickles,  who  had  pushed 
some  distance  beyond  the  National  lines,  of  the 
disaster  to  the  eleventh  corps  and  his  own  peril. 
He  was  directed  to  fall  back  and  attack  Jack- 
sou’s  left  llank.  He  was  in  a  critical  situation, 
but  Pleasanton  saved  him  by  a  quick  and  skil¬ 
ful  movement,  greatly  assisting  in  checking  the 
pursuit.  This  was  done  long  enough  for  Pleas¬ 
anton  to  bring  his  own  horse  -  artillery  and 
more  than  twenty  of  Sickles’s  gnus  to  bear  upon 
the  Confederates,  and  to  pour  into  their  ranks 
a  destructive  storm  of  grape  and  canister  shot. 
Generals  Warren  and  Sickles  soon  came  to 
Pleasanton’s  assistance,  when  there  was  a  se¬ 
vere  struggle  for  the  possession  of  cannons. 
Meanwhile,  Lee  was  making  a  strong  artillery 
attack  upon  Hooker’s  left  and  centre.  Soon  a 
great  misfortune  befell  the  Confederate  com¬ 
mander,  in  the  loss  of  “Stonewall”  Jackson,  the 
strong  right  arm  of  his  power.  Jackson  had 
sent  for  Hill,  and  was  anxious  to  follow  up  the 
advantage  he  had  gained,  by  extending  his  lines 


cellorsville,  crush  every  impediment  and  join 
the  main  army.  Each  army  made  disposition 
for  a  battle  on  Sunday  morning.  Stuart  ad¬ 
vanced  to  the  attack  with  Lee’s  left  wing,  and 
when  he  came  in  sight  of  the  Nationals  he 
shouted,  “Charge,  and  remember  Jackson!” 
With  thirty  pieces  of  artillery  presently  in  po¬ 
sition  on  an  elevation,  his  men  made  a  desper¬ 
ate  charge  under  cover  of  their  lire,  and  were 
soon  struggling  with  Sickles’s  corps  and  four 
other  divisions.  These  were  pushed  back,  and 
a  fearful  battle  ensued,  the  tide  of  success  ebb¬ 
ing  and  flowing  for  more  than  an  hour.  Dur¬ 
ing  this  struggle  Hooker  had  been  prostrated, 
and  Couch  took  command  of  the  army.  Almost 
the  whole  National  army  became  engaged  in  the 
battle,  at  different  points,  excepting  the  troops 
under  Meade  and  Reynolds.  Couch  fell  back 
towards  the  Rappahannock,  and,  at  noon,  Hook¬ 
er,  having  recovered,  resumed  chief  command. 
Lee’s  army  was  now  united,  but  Hooker’s  was 
divided.  Sedgwick  had  seriously  menaced  Lee’s 
flank,  but  had  not  joined  Hooker.  After  a  hard 
conflict  and  the  loss  of  one  thousand  men,  Sedg¬ 
wick  had  captured  the  Confederate  works  on 
the  heights  back  of  Fredericksburg,  and  sent 


RUINS  OP  CHANCELLORSVILLE. 


to  the  left  and  cutting  off  Hooker’s  communica¬ 
tion  with  the  United  States  Ford.  While  wait¬ 
ing  for  Hill,  he  pushed  forward  with  his  staff, 
on  a  personal  reconuoissauce,  and,  when  return¬ 
ing,  in  the  gloom  of  evening,  his  men,  mistak¬ 
ing  them  for  National  cavalry,  fired  upon  them 
and  mortally  wounded  the  great  leader.  No 
more  fighting  occurred  in  that  part  of  the  field. 
Biruey’s  division  drove  back  the  Confederates 
at  midnight,  recovered  some  lost  ground,  and 
brought  back  some  abandoned  guns  and  cais¬ 
sons.  During  the  night  a  new  line  of  intrench- 
meuts  was  thrown  up  by  the  Nationals;  but 
Hooker’s  forces  were  in  a  very  perilous  posi¬ 
tion  on  Sunday  morning,  May  3d.  When  he 
heard  of  the  movement  of  Jackson  on  Saturday 
morning,  he  had  called  from  Sedgwick  Rey¬ 
nolds’s  corps,  20,000  strong,  and  it  arrived  the 
same  evening.  Hooker’s  force  was  now  60,000 
strong,  and  Lee’s  40,000.  The  former  ordered 
Sedgwick  to  cross  the  river  and  seize  and  hold 
Fredericksburg  and  the  heights  beliiud  it,  and 
then,  pushing  along  the  roads  leading  to  Chau- 


Early,  their  defender,  flying  southward  with  his 
shattered  columns.  Intelligence  of  these  events 
made  Lee  extremely  cautious.  Sedgwick,  leav¬ 
ing  Gibbon  in  command  at  Fredericksburg, 
marched  for  Chancellorsville,  when  Lee  was 
compelled  to  divide  his  army  to  meet  this  new 
peril.  He  sent  McLaws  with  four  brigades  to 
meet  Sedgwick.  At  Salem  church  they  had  a 
sanguinary  conflict.  The  Confederates  won,  and 
the  losses  of  Sedgwick,  added  to  those  sustained 
in  the  morning,  amounted  to  about  five  thou¬ 
sand  men.  Hooker,  at  the  same  time,  seemed 
paralyzed  in  his  new  position,  for  his  army  ap¬ 
peared  being  beaten  in  detail.  On  the  follow¬ 
ing  morning,  perceiving  that  Hooker’s  army 
had  been  much  strengthened,  Lee  thought  it 
necessary  to  drive  Sedgwick  across  the  Rappa¬ 
hannock  before  again  attacking  the  main  body. 
Early  was  sent  to  retake  the  Heights  of  Freder¬ 
icksburg,  and  he  cut  Sedgwick  off  from  the  city. 
Early  was  reinforced  by  Anderson,  by  which 
Sedgwick  was  enclosed  on  three  sides.  At  six 
o’clock  in  the  evening  the  Confederates  at- 


CHANCERY  JURISDICTION  223  CHANTILLY.  BATTLE  OF 


tacked  him.  His  forces  gave  way  and  retreated 
to  Banks’s  Ford,  and  before  morning  the  re¬ 
mains  of  Sedgwick’s  corps  had  crossed  the  Rap¬ 
pahannock  over  pontoon  bridges.  Gibbon  also 
withdrew  from  Fredericksburg  to  Falmouth 
that  night,  and,  on  Tuesday,  Lee  had  only 
Hooker  to  contend  with.  He  concentrated  his 
forces  to  strike  Hooker  a  crushing  blow  before 
night,  but  a  heavy  rain-storm  prevented.  Hook¬ 
er  prepared  to  retreat,  and  did  so  on  the  night 
of  May  5th  and  morning  of  the  6th,  crossing  the 
Rappahannock  and  returning  to  the  old  quarters 
of  the  army  opposite  Fredericksburg.  The  losses 
of  each  army  had  been  very  heavy.  That  of  the 
Confederates  was  reported  at  12,277,  including 
2000  prisoners,  and  that  of  the  Nationals  was 
17,197,  including  about  5000  prisoners.  The 
latter  also  lost  thirteen  heavy  guns,  about  20,- 
000  small-arms,  seventeen  colors,  and  a  large 
amount  of  ammunition.  The  Union  Generals 
Berry  and  Whipple  were  killed. 

Chancery  Jurisdiction.  In  all  the  crown 
colonies,  excepting  New  Hampshire,  the  chan¬ 
cery  court  had  been  introduced,  in  spite  of  the 
colonists,  who  dreaded  its  prolix  proceedings 
and  heavy  fees.  Wherever  it  had  been  intro¬ 
duced,  it  was  retained,  in  the  state  govern¬ 
ments,  after  the  Revolution.  In  New  Jersey 
and  South  Carolina  the  goveruor  was  made 
chancellor,  as  in  colonial  times.  In  New  York 
and  Maryland  a  separate  officer  was  appointed 
with  that  title.  In  Virginia  there  were  several 
distinct  chancellors.  In  North  Carolina  and 
Georgia  the  administration  both  of  law  and 
equity  was  intrusted  to  the  same  tribunals.  In 
Pennsylvanian  limited  chancery  power  wTas  con¬ 
ferred  upon  the  Supreme  Court.  In  Connecti¬ 
cut  the  Assembly  vested  the  judicial  courts 
with  chancery  powers  in  smaller  cases,  reserv¬ 
ing  to  itself  the  decision  in  matters  of  more  im¬ 
portance.  In  New  England  there  was  such  a 
strong  prejudice  against  chancery  practice  that 
for  many  years  there  wras  a  restriction  to  the 
system  of  common  law  remedies. 

Chandler,  John,  was  born  at  Monmonth, 
Mass.,  in  1760 ;  died  at  Augusta,  Me.,  Sept.  25, 
1841.  His  pursuit  was  that  of  blacksmith,  and 
he  became  wealthy.  With  much  native  talent, 
he  rose  to  the  position  of  councillor  and  sena¬ 
tor  (1803-5);  member  of  Congress  (1805-8); 
and,  in  July,  1812,  was  commissioned  a  briga¬ 
dier-general.  Wounded  and  made  prisoner  in 
the  battle  at  Stony  Creek,  in  Canada  (which 
see),  he  was  soon  afterwards  exchanged.  From 
1820  to  1829,  he  was  United  States  Senator  from 
Maine  —  one  of  the  first  appointed  from  that 
new  state.  From  1829  to  1837  he  was  collect¬ 
or  of  the  port  of  Portland.  He  became  a  ma¬ 
jor-general  of  militia,  and  held  several  civil  lo¬ 
cal  offices. 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  an  eminent  di¬ 
vine,  was  born  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  April  7,  1780; 
died  at  Bennington,  Vt.,  Oct.  2,  1842.  He  grad¬ 
uated  at  Harvard  in  1798  with  highest  honors; 
was  a  teacher  in  a  private  family  in  Richmond, 
Va.,  for  a  year  afterwards;  and,  returning  in 
feeble  health  in  1802,  he  studied  theology,  and 


became  pastor  of  the  Federal  Street  Church  in 
Boston,  June  1, 1803.  All  through  his  laborious 
life  he  suffered  from  ill-health.  In  1822  he 


WILLIAM  ELLERY  CHANNING. 


sought  physical  improvement  by  a  voyage  to 
Europe,  and  in  1830  he  went  to  St.  Croix,  W.  I., 
for  the  same  purpose.  With  a  colleague  he  oc¬ 
casionally  officiated  in  the  pulpit  until  1840, 
when  he  resigned.  In  August,  1842,  he  delivered 
his  last  public  address  at  Lenox,  Mass.,  in  com¬ 
memoration  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the 
West  Indies.  Mr.  Channing,  with  the  purest 
Christian  spirit,  did  more  than  any  man  of  his 
time  towards  disenthralling  the  human  mind 
from  the  bonds  of  theological  systems  as  inflex¬ 
ible  as  cast-iron.  Benevolence  and  love  for  his 
fellow-men  appear  in  all  his  utterances.  His 
writings  preach  as  with  a  living  tongue. 

Chantilly,  Battle  of.  On  the  morning  af¬ 
ter  the  second  battle  at  Bull’s  Run  (which  see), 
Pope  was  joined  at  Centreville  by  the  corps  of 
Franklin  and  Sumner.  The  next  day  (Sept.  1, 
1862),  Lee,  not  disposed  to  make  a  direct  at¬ 
tack  upon  the  Nationals,  sent  Jackson  on  an¬ 
other  flanking  movement,  the  latter  taking  with 
him  his  own  and  Ewell’s  division.  With  in¬ 
structions  to  assail  and  turn  Pope’s  right,  he 
crossed  Bull’s  Run  at  Sudley  Ford,  and,  after  a 
while,  turning  to  the  right,  turned  down  the 
Little  River  pike,  and  marched  towards  Fairfax 
Court-house.  Pope  had  prepared  to  meet  this 
movement.  Heintzelman  and  Hooker  were  or¬ 
dered  to  different  points,  and  just  before  sun¬ 
set  Reno  met  Jackson’s  advance  (Ewell  and 
Hill)  near  Chantilly.  A  cold  and  drenching 
rain  was  falling,  but  it  did  not  prevent  an  im¬ 
mediate  engagement.  Very  soon  McDowell, 
Hooker,  and  Kearney  came  to  Reno’s  assist¬ 
ance.  A  very  severe  battle  raged  for  some 
time,  when  General  Isaac  J.  Stevens  (see  Port 
Iioyal  Ferry),  leading  Reno’s  second  division  in 
person,  was  shot  dead.  His  command  fell  back 
in  disorder.  Seeing  this,  General  Kearney  ad¬ 
vanced  with  his  division  and  renewed  the  ac¬ 
tion,  sending  Birney’s  brigade  to  the  front.  A 
furious  thunder-storm  was  then  raging,  which 
made  the  use  of  ammunition  very  difficult. 
Unheeding  this,  Kearney  brought  forward  a 
battery,  and  planted  it  in  position  himself. 


224 


CHARLES  I.  OF  ENGLAND 


CHAPULTEPEC,  BATTLE  OF 


Then,  perceiving  a  gap  caused  by  the  retirement 
of  Stevens’s  men,  he  pushed  forward  to  recon¬ 
noitre,  and  was  shot  dead  a  little  within  the 
Confederate  lines,  just  at  sunset,  and  the  com¬ 
mand  of  his  division  devolved  on  Biruey,  who 
instantly  made  a  bayonet  charge  with  his  own 
brigade  of  New  York  troops,  led  by  Colouel  Ea¬ 
gan.  The  Confederates  were  pushed  back  some 
distance.  Birney  held  the  field  that  night,  and 
the  broken  and  demoralized  army  was  with¬ 
drawn  within  the  lines  at  Washington  the  next 
day.  After  the  battle  at  Chantilly,  the  Army 
of  Virginia  was  merged  into  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  General  Pope  returned  to  service 
in  the  west.  The  loss  of  Pope’s  army,  from  Ce¬ 
dar  Mountain  (which  see)  to  Chantilly, in  killed, 
wounded,  prisoners,  and  missing,  was  estimated 
at  30,000.  Lee’s  losses  during  the  same  time 
amounted  to  about  15,000.  He  claimed  to  have 
taken  7000  prisoners,  with  2000  sick  and  wound¬ 
ed,  thirty  pieces  of  artillery,  and  20,000  small- 
arms.  Of  the  91,000  veteran  troops  from  the 
Peninsula,  lying  near,  Pope  reported  that  only 
20,500  men  had  joined  him  in  confronting  Lee. 

Chapultepec,  Battle  of.  The  city7  of  Mex¬ 
ico  stands  on  a  slight  swell  of  ground,  near  the 
centre  of  an  irregular  basin,  and  encircled  by  a 
broad  and  deep  navigable  canal.  The  approach¬ 
es  to  the  city  are  over  elevated  causeways,  flank¬ 
ed  by  ditches.  From  these  the  capital  is  en¬ 
tered  by  arched  gateways ;  and  these,  when  the 
victorious  Americans  approached  the  city  (Au¬ 
gust,  1847),  were  strongly  fortified.  When  El 
Molino  del  Rey  and  Casa  de  Mata  (which  see) 
had  beeu  captured  (Sept.  8,  1847),  the  Castle  of 
Chapultepec  alone  remained  as  a  defence  for  the 
city  — this  and  its  outworks.  The  hill,  steep 
and  rocky,  rises  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above 
the  surrounding  country.  The  castle  was  built 
of  heavy  stone  masonry.  The  whole  fortress 
was  nine  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  the  terre- 
plein  and  main  buildings  six  hundred  feet.  The 
castle  was  about  ten  feet  in  height,  and  present¬ 
ed  a  splendid  specimen  of  military  architect¬ 
ure.  A  dome,  rising  about  twenty  feet  above 
the  walls,  gave  it  a  grand  appearance.  Two 
strongly  built  walls  surrounded  the  whole 
structure,  ten  feet  apart  and  twelve  or  fifteen 
feet  high.  The  works  were  thoroughly  armed, 
and  the  garrison,  among  whom  were  some  ex¬ 
pert  French  gunners,  was  commanded  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Bravo.  The  whole  hill  was  spotted  with 
forts  and  outworks.  To  carry  this  strong  post 
with  the  least  loss  of  men,  Scott  determined  to 
batter  it  with  heavy  cannons.  Accordingly,  on 
the  night  of  Sept.  11,  four  batteries  of  heavy 
cannons  were  erected  on  a  hill  between  Tuca- 
baya  and  Chapultepec,  commanded  respectively 
by  Captains  Drew,  Haynes,  and  Brooks,  and 
Lieutenant  Stone.  They  were  placed  in  posi¬ 
tion  by  the  engineer  officers  Huger  and  Lee 
(the  latter  afterwards  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Confederate  army).  On  the  morning  of 
the  12th  these  batteries  opened  fire,  every  ball 
crashing  through  the  castle  and  every  shell 
tearing  up  the  ramparts.  The  fire  of  the  Mex¬ 
icans  was  not  less  severe,  and  this  duel  of  great 
guns  was  kept  up  all  day.  The  next  morning 


(13tli)  troops  moved  to  assail  the  works,  at  their 
weakest  point,  in  two  columns,  one  led  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Pillow  and  the  other  by  General  Quitman. 
Pillow  marched  to  assail  the  works  on  the  west 
side,  while  Quitman  made  a  demonstration  on 
the  easterly  part.  Both  columns  were  preceded 
by  a  strong  party — that  oi  Pillow  by  two  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  of  Worth’s  division,  commanded 
by  Captain  McKenzie ;  and  that  of  Quitman  by 
the  same  number,  commanded  by  Captain  Ca¬ 
rey.  Each  storming  party  was  furnished  with 
scaling-ladders.  While  the  troops  were  ad¬ 
vancing  the  American  batteries  kept  up  a  con¬ 
tinuous  fire  over  their  heads  upon  the  works  to 
prevent  reinforcements  reaching  thetMexicans. 
Pillow’s  column  bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle. 
It  first  carried  a  redoubt,  and  drove  the  Mexi¬ 
cans  from  shelter  to  shelter.  At  length  the 
ditch  and  wall  of  the  main  work  were  reached  ; 
the  scaling-ladders  and  fascines  were  brought 
up  and  planted  by  the  storming  parties  ;  and 
the  vrork  was  soon  taken  and  the  American 
flag  unfurled  over  the  ramparts  amid  prolong¬ 
ed  shouts.  Meanwhile  Quitman’s  column  had 
moved  along  a  causeway,  captured  two  batter¬ 
ies,  and  joined  Pillow’s  column  in  time  to  share 
in  the  work  of  accomplishing  a  final  victory. 
Together  they  took  the  strong  Castle  of  Cha¬ 
pultepec  and  scattered  its  defenders  in  every 
direction.  It  was  literally  torn  in  pieces;  and 
within,  a  crowd  of  prisoners  of  all  colors  were 
seized,  among  them  fifty  general  officers.  There 
were  also  one  hundred  cadets  of  the  Military 
College,  the  latter  “  pretty  little  boys,”  wrote  an 
American  officer,  “from  ten  to  sixteen  years  of 
age.”  Several  of  their  little  companions  had 
been  killed,  “fighting  like  demons.”  The  fugi¬ 
tives  fled  to  the  city,  along  an  aqueduct,  pur¬ 
sued  by  General  Quitman  to  the  very  gates,  en¬ 
gaged  all  the  way  in  a  running  fight,  which  was 
sometimes  severe.  (See  Mexico,  War  with.) 

Character  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with 
Great  Britain  (1782).  Bancroft  says  (x.  591) : 
“The  treaty  was  not  a  compromise,  nor  a  com¬ 
pact  imposed  by  force,  but  a  free  and  perfect 
solution  and  perpetual  settlement  of  all  that 
had  been  called  in  question.  By  doing  an  act 
of  justice  to  her  former  colonies,  England  res¬ 
cued  her  own  liberties  at  home  from  imminent 
danger,  and  opened  the  way  for  their  slow  but 
certain  development.” 

Charles  I.  of  England,  son  of  James  I.,  was 
born  at  Dunfermline,  Fifesliire,  Scotland,  Nov. 
19,  1600 ;  beheaded  in  London,  Jan.  30,  1649. 
The  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Henry,  in  1612, 
made  him  heir  apparent  to  the  throne,  which 
he  ascended  as  king  in  1625.  He  sought  the 
hand  of  the  infanta  of  Spain,  but  finally  mar¬ 
ried  (1625)  Henrietta  Maria,  daughter  of  Henry 
IY.  of  Fx-ance.  She  was  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  had  been  procured  for  Chai’les  by  the  in¬ 
famous  Duke  of  Buckingham,  whose  influenco 
over  the  young  king  produced  disasters  to  Eng¬ 
land  and  to  the  monarch  himself.  Charles  was 
naturally  a  good  man,  but  his  education,  espe¬ 
cially  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
right  of  kings  and  the  sanctity  of  the  royal 


CHARLES  II. 


225  CHARLESTON,  ATTEMPT  TO  CAPTURE 


prerogative,  led  to  an  outbreak  in  England, 
which  cost  him  his  life.  Civil  war  began  in 
1641,  and  ended  with  his  execution  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  1649.  His  reign  was  at  tirst  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  the  rule  of  the  “Long  Parliament,” 
and  then  by  Cromwell — a  half-monarch,  called 
the  “  Protector.”  After  various  vicissitudes 
during  the  civil  war,  he  was  captured,  and  im¬ 
prisoned  in  Carisbrooke  Castle,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  from  whence  he  was  taken  to  London 
at  the  close  of  1648.  He  was  brought  to  trial 
before  a  special  high  court  in  Westminster  Hall 
on  Jan.  20,  1649,  and  on  the  27th  was  con¬ 
demned  to  death.  He  was  beheaded  on  a  scaf¬ 
fold  in  front  of  the  banqneting-house  at  White¬ 
hall  on  the  30th.  Charles  had  eight  children 
by  his  queen,  Henrietta,  six  of  whom  survived 
him.  His  family  was  driven  into  exile;  but  a 
little  more  than  eleven  years  after  his  death 
his  eldest  son,  Charles,  ascended  the  throne 
as  King  of  Great  Britain.  The  son  held  much 
more  intimate  relations,  as  monarch,  with  the 
English-American  colonies  than  the  father. 

Charles  II.,  sou  and  successor  of  Charles  I. 
of  England,  who  was  beheaded  in  1649.  His 
mother  was  Henrietta  Maria,  daughter  of  Hen¬ 
ry  IV.  of  France,  and  sister  of  the  then  reigning 
king  of  that  realm.  As  the  fortunes  of  his  fa¬ 
ther  waned,  his  mother 
returned  to  France, 
where  he  joined  her ; 
and,  at  the  Hague,  he 
heard  of  the  death  of 
his  parent  by  the  axe, 
when  he  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  and  was 
proclaimed  such  at  Ed¬ 
inburgh,  Feb.  3,  1649. 
He  was  crowned  at 
Scone,  Scotland,  Jan. 
1,  1651.  After  an  un¬ 
successful  warfare  with 
Cromwell  for  the  throne, 
he  fled  to  Paris;  and  finally  he  became  a  resi¬ 
dent  of  Breda,  in  Belgium,  whence  he  was  called 
to  England  by  a  vote  of  Parliament,  and  re¬ 
stored  to  the  throne  of  his  father,  May  8, 1660. 
He  was  a  very  profligate  monarch  —  indolent, 
amiable,  and  unscrupulous.  He  misgoverned 


England  twenty-five  years  in  an  arbitrary  man¬ 
ner,  and  disgraced  the  nation.  He  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  although  professing  to  be  a 
Protestant;  and,  when  dying  from  a  stroke  of 
apoplexy,  Feb.  6,  1685,  in  the  fifty-fifth  year  of 


*  This  likeness,  in  Tndia  ink,  is  at  the  head  of  the  old  char¬ 
ter  of  Connecticut,  given  by  Charles  II.  It  is  said  to  be  from 
the  hand  of  a  celebrated  English  miniature-painter  (Samuel 
Cooper,  a  native  of  London),  who  painted  likenesses  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  John  Milton,  aud  other  distinguished  men.  Cooper 
died  in  1672. 


his  age,  he  confessed  to  a  Roman  Catholic  priest, 
and  received  extreme  unction.  The  throne  de¬ 
scended  to  his  brother  James,  an  avowed  Romau 
Catholic.  (See  James  II.) 

Charles  II.  and  his  Rapacious  Courtiers. 
In  March,  1663,  Charles  II.  granted  to  several 
of  his  courtiers  the  vast  domain  of  the  Caro- 
linas  in  America.  (See  Grantees  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina.)  They  were  men,  most  of  them  past  mid¬ 
dle  life  in  years,  and  possessed  of  the  “  easy 
virtues  ”  which  distinguished  the  reign  of  that 
profligate  monarch.  They  begged  the  domain 
under  pretence  of  a  “  pious  zeal  for  the  propa¬ 
gation  of  the  Gospel  among  the  heathen,”  while 
their  real  object  was  to  rob  the  “heathen”  of 
these  valuable  lauds,  and  to  accumulate  riches 
and  honors  for  themselves.  It  is  said  that 
when  these  petitioners  appeared  before  Charles 
in  the  gardens  at  Hampton  Court,  and  present¬ 
ed  their  memorial  so  full  of  pious  pretensions, 
the  monarch,  after  looking  each  man  in  the 
face  for  a  moment,  with  a  merry  twinkle  in  his 
eyes,  burst  into  loud  laughter,  in  which  his  au¬ 
dience  joined  involuntarily.  Then  taking  up 
a  little  shaggy  spaniel,  with  large  meek  eyes, 
and  holding  it  at  arm’s-lengtli  before  them,  he 
said,  “  Good  friends,  here  is  a  model  of  piety 
and  sincerity  which  it  might  be  wholesome  for 
you  to  copy.”  Then,  tossing  the  little  pet  to 
Clarendon,  he  said,  “  There,  Hyde,  is  a  w'orthy 
prelate ;  make  him  archbishop  of  the  domain 
I  shall  give  you.”  With  grim  satire,  Charles 
introduced  into  the  preamble  of  their  charter 
that  the  petitioners,  “excited  with  a  laudable 
and  pious  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gos¬ 
pel,  have  begged  a  certain  country  in  the  parts 
of  America  not  yet  cultivated  aud  planted,  and 
only  inhabited  by  some  barbarous  people,  who 
have  no  knowledge  of  God.” 

Charles  II.,  Proclamation  of,  as  King,  in 
Maryland.  When  news  reached  Maryland  that 
Charles  I.  had  been  beheaded,  and  his  son 
Charles  proclaimed  king  in  Scotland,  Green, 
acting  governor  of  Maryland,  caused  him  to  be 
proclaimed  king  by  that  colony.  He  was  also 
so  proclaimed  in  Virginia.  This  act  perplexed 
the  time-server  Lord  Baltimore.  He  was  evi¬ 
dently  seconded  by  the  young  heir  to  Eng¬ 
land’s  throne,  who,  disregarding  the  proprietary 
rights  of  his  lordship,  appointed  Sir  William 
Davenant,  then  an  exile  in  France,  where  the 
young  monarch  soon  sought  shelter. 

Charleston.  (See  Siege  of  Charleston,  1780.j 

Charleston.  Attempt  to  Capture  (  1863 ). 
Although  Charleston  had  become  a  compara¬ 
tively  unimportant  point  in  the  grand  theatre 
of  war  at  the  beginning  of  1863,  its  possession 
was  coveted  by  the  National  government  be¬ 
cause  of  the  salutary  moral  effect  which  such  a 
conquest  would  produce.  A  strong  effort  to  ac¬ 
complish  that  end  was  made  in  the  spring  of 
1863.  On  April  6  Admiral  Dupont  crossed 
Charleston  bar  with  nine  “monitors,”  or  tur- 
reted  iron  vessels,  leaving  five  gunboats  out¬ 
side  as  a  reserve,  and  proceeded  to  attack  Fort 
Sumter  —  the  most  formidable  object  in  the 
way  to  the  city.  At  the  same  time,  a  laud 


CHARLES  H.* 


I.— 15 


CHARLESTON,  ATTEMPT  TO  CAPTURE  226  CHARLESTON,  ATTEMPT  TO  CAPTURE 


force  near  at  hand,  four  thousand  strong,  under 
General  Truman  Seymour,  took  a  masked  posi¬ 
tion  on  Folly  Island,  ready  to  co-operate,  if 
necessary.  The  military  works  that  defended 
Charleston  were  numerous  and  formidable.  Be¬ 
tween  forts  Sumter  and  Moultrie  the  sea  was 
strewn  with  torpedoes,  and  there  were  other 
formidable  obstructions.  Ou  Morris  Island, 
abreast  of  Fort  Sumter,  was  a  strong  work, 
called  Fort  Wagner.  Dupont’s  squadron  lay 
quietly  within  the  bar  until  noon  of  April  7, 
when  it  advanced  directly  upon  Sumter,  intend¬ 
ing  not  to  reply  to  any  attack  from  Fort  Wagner. 
The  Weehawken  led.  Dupont  was  ignorant  of  the 
torpedoes,  but  the  discovery  of  these  soon  ex¬ 
plained  the  ominous  sileuce  of  Sumter  and 
Fort  Wagner  as  he  advanced.  Suddenly,  when 
the  Weehawken  had  become  entangled  in  a  net¬ 
work  of  cables,  the  barbette  guns  of  Sumter 
opened  upon  her  with  plunging  shot.  Then 
the  other  “monsters  of  the  deep”  commanded 
by  Dupont  came  forward  and  delivered  tre¬ 
mendous  discharges  of  heavy  metal  ou  Sum¬ 
ter,  and  at  the  same  time  that  fortress,  Fort 
Wagner,  and  other  batteries,  with  an  aggre¬ 
gate  of  nearly  three  hundred  guns,  poured 
heavy  shot  and  shell  upon  the  squadron — then 
within  the  focus  of  their  concentric  tire — at  the 
rate  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  a  minute.  A 
greater  portion  of  these  missiles  glanced  oft' 
harmlessly  from  the  mailed  “  monitors.”  The 
weaker  Keokuk  was  nearly  destroyed  ;  all  of  the 
other  vessels  were  more  or  less  injured.  The 
flag-ship  was  in  peril,  and  Fort  Sumter 
was  but  slightly  hurt,  when  Dupont, 
after  a  terrible  tight  of  forty  minutes, 
signalled  the  squadron  to  withdraw. 

In  that  time  it  was  estimated  the  Con¬ 
federates  tired  thirty  -  five  hundred 
shells  and  shots.  The  attack  was  a 
failure,  but  not  a  disaster.  Dupont 
lost  but  a  few  men,  and  only  one 
vessel.  It  was  now  seen  that  a  land 
force  on  Morris  Island  to  keep  Fort 
Wagner  employed  was  necessary  to 
secure  a  successful  attack  on  Sumter. 

After  this  attack,  Dupont  watched  the 
Confederates  on  Morris  Island,  and 
did  not  allow  them  to  erect  any  more 
works  on  it.  General  Quincy  A.  Gill- 
more  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  De¬ 
partment  of  the  South  June  2,  1863.  The 
government  determined  to  renew  the  attack  on 
Fort  Sumter  by  a  land  and  naval  force.  Gill- 
more  was  at  the  head  of  eighteen  thousand 
men,  with  a  generous  supply  of  great -guns, 
small- arms,  and  ordnance  stores.  He  deter¬ 
mined  to  seize  Morris  Island  preliminary  to  an 
attack  on  Sumter  and  Charleston.  That  island 
and  the  military  works  in  his  possession,  he 
might  batter  down  Fort  Sumter  from  Fort 
Wagner,  with  the  aid  of  the  navy,  and  lay 
Charleston  in  ashes  by  firing  shells,  if  it  should 
not  be  surrendered.  As  Dupont  did  not  ap¬ 
prove  this  plan,  Admiral  Dahlgren  took  his 
place  in  July.  Gillmore  had  batteries  con¬ 
structed,  under  the  direction  of  General  Vog- 
des,  ou  the  northern  end  of  Folly  Island.  This 


work  was  completely  masked  by  a  pine  forest. 
When  all  was  in  readiness,  General  Alfred  H. 
Terry  was  sent,  with  nearly  four  thousand 
troops,  up  the  Stono  River,  to  make  a  demon¬ 
stration  against  James  Island  to  mask  Gill- 
more’s  real  intentions,  and  Colonel  T.  W.  Hig- 
ginson,  with  some  negro  troops,  went  up  the  Ed- 
isto  to  cut  the  railway  communication  between 
Charleston  and  Savannah.  Thirty  hours  after 
Terry’s  departure  General  George  C.  Strong  si¬ 
lently  embarked  two  thousand  men  in  small 
boats,  and  crossed  over  to  Morris  Island  be¬ 
fore  dawn  (July  13),  unsuspected  by  the  Con¬ 
federates.  At  that  hour  Vogdes’s  masked  bat¬ 
teries  opened  a  tremendous  cannonade,  and 
Dahlgren’s  four  “monitors,”  at  the  same  time, 
opened  a  cross-fire  upon  the  Confederates,  who 
saw  the  amazing  apparition  of  a  strong  Nation¬ 
al  force  ready  to  attack  them.  After  a  sharp 
battle,  Strong  gained  possession  of  the  powerful 
Confederate  works  on  the  southern  end  of  Mor¬ 
ris  Island,  with  eleven  guns.  The  occupants 
were  driven  away,  and  took  shelter  in  Fort 
Wagner,  the  garrison  of  which  had  been  kept 
(piiet  by  Dahlgren’s  guns.  Meanwhile,  Terry 
had  fought  and  repulsed  Confederate  assailants 
at  Secessiouville,  on  James  Island,  in  which  he 
lost  about  one  hundred  men,  and  his  adversary 
two  hundred.  He  then  hastened  to  Morris  Isl¬ 
and  to  join  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Wagner.  Five 
batteries  were  speedily  erected  across  the  island 
to  confront  Wagner,  and  at  noon  (July  13)  Gill- 
more  opened  a  bombardment  of  that  fort.  Dahl¬ 


gren,  at  the  same  time,  moved  his  “mouitors” 
nearer  to  it,  and  poured  a  continuous  stream 
of  shells  upon  it.  From  noon  until  sunset  one 
hundred  guns  were  continually  assailing  the 
fort,  which  replied  with  only  two  guns  at  long 
intervals.  When  night  fell,  a  tremendous  thun¬ 
der-storm  swept  over  the  harbor  and  the  isl¬ 
ands,  when  General  Strong,  with  a  heavy  storm¬ 
ing  party,  moved  upon  the  fort.  It  was  com¬ 
posed  of  a  Massachusetts  regiment  of  colored 
troops,  under  Colonel  R.  G.  Shaw,  and  one  regi¬ 
ment  each  from  Connecticut,  New  Hampshire, 
New  York,  and  Pennsylvania.  The  storming 
party  advanced  against  a  shower  of  shot  and 
shell  from  Wagner,  Sumter,  and  Battery  Gregg. 
When  at  the  fort  they  were  met  by  a  furious 
tempest  of  musketry,  while  howitzers  swept 
the  ditch  where  the  assailants  were  crossing. 


BOMB  AND  SPLINTER  PROOF,  FORT  WAGNER. 


CHARLESTON,  ATTEMPT  TO  CAPTURE  227  CHARLESTON.  EVACUATION  OF 


Hand-grenades  were  also  thrown  upon  the  Un¬ 
ionists.  Colonel  Shaw  was  shot  dead,  and  fell 
among  the  slain  of  his  dusky  followers.  Gen¬ 
eral  Strong,  and  also  Colonel  Chatfield,  of  the 
Connecticut  regiment,  were  mortally  wound¬ 
ed.  The  Nationals  were  repulsed,  when  anoth¬ 
er  brigade  pushed  forward  to  the  assault,  led 
by  Colonel  H.  L.  Putnam.  It  was  composed  of 
Ohio  and  New  York  troops.  Some  of  Putnam’s 
men  actually  got  into  the  fort,  hut  were  ex¬ 
pelled.  Finally  their  leader  was  killed,  and 
the  second  storming  party  was  repulsed.  The 
loss  on  the  part  of  the  Nationals  was  fearful. 
The  Confederates  said  they  buried  six  hundred 
of  them  in  front  of  the  fort.  Among  the  bodies 
of  the  slain  so  buried  was  that  of  Colonel  Shaw, 
which  was  cast  into  a  trench,  and  upon  it  were 
X»iled  those  of  his  slain  colored  troops.  He  was 
hated  by  the  Confederates  because  he  com¬ 
manded  negro  troops.  Gillmore  now  aban¬ 
doned  the  idea  of  assaults,  and  began  a  regular 
siege.  He  planted  batteries  of  heavy  siege 
and  breaching  guns  at  dilferent  points,  and 
mounted  a  200 -pound  Parrott  gnu  upon  a 
battery  constructed  of  timber  in  a  marsh  be¬ 
tween  Morris  and  James  Islands,  which  might 
hurl  shell  upon  the  city,  or,  at  least,  upon  the 
shipping  and  wharves  of  Charleston.  This  gun 
■was  named  “  The  Swamp  Angel.”  It  wras  about 
five  miles  from  Charleston.  On  the  morning 
of  Aug.  17,  Gillmore,  having  completed  his  ar¬ 
rangements  for  attack,  opened  the  guns  from 
twelve  batteries  and  from  Dalilgren’s  naval 
force  on  Forts  Sumter  and  Wagner  and  Bat¬ 
tery  Gregg.  Fort  Sumter,  two  miles  distant, 
was  the  chief  object  of  attack  —  to  make  it 
powerless  as  an  assistant  of  Fort  Wagner. 
This  was  continued  until  the  24th,  when  Gill¬ 
more  telegraphed  to  Washington,  “Fort  Sum¬ 
ter  is  to-day  a  shapeless  and  harmless  mass 
of  ruins.”  “The  Swamp  Angel”  sent  some 
150-pound  shells  that  fell  in  Charleston  —  one 
penetrating  St.  Michael’s  Church — and  greatly 
alarmed  the  people.  On  the  fall  of  Sumter, 
the  attack  centred  on  Fort  Wagner ;  and  at 
two  o’clock  on  the  morning  of  Sept.  7,  Gen¬ 
eral  Terry,  with  three  thousand  troops,  in 
three  columns,  was  about  to  advance  to  assail 
that  strong  fortification,  when  it  was  found 
that  the  Confederates  had  evacuated  it  and 
Battery  Gregg  before  midnight.  During  for¬ 
ty  hours  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  pounds  of  iron  had  been  rained  upon 
the  fort.  Dahlgren,  believing  the  channel  to  be 
strewn  with  torpedoes,  did  not  venture  to  pass 
the  silent  forts  witli  his  vessels  and  appear  be¬ 
fore  Charleston.  Indeed,  Sumter  was  not  dead, 
but  slumbering.  On  the  night  of  Sept.  8  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  men  of  the  squadron  went  iu  thirty 
row-boats  to  take  possession  of  Sumter.  They 
scaled  the  ruins,  where,  as  they  supposed,  the 
decimated  garrison  were  sleeping,  but  were  met 
by  determined  men,  and  repulsed.  They  were 
assailed  not  only  by  the  garrison,  but  by  neigh¬ 
boring  batteries,  a  gunboat,  and  a  “ram,”  and 
lost  two  hundred  men,  four  boats,  and  three 
colors.  Finally,  on  Oct.  20,  perceiving  the  gar¬ 
rison  mounting  cannons  on  the  southeast  luce 


of  Sumter,  to  command  Fort  Wagner,  Gillmore 
opened  heavy  rifled  cannons  on  the  former,  which 
soon  reduced  it  to  au  utterly  untenable  ruin. 
From  that  time  until  near  the  close  of  the  year 
Gillmore  kept  up  au  irregular  fire  on  Charles¬ 
ton,  when,  seeing  no  prospect  of  the  fleet  enter¬ 
ing  the  harbor,  he  kept  silent.  (See  Charleston, 
Evacuation  of,  1865.) 

Charleston,  Defence  of  (1776).  In  the  spring 
of  1776  a  considerable  fleet,  under  Admiral  Sir 
Peter  Parker,  sailed  from  England  with  troops, 
under  Earl  Cornwallis,  to  operate  against  the 
coasts  of  the  Southern  provinces.  This  arma¬ 
ment  joined  that  of  Sir  Henry  Cliuton  at  Cape 
Fear.  After  some  marauding  operations  in  that 
region,  the  united  forces  proceeded  to  Charles¬ 
ton  Harbor,  to  make  a  combined  attack  by  laud 
and  water  upon  Fort  Sullivan,  on  Sullivan’s  Isl¬ 
and,  and  then  to  seize  the  city  and  province. 
The  Southern  patriots  had  cheerfully  responded 
to  the  call  of  Governor  Rutledge  to  come  to  the 
defence  of  Charleston,  and  about  six  thousand 
armed  men  were  in  the  vicinity  when  the  enemy 
appeared.  The  city  and  eligible  points  near  had 
been  fortified.  Fort  Sullivan  was  composed  of 
Palmetto  logs  and  earth,  armed  with  twenty-six 
cannons,  and  garrisoned  by  about  five  hundred 
men,  chiefly  militia,  under  Colonel  William  Moul¬ 
trie.  It  commanded  the  channel  leading  to  the 
town.  General  Charles  Lee,  who  had  been  or¬ 
dered  by  Washington  to  watch  the  movements 
of  Cliuton,  had  made  his  way  southward,  and 
arrived  at  Charleston  on  the  4th  of  June,  but 
was  of  no  service  whatever.  Late  in  the  month 
Clinton  had  landed  troops  on  Long  Island, 
which  was  separated  from  Sullivan’s  Island  by  a 
shallow  creek.  There  he  erected  batteries  to 
confront  those  on  Sullivan’s  Island,  and  awaited 
the  signal  for  attack  by  Parker.  It  was  given 
on  the  morning  of  the  28th  (June),  and  a  terri¬ 
ble  storm  of  shot  and  shell  was  poured  upon  the 
fort,  with  very  little  effect,  for  the  spongy  Pal¬ 
metto  logs  would  not  fracture,  and  the  balls 
were  embedded  in  them.  The  conflict  raged  for 
almost  ten  hours  between  the  fort  and  the  fleet, 
and  the  latter  was  terribly  shattered.  Mean¬ 
while  Clinton  had  endeavored  to  pass  over  to 
Sullivan’s  Island  with  two  thousand  men,  but 
was  kept  back  by  the  determined  troops  under 
Colonel  Thompson  with  two  caunons  and  deadly 
rifles.  The  fire  from  the  fleet  slackened  at  sun¬ 
set,  and  ceased  at  nine  o’clock.  The  admiral’s 
flag-ship  (Bristol)  and  another  were  nearly  a 
wreck.  The  flag-ship  was  pierced  by  not  less 
than  seventy  halls.  All  but.  two  of  the  vessels 
(which  were  destroyed)  withdrew.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  lost  in  the  engagement  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  men  killed  and  wounded,  while  the 
Americans  lost  but  two  killed  and  twenty-one 
wounded.  Three  days  afterwards  the  British 
all  departed  for  New  York  ;  and  the  fort,  so 
gallantly  defended,  was  called  Fort  Moultrie  in 
honor  of  its  commander. 

Charleston,  Evacuation  of  (1782),  took  place 
on  Dec.  14.  Leslie  had  levelled  the  fortifica¬ 
tions  around  the  city,  and  demolished  Fort 
Johnson,  ou  St.  John’s  Island,  near  by,  on  the 


228 


CHARTER  OAK 


CHARLESTON,  EVACUATION  OF 


morning  of  the  13th.  The  American  army  slow¬ 
ly  approached  the  city  that  day,  and  at  dawn 
the  next  morning  the  British  marched  to  Gads¬ 
den’s  wharf  and  embarked.  An  American  de¬ 
tachment  took  formal  possession  of  the  town. 
At  three  o’clock  P.M.  General  Greene  escorted 
Governor  Mathews  and  other  civil  officers  to 
the  Town-hall,  the  troops  greeted  on  their  way 
by  cheers  from  windows  and  balconies,  and 
even  from  housetops.  Handkerchiefs  waved,  and 
thousands  of  voices  exclaimed,  “God  bless  you, 
gentlemen!  Welcome!  welcome!”  Before  night 
the  British  squadron  (about  three  hundred  ves¬ 
sels)  crossed  the  bar,  and  the  last  sail  was  seen 
like  a  white  speck  just  as  the  suu  went  down. 

Charleston,  Evacuation’  of  (1865).  When 
Hardee,  iu  command  of  t  lie  Confederate  troops  at 
Charleston,  heard  of  the  fall  of  Columbia  (which 
see),  he  perceived  the  necessity  for  his  immedi¬ 
ate  flight,  by  the  only  railway  then  left  open  for 
his  use,  and  of  endeavoring  to  join  Beauregard, 
with  the  remnant  of  Hood’s  army  (see  Nashville, 
Battle  of),  then  making  their  way  into  North 
Carolina,  where  Johnston  was  gathering  all  of 
his  available  forces  in  Sherman’s  path.  Har¬ 
dee  at  once  tired  every  building,  warehouse,  or 
shed  in  Charleston  stored  with  cotton,  and  de¬ 
stroyed  as  much  other  property  that  might  be 
useful  to  the  Nationals  as  possible.  The  few  re¬ 
maining  inhabitants  in  the  city  were  tilled  with 
consternation,  for  the  flames  spread  through  the 
town.  An  explosion  of  gunpowder  shook  the 
city  to  its  foundations  and  killed  full  two  hun¬ 
dred  persons.  Four  whole  squares  of  build¬ 
ings  were  consumed.  That  night  (Feb.  17, 1865) 
the  last  of  Hardee’s  troops  left  Charleston.  On 
the  following  morning  Major  Hennessy,  sent 
from  Morris  Island,  raised  the  National  flag  over 
ruined  Fort  Sumter.  The  mayor  surrendered  the 
city,  and  some  National  troops,  with  negroes  in 
Charleston,  soon  extinguished  the  flames  that 
threatened  ro  devour  the  whole  town.  On  that 
day  (Feb.  18,  1865)  the  city  of  Charleston  was 
“repossessed”  by  the  National  government,  with 
over  four  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  artillery,  a 
large  amount  of  gunpowder,  and  eight  locomo¬ 
tives  and  other  rolling-stock  of  a  railway.  Gen¬ 
eral  Gillmore  took  possession  of  the  city,  and 
appointed  Lieutenant-colonel  Stewart  L.  Wood¬ 
ford  military  governor. 

Charleston  Founded.  The  first  capital  of 
the  colony  of  South  Carolina  was  erected  on  a 
bluff  of  the  Ashley  River;  but  in  1680  it  was 
abandoned,  and  a  new  city  founded  on  Oyster 
Point,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper 
Rivers,  and  named  Charles  Town  (now  Charles¬ 
ton)  in  compliment  to  the  king,  Charles  II. 

Charleston  Harbor,  Invasion  of,  by  Span¬ 
iards  and  Frenchmen.  Provoked  by  the  at¬ 
tack  on  St.  Augustine  by  the  South  Carolinians, 
the  Spaniards  fitted  out  an  expedition  to  retal¬ 
iate.  It  consisted  of  five  vessels  of  war,  under 
the  command  of  the  French  admiral  Le  Feboure, 
bearing  a  large  body  of  troops  from  Havana.  It 
was  proposed  to  conquer  the  province  of  South 
Carolina  and  attach  it  to  Spanish  territory  in 
Florida.  The  squadron  crossed  Charleston  Bar 


(May,  1706),  and  about  eight  hundred  troops 
were  landed  at  different  points.  Then  the  com¬ 
mander  made  a  peremptory  demand  for  the  sur¬ 
render  of  the  city,  threatening  to  take  it  by 
storm  in  case  of  refusal.  Governor  Moore,  ap¬ 
prised  of  the  expedition,  was  prepared  for  it. 
When  the  flag  arrived  with  the  demand  for  a 
surrender,  he  had  so  disposed  the  provincial  mi¬ 
litia  and  a  host  of  Indian  warriors  that  it  gave 
an  exaggerated  idea  of  the  strength  of  the  Caro¬ 
linians.  Before  the  messenger  had  made  any 
extended  observations  he  was  dismissed  with 
the  defiant  reply  that  the  people  were  ready  to 
meet  the  promised  attack.  That  night  was 
passed  iu  quiet ;  but  at  dawn  a  strong  party  of 
Carolinians  on  the  shore,  led  by  the  governor 
and  Colonel  Rhett,  made  a  furious  assault  upon 
the  invaders  ;  killed  many,  captured  more,  and 
drove  the  remnant  back  to  their  ships.  Mean¬ 
while  the  little  provincial  navy,  lying  iu  the 
harbor,  prepared  to  attack  the  invading  squad¬ 
ron,  when  the  French  admiral,  amazed  by  this 
display  of  valor,  hoisted  his  anchors  and  fled  to 
sea.  A  French  war-ship,  uninformed  of  these 
events,  soon  afterwards  sailed  into  tin?  harbor 
with  troops,  and  was  captured.  The  victory 
was  complete,  and  the  Spaniards  became  cir¬ 
cumspect. 

Charlestown  (Mass.)  Burned.  At  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  battle  on  Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill, 
Charlestown,  a  haudsome  village  of  about  four 
hundred  houses,  situated  uear  that  eminence, 
was,  by  order  of  the  British  commander,  set  on 
fire.  The  houses  were  chiefly  of  wood,  and  in 
a  very  short  time  the  town  was  enveloped  iu 
flames  aud  smoke. 

Charlestown  (Mass.),  Founding  of.  Dis¬ 
satisfied  with  the  situation  at  Salem,  Thomas 
Graves,  with  some  of  the  servants  of  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  Bay  Company  under  his  charge,  re¬ 
moved  to  Misliawun  in  1629,  laid  out  a  town 
in  two -acre  lots,  one  of  which  he  assigned  to 
each  inhabitant,  aud  called  the  place  Charles¬ 
town. 

Charter,  New  Royal,  for  Massachusetts. 
(See  Massachusetts.) 

Charter  Oak,  The,  stood  upon  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Wyllys  Hill,  in  Hartford,  a  beau¬ 
tiful  elevation  on  the  south  side  of  Charter  Oak 
Street,  a  few  rods  east  from  Main  Street.  When 
the  author  visited  and  made  a  sketch  of  the  tree 
in  October,  1848,  it  was  a  “  gnarled  oak  ”  indeed. 
The  trunk  was  twenty-five  feet  in  circumference 
near  the  roots.  A  large  cavity,  about  two  feet 
from  the  ground,  was  the  place  of  concealment 
of  the  original  charter  of  Connecticut  from  the 
summer  of  1687  until  the  spring  of  1689,  when 
it  was  brought  forth,  and  under  it  Connecticut 
resumed  its  charter  government.  (See  Charter 
of  Connecticut.)  In  the  year  1800,  a  daughter  of 
Secretary  Wyllys,  writing  to  Dr.  Holmes,  the 
annalist,  said  of  this  tree  :  “  The  first  inhab¬ 
itant  of  that  name  [Wyllys]  found  it  standing 
in  the  height  of  its  glory.  Age  seems  to  have 
curtailed  its  branches,  yet  it  is  not  exceeded  in 
the  height  of  its  coloring  or  the  richness  of  its 
foliage.  The  cavity  which  was  the  asylum  of  our 


CHARTER  OF  CONNECTICUT 


229 


CHARTER  OF  PRIVILEGES 


charter  was  near  the  roots,  and  large  enough  to 
admit  a  child.  Within  the  space  of  eight  years 
that  cavity  has  closed,  as  if  it  had  fulfilled  the 
divine  purpose  for  which  it  had  been  reared.” 


This  tree  was  blown  down  by  a  heavy  gale  at  a 
little  past  midnight  Aug.  21,  1856.  The  Wyllys 
Hill  has  been  graded  to  a  terrace,  called  “  Char¬ 
ter  Oak  Place,”  fronting  on  old  Charter  Oak 
Street,  running  east  from  Main  Street,  and  now 
called  Charter  Oak  Avenue.  On  the  terrace,  a 
few  feet  from  the  entrance  to  Charter  Oak  Place, 
a  white-marble  slab  marks  the  exact  spot  where 
the  famous  tree  stood. 

Charter  of  Connecticut.  Sir  Edmund  An¬ 
dros  was  appointed  governor-general  of  all  New 
England  in  1686,  and  on  his  arrival  he  demand¬ 
ed  the  surrender  of  all  the  colonial  charters  un¬ 
der  his  jurisdiction.  Connecticut  alone  resisted 
the  demand.  The  viceroy  proceeded  to  Hart¬ 
ford  in  the  autumn  of  1687  with  an  armed  force 
to  seize  the  charter  and  extinguish  the  govern¬ 
ment.  This  movement  seems  to  have  been  ex¬ 
pected  for  several  months.  On  the  15th  of  Juue, 
1687,  the  following  entry  was  made  on  the  jour¬ 
nal  of  the  Connecticut  Assembly  :  “  Sundry  of 
the  court  desiring  that  the  patent  or  charter 
might  be  brought  into  the  court,  the  secretary 
sent  for  it,  and  informed  the  governor  and  court 
that  he  had  the  charter,  and  showed  it  to  the 
court;  and  the  governor  bid  him  put  it  into 
tiie  box  again  and  lay  it  on  the  table,  and  leave 
the  key  in  the  box,  which  he  did  forthwith.” 
This  was  the  original  charter  granted  by  Charles 
II.  (see  Connecticut),  and  was  sent  over  in  a  neat 
mahogany  box.  The  records  of  the  Assembly 
show  that  a  duplicate  of  that  charter  was  made 
before  Andros  came,  and  this  fact  offers  an  ex¬ 
planation  of  the  mysterious  action  of  the  As¬ 
sembly.  The  box  was  undoubtedly  left  on  the 
table,  with  the  key  in  it,  for  somebody  to  take 
the  charter  out  without  the  knowledge  or  ap¬ 
parent  connivance  of  the  Connecticut  authori¬ 
ties.  Somebody  did  so,  and  caused  a  duplicate 
of  the  charter  to  be  made  on  parchment,  when, 
probably,  the  original  charter  was  concealed  in 
the  hollow  tree  from  whence  it  was  taken  in 
1689,  and  the  duplicate  placed  in  the  box,  so 
that  if  Andros  should  seize  the  charter  he  would 


not  have  the  original.  Andros  arrived  at  Hart¬ 
ford  with  sixty  armed  men,  Oct.  31  (O.  S.),  1687, 
and  found  the  Assembly  in  session  in  the  meet- 
ing-liouse.  The  members  received  him  with  the 
courtesy  due  to  his  rank.  He  went  before  that 
body  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  char¬ 
ter.  Tradition  says  that  it  was  near  sunset 
when  he  entered  the  room.  A  debate  in  progress 
was  purposely  prolonged  until  the  candles  were 
lighted,  when  the  box  containing  the  charter 
was  brought  in  and  placed  on  the  table.  A  pre¬ 
concerted  plan  was  now  executed.  Captain  Jo¬ 
seph  Wadsworth,  whose  train-bands  were  near 
to  protect  the  Assembly  from  violence,  was  in 
the  room.  When  Andros  put  forth  his  hand  to 
fake  the  charter,  the  lights  were  put  out,  and 
the  box  was  carried  away  by  Wadsworth.  That 
it  was  the  duplicate  charter  that  Wadsworth  car¬ 
ried  away  is  attested  by  the  same  colonial  rec¬ 
ords.  An  entry  in  the  journal  of  the  Assembly 
in  1715  shows  that  the  sum  of  “  twenty  shil¬ 
lings”  was  granted  to  Captain  Wadsworth  “out 
of  the  colonial  treasury”  as  a  token  of  their 
grateful  remembrance  of  “  such  faithful  and 
good  service”  in  “securing  the  duplicate  charter 
of  the  colony  in  a  very  troublesome  season.” 
Probably  it  was  Captain  Wadsworth  who  took 
the  original  out  of  the  box  in  June,  1687,  caused 
a  duplicate  copy  to  be  made  of  it,  and  deposited 
that  original  in  the  hollow  tree  that  preserved 
it.  After  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary, 
and  the  fall  of  Andros  (see  Andros),  the  charter 
was  taken  from  the  hollow  oak,  and  Connecticut 
resumed  its  charter  government  under  it.  The 
duplicate  was  in  the  possession  of  Captain  Wads¬ 
worth  so  late  as  1698.  Andros,  foiled  in  his  at¬ 
tempt  to  seize  the  charter,  caused  Secretary 
Allyn  to  enter  upon  the  journal  a  statement 
that  the  viceroy,  by  order  of  King  James,  had 
on  that  day  (Oct.  31, 1687)  taken  into  his  hands 
the  government  of  Connecticut,  annexing  it  to 
Massachusetts  and  other  colonies.  This  record 
concluded  with  the  word,  in  bold  letters, “  Finis.” 
(See  Charter  Oak.) 

Charter  of  Massachusetts  Vacated.  (See 
Randolph,  Edward.) 

Charter  of  Privileges  for  New  Netherland. 

The  Dutch  wisely  took  measures  to  encourage 
emigration  to  New  Netherland.  By  a  new  “  Char¬ 
ter  of  Privileges  and  Exemptions,”  adopted  July 
17,  1640,  patroouships  were  limited,  for  the  fut¬ 
ure,  to  four  miles  of  frontage  on  navigable  waters, 
with  a  depth  of  eight  miles ;  and  every  person 
transporting  himself  and  five  others  to  the  col¬ 
ony  was  allowed  two  hundred  acres  of  land; 
and  such  villages  and  towns  as  might  be  formed 
were  to  have  magistrates  of  their  own  choosing. 
A  proclamation  was  issued  offering  free  trade 
to  New  Netherland  (in  the  ships  of  the  West 
India  Company)  and  transportation  thither  to 
all  who  wished  to  go;  and  emigrants  were  of¬ 
fered  lands,  houses,  cattle,  and  farming  tools  at 
a  very  moderate  annual  rent,  and  a  supply  of 
clothes  and  provisions  on  credit.  At  that  time, 
of  the  ten  large  patroouships  originally  estab¬ 
lished,  only  Rensselaerwick  remained.  Immi¬ 
grants,  composed  chiefly  of  persecuted  persons 


CHASE 


CHASE,  JUDGE,  IMPEACHMENT  OF  230 


or  indentured  servants  who  had  served  ont  their 
time  (see  Redemption ists),  flocked  into  New  Neth- 
erlaud,  where  they  might  enjoy  freedom  such  as 
existed  in  Holland.  They  came  from  New  Eng¬ 
land  and  Virginia,  and  very  soon  there  was  a 
considerable  English  element  in  society  in  New 
Netherlaud. 

Chase,  Judge,  Impeachment  of.  In  the  ses¬ 
sion  of  Congress  in  the  early  part  of  1804,  it  was 
determined  by  the  leaders  of  the  dominant,  or 
Democratic,  party  to  impeach  Judge  Samuel 
Chase,  then  Associate-justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  He  was  an  ardent 
Federalist,  and  warmly  attached  to  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  Washington’s  administration.  At  the 
instance  of  John  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  Demo¬ 
cratic  leader  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
he  was  impeached  for  his  conduct  during  the 
trial  of  Callender  and  Fries,  solely  on  political 
grounds.  Eight  articles  of  impeachment  were 
agreed  to,  most  of  them  by  a  strict  party  vote. 
One  was  founded  on  his  conduct  at  the  trial  of 
Fries  (see  Fries's  Insurrection),  five  on  the  trial 
of  Callender  (see  Callender,  J.  T.)l  and  two  on  a 
late  charge  to  a  Maryland  grand  jury.  Having 
been  summoned  by  the  Senate  to  appear  for  trial, 
he  did  so  (Jan.  2,  1805),  and  asked  for  a  delay 
until  the  next  session.  The  boon  was  refused, 
and  he  was  given  a  month  to  prepare  for  trial. 
His  case  excited  much  sympathy  and  indigna¬ 
tion,  even  among  the  better  members  of  the  ad¬ 
ministration  party.  His  age,  his  Revolutionary 
services,  and  his  pure  judicial  character,  all 
pleaded  in  his  favor,  and  not  in  vain,  for  he  was 
acquitted.  Tbe  Senate  — the  tribunal  before 
which  he  was  tried — was  presided  over  by  Aaron 
Burr,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  who 
had  returned  from  his  flight  southward  after  his 
duel  with  Hamilton.  He  had  taken  a  seat  in  the 
Seuate,  notwithstanding  his  reputation  was  per¬ 
manently  blasted  and  an  indictment  for  murder 
was  impending  over  him.  Chase’s  trial  served 
to  check  the  overbearing  demeanor  of  the  judges 
on  the  bench  which  prevailed  in  his  time. 

Chase,  Philander,  D.D.,  was  horn  at  Cornish, 
N.  H.,  Dec.  14,  1775 ;  died  at  Jubilee  College, 
Ill.,  Sept.  20,  1852.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1795,  and  was  ordained  a  minister  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  in  New  York, 
in  1798.  His  first  charge  was  at  Poughkeepsie, 
on  the  Hudson  River.  He  labored  zealously  in 
the  missionary  cause  in  various  parts  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  in  1805,  on  account  of 
his  wife’s  ill-health,  he  went  to  New  Orleans. 
Returning  to  the  North  in  1811,  he  became  rector 
of  a  church  in  Hartford,  Conn.  In  1817  he  went 
to  Ohio,  and  entered  vigorously  upon  the  work 
of  building  up  the  Church  in  the  West.  In  1819 
he  was  consecrated  bishop,  and,  in  the  midst  of 
many  trials  and  difficulties,  he  succeeded  in 
founding  Kenyon  College  and  Gambier  Theolog¬ 
ical  Seminary,  in  Ohio,  collecting,  by  his  individ¬ 
ual  and  personal  exertions,  in  England  and  this 
country,  about  $30,000  for  the  purpose.  Intent 
upon  missionary  labor,  he  moved  farther  west, 
and,  in  1835,  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Illinois.  He  again  visited  England,  and 


collected  about  $10,000  for  educational  purposes; 
and  in  1838  he  founded  Jubilee  College,  at  Rob¬ 
in’s  Nest,  Ill.,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  statesman,  was 
born  at  Cornish,  N.  H.,  Jan.  13,  1808;  died  in 
New  York  city,  May  7, 1873.  When  twelve  years 
of  age  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  his  uncle, 
Bishop  Chase,  in  Ohio,  who  superintended  his 
tuition.  He  entered  Cincinnati  College ;  and  af- 


8ALMON  PORTLAND  CHASE. 


ter  a  year  there  he  returned  to  New  Hampshire 
and  entered  Dartmouth  College,  where  he  grad¬ 
uated  in  1826.  He  taught  school  and  studied  law 
in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  there  in  1829.  The  next  year  he  went  to 
Cincinnati  to  practise  his  profession,  where  he 
became  eminent.  He  prepared  an  edition  of  the 
statutes  of  Ohio,  with  copious  notes,  which  soon 
superseded  all  others.  In  1834  he  became  so¬ 
licitor  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  in  Cin¬ 
cinnati.  Acting  as  counsel  for  a  colored  wom¬ 
an  who  was  claimed  as  a  slave  (1837),  he  contro¬ 
verted  the  authority  of  Congress  to  impose  any 
duties  or  confer  any  powers,  in  fugitive-slave 
cases,  on  state  magistrates.  The  same  year,  in  his 
defence  of  J.  G.  Birney  (which  see),  prosecuted 
under  a  state  law  for  harboring  a  fugitive  slave, 
Mr.  Chase  asserted  the  doctrine  that  slavery  was 
local,  and  dependent  upon  state  law  for  existence, 
and  that  the  alleged  slave,  being  in  Ohio,  where 
slavery  did  not  exist,  was  free.  From  that  time 
he  was  regarded  as  the  great  legal  champion  of 
the  principles  of  the  Anti-slavery  party.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  political  field  in  1841,  on  organizing 
the  “Liberty  party”  (which  see)  in  Ohio,  and 
was  ever  afterwards  active  in  its  conventions,  as 
well  as  in  the  ranks  of  the  opposers  of  slavery. 
The  Democrats  of  the  Ohio  Legislature  elected 
him  (1849)  to  a  seat  in  the  United  States  Senate, 
where  he  opposed  the  Fugitive  Slave  Bill  and 
other  compromise  measures,  and,  on  the  nomina¬ 
tion  of  Mr.  Pierce  for  the  Presidency,  he  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  Democratic  party.  He  opposed 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  (which  see),  and  iu 
1855  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Republican  party  in 
1856,  and  was  governor  until  1859.  In  1861  he 


CHASE 


231 


CHATTANOOGA  ABANDONED 


became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States,  uuder  President  Lincoln,  and  managed 
the  finances  of  the  nation  with  great  ability 
until  October,  1864,  when  he  was  appointed 
Chief-justice  of  the  United  States  in  place  of 
Judge  Taney,  deceased.  In  that  Capacity  he 
presided  at  the  trial  of  President  Johnson  in 
the  spring  of  1868.  Being  dissatisfied  with  the 
action  of  the  Republican  majority  in  Congress, 
Mr.  Chase  was  proposed,  in  1868,  as  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  nominee  for  President.  He  was  willing  to 
accept  the  nomination,  but  received  only  four 
out  of  six  hundred  and  sixty-three  votes  in  the 
convention.  He  then  withdrew  from  the  politi¬ 
cal  field,  but  in  1872  he  opposed  the  re-election 
of  General  Grant  to  the  Presidency. 

Chase,  Samuel,  was  born  in  Somerset  Coun¬ 
ty,  Md.,  April  17,  1741 ;  died  June  19, 1811.  Ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1761,  he  entered  upon  the 
practice  of  law  at  Annapolis,  and  he  soon  rose 
to  distinction.  He  was  twenty  years  a  member 
of  the  Colonial  Legislature;  was  a  strong  op- 
poser  of  the  Stamp  Act ;  a  member  of  the  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Correspondence ;  and  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress  (1774-79).  In  1776  he  was 
a  fellow-commissioner  of  Franklin  and  Carroll 
to  seek  an  alliance  with  the  Canadians,  and 
was  efficient  in  changing  the  sentiments  of 
Maryland  in  favor  of  independence,  so  as  to  au¬ 
thorize  him  and  his  colleagues  to  vote  for  the 
Declaration,  which  he  signed.  In  1783  Mr.  Chase 
was  sent  to  England,  as  agent  for  Maryland,  to 
redeem  a  large  sum  of  money  intrusted  to  the 
Bank  of  England,  $650,000  of  which  was  finally 
recovered.  From  1791  to  1796  he  was  chief-jus¬ 
tice  of  his  state,  and  was  a  warm  supporter  of 
the  administrations  of  Washington  and  Adams. 
In  1804  he  was,  at  the  instance  of  John  Ran¬ 
dolph,  his  political  opponent,  impeached  for  his 
conduct  in  the  trial  of  Fries  (see  Fries's  Insur¬ 
rection)  and  Callender.  He  was  acquitted  by 
the  Senate,  sitting  as  a  high  court  of  impeach¬ 
ment.  Judge  Chase  possessed  a  somewhat  iras¬ 
cible  temper,  and  was  sometimes  overbearing  as 
a  judge,  but  was  honest,  learned,  able,  and  patri¬ 
otic. 

Chatham,  Pitt  created  Earl  of.  When 
Pitt  resigned  the  seals  of  office  (1761)  there  was 
great  public  discontent.  Bute  soon  felt  it,  and 
lie  said  to  a  friend,  “I  am  no  stranger  to  the 
language  held  in  this  city — ‘Our  darling’s  res¬ 
ignation  is  owing  to  Lord  Bute,  and  he  must 
answer  for  all  the  consequences.’”  The  king, 
too,  felt  unpleasant  forebodings.  He  showered 
kind  words  upon  the  retiring  statesman,  and 
offered  to  confer  a  title  of  honor  upon  him, 
but  it  was  then  declined.  He  accepted  for  his 
wife  the  honorary  title  of  Baroness  of  Chatham, 
with  a  pension  for  her,  her  husband,  and  their 
eldest  son  of  $15,000  a  year.  In  1766  he  was 
created  Vicount  Pitt  and  Earl  of  Chatham, 
and  was  then  called  to  the  head  of  public  af¬ 
fairs.  He  formed  a  cabinet  of  heterogeneous 
materials,  which  Burke  wittily  described  as  “a 
piece  of  diversified  mosaic,  a  tesselated  pave¬ 
ment  without  cement  —  here  a  bit  of  black 
stone,  there  a  bit  of  white — patriots  and  cour¬ 


tiers,  king’s  friends  and  republicans,  Whigs  and 
Tories,  treacherous  friends  and  open  enemies — - 
a  very  curious  show,  but  utterly  unsafe  to  touch 
and  unsure  to  stand  upon.”  Pitt’s  elevation  to 
the  peerage  injured  his  popularity.  Chester¬ 
field  said,  “Pitt  has  gone  to  the  hospital  of  in¬ 
curable  statesmen” — the  House  of  Lords. 

Chatham’s  Conciliation  Scheme.  After 
long  absence  from  Parliament,  the  Earl  of  Chat¬ 
ham  (William  Pitt)  appeared  early  in  the  year 
1775,  and  proposed  an  address  to  the  king  ad¬ 
vising  the  recall  of  the  troops  from  Boston.  It 
was  rejected ;  but  petitions  for  conciliation  flow¬ 
ed  in  from  all  the  great  trading  and  manufac¬ 
turing  towns  in  the  kingdom,  for  they  felt  the 
severe  pressure  of  the  operations  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Association  (which  see).  In  February,  1775, 
Chatham  brought  forward  a  bill  which  required 
a  full  acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  the  colo¬ 
nists  of  the  supremacy  and  superintending  power 
of  Parliament,  but  provided  that  no  tax  should 
ever  be  levied  on  the  Americans  except  by  con¬ 
sent  of  the  colonial  assemblies.  It  also  con¬ 
tained  a  provision  for  a  congress  of  the  colonies 
to  make  the  required  acknowledgment ;  and 
to  vote,  at  the  same  time,  a  free  grant  to  the 
king  of  a  certain  perpetual  revenue,  to  be  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  Parliament.  It  was  rejected, 
two  to  one,  at  the  first  reading.  ( See  Peace 
Commissioners.) 

Chattahoochee,  Passage  of  the.  On  the 
morning  of  July  3, 1864,  General  Johnston’s  Con¬ 
federate  army  passed  in  haste  through  Marietta, 
Ga.,  and  on  towards  the  Chattahoochee  River, 
a  deep  and  rapid  stream,  closely  followed  by 
Sherman  with  the  National  army,  who  hoped  to 
strike  his  antagonist  a  heavy  blow  wThile  he 
was  crossing  that  stream.  By  quick  and  skil¬ 
ful  movements,  Johnston  passed  the  Chattahoo¬ 
chee  without  much  molestation  aud  made  a 
stand  behind  intrenchments  on  its  left  bank. 
Again  Sherman  made  a  successful  flanking 
movement.  Howard  laid  a  pontoon  bridge  two 
miles  above  the  ferry  where  the  Confederates 
crossed.  Demonstrations  by  the  rest  of  the 
Nationals  made  Johnston  abandon  his  position 
and  retreat  to  another  that  covered  Atlanta. 
The  left  of  the  Confederates  rested  on  the  Chat¬ 
tahoochee  and  their  right  on  Peach-Tree  Creek. 
There  the  two  armies  rested  some  time.  On 
July  10,  or  sixty-five  days  after  Sherman  put 
his  army  in  motion  southward,  he  was  master 
of  the  country  north  and  west  of  the  river  on 
the  banks  of  which  he  was  reposing  —  nearly 
one  half  of  Georgia — and  had  accomplished  the 
chief  object  of  the  campaign,  namely,  the  ad¬ 
vancement  of  the  National  lines  from  the  Ten¬ 
nessee  to  the  Chattahoochee. 

Chattanooga  abandoned  by  the  Confed¬ 
erates  (1863).  The  Army  of  the  Cumberland, 
under  Rosecrans,  after  crossing  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  in  pursuit  of  the  Confederates  under 
Bragg,  was  stretched  along  the  Tennessee  River 
from  a  point  above  Chattanooga  a  hundred  miles 
westward.  Rosecrans  determined  to  cross  that 
stream  at  different  points  and,  closing  around 
Chattanooga,  attempt  to  crush  or  starve  the  Con- 


CHAUNCEY 


232 


CHEROKEE  WAR 


federate  army  there.  General  Hazen  was  near 
Harrison’s,  above  Chattanooga  (Ang.  20).  He 
had  made  slow  marches,  displaying  camp-fires 
at  different  points,  and  causing  the  fifteen  regi¬ 
ments  of  his  command  to  appear  like  the  ad¬ 
vance  of  an  immense  army.  On  the  morning 
of  Aug.  21  National  artillery  under  Wilder,  plant¬ 
ed  on  the  mountain-side  across  the  river,  oppo¬ 
site  Chattanooga,  sent  screaming  shells  over 
that  town  and  among  Bragg’s  troops.  The  lat¬ 
ter  was  startled  by  a  sense  of  immediate  dan¬ 
ger;  and  when,  soon  afterwards,  Generals  Thom¬ 
as  and  McCook  crossed  the  Tennessee  with  their 
corps  and  took  possession  of  the  passes  of  Look¬ 
out  Mouutain  on  Bragg’s  flank,  and  Crittenden 
took  post  at  Wauhatchie,  in  Lookout  Valley, 
nearer  the  river,  the  Confederates  abandoned 
Chattanooga,  passed  through  the  gaps  of  Mis¬ 
sionaries  Ridge,  and  encamped  on  Chickamau- 
ga  Creek,  near  Lafayette,  in  northern  Geor¬ 
gia,  there  to  meet  expected  National  forces 
when  pressing  through  the  gaps  of  Lookout 
Mountain  and  threatening  their  communica¬ 
tions  with  Dalton  and  Resaca.  From  the  lofty 
summit  of  Lookout  Mountain  Crittenden  had 
seen  the  retreat  of  Bragg.  He  immediately  led 
his  forces  into  the  Chattanooga  Valley  and  en¬ 
camped  at  Ross’s  Gap,  in  Missionaries  Ridge, 
within  three  miles  of  the  town. 

Chauncey,  Isaac,  was  born  at  Black  Rock, 
Conn.,  Feb.  20, 1772;  died  in  Washington,  Jan. 
27,  1840.  In  early  life  he  was  in  the  merchant 
service,  and  commanded  a  ship  at  the  age  of 
nineteen  years.  He  made  several  voyages  to 
the  East  Indies  in  the  ships  of  J.  J.  Astor.  In 
1798  he  w  as  made  a  lieutenant  of  the  navy,  and 
w'as  acting  captain  of  the  Chesapeake  in  1802. 
He  became  master  in  May,  1804,  and  captain  in 
1806.  During  the  War  of  1812-15  he  was  in 


ISAAC  CHAUNCEY. 


command  of  the  American  naval  force  on  Lake 
Ontario,  wdiere  he  performed  efficient  service. 
After  that  war  he  commanded  the  Mediterra¬ 


nean  squadron,  and,  with  Consul  Shaler,  nego¬ 
tiated  a  treaty  w'ith  Algiers.  In  1820  he  w  as 
naval  commissioner  at  Washington,  and  the 
same  from  1833  until  his  death.  Commodore 
Chauucey’s  remains  were  interred  in  the  Con- 


CHAUNCKY'S  MONUMENT. 


gressional  Burying-ground  at  Washington,  and 
at  the  head  of  his  grave  stands  a  fine  white- 
marble  monument,  suitably  inscribed. 

Cherokee  Alphabet.  A  native  Cherokee 
( Se-quoy-ah ),  whom  the  white  people  called 
George  Guess,  and  who  was  ignorant  of  any 
language  but  his  own,  seeing  books  in  the  mis¬ 
sionary-schools,  and  being  told  that  the  char¬ 
acters  represented  the  words  of  the  spoken 
English  language,  conceived  the  idea  of  form¬ 
ing  a  written  language  for  his  people.  He  first 
made  a  separate  character  for  each  word.  But 
this  made  the  whole  matter  too  voluminous, 
and  he  made  a  syllabic  alphabet  of  eighty-five 
characters.  It  was  soon  ascertained  that  this 
was  sufficient,  even  for  the  copious  language  of 
the  Cherokees. 

Cherokee  Towns  Burned  (1781).  The  Cher¬ 
okees  having  made  a  hostile  incursion  into  the 
Ninety-six  District,  in  South  Carolina,  murdered 
some  families,  and  burned  several  houses,  Gen¬ 
eral  Andrew  Pickens,  at  the  head  of  about  four 
hundred  mounted  militia,  penetrated  into  their 
country,  and,  in  fourteen  days,  burned  thirteen 
towns  and  villages,  killed  more  than  forty  bar¬ 
barians,  and  took  a  number  of  prisoners,  with¬ 
out  losing  a  man. 

Cherokee  War.  While  the  Cherokees  who 
accompanied  the  expedition  against  Fort  Du- 
quesne  in  1758  were  returning  home  along  the 
mountains  on  the  western  borders  of  Virginia 


CHEROKEES 


233 


CHEROKEES  AND  GEORGIANS 


and  the  Carolinas,  they  quarrelled  with  the  set¬ 
tlers,  and  several  white  men  and  Indians  were 
killed.  Some  Cherokee  chiefs  were  sent  to 
Charleston  to  arrange  the  dispute,  when  they 
were  treated  almost  with  contempt  by  the  gov¬ 
ernor  of  South  Carolina.  This  was  soon  fol¬ 
lowed  by  an  invasion  of  the  Cherokee  country 
by  Governor  Littleton  (October,  1759)  with  1500 
men,  contributed  by  Virginia  and  the  Caroli¬ 
nas,  who  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  mur¬ 
derers  of  the  English.  He  found  the  Cheroliees 
ready  for  war,  and  was  glad  to  make  the  insub¬ 
ordination  of  his  soldiers  and  the  prevalence  of 
small-pox  among  them  an  excuse  for  leaving 
the  country.  He  accepted  twenty-two  Indian 
hostages  as  security  for  peace  and  the  future 
delivery  of  the  murderers,  and  retired  in  haste 
and  confusion  (June,  1760).  These  hostages, 
which  included  several  chiefs  and  warriors, 
were  placed  in  Fort  St.  George,  at  the  head  of 
the  Savanuah  River.  The  Cherokees  attempted 
their  rescue  as  soon  as  Littleton  aud  his  army 
had  gone.  A  soldier  was  wounded,  when  his 
companions,  in  fiery  anger,  put  all  the  hostages 
to  death.  The  Cherokee  nation  was  aroused  by 
the  outrage.  They  beleaguered  the  fort,  and 
war -parties  scourged  the  frontiers.  The  As¬ 
sembly  of  South  Carolina  voted  1000  men  and 
offered  £25  for  every  Indian  scalp.  North  Car¬ 
olina  voted  a  similar  provision,  aud  authorized 
the  holding  of  Indian  captives  as  slaves.  Gen¬ 
eral  Amherst,  petitioned  for  assistance,  detach¬ 
ed  1200  men,  chiefly  Scotch  Highlanders,  for  the 
purpose,  under  Colonel  Montgomery,  with  or¬ 
ders  to  chastise  the  Cherokees,  but  to  return  in 
time  for  the  next  campaign  against  Canada. 
Montgomery  left  Charleston  early  in  April,  with 
regular  and  provincial  troops,  and  laid  waste  a 
portion  of  the  Cherokee  country.  They  were 
not  subdued.  The  next  year  Colonel  Grant 
led  a  stronger  force  against  them,  burned  their 
towns,  desolated  their  fields,  and  killed  many 
of  their  warriors.  Then  the  Indiaus  humbly 
sued  for  peace  (June,  1761),  and  were  ever  after¬ 
wards  comparatively  quiet. 

Cherokees.  This  Indian  nation,  inhabiting 
the  hilly  regions  of  Georgia,  Western  Carolina, 
and  Northern  Alabama,  were  called  the  Moun¬ 
taineers  of  the  South.  They  were  among  high 
hills  and  fertile  valleys,  and  have  ever  been 
more  susceptible  of  civilization  than  any  of  the 
Indian  tribes  within  the  domain  of  the  United 
States.  They  were  the  determined  foes  of  the 
Shawnoese,  and,  after  many  conflicts,  drove 
those  fugitives  back  to  the  Ohio.  They  united 
with  the  Carolinians  and  Catawbas  against  the 
Tuscaroras  in  1711,  but  joined  the  great  Indian 
league  against  the  Carolinians  in  1715.  The 
Cherokees  and  the  Five  Nations  had  bloody 
contests  for  a  long  time  ;  but  the  English  ef¬ 
fected  a  reconciliation  between  them  about  the 
year  1750,  when  the  Cherokees  became  the  al¬ 
lies  of  the  British  against  the  French,  and  al¬ 
lowed  the  former  to  build  forts  on  their  do¬ 
main.  About  that  time  they  were  at  the  height 
of  their  power,  and  inhabited  sixty-four  vil¬ 
lages  along  the  streams ;  but  soon  afterwards 
nearly  one  half  the  population  were  swept  off 


by  the  small-pox.  The  Cherokees  assisted  in 
the  capture  of  Fort  Duquesne  in  1758;  but  their 
unruly  conduct  on  the  borders  of  Virginia  caused 
collisions  between  them  and  the  white  settlers, 
and  some  of  the  Cherokees  were  slain.  They 
retaliated  by  desolating  the  frontiers  of  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas,  and  for  three  years  a  war 
between  the  races  ensued.  Peace  was  perma¬ 
nently  established  in  1761.  During  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  the  Cherokees  adhered  to  the  British,  but 
were  afterwards  reconciled  to  the  Americans 
by  treaties  made  in  1785  and  1791.  They  were 
friends  of  the  United  States  in  the  War  of  1812, 
and  helped  to  subjugate  the  Creeks.  Civiliza¬ 
tion  took  root  among  them  and  produced  con¬ 
tention,  a  portion  of  them  wishing  to  adhere  to 
their  former  mode  of  living,  while  others  wish¬ 
ed  to  engage  in  the  industries  of  civilized  life. 
They  were  so  absolutely  divided  in  sentiment 
that  in  1818  a  portion  of  the  nation  emigrated 
to  wild  land  assigned  to  them  west  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi.  The  Cherokees,  in  turn,  had  ceded 
large  portions  of  their  lands,  and  their  domain 
was  mostly  confined  to  northern  Georgia.  They 
were  then  making  rapid  progress  in  civiliza¬ 
tion  ;  but  the  Georgians  coveted  their  lands, 
and  insisted  upon  their  removal  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  Finally,  iu  1838,  they  were  all 
(twenty-seven  tliousaud)  removed  to  a  reser¬ 
vation  (now  known  as  the  Indian  Territory) 
west  of  Arkansas,  excepting  about  one  thou¬ 
sand,  who  remained,  undisturbed,  in  North  Car¬ 
olina.  A  feud  that  had  long  existed  among 
them  was  healed  in  1839,  and  they  lived  har¬ 
moniously  and  prospered  until  a  portion  of 
them  were  seduced  by  agents  of  the  “  Confed¬ 
erates”  in  the  late  Civil  War  to  take  up  arms 
against  the  government.  It  was  a  disastrous 
movement.  Their  country  was  ravaged,  and 
losses  amounting  to  full  two  million  dollars  were 
incurred.  Their  slaves  were  emancipated,  and 
they  were  required  to  give  a  portion  of  their 
lands  to  the  freedmen  among  them.  The  Cher¬ 
okees  now  number  about  fifteen  thousand  souls, 
and  their  share  of  the  Indian  Territory  com¬ 
prises  about  five  million  acres,  of  which  two 
thirds  is  unfitted  for  cultivation.  The  Chero¬ 
kee  nation  is  divided  into  seven  families,  or 
clans,  and,  as  among  the  Iroquois,  members 
of  the  same  family  are  not  allowed  to  inter¬ 
marry. 

Cherokees  and  Georgians.  At  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  administration  of  President  Jack- 
son  the  Georgians  renewed  their  demand  for 
the  removal  of  the  Cherokee  nation  from  their 
state.  The  Cherokees  were  yet  powerful  in 
numbers,  aud  were  then  considerably  advanced 
in  the  arts  aud  customs  of  civilization.  They 
had  churches  and  schools  and  a  printing-press, 
issuing  a  newspaper;  and  they  were  disposed 
to  defend  their  rights  against  the  encroach- 
ments  of  their  white  neighbors.  President 
Jackson  favored  the  Georgians,  and  the  white 
people  then  proceeded  to  take  possession  of  the 
lands  of  the  Cherokees.  Trouble  ensued,  aud 
the  southern  portion  of  the  republic  was  men¬ 
aced  with  civil  war  for  a  while.  The  United 
States  troops  had  been  withdrawn  from  Geor- 


* 


CHEROKEES  AND  THE  CIVIL  WAR 


234  CHEROKEES,  TREATY  WITH  THE 


gia,  and  the  national  government  offered  no  ob¬ 
stacle  to  the  forcible  seizure  of  the  Indian  ter¬ 
ritory  by  the  Georgians.  Some  missionaries 
laboring  among  the  Cherokees  were  arrested 
and  imprisoned  for  residing  in  their  country 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  state,  and  for  refus¬ 
ing  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Georgia. 
The  Cherokees  then  numbered  between  four¬ 
teen  and  fifteen  thousand  east  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi.  The  matter  in  dispute  was  adjudicated 
by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  and 
on  March  30, 1832,  that  tribunal  decided  against 
the  claims  of  the  Georgians.  The  Georgians, 
still  favored  by  the  President,  resented  this  de¬ 
cision.  An  amicable  settlement  was  finally  ar¬ 
rived  at;  and,  in  1838,  under  the  mild  coercion 
of  Major-general  W.  Scott  and  several  thousand 
troops,  the  Cherokees  left  their  beautiful  coun¬ 
try  in  Georgia  with  sorrow,  and  went  to  wild 
lands  assigned  them,  well  towards  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  they  yet 
remain,  with  Choctaws,  Creeks,  and  others  for 
their  neighbors.  Again  the  swelling  tide  of 
westward-flowing  civilization  is  beating  against 
their  borders.  (See  Indian  Territory.) 

Cherokees  and  the  Civil  War.  John  Ross, 
the  renowned  principal  chief  of  the  Cherokees, 
who  had  led  them  wisely  for  almost  forty  years, 
took  a  decided  stand  against  the  Secessionists. 
He  issued  a  proclamation  ( May  17,  18(51 ),  in 
which  he  reminded  his  people  of  their  treaty 
obligations  with  the  United  States,  and  urged 
them  to  be  faithful  to  them,  and  to  take  no 
part  in  the  stirring  events  of  the  day.  But  he 
and  his  loyal  associates  among  the  Cherokees 
and  Creeks  were  overborne  by  the  tide  of  se¬ 
cession  and  insurrection,  and  were  swept  on, 
powerless,  by  the  current.  The  betrayal  of  the 
United  States  troops  by  General  Twiggs  into 
the  hands  of  the  Texas  authorities  left  their 
territory  on  the  side  of  that  state  open  to  inva¬ 
sion.  False  rumors  continually  disturbed  them. 
Their  neighbors,  and  the  wild  tribes  on  their 
borders,  were  rallying  to  the  standard  of  the 
Confederates.  The  National  troops  in  Missouri 
could  not  check  the  rising  insurrection  there. 
The  chief  men  of  the  Cherokees  held  a  mass¬ 
meeting  at  Tahlequah  in  August,  when,  with 
great  unanimity,  they  declared  their  allegiance 
to  the  “  Confederate  States.”  Ross  still  held  out, 
but  was  finally  compelled  to  yield.  At  a  coun¬ 
cil  held  ou  Aug.  20,  he  recommended  the  sever¬ 
ance  of  the  connection  with  the  National  govern¬ 
ment.  Ross’s  wife,  a  young  and  well-educated 
woman,  still  held  out ;  and  when  an  attempt  was 
made  to  raise  a  Confederate  flag  over  the  coun¬ 
cil-house,  she  opposed  the  act  with  so  much 
spirit  that  the  Secessionists  desisted.  During 
the  Civil  War  the  Cherokees  suffered  much. 
The  Confederates  would  not  trust  Ross,  for  his 
Union  feelings  were  very  apparent.  When,  in 
1862,  they  were  about  to  arrest  him,  he  and  his 
family  escaped  to  the  North,  and  resided  in 
Philadelphia  for  a  while. 

Cherokees,  End  of  War  with  the.  In  1761 
a  new  expedition  was  made  into  the  country  of 
the  hostile  Cherokees  by  a  Highland  regiment 


under  Colonel  Grant.  The  Indians  were  sub¬ 
dued,  and  humbly  sued  for  peace.  This  was 
granted  on  the  sole  condition  that  they  should 
bring  four  warriors  to  be  shot  at  the  head  of 
the  English  army,  or  furnish  four  green  In¬ 
dian  scalps,  within  twenty  days.  An  ohl  chief, 
long  known  for  his  attachment  to  the  English, 
personally  applied  to  Governor  Bull  and  pro¬ 
cured  a  relinquishment  of  this  barbarous  de¬ 
mand.  Peace  was  established  without  further 
bloodshed. 

I 

Cherokees,  Treaty  with  the  (1721).  When, 
early  in  1721,  Governor  Francis  Nicholson  arrived 
in  South  Carolina,  he  proceeded  to  take  meas¬ 
ures  for  securing  the  peace  of  the  colony.  He 
tried  to  cultivate  the  good-will  of  the  Spaniards 
and  Indians  in  Florida.  He  also  held  a  confer¬ 
ence  with  the  chiefs  of  thirty-seven  different 
cantons  of  Cherokees.  He  gave  them  presents, 
smoked  with  them  the  pipe  of  peace,  marked  the 
boundaries  of  the  lands  between  them  and  the 
English  settlers,  regulated  weights  and  meas¬ 
ures,  and  appointed  an  agent  to  superintend 
their  affairs.  He  then  concluded  a  treaty  of 
commerce  and  peace  with  the  Creeks. 

Cherokees,  Treaty  with  the  (1730).  About 
the  year  1730  the  projects  of  the  French  for  unit¬ 
ing  Canada  and  Louisiana  by  a  cordon  of  posts 
through  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys  began 
to  be  developed.  To  counteract  this  scheme,  the 
British  wished  to  convert  the  Indians  on  the 
frontiers  into  allies  or  subjects,  and,  to  this  end, 
to  make  with  them  treaties  of  union  and  alli¬ 
ance.  The  British  government  accordingly  sent 
out  Sir  Alexander  Camming  to  conclude  such  a 
treaty  with  the  powerful  Cherokees  ou  the 
western  border  of  South  Carolina.  They  occu¬ 
pied  the  region  about  the  head-waters  of  the 
Savannah  River  and  back  among  the  moun¬ 
tains;  and  it  was  estimated  that  they  could 
then  put  six  thousand  warriors  in  the  field. 
In  April,  1730,  Sir  Alexander  met  the  chief  war¬ 
riors  of  all  the  Cherokee  towns  in  council ;  in¬ 
formed  them  by  whose  authority  he  was  sent ; 
demanded  from  them  an  acknowledgment  of 
King  George  as  their  sovereign,  and  a  promise 
of  their  obedience  to  his  authority.  The  chiefs, 
falling  on  their  knees,  promised  fidelity  and 
obedience.  By  their  consent,  Sir  Alexander 
nominated  Moytoy,  one  of  their  best  leaders, 
commander -in -chief  of  the  Cherokee  Nation. 
They  brought  a  rude  crown,  five  eagles’  tails,  and 
four  scalps  of  their  enemies  to  Sir  Alexander, 
aud  desired  him  to  lay  them  at  the  feet  of  the 
king  when  he  should  return  to  England.  Six 
of  the  chiefs  went  to  England  with  Sir  Alex¬ 
ander,  and,  standing  before  his  majesty,  they 
promised,  in  the  name  of  their  nation,  etenlal 
fidelity  to  the  English.  A  treaty  was  drawn  up 
and  sigued  by  the  Secretary  to  the  Lords  Com¬ 
missioners  of  Trade  and  Plantations  (which 
see)  on  one  side,  and  to  which  the  marks  and 
tokens  of  the  chiefs  were  atfixed.  The  chiefs 
were  amazed  at  the  magnificence  of  the  British 
court  and  nation.  They  said :  “  We  came  hith¬ 
er  naked  aud  poor  as  the  worms  of  the  earth ; 
but  you  have  everything;  aud ‘we  that  have 


CHESAPEAKE  AND  SHANNON 


CHEROIvEES,  TREATY  WITH  THE  235 


nothing  must  love  you,  and  will  never  break 
the  chain  of  friendship  which  is  between  us.” 
They  returned  to  Carolina  with  Robert  John¬ 
son,  w ho  came  with  a  commission  as  governor. 

Cherokees,  Treaty  with  the  (1785).  By  a 
treaty  concluded  at  Hopewell,  on  the  Keowee, 
between  the  United  States  Commissioners  and 
the  head  men  and  warriors  of  all  the  Chero¬ 
kees,  these  barbarian  representatives,  for  them¬ 
selves  and  their  respective  tribes  and  towns, 
acknowledged  all  the  Cherokees  to  be  under 
the  protection  of  the  United  States.  The 
boundaries  of  their  hunting-grounds  were  set¬ 
tled;  several  mutual  and  pacific  conditions 
were  agreed  upon  ;  and  a  solemn  pledge  was 
made  that  “  the  hatchet  should  be  buried,” 
and  that  the  peace  re-established  should  “  be 
universal.” 

Cherokees,  War  with  the  ( 1776).  The  Chero¬ 
kees  seriously  threatened  the  frontier  of  South 
Carolina  in  1776.  As  these  Indians  were  the 
dread  of  the  frontier  settlers  of  Georgia,  North 
Carolina,  and  Virginia,  these  three  states  joined 
in  the  defence  of  South  Carolina.  Colonel  An¬ 
drew  Williamson  led  an  expedition  into  the 
Cherokee  country,  destroyed  all  their  settle¬ 
ments  eastward  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains, 
and  effectually  brought  the  natives  to  submis¬ 
sion.  This  conquest  was  effected  bet  ween  July 
15  and  Oct.  11,  1776.  A  military  work  named 
Fort  Rutledge  was  erected  in  the  Cherokee 
country  and  garrisoned  by  two  independent 
companies. 

Cherry  Valley,  Massacre  at.  During  a 
heavy  storm  of  sleet  on  Nov.  11, 1778,  a  band  of 
Indians  and  Tories  —  the  former  led  by  Brant, 
and  the  latter  by  Walter  N.  Butler,  son  of  Colo¬ 
nel  John  Butler — fell  upon  Cherry  Valley,  Ot¬ 
sego  Co.,  N.  Y.,  and  murdered  thirty -two  of 
the  inhabitants,  mostly  women  and  children, 
with  sixteen  soldiers. of  a  little  garrison  there. 
Nearly  forty  men,  women,  and  children  were 
carried  away  captives.  Butler  was  the  arch¬ 
fiend  on  this  occasion,  and  would  listen  to  no 
appeals  from  Brant  for  mercy  on  the  innocent 
and  helpless.  The  captives  were  led  away  in 
the  darkness  and  a  cold  storm ;  and  when  they 
rested  they  were  huddled  together,  half  naked, 
with  no  shelter  but  the  leafless  trees,  and  no 
resting-place  but  the  wet  ground. 

Chesapeake  and  Leopard,  The.  In  the  spring 
of  1807  a  small  British  squadron  lay  (as  they  had 
lately)  in  American  waters,  near  the  mouth  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  watching  some  French  frig¬ 
ates  blockaded  at  Annapolis.  Three  of  the  crew 
of  one  of  the  British  vessels  ( Melampus )  and  one 
of  another  ( Halifax )  had  deserted,  and  enlisted 
on  board  the  United  States  frigate  Chesapeake, 
lying  at  the  Washington  navy-yard.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  minister  made  a  formal  demand  for  their 
surrender.  The  United  States  government  re¬ 
fused  compliance,  because  it  was  ascertained 
that  two  of  them  (colored)  were  natives  of  the 
United  States,  and  there  was  strong  presump¬ 
tive  evidence  that  the  third  one  was,  likewise. 
The  commodore  of  the  British  squadron  took 
the  matter  into  his  own  hands.  The  Chesapeake, 


going  to  sea  on  the  morning  of  June  22,  1807, 
bearing  the  pennant,  of  Commodore  Barron,  was 
intercepted  by  the  British  frigate  Leopard,  whose 
commander,  hailing,  informed  the  commodore 
that  he  had  a  despatch  for  him.  A  British  boat 
bearing  a  lieutenant  came  alongside  the  Chesa¬ 
peake.  The  officer  was  politely  received  by  Bar¬ 
ron,  in  his  cabin,  when  the  former  presented  a 
demand  from  the  captain  of  the  Leopard  to  allow 
the  bearer  to  muster  the  crew  of  the  Chesapeake, 
that  he  might  select  and  carry  away  the  al¬ 
leged  deserters.  The  demand  was  authorized  by 
instructions  received  from  Vice-admiral  Berke¬ 
ley,  at  Halifax.  Barron  refused  compliance,  the 
lieutenant  withdrew,  and  the  Chesapeake  moved 
on.  The  Leopard  followed,  and  her  commander 
called  out  through  his  trumpet,  “  Commodore 
Barron  must  be  aware  that  the  vice-admiral’s 
commands  must  be  obeyed.”  This  insolent  an-' 
nouncement  was  repeated.  The  Chesapeake  moved 
on,  and  the  Leopard  sent  two  shots  athwart  her 
bow.  These  were  followed  by  the  remainder 
of  the  broadside,  poured  into  the  hull  of  the 
Chesapeake.  Though  Barron,  suspecting  mis¬ 
chief,  had  hastily  tried  to  prepare  his  ship  for 
actiofi,  he  was  unable  to  return  the  shots,  for  his 
guns  had  no  priming-powder.  After  being  se¬ 
verely  injured  by  repeated  broadsides,  the  Cliesa- 
peake  struck  her  colors.  The  vice-admiral’s  com¬ 
mand  was  obeyed.  The  crew  of  the  Chesapeake 
were  mustered  by  British  officers,  and  the  de¬ 
serters  were  carried  away ;  one  of  them,  who 
was  a  British  subject,  was  hung  at  Halifax,  and 
the  lives  of  the  Americans  were  spared  only  on 
condition  that  they  should  re-enter  the  British 
service.  This  outrage  caused  fiery  indignation 
throughout  the  United  States.  The  President 
issued  a  proclamation,  at  the  beginning  of  July, 
ordering  all  British  armed  vessels  to  leave  the 
waters  of  the  United  States,  aud  forbidding  any 
to  enter  until  ample  satisfaction  should  be 
given.  A  British  envoy  extraordinary  was  sent 
to  Washington  to  settle  the  difficulty.  In¬ 
structed  to  do  nothing  until  the  President’s 
proclamation  should  be  withdrawn,  the  matter 
was  left  open  more  than  four  years.  In  1811  the 
British  government  disavowed  the  act.  Barron, 
found  guilty  of  neglect  of  duty  in  not  being 
prepared  for  the  attack,  was  suspended  from 
the  service  for  five  years,  without  pay  or  emolu¬ 
ment. 

Chesapeake  and  Shannon.  While  the  Hor¬ 
net,  Captain  Lawrence,  was  on  her  homeward- 
bound  voyage  with  her  large  number  of  prison¬ 
ers  (see  Hornet  and  Peacock),  the  Chesapeake,  38 
guns,  Captain  Evans,  was  out  on  a  long  cruise 
to  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands  and  the  coast  of 
South  America.  She  accomplished  nothing  ex¬ 
cept  the  capture  of  four  British  merchaut  ves¬ 
sels  ;  and  as  she  entered  Boston  harbor  in  a 
gale  her  topmast  was  carried  away,  and  with 
it  several  men  who  were  aloft,  three  of  whom 
were  drowned.  Among  the  superstitious  sailors 
she  acquired  the  character  of  an  “unlucky” 
ship,  and  they  were  loath  to  embark  in  her. 
Evans  was  compelled  to  leave  her  on  account 
of  the  loss  of  the  sight  of  one  of  his  eyes ;  and 
Lawrence,  who  had  been  promoted  to  captain 


CHESAPEAKE  AND  SHANNON 


236 


CHESAPEAKE  AND  SHANNON 


lor  bis  bravery,  wa9  put  in  command  of  her, 
with  the  Hornet ,  Captain  Biddle,  as  her  con¬ 
sort.  At  the  close  of  May  the  British  frigate 
Shannon,  38  guns,  Captain  Philip  Bowes  Yere 
Broke,  appeared  off  Boston  harbor,  in  the  at¬ 
titude  of  a  challenger.  She  then  carried  52 
guns.  He  wrote  to  Lawrence,  requesting  the 
Chesapeake  to  meet  the  Shannon,  “  ship  to  ship, 
to  try  the  fortunes  of  their  respective  flags.” 
He  assured  Lawrence  that  the  Chesapeake  could 
not  leave  Boston  without  the  risk  of  being 
“  crushed  by  the  superior  force  of  the  British 
squadron,”  then  abroad,  and  proposed  that  they 
should  meet  in  single  combat,  without  the  in¬ 
terference  of  other  vessels.  Lawrence  accepted 
the  challenge,  and,  with  Lieutenaut  Augustus 
Ludlow  as  second  in  command,  he  sailed  out  of 
Boston  harbor  to  meet  the  Shannon,  at  midday, 
June  1,  1813.  The  same  evening,  between  tive 


the  dying  hero,  slightly  paraphrased  to  “  Don’t 
give  up  the  ship,”  became  the  battle-cry  of  the 
Americans,  and  the  formula  of  an  encourag¬ 
ing  maxim  in  morals  for  those  who  are  strug¬ 
gling  in  life’s  contests.  Broke’s  boarders  now 
swarmed  upon  the  deck  of  the  Chesapeake,  and 
Lieutenant  Ludlow,  the  second  in  command, 
was  mortally  wounded  by  a  sabre  cut.  After  a 
severe  struggle,  in  which  the  Americans  lost,  in 
killed  and  wounded,  one  hundred  and  forty-six 
men,  victory  remained  with  the  Shannon.  The 
British  lost  eighty-four  men.  Broke  sailed 
immediately  to  Halifax  with  his  prize,  and  the 
day  before  his  arrival  there  (Juue  7)  Lawrence 
expired,  wrapped  in  the  flag  of  the  Chesapeake. 
England  rang  with  shouts  of  exultation  be¬ 
cause  of  this  victory.  An  American  writer  re¬ 
marked  :  “Never  did  any  victory  —  not  even 
of  Wellington  in  Spain,  nor  those  of  Nelson  — 


THE  SHANNON  AND  CllESAl’EAKK  ENTERING  THE  HARBOR  OF  HALIFAX. 


and  six  o’clock,  they  engaged  in  a  close  conflict. 
After  fighting  twelve  minutes,  the  Shannon  so  in¬ 
jured  the  sparsand  rigging  of  the  Chesapeake  that 
she  became  unmanageable.  This  misfortune  oc¬ 
curred  at  the  moment  when  the  latter  was  about 
to  take  the  wind  out  of  the  sails  of  her  antag¬ 
onist,  shoot  ahead,  lay  across  her  bow,  rake  her, 
and  probably  secure  a  victory.  Her  mizzen  rig¬ 
ging  was  entangled  in  the  fore-chains  of  the 
Shannon,  in  which  position  the  decks  of  the 
Chesapeake  were  swept  with  terrible  effect  by 
the  balls  of  her  antagonist.  Lawrence  ordered 
his  boarders  to  be  called  up.  There  was  some 
delay,  when  a  musket-ball  mortally  wounded 
the  gallant  young  commander,  and  he  was  car¬ 
ried  below.  As  he  left  the  deck  he  said,  “  Tell 
the  men  to  fire  faster,  and  not  to  give  up  the 
ship  ;  fight  her  till  she  sinks.”  These  words  of 


call  forth  such  expressions  of  joy  on  the  part  of 
the  British  a  proof  that  our  naval  character 
had  risen  in  their  estimation.  Lawrence  fought 
under  great  disadvantages.  He  had  been  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  ship  only  about  ten  days,  and  was 
unacquainted  with  the  abilities  of  her  officers 
and  men  ;  some  of  the  former  were  sick  or  ab¬ 
sent.  His  crew  were  almost  mutinous  because 
of  disputes  concerning  prize-money,  and  many 
of  them  had  only  recently  enlisted ;  besides, 
the  feeling  among  the  sailors  that  she  was  an 
“unlucky”  ship  was  disheartening.  The  re¬ 
mains  of  Lawrence  and  Ludlow  were  conveyed 
to  Salem,  Mass.,  where  funeral  honors  were  paid 
to  them  on  Aug.  23.  Early  in  September  they 
were  conveyed  to  New  York,  and  were  deposited 
(Sept.  16)  in  Trinity  cliurcli-yard.  The  corpo¬ 
ration  of  the  city  of  New  York  elected  a  marble 


CHESAPEAKE  AND  SHANNON 


237 


CHESTER 


monument  to  Lawrence,  which,  becoming  dilapi¬ 
dated,  the  vestry  of  Trinity  Church  erected  a 
handsome  mausoleum  of  brown  freestone  (1847), 
near  the  southeast  corner  of  Trinity  Church,  close 
by  Broadway,  in  commemoration  of  both  Law¬ 
rence  and  Ludlow,  and  eight  trophy  cannons 
were  placed  around  it.  The  freedom  of  the  city 


taken  to  England  and  sold  to  the  government 
for  about  $66,000,  and  in  1814  was  put  in  com¬ 
mission,  In  1820  she  was  sold  to  a  private  gen¬ 
tleman  for  a  very  small  sum,  who  broke  her  up 
and  sold  her  timbers  for  building  purposes, 
much  of  it  for  making  houses  in  Portsmouth, 
and  a  cousiderable  portion  for  the  erection  of  a 


SILVER  PLATE  PRESENTED  TO  CAPTAIN  BROKE. 


of  London  and  a  sword  were  given  to  Captain 
Broke  tfy  the  corporation  ;  the  Prince  Regent 
knighted  him;  and  the  inhabitants  of  his  native 
county  (Suffolk)  presented  him  with  a  gorgeous 
piece  of  silver  as  a  testimonial  of  their  sense 
of  his  eminent  services.*  The  Chesapeake  was 


*  The  devices  on  the  plate  are  described  as  follows:  “The 
centre,  enriched  with  a  wreath  of  palm  and  laurel  leaves, 
with  groups  of  Nereids  and  Tritons,  presents  the  spectacle 
of  the  battle  between  the  Shannon  and  Chesapeake,.  A  deep 
and  highly  finished  border  composes  the  exterior  of  the  cir¬ 
cle,  in  which  are  significant  devices  in  four  principal  divis¬ 
ions.  In  the  tlrst  compartment,  in  the  form  of  an  escalop- 
shell,  is  seen  Neptune  receiving  the  warrior.  The  former  is 
issuing  from  the  sea  with  his  attendants,  and  presenting  to 
the  hero  (who  is  borne  in  a  triumphal  car.  attended  by  Bri¬ 
tannia  and  Liberty  bearing  the  British  flag)  tho  naval  coronet. 
In  the  compartment  opposite,  Britannia  is  seen  on  a  sea-horse, 
holding  tho  tridtfut  of  Neptune  in  one  hand,  and  with  the  other 


mill  at  Wickham,  nine  miles  from  Portsmouth. 
The  mill  was  standing  in  1824.  (See  sketch  of 
the  Chesapeake  and  Shannon,  by  Rear-admiral 
Preble,  in  the  United  Service,  October,  1879.) 

Chester,  Joseph  Lemuel,  LL.D.,  was  born 
at  Norwich,  Conn.,  April  30,  1821;  died  May  26, 
1882.  He  began  business  life  as  a  merchant  iu 


hurling  the  thunder  of  her  power  at  the  Amorican  eagle,  which 
is  expiring  at  her  feet  in  the  prosonce  of  ocean  deities.  In  a 
third  compartment  tho  device  represents  the  triumph  of  Vic¬ 
tory.  The  winged  goddess,  boaring  a  coronal,  approaches  in 
her  shell-car  drawn  by  ocean  steeds,  and  olfors  peace  to  the 
vanquished.  In  tho  fourth  compartmont  are  represented  the 
four  quarters  of  tho  world,  in  tho  form  of  figures  assembled 
under  the  protection  of  the  British  lion,  commerce  having 
been  secured  to  tho  world  by  British  prowess.  Besides  these 
are  the  figures  of  Fortitude,  Justice,  Wisdom,  and  Peace,  in¬ 
tended  to  represent  tho  characteristics  of  the  British  nation.” 


CHEVES 


233 


CHICAGO 


Philadelphia,  in  which  pursuit  he  was  engaged 
many  years.  Meanwhile  he  was  a  frequent  con¬ 
tributor  to  literary  publications,  and  the  news¬ 
paper  press  often  contained  essays  from  his  pen 
upon  a  variety  of  subjects.  In  1843,  when  he 
was  only  twenty-two  years  of  age,  he  published 
a  small  volume  entitled  Greenwood  Cemetery  and 
other  Poems.  His  literary  contributions  were  gen¬ 
erally  over  the  signature  of  “Julian  Cramer.” 
In  1853  he  published  A  Preliminary  Treatise  on 
the  Law  of  Repulsion,  and,  the  next  year,  Edu¬ 
cational  Laws  of  Virginia  ;  the  Personal  Narrative 
of  Mrs.  Margaret  Douglas.  The  same  year  he 
published  John  Rogers,  with  a  genealogy  of  the 
family.  In  1858  Mr.  Chester  went  to  London, 
where  he  was  soon  recognized  as  an  acute 
genealogist  and  most  industrious  antiquary. 
For  ten  years  he  was  engaged  in  editing  and 
annotating  The  Marriage,  Baptismal,  and  Burial 
Registers  of  the  Collegiate  Church,  or  Abbey,  of  St. 
Peter,  Westminster  (Westminster  Abbey).  It  was 
undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  Dean  Stanley. 
More  than  one  half  of  the  six  hundred  royal  oc¬ 
tavo  pages  of  the  work  is  made  up  of  biograph¬ 
ical  notes  and  personal  identifications  by  the 
editor.  It  was  published  in  1876.  In  1869  Mr. 
Chester  assisted  in  forming,  in  London,  the  “  Har- 
leiau  Society,”  for  the  publication  of  inedited 
MSS.  relating  to  genealogy,  heraldry,  etc.  In 
1870  he  was  made  one  of  the  council  of  the  “  His¬ 
torical  Society  of  Great  Britain.”  In  1877  he 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  faculty 
of  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.,  and,  in  1881,  the 
University  of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  de¬ 
gree  of  D.C.L.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  various  historical  and  genealogical  publica¬ 
tions,  and  an  honorary  member  of  several  learned 
societies  in  England  and  America.  A  tablet  to 
his  memory  has  been  placed  in  Westminster  Ab¬ 
bey,  among  the  antiquities  of  which  he  had  so 
long  searched. 

Cheves,  Langdon, LL.D.,  statesman,  was  born 
in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C.,  Sept.  17,  1776  ;  died 
at  Columbia,  S.  C.,  June  25,  1857.  Admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1800,  he  became  eminent  as  a  lawyer 
and  a  leader  in  the  State  Legislature,  which 
he  entered  in  1808.  He  was  attorney-general 
of  the  state,  and  was  in  Congress  from  1811  to 
1816,  zealously  supporting  all  war  measures. 
When,  in  1814,  Henry  Clay  was  sent  to  nego¬ 
tiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  he 
succeeded  the  Kentuckian  as  Speaker  of  the 
House,  which  position  he  held  for  a  year,  his 
cast  ing  vote  defeating  a  bill  for  the  rechartering 
of  the  United  States  Bank.  It  was  rechartered 
in  1816 ;  and  when  in  trouble  in  1819  Cheves  was 
appointed  president  of  its  directors,  and  by  his 
energy  and  judgment  it  was  saved  from  dissolu¬ 
tion.  He  became  chief  commissioner  under  the 
treaty  of  Ghent  for  settling  some  of  its  provi¬ 
sions.  He  was  a  public  advocate  of  disunion 
as  early  as  1830,  but  opposed  “nullification” 
(which  see). 

Cheyennes.  This  is  one  of  the  most  westerly 
tribes  of  the  Algonquin  nation.  They  were 
seated  on  the  Cheyenne,  a  branch  of  the  Red 
River  of  the  North.  Driven  by  the  Sioux,  they 


retreated  beyond  the  Missouri.  Near  the  close 
of  the  last  century  they  were  driven  to  or  near 
the  Black  Hills,  where  Lewis  and  Clarke  found 
them  in  1804,  when  they  possessed  horses  and 
made  plundering  raids  as  far  as  New  Mexi¬ 
co.  About  1825,  when  they  were  at  peace  with 
the  Sioux,  and  making  war  upon  the  Pawnees, 
Kansas,  and  other  tribes,  a  feud  occurred  in 
the  family.  A  part  of  them  remained  with  the 
Sioux,  and  the  others  went  south  to.  the  Ar¬ 
kansas  River  and  joined  the  Arrapahoes.  Many 
treaties  were  made  with  them  by  agents  of  the 
United  States,  but  broken  ;  and,  finally,  losing 
all  confidence  in  the  honor  of  the  white  race, 
they  began  hostilities  in  1861.  This  was  the 
first  time  that  the  Cheyennes  were  at  war  with 
the  white  people.  While  negotiations  for  peace 
and  friendship  were  on  foot,  Colonel  Chivington, 
of  Colorado,  fell  upon  a  Cheyenne  village  (Nov. 
29, 1864)  and  massacred  about  one  hundred  men, 
women,  and  children.  The  whole  tribe  was  fired 
with  a  desire  for  revenge,  and  a  fierce  war  en¬ 
sued,  iu  which  the  United  States  lost  many  gal¬ 
lant  soldiers  and  wasted  between  $30,000,000 
and  $40,000,000.  The  ill-feeling  of  the  Indians 
towards  the  white  people  remained  unabated. 
Some  treaties  were  made  and  imperfectly  car¬ 
ried  out ;  and,  after  General  Hancock  burned 
one  of  their  villages  in  1867,  they  again  made 
war,  and  slew  three  hundred  United  States  sol¬ 
diers  and  settlers.  General  Custer  defeated 
them  on  the  Washita,  killing  their  chief,  thirty- 
seven  warriors,  and  two  thirds  of  their  women 
and  children.  The  northern  band  of  the  Chey¬ 
ennes  remained  peaceable,  refusing  to  join  the 
Sioux  against  the  white  people,  in  1865,  notwith¬ 
standing  they  were  grossly  insulted.  The  Chey¬ 
ennes  now  are  scattered  and  mixed  with  the 
Arrapahoes,  and  number,  in  the  aggregate, about 
three  thousand  five  hundred.  This  is  a  trifle 
more  than  they  numbered  fifty  years  ago. 

Chicago.  The  site  of  Chicago  (west  side  of 
Lake  Michigan)  was  a  favorite  rendezvous  for 
several  tribes  of  Indians  in  summer.  Its  name 
signifies,  in  the  Pottawatomie  tongue,  wild  onion, 
or  a  polecat,  both  of  which  abounded  in  that  re¬ 
gion.  Of  the  skin  of  the  polecat  the  Indians 
made  tobacco-pouches.  The  spot  was  first  vis¬ 
ited  by  Marquette,  a  French  Jesuit  mission¬ 
ary,  in  1673,  who  encamped  there  in  the  winter 
of  1674-75.  (S ee  Marquette.)  The  French  built 
a  fort  there,  which  is  marked  on  a  map,  in  1683, 
“Fort  Cliecagou.”  When  Canada  wasLceded  to 
Great  Britain  this  fort  was  abandoned.  The 
United  States  government  built  a  fort  there  in 
1804,  and  named  it  Dearborn,  in  honor  of  the 
Secretary  of  War.  It  was  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Chicago  River,  near  its  mouth.  It  was  a 
noted  trading  station.  This  fort  was  evacuated 
by  its  garrison  in  1812,  when  the  troops  and 
other  white' inhabitants  there  were  fallen  upon 
by  hostile  Indians  and  many  people  murdered — 
Aug.  15.  (See  Chicago,  Massacre  at.)  The  fort 
was  re-established  in  1816,  and  was  occupied 
until  1837.  The  last  vestige  of  it — a  block¬ 
house —  was  demolished  in  1856.  A  town  was 
laid  out  near  the  fort  in  1830,  which  embraced 
three  eighths  of  a  square  mile.  Iu  1831  it  com- 


CHICAGO  AS  A  FOOD-CENTRE 


239 


CHICAGO,  MASSACRE  AT 


prised  twelve  families,  besides  the  little  garrison 
of  Fort  Dearborn.  The  town  was  organized  in 
1833,  with  five  trustees,  when  it  contained  550 
inhabitants.  It  was  incorporated  a  city  March  4, 
1837,  when  it  contained  a  population  of  4170. 
Its  growth  has  since  been  marvellous ;  in  1880 
it  had  a  population  of  503,185. 


was  100,000,000  bushels,  consisting  of  wheat, 
say  15,000,000  bushels ;  Indian  corn,  at  least 
55,000,000  bushels ;  oats,  full  20,000,000  bushels ; 
and  rye,  barley,  and  tlour.  The  total  amount  of 
breadstuff's  shipped  from  there  in  1875  was  about 
90,000,000  bushels.  A  vast  number  of  hogs  are 
slaughtered  and  packed  in  Chicago. 


I!  , 

LaI 

hi 

'Il'.d 
1;  8  J 

BLOCK-UOIHE  AT  CHICAGO. 


Chicago  as  a  Food- Centre.  Chicago  was  Chicago,  Massacrk  at.  On  the  site  of  the 
first  surveyed  for  a  village  in  1829.  In  1840  its  city  of  Chicago,  in  1812,  were  Fort  Dearborn,  the 
population  was  4853 ;  in  1880  its  population  was  dwelling  of  Mr.  Kinzie,  an  Indian  trader  from 
more  than  503,000.  It  is  the  focus  of  a  vast  rail-  Quebec  (on  the  north  side  of  the  river),  and  the 
way  system,  and  is  the  greatest  food-centre  in  huts  of  a  few  settlers.  The  garrison  of  the  fort 
the  world.  It  connects  with  fully  12,000  miles  was  commanded  by  Captain  N.  Heald,  assisted 


KINZIE  .MANSION  A.NXI  FORT  DEARBORN. 


of  railroad,  all  tributary  to  Chicago,  which  make  J  by  Lieutenant  Helm.  The  young  wives  of  both 
an  annual  profit  of  over  $40,000,000,  out  of  more  j  officers  were  in  the  fort.  The  garrison  and  the 
than  $100,000,000  of  receipts.  No  less  than  three  family  of  Mr.  Kinzie  were  on  friendly  terms 
hundred  and  fifty  trains  enter  and  leave  Chicago  with  the  surrounding  Indians,  until  the  spring 
daily.  The  total  receipt  of  breadstuff’s  in  1870  j  of  1812,  when  the  hostile  feelings  created  b}' 


CHICAGO,  MASSACRE  AT  240  CHICAGO,  MASSACRE  AT 


British  emissaries  first  became  slightly  manifest. 
A  scalping  party  of  Winnebagoes  made  a  raid 
on  a  settlement  near  Chicago  in  April,  and  dar¬ 
ing  the  early  part  of  the  ensuing  summer  the  in¬ 
habitants  saw,  with  alarm,  the  continual  gath¬ 
ering  of  Indians  near.  On  Aug.  7  a  friendly 
Pottawatomie  chief  arrived  with  a  letter  from 
General  Hull,  notifying  Heald  of  the  declaration 
of  war  and  fall  of  Mackinaw,  and  advising  him, 
if  expedient,  to  evacuate  the  fort  and  distribute 
all  the  United  States  property  there  among  the 
neighboring  Iudians.  Heald  was  advised  by 
this  chief  and  by  Kinzie  to  leave  the  fort  and 
let  the  Indians  distribute  the  property  them¬ 
selves.  “  While  they  are  doing  this,”  they  said, 
“  you  and  the  white  people  may  reach  Fort 
Wayne  in  safety.”  Heald,  soldier-like,  resolved 
to  obey  his  orders.  He  called  them  to  a  council 
the  next  day  (Aug.  12),  told  them  to  come  and 
receive  the  property,  and  accepted  their  offer  to 
escort  the  white  people  through  the  wilderness 
to  Fort  Wayne.  It  was  a  fatal  mistake,  soon 
perceived.  Black  Partridge,  a  friendly  chief, 
unable  to  control  his  warriors,  came  quietly  to 
the  commander,  and  said,  “  Father,  I  come  to 
deliver  to  you  the  medal  I  wear.  It  was  given 


armed  with  a  rifle.  They  had  not  gone  far  when 
their  savage  escort,  five  hundred  strong, fell  upon 
them,  and  a  sharp  and  bloody  conflict  ensued. 
Rebecca  Heald  behaved  bravely.  She  received 
several  wounds,  but,  though  bleeding  and  faint, 
she  kept  her  saddle ;  and  when  a  fierce  savage 
raised  his  tomahawk  to  slay  her,  she  said,  in  a 
sweet  voice,  in  his  own  language,  and  with  half 
a  smile,  “  Surely  you’ll  not  kill  a  squaw  !”  The 
appeal  saved  her  life,  and  she  lived  until  the 
year  1860.  A  young  savage  attempted  to  toma¬ 
hawk  Mrs.  Helm.  She  sprang  to  one  side,  re¬ 
ceiving  the  blow  on  her  shoulder,  and  at  the 
same  instant  seized  the  barbarian  around  his 
neck  and  endeavored  to  get  hold  of  his  scalping- 
knife.  While  thus  struggling,  she  was  dragged 
from  her  antagonist  by  another  Indian,  who 
bore  her  to  the  shore  of  the  lake  and  plunged 
her  in,  at  the  same  time  saving  her  from  drown¬ 
ing.  It  was  a  friendly  hand  that  held  her — the 
Pottawatomie  chief  Blackbird,  who  would  have 
saved  the  white  people  if  he  could.  He  gave 
Captain  Heald  such  warning  as  he  dared.  On 
the  night  before  the  evacuation  of  the  fort  he 
had  said  to  him,  “  Linden  birds  have  been  sing¬ 
ing  in  my  ears  to-day  ;  be  careful  on  the  march 


TIIE  RLACK  PARTRIDGE  MEDAL. 


me  by  the  Americans,  and  I  have  long  worn  it  in 
token  of  our  mutual  friendship.  But  our  young 
men  are  resolved  to  imbrue  their  hands  in  the 
blood  of  the  white  people.  I  cannot  restrain 
them,  and  I  will  not  wear  a  token  of  peace  while 
I  am  compelled  to  act  as  an  enemy.”  This  warn¬ 
ing  was  strangely  unheeded.  The  less  honor¬ 
able  Indians  promised  good  conduct,  but  there 
were  unmist  akable  signs  of  treachery,  and  when 
the  morning  arrived  for  the  departure  of  the 
white  people  (Aug.  15),  it  was  clearly  seen  that 
the  barbarians  intended  to  murder  them.  With 
that  conviction,  the  garrison  and  white  set¬ 
tlers  went  out  of  the  gate  of  the  fort  in  pro¬ 
cession,  like  a  funeral  march.  The  band  struck 
up  the  “Dead  March  in  Saul.”  The  wives  of 
Heald  and  Helm  rode  on  horseback  by  the  side 
of  their  husbands;  the  former,  a  good  shot,  was 


you  are  going  to  take.”  On  that  bloody  field, 
now  in  the  suburbs  of  the  great  city  of  Chicago, 
other  women  performed  acts  of  heroism.  Mean¬ 
while,  Captain  Heald  had  made  terms  for  sur¬ 
render,  and  the  massacre  was  stayed.  The  pris¬ 
oners  were  distributed  among  the  captors,  and 
were  finally  reunited  or  restored  to  their 
friends  and  families.  In  this  affair,  twelve  chil¬ 
dren,  who  were  in  a  wagon,  all  the  masculine 
civilians  excepting  Mr.  Kinzie  and  his  sons, 
three  officers,  and  twenty -six  private  soldiers 
were  murdered.  On  the  following  day  the  fort 
was  burned  by  the  Indians.  Among  the  slain 
was  Captain  Wells,  Mrs.  Heald’s  uucle,  who  came 
from  Fort  Wayne  with  some  mounted  Miamis 
who  were  friendly.  He  knew  the  danger,  and 
had  hastened  to  attempt  to  divert  it.  He  was 
too  late,  for  the  fort  was  abandoned  when  he 


CHICKAHOMINY 


241 


arrived.  His  cowardly  Miamis  fled  at  the  first 
onset  of  the  Pottawatomies,  and  he  was  crushed 
by  overwhelming  numbers. 

Chickahominy,  McClellan  on  the.  The 
General  pressed  forward  from  the  “White  House,” 
on  the  Pamunkey,  to  Cool  Arbor,  near  the  Chick¬ 
ahominy  River,  where  he  made  his  headquarters, 
within  nine  miles  of  Richmond.  General  Casey’s 
divisiou  of  General  Keyes’s  corps  crossed  the 
river,  and  occupied  the  heights  on  the  Richmond 
side  of  the  stream,  supported  by  troops  under 
General  Heintzelman.  Along  the  line  of  the 
Chickahominy  the  Natioual  and  Confederate 
armies  lay,  confronting  each  other,  at  the  close 
of  May,  1862,  separated  by  a  narrow,  sluggish 
stream,  liable  to  a  sudden  overflow  of  its  banks 
and  filling  the  adjacent  swamps.  There  the  two 
commanders  waited  for  decisive  results  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  each  expecting  reinforce¬ 
ments  from  that  region. 

Chickamauga,  Battle  of  (1863).  Rosecrans, 
erroneously  supposing  Bragg  had  begun  a  re¬ 
treat  towards  Rome  when  he  abandoned  Chatta¬ 
nooga  and  marched  southward  through  the  gaps 
of  Missionaries  Ridge,  pushed  his  forces  through 
the  mountain  passes,  and  was  surprised  to  find 
his  antagonist,  instead  of  retreating,  concentrat¬ 
ing  his  forces  to  attack  the  attenuated  line  of  the 
Nationals,  the  extremities  of  which  were  theu 
fifty  miles  apart.  Rosecrans  proceeded  at  once 
to  concentrate  his  own  forces;  and  very  soon 
the  two  armies  were  confronting  each  other  in 
battle  array  on  each  side  of  Chickamauga  Creek, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Crawfish  Spring,  each  line  ex¬ 
tending  towards  the  slope  of  Missionaries  Ridge. 
Rosecrans  did  not  know  that  Lee  had  sent 
troops  from  Virginia,  under  Longstreet,  to  rein¬ 
force  Bragg,  and  who  was  then  making  his  way 
up  from  Atlanta  to  swell  the  Confederate  forces 
to  the  number  of  full  70,000.  Johnston,  in 
Mississippi,  also  sent  thousands  of  prisoners, 
paroled  at  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson,  to  still 
further  reinforce  Bragg.  In  battle  order  on 
Chickamauga  Creek  (Sept.  19, 1863),  the  Confed¬ 
erate  right  was  commanded  by  General  Polk, 
and  the  left  by  General  Hood  until  Longstreet 
should  arrive.  During  the  previous  night  near¬ 
ly  two  thirds  of  the  Confederates  had  crossed 
to  the  west  side  of  the  creek,  and  held  the 
fords  from  Lee  and  Gordon’s  mills  far  towards 
Missionaries  Ridge.  Rosecrans’s  concentrated 
army  did  not  then  number  more  than  55,000 
meu.  General  George  H.  Thomas,  who  was  on 
the  extreme  left  of  the  National  line,  on  the 
slopes  of  Missionaries  Ridge,  by  a  movement  to 
capture  an  isolated  Confederate  brigade,  brought 
on  a  battle  (Sept.  19)  at  ten  o’clock,  which 
raged  with  great  fierceness  until  dark,  when  the 
Nationals  seemed  to  have  the  advantage.  It 
had  been  begun  by  Croxton’s  brigade  of  Bran- 
nan’s  divisiou,  which  struggled  sharply  with  For¬ 
rest’s  cavalry.  Thomas  sent  Baird’s  division  to 
assist  Croxton,when  other  Confederates  became 
engaged,  making  the  odds  against  the  Nationals, 
when  the  latter,  having  driven  the  Confeder¬ 
ates,  were  in  turn  pushed  back.  The  pursu¬ 
ers  dashed  through  the  lines  of  United  States 
I.— 16 


CHICKAMAUGA,  BATTLE  OF 

regulars  and  captured  a  Michigan  battery  and 
about  500  men.  In  the  charge  all  of  the  horses 
and  most  of  the  men  of  the  batteries  were  killed. 
At  that  moment  a  heavy  force  of  Nationals 
came  up  and  joined  in  the  battle.  They  now 
outnumbered  and  outflanked  the  Confederates, 
and,  attacking  them  furiously,  drove  them  back 
in  disorder  for  a  mile  and  a  half  on  their  re¬ 
serves.  The  lost  battery  was  recovered,  and 
Brannan  and  Baird  were  enabled  to  re-form 
their  shattered  columns.  There  was  a  lull,  but 
at  five  o’clock  the  Confederates  renewed  the 
battle,  and  were  pressing  the  Natioual  line  heav¬ 
ily,  when  Hazeu,  who  was  in  charge  of  a  park 
of  artillery  —  twenty  guns  —  hastened  to  put 
them  in  position,  with  such  infantry  supports  as 
he  could  gather,  and  brought  them  to  bear  upon 
the  Confederates,  at  short  range,  as  they  dashed 
into  the  road  in  pursuit  of  the  Nationals.  The 
pursuers  recoiled  in  disorder,  and  thereby  the 
day  was  saved  on  the  left.  Night  closed  the 
combat.  There  had  beeu  some  lively  artillery 
work  on  the  National  right  during  the  day ; 
and  at  three  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  Hood 
threw  two  of  his  divisions  upon  General  Davis’s 
division  of  McCook’s  corps,  pushing  it  back  and 
capturing  a  battery.  Davis  fought  with  great 
pertinacity  until  near  sunset,  when  a  brigade  of 
Sheridan’s  divisiou  came  to  his  aid.  Then  a 
successful  couutercharge  was  made ;  the  Con¬ 
federates  were  driven  back,  the  battery  was  re¬ 
taken,  and  a  number  of  Confederates  were  made 
prisoners.  That  night  General  Hindman  came 
to  the  Confederates  with  his  divisiou,  and  Long¬ 
street  arrived  with  two  brigades  of  McLaws’s 
veterans  from  Virginia,  and  took  command  of  the 
left  of  Bragg’s  army.  Preparations  were  made 
for  a  renewal  of  the  struggle  in  the  morning. 
It  was  begun  (Sept.  20),  after  a  dense  fog  had 
risen  from  the  earth,  between  eight  and  nine 
o’clock.  The  conflict  was  to  have  been  opened 
by  Polk  at  daylight  on  the  National  left,  but  he 
failed.  Meanwhile,  under  cover  of  the  fog, 
Thomas  received  reinforcements,  until  nearly 
one  half  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  present 
were  under  his  command,  and  had  erected  breast¬ 
works  of  logs,  rails,  and  earth.  The  battle  was  be¬ 
gun  by  an  attack  by  Breckinridge.  The  intention 
was  to  interpose  an  overwhelming  force  between 
Rosecrans  and  Chattanooga,  whicli  Thomas  had 
prevented  the  previous  day.  An  exceedingly 
fierce  struggle  ensued,  with  varying  fortunes 
for  the  combatants.  The  carnage  on  both  sides 
was  frightful.  Attempts  to  turn  the  National 
flank  were  not  successful,  for  Thomas  and  his 
veterans  stood  like  a  wall  in  the  way.  The 
conflict  for  a  while  was  equally  severe  at  the 
centre  ;  and  the  blunder  of  an  incompetent  staff 
officer,  sent  with  orders  to  General  Wood,  pro¬ 
duced  disaster  on  the  National  right.  A  gap 
was  left  in  the  Natioual  line,  when  Hood,  with 
Stewart,  charged  furiously,  while  Buckner  ad¬ 
vanced  to  their  support.  The  charge,  in  which 
Davis  and  Brannan  and  Sheridan  were  struck 
simultaneously,  isolated  five  brigades,  which 
lost  forty  per  cent,  of  their  number.  By  this 
charge  the  National  right  wing  was  so  shattered 
that  it  began  crumbling,  and  was  soon  seen  fly- 


242 


CHICKASAWS 


CHICKAMAUGA,  BATTLE  OF 

ing  in  disorder  towards  Chattanooga,  leaving 
thousands  behind,  killed,  wounded,  or  pris¬ 
oners.  The  tide  carried  with  it  the  troops  led 
by  Rosecrans,  Crittenden,  and  McCook;  and 
the  commanding  general,  unable  to  join  Thomas, 
aud  believing  the  whole  army  would  speedily 
be  hurrying  pell-mell  to  Chattanooga,  hastened 
to  that  place  to  provide  for  rallying  them  there. 
Thomas,  meanwhile,  ignorant  of  the  disaster  on 
the  right,  was  maintaining  his  position  firmly. 
Sheridan  and  Davis,  who  had  been  driven  over 
to  the  Dry  Valley  road,  rallying  their  shattered 
columus,  re-formed  them  by  the  way,  and,  with 
McCook,  halted  and  changed  front  at  Rossville, 
with  a  determination  to  defend  the  pass  at  all 
hazards  against  the  pursuers.  Thomas  finally 
withdrew  from  his  breastworks  and  concen¬ 
trated  his  troops,  aud  formed  his  line  on  a  slope 
of  Missionaries  Ridge.  Wood  and  Brannan  had 
barely  time  to  dispose  their  troops  properly, 
when  they  were  furiously  attacked,  the  Confed¬ 
erates  throwing  in  fresh  troops  continually. 
General  Granger,  commanding  reserves  at  Ross¬ 
ville,  hastened  to  tfie  assistance  of  Thomas  with 
Steedman’s  division.  The  latter  fought  his 
way  to  the  crest  of  a  hill,  and  then  turning  his 
artillery  upon  his  assailants,  drove  them  down 
the  southern  slope  of  the  ridge  with  great 
slaughter.  They  returned  to  the  attack  with 
an  overwhelming  force,  determined  to  drive  the 
Nationals  from  the  ridge,  and  pressed  Thomas 
most  severely.  Finally,  wrhen  they  were  moving 
along  a  ridge  and  in  a  gorge,  to  assail  his  right 
flank  and  rear,  Granger  formed  two  brigades 
(Whittaker’s  and  Mitchell’s)  into  a  charging 
party,  and  hurled  them  against  the  Confederates 
led  by  Hindman.  Steedman  led  the  charging 
party,  with  a  regimental  flag  in  his  hand,  and 
soon  won  a  victory.  In  the  space  of  twenty  min¬ 
utes  the  Confederates  disappeared,  aud  the  Na¬ 
tionals  held  both  the  ridge  and  gorge.  Very 
soon  a  greater  portion  of  the  Confederate  army 
were  swarming  around  the  foot  of  the  ridge,  on 
which  stood  Thomas  with  the  remnant  of  seven 
divisions  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland.  The 
Confederates  were  led  by  Longstreet.  There 
seemed  no  hope  for  the  Nationals.  But  Thomas 
stood  like  a  rock,  and  his  men  repulsed  assault 
after  assault  until  the  sun  went  down,  when  he 
began  the  withdrawal  of  his  troops  to  Rossville, 
for  his  ammunition  was  almost  exhausted.  Gen¬ 
eral  Garfield,  Rosecrans’s  chief  of  staff,  had  ar¬ 
rived  with  orders  for  Thomas  to  take  the  com¬ 
mand  of  all  the  forces,  aud,  with  McCook  and 
Crittenden,  to  take  a  strong  position  at  Ross¬ 
ville.  It  was  then  that  Thomas  had  the  first 
reliable  information  of  disaster  on  the  right. 
Confederates  seeking  to  obstruct  the  movement 
were  driven  back,  with  a  loss  of  200  men  made 
prisoners.  So  ended  the  battle  of  Chickamauga. 
The  National  loss  was  reported  at  16,326,  of 
whom  1687  were  killed.  The  total  loss  of  offi¬ 
cers  was  974.  It  is  probable  the  entire  Union 
loss,  including  the  missing,  was  19,000.  The 
Confederate  loss  was  reported  at  20,500,  of  whom 
2673  were  killed.  Rosecrans  took  2003  prison¬ 
ers,  36  guns,  20  caissons,  and  8450  small-arms, 
and  lost,  as  prisoners,  7500.  Bragg  claimed  to 


have  captured  over  8000  prisoners  (including  the 
wounded),  51  guns,  and  15,000  small-arms.  The 
Confederates  were  victors  on  the  field,  but  their 
triumph  was  not  decisive.  On  the  evening  of 
the  20th  the  whole  National  army  withdrew  in 
good  order  to  a  position  in  front  of  Chattanoo¬ 
ga,  and  on  the  following  day  Bragg  advanced 
aud  took  possession  of  Lookout  Mountain  and 
the  whole  of  Missionaries  Ridge. 

Chickasaw  Bayou,  Battle  of.  When  Gen¬ 
eral  W.  T.  Sherman  came  down  from  Memphis 
to  engage  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  late  in 
1862,  with  about  twenty  thousand  men  and  some 
heavy  siege  gnus,  he  was  joined  by  troops 
from  Helena,  Ark.,  and  was  met  by  a  gun¬ 
boat  fleet,  under  Admiral  Porter,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Yazoo  River,  just  above  the  city  (Dec. 
25).  The  two  commanders  arranged  a  plan  for 
attacking  Vicksburg  in  the  rear.  They  went 
up  the  Yazoo  to  capture  some  batteries  at 
Chickasaw  Bayou  and  other  points.  The  Ya¬ 
zoo  sweeps  round  in  a  great  bend  within  a 
few  miles  of  Vicksburg.  The  range  of  hills  on 
which  Vicksburg  stands  extends  to  the  Yazoo, 
about  twelve  miles  above  the  city,  where  they 
terminate  in  Haines’s  Bluff.  There  is  a  deep 
natural  ditch  extending  from  the  Yazoo  below 
Haines’s  Bluff  to  the  Mississippi,  called  Chick¬ 
asaw  Bayou,  passing  near  the  bluffs,  which 
were  fortified,  and  along  their  bases  were  rifle- 
pits  for  sharpshooters.  This  bayou  lay  in  the 
path  of  Sherman’s  march  up  the  bluff’s,  which 
must  be  carried  to  gain  the  rear  of  Vicksburg. 
His  troops  moved  in  four  columns,  commanded 
respectively  by  Generals  Morgan,  A.  J.  Smith, 
Morgan  L.  Smith,  and  F.  Steele.  They  moved 
on  Dec.  27,  bivouacked  without  fire  that  night, 
and  proceeded  to  the  attack  the  next  morn¬ 
ing.  The  Nationals  drove  the  Confederate 
pickets  across  the  bayou,  and  everywhere  the 
ground  was  so  soft  that  causeways  of  logs 
had  to  be  built  for  the  passage  of  troops  and 
artillery.  The  Nationals  were  seriously  enfi¬ 
laded  by  the  Confederate  batteries  aud  sharp- 
sbooters.  The  right  of  the  Union  troops  was 
commanded  by  General  F.  P.  Blair,  who  led  the 
way  across  the  bayou  over  a  bridge  his  men 
had  built,  captured  two  lines  of  rifle-pits,  and 
fought  desperately  to  gain  the  crest  of  the  hill 
before  him.  Others  followed,  and  a  severe  bat¬ 
tle  ensued.  Pemberton,  the  Confederate  chief, 
had  arrived,  and  so  active  were  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  on  the  bluffs  that  the  Nationals  were  re¬ 
pulsed  with  heavy  loss.  Blair  lost  one  third 
of  his  brigade.  Darkness  closed  the  struggle, 
when  Sherman  had  lost  about  two  thousand 
men,  aud  his  antagonists  only  two  hundred 
and  seven. 

Chickasaws.  This  tribe  of  the  Creek  con¬ 
federacy  inhabited  the  country  along  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  from  the  borders  of  the  Choctaw  do¬ 
main  to  the  Ohio  River,  and  eastward  beyond 
the  Tennessee  to  the  lands  of  the  Cherokees  and 
Sliawnoese.  They  were  warlike,  aud  were  the 
early  friends  of  the  English  and  the  inveterate 
foes  of  the  French,  wrho  twice  (1736  and  1740) 
invaded  their  country  under  Bienville  aud  De 


CHICKERING 


243 


Noailles.  The  Cliickasaws  said  they  came  from 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  under  the  guardianship 
of  a  great  dog,  with  a  pole  for  a  guide.  At  night 
they  stuck  the  pole  in  the  ground,  and  went 
the  way  it  leaned  every  morning.  Their  dog 
was  drowned  in  crossing  the  Mississippi,  and 
after  a  while  their  pole,  in  the  interior  of  Ala¬ 
bama,  remained  upright,  and  there  they  settled. 
De  Soto  passed  a  winter  among  them  (1540-41), 
w'hen  they  numbered  ten  thousand  warriors. 
These  were  reduced  to  four  hundred  and  fifty 
when  the  French  seated  themselves  in  Louis¬ 
iana.  Wars  with  the  new-comers  and  sur¬ 
rounding  tribes  occurred  until  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  They  favored  the  Eng¬ 
lish  in  the  Revolution,  when  they  had  about 
one  thousand  warriors.  They  joined  the  white 
people  against  the  Creeks  in  1795,  and  always 
remained  the  friends  of  the  pale  faces ;  and,  in 
1818,  they  had  ceded  all  their  lands  north  of 
the  State  of  Mississippi.  Some  of  the  tribe 
had  already  emigrated  to  Arkansas.  In  1834 
they  ceded  all  their  lands  to  the  United  States, 
amounting  to  over  6,400,000  acres,  for  which 
they  received  $3,646,000.  Then  they  joined  the 
Choctaws,  who  spoke  the  same  language,  and 
became  a  part  of  that  nation.  During  their 
emigration  the  small  -  pox  destroyed  a  large 
number  of  their  tribe.  They  did  not  advance 
in  civilization  as  rapidly  as  the  Choctaws,  and 
had  no  schools  until  1851.  They  were  politi¬ 
cally  separated  from  the  Choctaws  in  1855,  and 
have  since  been  recognized  as  a  distinct  tribe. 
Led  by  their  agents,  who  were  Southern  men, 
they  joined  the  Confederates,  and  lost  nearly 
one  fourth  of  their  population,  much  stock,  and 
all  their  slaves.  They  gave  up  7,000,000  acres 
of  land  for  four  and  a  half  cents  an  acre,  and 
the  money  was  to  go  to  the  freedmen,  unless 
within  two  years  they  allowed  the  negroes  to 
become  a  part  of  the  tribe.  The  hatter  alterna¬ 
tive  was  adopted,  Jan.  10, 1873.  They  are  now 
rapidly  advancing  in  prosperity. 

Chickering,  Jonas,  was  born  at  Mason  Vil¬ 
lage,  N.  H.,  April  5, 1798 ;  died  in  Boston,  Dec.  8, 
1853.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  cabinet-maker. 
Being  fond  of  music,  he  repaired  and  put  in 
good  condition  an  old  piano  which  he  found  in 
the  town,  and  in  1818  he  became  a  workman  in 
a  pianoforte  manufactory  in  Boston.  In  1823  he 
set  up  business  for  himself,  which  was  extend¬ 
ed  by  forming  a  partnership  in  1830.  After  his 
partner’s  death,  in  1841,  he  continued  the  busi¬ 
ness  alone,  with  ample  means,  introducing  very 
important  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
pianos.  His  sons  were  associated  with  him,  and 
they  were  selling,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  about 
fifteen  hundred  pianos  a  year,  and  gave  employ¬ 
ment  to  five  hundred  workmen.  The  establish¬ 
ment  having  been  destroyed  by  fire,  he  began 
building  a  more  extensive  one,  just  before  his 
death,  which  was  completed  by  his  sons.  The  es¬ 
tablishment  occupies  an  entire  square  in  the  city 
of  Boston.  One  of  the  first  improvements  made 
by  Mr.  Chickering  was  the  substitution  of  iron 
for  wood  in  the  construction  of  the  piano,  made 
upon  true  geometric  and  acoustic  principles. 
This  was  put  into  operation  about  the  year  1837. 


CHIPPEWA,  BATTLE  OF 

Chief-justice,  First,  of  New  Jersey.  Rog¬ 
er  Mompesson,  au  English  lawyer  - —  a  “  good- 
tempered,  honest,  sober  gentleman” — was  made 
the  first  chief-justice  of  New  Jersey  in  1702.  He 
was  also  judge  of  the  admiralty  for  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania ;  attorney-gen¬ 
eral  and  chief-justice  of  Pennsylvania,  and  also 
of  New  York.  Though  highly  spoken  of  as  a 
man  and  a  lawyer,  he  was  a  mere  tool  in  the 
hands  of  Lord  Cornbury,  the  Governor  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey. 

China,  Treaty  with  (1868).  (See  Interna¬ 
tional  Law,  First  Acceptance  of,  by  China.) 

Chinooks.  Among  the  numerous  western 
tribes,  the  Chinooks  in  the  northwest  formed  a 
distinct  and  interesting  nation,  but  since  their 
contact  with  the  white  people  they  have  rapid¬ 
ly  decreased.  They  formerly  inhabited  the 
country  on  each  side  of  the  Columbia  River 
from  the  Grand  Dalles  to  its  mouth.  The  Chi¬ 
nooks  proper  were  on  the  north  side  of  that 
stream,  and  the  other  division,  called  Clatsops, 
were  on  the  south  side  and  along  the  Pacific 
coast.  Broken  into  roving  bands,  they  are 
fading  away,  and  the  nation  has  become  al¬ 
most  extinct ;  and  their  language,  corrupted  by 
French  and  English  traders,  is  almost  obliter¬ 
ated.  It  was  harsh,  at  the  best.  There  are  a 
very  few  of  them  on  a  reservation  in  Washing¬ 
ton  Territory,  but  these  will  soon  disappear. 

Chippewa,  Battle  of.  General  Brown  took 
prompt  measures  to  secure  the  advantages  de¬ 
rived  from  the  capture  of  Fort  Erie  (see  Canada, 
Invasion  of,  1814) ;  for  it  was  known  that  Gener¬ 
al  Riall,  who  was  then  in  chief  command  on  the 
Niagara  frontier,  was  moving  towards  Fort  Erie. 
Early  in  the  morning  of  July  3  he  had  sent  for¬ 
ward  some  of  the  Royal  Scots  to  reinforce  the 
garrison.  At  Chippewa,  at  the  mouth  of  Chip¬ 
pewa  Creek,  they  heard  of  the  surrender  of  the 
fort,  when  Riall  determined  to  make  an  imme¬ 
diate  attack  upon  the  Americans  on  Canadian 
soil.  Hearing  that  reinforcements  were  coming  . 
from  York,  he  deferred  the  attack  until  the  next 
morning.  To  meet  this  force,  General  Brown 
sent  forward  General  Scott  with  his  brigade, 
accompanied  by  Towson’s  artillery,  on  the 
morning  of  the  4th.  Ripley  was  ordered  in  the 
same  direction  with  his  brigade,  but  was  not 
ready  to  move  until  the  afternoon.  Scott  went 
down  the  Canada  side  of  the  Niagara  River, 
skirmishing  nearly  all  the  way  to  Street’s 
Creek,  driving  back  a  British  advanced  de¬ 
tachment.  The  main  .  portions  of  Brown’s 
army  reached  Scott’s  encampment  on  the  south 
side  of  Street’s  Creek  that  night,  and  on  the 
morning  of  the  5th  the  opposing  armies  were 
only  two  miles  apart.  At  about  noon  Scott 
was  joined  by  General  Porter,  with  his  volun¬ 
teers  and  Indians.  The  British  had  also  been 
reinforced.  The  two  armies  were  feeling  each 
other  for  some  time,  when  preliminary  skirmish¬ 
ing  was  begun  by  Porter  with  marked  success. 
The  Indians  behaved  gallantly  under  the  lead¬ 
ership  of  Captain  Pollard  and  the  famous  Red 
Jacket.  The  British  advanced  corps,  severely 
smitten,  tied  back  in  affright  towards  Chippewa. 


244 


CHITTENDEN 


CHIPPEWA,  BATTLE  OF 

Porter  pursued,  and  fouud  himself  within  a  few 
yards  of  the  entire  British  force,  advancing  in 
battle  order.  A  desperate  struggle  ensued. 
Finally  the  British  made  a  furious  charge 
with  bayonets.  Hearing  nothing  from  Scott, 
Porter  ordered  a  retreat.  It  became  a  tumultu¬ 
ous  rout.  It  was  now  towards  evening.  Brown 
had  been  watching  Porter’s  movements  with 
great  anxiety,  and  had  ordered  Scott  to  cross 
Street’s  Creek,  when  Porter’s  flying  troops  were 
observed.  Riall  had  sent  forward  some  Royal 
Scots,  part  of  another  regiment  of  regulars,  a 
regiment  of  Lincoln  militia,  and  about  three 
hundred  Indians.  These  composed  the  force 
that  fought  Porter.  Scott  crossed  Street’s 
Creek  in  the  face  of  a  heavy  cannonade,  and 


very  soon  the  battle  raged  with  fury  along  the 
entire  line  of  both  armies.  Several  times  the 
British  line  was  broken  and  closed  up  again. 
Finally  a  flank  movement  and  a  furious  charge 
was  made  by  Major  McNeill  with  Colonel 
Campbell’s  Eleventh  regiment,  and  a  terrific 
tire  from  a  corps  under  Major  Jesup  in  the  cen¬ 
tre  made  the  British  line  give  way.  It  broke 
and  fled  in  haste  to  the  intrenchments  below 
Chippewa  Creek.  The  fugitives  tore  up  the 
bridge  over  the  creek  behind  them,  leaving  an 
impassable  chasm  between  themselves  and  the 
Americans.  The  battle  -  field  (opposite  Navy 
Island)  was  strewn  with  the  dead  and  dying. 
The  Americans  lost,  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing,  three  hundred  and  fifty-five  men  ;  the 
British  lost,  by  the  same  casualties,  six  hun¬ 
dred  and  four  men,  of  whom  two  hundred  and 
thirty -six  were  killed.  On  that  hot  July  even¬ 
ing  a  gentle  shower  of  rain  descended,  which 
mitigated  the  horrors  of  the  battle-field.  Scott 
was  eager  to  pursue,  but  was  compelled  to  wait 
for  the  tardy  Ripley,  who  did  not  arrive  in  time 
to  participate  in  the  battle  or  to  join  in  an  in¬ 
stant  pursuit.  The  immediate  results  of  the 
battle  were  important.  The  Indian  allies  of 
the  British  were  disheartened,  and  nearly  all  of 
them  left  the  army  and  returned  to  their  homes. 
The  Americans  were  greatly  inspirited. 


Chippewas,  or  Ojibways.  This  Algonquin 
family,  living  in  scattered  bands  on  the  shores 
and  islauds  of  the  upper  lakes,  were  first  discov¬ 
ered  by  the  French  in  1640  at  the  Saut  (rapids) 
de  St.  Marie,  when  they  numbered  about  two 
thousand.  They  were  then  at  war  with  the  Iro¬ 
quois,  the  Foxes,  and  the  Sioux  ;  and  they  drove 
the  latter  from  the  head-waters  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  and  from  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  The 
French  established  missionaries  among  them, 
and  the  Chippewas  were  the  firm  friends  of 
these  Europeans  until  the  conquest  of  Canada 
ended  French  dominion  in  America.  In  1712 
they  aided  the  French  in  repelling  an  attack  of 
the  Foxes  on  Detroit.  In  Pontiac’s  conspiracy 
(see  Pontiac )  they  were  his  confederates;  and 

they  sided  with  the  Brit¬ 
ish  in  the  war  of  the 
Revolution  and  of  1812. 
Joining  the  Miamis,  they 
fought  Wayne  and  were 
defeated,  and  subscribed 
to  the  treaty  at  Green¬ 
ville  in  1795.  (See  Green¬ 
ville).  In  1816  they  took 
part  in  the  pacification  of 
the  northwestern  tribes, 
and  in  1817  they  gave  up 
all  their  lands  in  Ohio.  At 
that  time  they  occupied 
a  vast  and  undefined  ter¬ 
ritory  from  Mackinaw 
along  the  line  of  Lake 
Superior  to  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  River.  The  limits 
of  this  territory  were  de¬ 
fined  by  a  treaty  in  1825, 
after  which  they  gradu¬ 
ally  ceded  their  lands  to 
the  United  States  for  equivalent  annuities.  All 
but  a  few  bands  had  gone  west  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  in  1851 ;  and  in  1866  the  scattered  bands  in 
Canada,  Michigan,  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Supe¬ 
rior,  and  beyond  the  Mississippi  numbered  more 
than  fifteen  thousand — about  the  same  as  they 
did  sixty  years  ago.  They  are  now  seated  on 
reservations,  which  embrace  in  the  aggregate 
five  million  acres.  Their  religion  is  simply  a 
belief  in  a  Good  and  Evil  Spirit,  and  the  deifica¬ 
tion  of  the  powers  of  nature.  Various  denomi¬ 
nations  have  missionaries  among  the  Chippe¬ 
was. 

Chittenden,  Thomas,  first  governor  of  the 
State  of  Vermont,  was  born  at  East  Guilford, 
Conn.,  Jan.  6, 1730  ;  died  at  Williston,  Vt.,  Aug. 
24, 1797.  He  had  held  local  offices  in  his  native 
state  before  1774,  when  he  emigrated  to  the  New 
Hampshire  Grants  (which  see),  and  settled  at 
Williston.  During  the  Revolution  he  was  an 
active  participant  in  the  councils  of  his  state, 
and  was  a  leader  in  the  convention  which  (Jan. 
16, 1777)  declared  Vermont  an  independent  state. 
He  was  also  a  leader  in  the  convention  (July, 
1777)  which  formed  a  constitution  for  that  state, 
and  president  of  the  Council  of  Safety  vested 
with  governmental  powers.  He  was  elected 
governor  of  Vermont  in  1778,  and,  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  one  year,  filled  that  office  until  his 


STREET’S  CREEK  BRIDGE,  IN  1861,  LOOKING  NORTH. 


CHOCTAWS 


245  CHRISTIAN  INDIANS,  MASSACRE  OF 


death,  during  which  time  the  controversy  be¬ 
tween  New  York  and  Vermont  was  settled  and 
the  latter  admitted  as  a  state  of  the  Union. 

Choate,  Rufus,  was  born  at  Essex,  Mass., 
Oct.  1,  1799;  died  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  July  13, 
1859.  He  studied  at  the  Cambridge  Law  School, 
and,  with  William  Wirt,  became  one  of  the  most 
eminent  lawyers  and  orators  of  his  time.  He 
began  the  practice  of  law  at  Danvers,  Mass.,  in 
1824.  He  was  a  distinguished  member  of  both 
branches  of  his  State  Legislature,  a  member  of 
the  Lower  House  of  Congress,  and  United  States 
Senator,  succeeding  Daniel  Webster  in  1841.  In 
1853  be  was  attorney -general  of  Massachusetts. 
After  the  death  of  Webster,  Mr.  Choate  was  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  the  Massachusetts  bar. 
Impaired  health  compelled  him  to  retire  from 
business  in  1858. 

Choctaws,  The,  were  mostly  Mobilians,  a 
peaceful  agricultural  people.  Their  domain  com¬ 
prised  southern  Mississippi  and  western  Ala¬ 
bama.  De  Soto  fought  them  in  1540.  They  be¬ 
came  allies  of  the  French  in  Louisiana,  where 
they  numbered  about  two  thousand  five  hun¬ 
dred  warriors,  and  formed  forty  villages.  In 
the  Revolution  they  were  mostly  with  the 
English,  but  were  granted  peaceable  posses¬ 
sion  of  their  lands  by  the  United  States  gov¬ 
ernment.  As  early  as  1800,  numbers  of  them 
wrent  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1803  it  was 
estimated  that  five  hundred  families  had  emi¬ 
grated.  They  were  with  the  United  States 
troops  in  the  war  with  England  and  the  Creeks, 
and  in  1820  they  ceded  a  part  of  their  lands  for 
a  domain  in  what  is  now  the  Indian  Territory. 
In  1830  they  ceded  the  rest  of  their  lauds  and 
joined  their  brethren  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
where  the  Cliickasaws  joined  them.  In  1861  they 
had  a  population  of  twenty-five  thousand,  with 
five  thousand  negro  slaves.  They  were  seduced 
into  an  alliance  with  the  Confederates  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  disaster  befell  them.  They  lost 
an  immense  amount  of  property,  and  their  num¬ 
bers,  including  the  Cliickasaws,  were  reduced  to 
seventeen  thousand.  Slavery  was  abolished, 
and  part  of  their  lauds  w  as  forfeited  for  the  ben¬ 
efit  of  the  freedmen.  The  Choctaws  proper  now 
number  about  twelve  hundred. 

Choctaws,  Treaty  with  the  (1786).  On 
Jan.  3,  1786,  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  leaders 
of  the  Choctaw'  nation  of  the  same  purport,  and 
upon  the  same  terms,  as  that  made  with  the 
Cherokees  the  previous  year.  (See  Cherolcees, 
Treaty  with,  1785.) 

Choiseul  and  the  Americans.  Duke  de  Choi- 
senl  was  at  the  head  of  the  French  ministry  in 
talent,  w  hen,  in  1761,  cabinet  changes  in  England 
threatened  to  diminish  the  power  of  that  govern¬ 
ment.  He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  in 
January,  1761,  became  minister  of  war,  and  an¬ 
nexed  those  departments  to  the  marine.  Like 
Pitt,  he  was  a  statesman  of  consummate  ability. 
He  w'as  of  high  rank  and  very  wealthy,  and  was 
virtually  sole  minister  of  France.  When  the 
British  had  despoiled  France  of  her  American 
possessions  (see  Treaty  of  Paris),  Choiseul  eagerly 
watched  for  an  opportunity  to  inflict  a  retalia¬ 


tory  blow  ;  and  he  was  delighted  w'hen  he  per¬ 
ceived  that  a  l’ising  Quarrel  between  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  and  her  American  colonies  foreshadowed  a 
dismemberment  of  the  British  empire.  Choiseul 
determined  to  foster  the  quarrel  as  far  as  pos¬ 
sible.  He  sent  the  Baron  de  Kalb  to  America 
in  the  disguise  of  a  traveller,  but  really  as  a 
French  emissary,  to  ascertain  the  temper  of  the 
people  towmrds  the  mother  country.  The  report 
of  the  baron  did  not  warrant  the  hope  of  an 
immediate  rupture.  But  Choiseul  waited  and 
watched,  and  in  the  summer  of  1768  he  saw  rea¬ 
sons  for  expecting  an  almost  immediate  outbreak 
of  rebellion  in  America.  He  wrrote  to  the  French 
minister  in  London  that  facts  and  not  theories 
must  shape  French  action  at  that  crisis.  He 
proposed  to  make  a  commercial  treaty  with  the 
discontented  colonies,  both  of  importation  and 
exportation,  at  the  moment  of  rupture,  the  ad¬ 
vantages  of  which  might  cause  them  at  ouce  to 
detach  themselves  from  the  British  government. 
He  believed  the  separation  must  come  sooner  or 
later,  and  wished  to  hasten  the  hoped-for  event. 
He  perceived  the  difficulties  that  stood  in  the 
way  of  the  consummation  of  his  scheme,  weighed 
their  evils,  but  still  persisted.  He  said  to  the 
minister,  “I  firmly  believe  and  hope  this  gov¬ 
ernment  will  so  conduct  itself  as  to  widen  the 
breach and  he  was  sanguine  that  his  plans 
would  result  in  gratifying  the  wishes  of  every 
Frenchman.  But  Choiseul  had  to  wait  seven 
years  before  these  wishes  w'ere  gratified,  and  then 
he  was  dismissed  from  office  by  the  successor  of 
the  old  king  (Louis  XV.)  whom  he  had  ruled  so 
long. 

Christian  Indians,  Massacre  of  (1782).  The 
Moravian  missionaries  had  established  three  In¬ 
dian  villages  of  con  verts  on  the  Tuscarawas  River, 
Ohio — Schoubrunn,  Gnadeuhutten,  and  Salem. 
Gnadenhutten  was  on  the  east  side  of  the  river, 
near  the  (present)  village  of  that  name.  Here  a 
massacre  occurred,  March  8, 1782,  which  has  never 
been  surpassed  in  cool  barbarity.  These  settle¬ 
ments  of  Christian  Indians  were  situated  about 
half-way  between  the  white  settlements  near  the 
Ohio  River  and  the  warlike  Wyandots  and  Dela- 
wrares  on  the  Sandusky.  The  Christian  Indians 
wrere  Delawares.  The  pagan  Wyandots  and  Del¬ 
awares  were  mostly  in  the  British  service,  or  op¬ 
posed  to  the  colonists.  The  Christian  villagers 
were  between  two  fires.  As  Christians,  they 
were  friends  of  peace,  and  as  far  as  possible 
maintained  a  neutral  position.  Each  party  in 
the  impending  conflict  suspected  these  Indians 
of  complicity  in  the  schemes  and  conduct  of  the 
other.  In  March,  1782,  some  murders  committed 
in  the  vicinity  of  Pittsburgh  by  a  wandering  par¬ 
ty  of  Shawnoese  were  ascribed  to  the  Christian 
Indians,  or  to  warriors  whom  they  had  enter¬ 
tained,  and  eighty  or  ninety  men  of  that  neigh¬ 
borhood,  under  Colonel  Williamson,  as  volunteer 
militia,  marched  to  take  vengeance.  Arrived 
at  Gnadenhutten  (March  5),  they  found  some 
Indians  who  were  gathering  corn,  which  they 
had  been  compelled  to  leave  standing  and  flee 
to  Sandusky  several  months  before.  The  white 
people  sent  for  the  Indians  of  a  neighboring  vil¬ 
lage,  when  all  were  confined  in  two  houses, 


CHRISTIAN  QUAKERS 


246 


while  a  council  of  war  was  held  to  decide  their 
fate.  The  prisoners  were  all  bound.  The  men 
were  placed  in  one  house,  the  women  in  the  oth¬ 
er — altogether  nearly  one  hundred.  The  ques¬ 
tion  was  put  by  Colonel  Williamson  whether  the 
Moravian  Indians  should  be  taken  to  Fort  Pitt 
(as  they  had  been  promised  they  should  be),  or 
put  to  death.  Only  sixteen  voted  for  mercy ;  the 
remainder,  holding  the  belief  on  the  frontier  that 
“  an  Indian  has  no  more  soul  than  a  buffalo,” 
voted  for  murder.  Then  the  white  furies  rushed 
on  the  helpless  Christian  Indians  and  murdered 
and  scalped  the  whole  of  them,  and  laid  the  vil¬ 
lage  in  ashes.  Flushed  by  this  success,  four  hun¬ 
dred  and  eighty  men,  under  Colonels  Williamson 
and  Crawford,  attempted  the  destruction  of  all 
the  Christian  Indians  by  assailing  Sandusky. 
They  intended  to  strike  a  blow  at  the  town  of 
the  hostile  Wyandots,  but  were  waylaid  by  the 
latter  with  an  overwhelming  force  and  compelled 
to  retreat.  Crawford,  his  son  and  sons-in-law, 
fell  into  their  hands,  and  were  tortured  and 
burned  alive  in  revenge  for  the  cold-blooded 
murder  of  their  innocent  brethren  at  Gnaden- 
hutten. 

“  Christian  Quakers.”  In  1692  there  was  a 
schism  among  the  Friends,  or  Quakers,  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  caused  by  the  action  of  George  Keith, 
a  Scotch  Friend,  formerly  surveyor  of  East  Jer¬ 
sey,  and  at  this  time  master  of  the  Friends’ 
school  at  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  champion  of 
the  Quakers  against  Cotton  Mather  and  the  Bos¬ 
ton  ministers.  He  pressed  the  doctrine  of  non- 
resistance  to  its  logical  conclusion,  that  this  prin¬ 
ciple  was  not  consistent  with  the  exercise  of 
political  authority.  He  also  attacked  negro 
slavery  as  inconsistent  with  those  principles. 
So  sharply  did  Keith  criticise  the  shortcomings 
of  his  co-religionists  that  he  was  disowned  by  the 
Yearly  Meeting,  when  he  forthwith  instituted  a 
meeting  of  his  own,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  “  Christian  Quakers.”  A  Testimony  of  Denial 
was  put  forth  against  Keith,  who  replied  in  a 
published  address,  in  which  he  handled  his  ad¬ 
versaries  without  mercy.  The  Quaker  magis¬ 
trates  fined  him  for  “insolence,”  and  William 
Bradford,  the  only  printer  in  the  colony,  was 
called  to  account  for  having  published  Keith’s 
address.  He  was  discharged,  but  was  so  an¬ 
noyed  that  he  removed  his  priutiug  business  to 
New  York. 

Chrysler’s  Field,  Battle  of  (1813).  When 
Wilkinson’s  expedition  down  the  River  St.  Law¬ 
rence  (which  see)  against  Montreal,  composed 
of  land  troops  borne  by  a  flotilla  of  boats,  ar¬ 
rived  at  a  point  four  miles  below  Ogdensburg, 
information  reached  the  commander  of  the  ex¬ 
pedition  that  the  opposite  shore  of  the  river  was 
lined  with  posts  of  musketry  and  artillery,  and 
that  a  large  reinforcement  of  British  troops 
under  Lieutenant-colonel  Morrison  had  arrived 
at  Prescott.  Wilkinson  had  already  ordered 
Colouel  Alexander  Macomb,  with  twelve  hun¬ 
dred  of  the  best  troops  of  the  army,  to  cross  the 
river  to  oppose  the  British  detachments  on  the 
Canadian  side  (Nov.  7,  1813),  and  these  were 
soon  followed  by  riflemen  under  Lieutenaut- 


CHRYSLER’S  FIELD,  BATTLE  OF 

colonel  Forsyth,  who  did  excellent  service  in  the 
rear  of  Macomb.  When  news  was  received  of 
the  arrival  of  reinforcements  at  Prescott,  Wil¬ 
kinson  called  a  council  of  wtrr  (Nov.  8),  and  it 
was  decided  “  to  proceed  with  all  possible  rapid¬ 
ity  to  the  attack  of  Montreal.”  General  Brown 
was  at  once  ordered  to  cross  the  river  with  his 
brigade  and  some  dragoons.  Morrison’s  troops, 
full  one  thousand  strong,  had  come  down  to 
Prescott  in  armed  schooners,  with  several  gun¬ 
boats  and  bateaux  under  Captain  Mulcaster,  and 
were  joined  by  provincial  infantry  and  dragoons 
under  Lieutenant-colonel  Pearson.  They  pushed 
forward,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  9th  were 
close  upon  Wilkinson,  and  the  land  troops  were 
debarked  to  pursue  the  Americans- — two  thou¬ 
sand  men,  including  cavalry.  General  Boyd  and 
his  brigade  were  now  detached  to  reinforce 
Brown,  with  orders  to  cover  his  march,  to  attack 
the  pursuing  enemy  if  necessary,  and  to  co-oper¬ 
ate  with  the  other  commanders.  Wilkinson  now 
found  himself  in  a  perilous  position,  for  the  Brit¬ 
ish  armed  vessels  were  close  upon  his  flotilla, 
and  the  British  land  troops  were  hanging  upon 
the  rear  of  Brown  and  Boyd.  The  latter  also 
encountered  detachments  coming  up  from  below. 
The  British  gunboats  attacked  the  flotilla,  but 
Wilkinson  made  such  disposition  of  his  cannons 
in  battery  on  the  shore  that  they  were  repulsed, 
and  fled  up  the  river.  Brown  had  captured  a 
British  post  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  and  Wil¬ 
kinson  had  just  issued  orders  for  the  flotilla 
to  proceed  down  these  rapids,  and  Boyd  to  re¬ 
sume  his  march,  when  a  British  column  attacked 
the  rear  of  the  latter.  Boyd  turned  upon  his 
antagonist,  and  a  sharp  battle  ensued.  General 
Swartwout  was  detached  with  his  brigade  to 
assail  the  British  vanguard,  and  General  Cov¬ 
ington  took  position  at  supporting  distance  from 
him.  Their  antagonists  were  driven  back  out 
of  the  woods  on  the  main  line  in  the  open  fields 
of  John  Chrysler,  a  British  militia  captain  then 
in  the  service.  That  line  was  covered  by  Mul- 
caster’s  gunboats,  and  protected  in  part  by  deep 
ravines.  Then  General  Covington  led  his  bri¬ 
gade  against  the  British  left,  near  the  river,  and 
the  battle  became  general.  By  charge  after 
charge  the  British  were  forced  back  nearly  a 
mile,  aud  the  American  cannons,  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Colouel  J.  G.  Swift,  did  excellent  execu¬ 
tion.  At  length  Covington  fell,  seriously  wound¬ 
ed,  and  the  ammunition  of  the  Americans  began 
to  fail.  It  was  soon  exhausted,  and  Swartwout’s 
brigade,  hard  pushed,  slowly  fell  back,  followed 
by  others.  The  British  perceived  this  retrograde 
movement,  followed  up  the  advantage  gained 
with  great  vigor,  and  were  endeavoring  by  a 
flank  movement  to  capture  Boyd’s  cannons,  when 
a  gallant  charge  of  cavalry,  led  by  Adjutant- 
general  Walbach,  whom  Armstrong  had  permit¬ 
ted  to  accompany  the  expedition,  drove  them 
back  and  saved  the  pieces.  The  effort  was  re¬ 
newed.  Lieutenant  Smitlr,  who  commanded  one 
of  the  cannons,  was  mortally  wounded,  aud  the 
piece  was  seized  by  the  British.  For  five  hours 
the  conflict  had  been  carried  on  in  the  midst  of 
sleet  aud  snow,  and  victory  had  swayed  between 
the  belligerents  like  a  pendulum.  It  would 


CHURCH,  ANGLICAN,  THE  EARLY  247  CHURCH,  ANGLICAN,  THE  EARLY 


doubtless  have  rested  with  the  Americans  had 
their  ammuuitiou  held  out.  Their  retreat  was 
promising  to  he  a  rout,  when  the  fugitives  were 
met  by  six  hundred  troops  under  Colonel  Upham 
and  Major  Malcolm,  whom  Wilkinson  had  sent 
up  to  the  support  of  Boyd.  These  checked  the 
flight,  drove  back  the  British,  and  saved  the 
American  army.  Meanwhile  Boyd  had  re-formed 
a  portion  of  the  army,  and  then  awaited  another 
attack.  It  was  not  made.  The  Americans,  un¬ 
der  cover  of  darkness,  retired  to  their  boats  un¬ 
molested.  Neither  party  had  gained  a  victory, 
but  the  advantage  lay  with  the  British,  who 
held  the  field.  The  British  army  on  that  occa¬ 
sion  was  slightly  superior  in  numbers,  counting 
its  Indian  allies.  The  Americans  lost  in  the  bat¬ 
tle,  in  killed  and  wounded,  three  hundred  and 


ers  sent  an  address  to  “  the  rest  of  the  brethren 
in  and  of  the  Church  of  England,”  and  spoke  of 
that  church  with  affection  as  their  “  dear  moth¬ 
er.”  This  was  to  correct  a  “misreport”  that 
the  emigrants  iu tended  to  separate  from  the 
church.  Notwithstanding  this  dutiful  address, 
when  they  set  foot  on  American  soil  a  sense  of 
freedom  overcame  their  allegiance,  and,  follow¬ 
ing  the  example  of  the  “Plymouthians”  and 
Eudicott,  they  established  separate  churches, 
and  chose  their  own  officers.  Without  any  ex¬ 
press  renunciation  of  the  authority  of  the  Church 
of  England,  the  Plymouth  people  had  laid  aside 
its  liturgy  and  rituals.  Eudicott  followed  this 
example  at  Salem,  aud  had  the  sympathy  of 
three  “godly  ministers”  there  — Higginson, 
Skelton,  aud  Bright ;  also  of  Smith,  a  sort  of  iu- 


CHRYSLEE’S  IN  1855. 


thirty-nine;  the  British  lost  one  hundred  and 
eighty-seven.  On  the  morning  after  the  battle 
the  flotilla,  with  the  gunboats  and  troops,  passed 
safely  down  the  rapids,  and  three  miles  above 
Cornwall  they  formed  a  junction  with  the  forces 
under  General  Brown.  There  Wilkinson  was 
informed  that  Hampton,  whom  he  had  invited  in 
Armstrong’s  name  to  meet  him  at  St.  Regis,  had 
refused  to  join  him.  A  council  of  war  (Nov.  12, 
1813)  decided  that  it  was  best  to  abandon  the 
expedition  against  Montreal,  although  it  was 
said  there  were  not  more  than  six  hundred 
troops  there,  and  put  the  army  into  winter-quar¬ 
ters  at  French  Mills,  on  the  Salmon  River,  which 
was  done.  Thus  ended  in  disaster  and  disgrace 
an  expedition,  conducted  by  an  incompetent 
leader,  which  iu  its  inception  promised  salutary 
results. 

Church,  Anglican,  The  Early,  in  New  EnCx- 
land.  In  1630  about  one  thousand  emigrants  ar¬ 
rived  in  Massachusetts  from  England,  under  the 
leadership  of  John  Winthrop,  who  had  been  ap¬ 
pointed  governor  under  the  royal  charter.  Win¬ 
throp  brought  the  charter  with  him.  On  the  day 
before  they  sailed  from  the  Isle  of  Wight  the  lead- 


terloper.  A  church  was  organized  there  —  the 
first  in  New  England,  for  that  at  Plymouth  was 
really  iu  a  formative  state  yet.  Skelton  was 
appointed  pastor  aud  Higginson  teacher.  All 
of  the  congregation  were  not  prepared  to  lay 
aside  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
two  of  them  (John  and  Samuel  Browne)  protest¬ 
ed,  and  set  up  a  separate  worship.  The  ener¬ 
getic  Eudicott  promptly  arrested  the  “  malcon¬ 
tents”  and  sent  them  to  England.  Following 
up  the  system  adopted  at  Salem,  the  emigrants, 
under  the  charter  of  1630,  established  Noncon¬ 
formist  churches  wherever  settlements  were 
planted — Charlestown, Watertown,  Boston,  Dor¬ 
chester,  etc.  At  Salem  the  choice  of  minister 
and  teacher  was  made  as  follows :  “  Every  fit 
member  wrote  iu  a  note  the  name  whom  the 
Lord  moved  him  to  think  was  fit  for  pastor,” 
and  so  likewise  for  teacher.  Skelton  was  chosen 
for  the  first  office,  Higginson  for  the  second. 
When  they  accepted,  three  or  four  of  the  gravest 
members  of  the  church  laid  their  hands  upon 
Mr.  Skelton,  using  prayer  therewith.  The  same 
was  done  to  Mr.  Higginson.  Such  was  the  first 
New  England  ordinatiou. 


CHURCH 


248 


Church,  Benjamin,  was  born  at  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  in  1639 ;  died  at  Little  Compton,  R.  I., 
Jan.  17,  1718.  He  was  a  brave  military  leader 
in  King  Philip’s  War  (which  see);  commanded 
the  party  by  whom  Philip  was  slain  (August, 
1676) ;  and  Avitli  his  own  sword  cut  off  the 
head  of  the  dusky  monarch.  He  commanded 
an  expedition  against  the  Eastern  Indians  in 
1689,  and  afterwards  led  four  other  expeditions 
against  the  Indians  in  Maine.  He  is  represent¬ 
ed  by  his  contemporaries  as  distinguished  as 
much  for  his  integrity,  justice,  and  purity  as  for 
his  military  exploits. 

Church,  Colonel,  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  In 
retaliation  for  the  capture  of  the  fort  at  Pema- 
quid  (which  see),  the  veteran  Indian  tighter 
Colonel  Church  made  an  amphibious  foray  up 
the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Iberville’s  squadron  (see  Pem- 
aquid )  just  escaped  capture  by  that  of  Church. 
The  latter  went  on  shore,  burned  the  houses  of 
the  French  settlers  at  Beau  Bassin  (the  western¬ 
most  recess  of  that  bay),  and  destroyed  their 
cattle,  which  constituted  their  chief  wealth  ; 
but  an  attempt  to  dislodge  the  French  at  St. 
John  was  a  failure. 

Church,  Dr.  Benjamin.  (See  First  Traitor, 
The.) 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin,  artist,  was  born 
at  Hartford,  Conn.,  May  4, 1826.  He  was  a  pu¬ 
pil  of  Thomas  Cole  (which  see).  He  was  first 
brought  into  notice  by  some  pictures  of  scenery 
in  the  Catskill  Mountains.  In  1853  he  went  to 
South  America,  visiting  New  Granada  and  Ecu¬ 
ador,  where  he  obtained  materials  for  many 
landscapes  among  the  great  mountain  chains 
of  the  Andes.  He  made  a  second  journey  thith¬ 
er  in  1857,  and,  after  his  return,  produced  some 
admirable  paintings  of  scenery  there,  notably 
“  The  Heart  of  the  Andes.”  His  picture  of  Ni¬ 
agara  Falls,  afterwards  duplicated  by  chromo¬ 
printing,  is  regarded  as  his  masterpiece.  In 
1868  he  visited  the  Holy  Land,  and  found  mate¬ 
rials  for  some  exquisite  paintings,  made  after 
his  return. 

Church  of  England  in  New  York.  Efforts 
were  early  made  by  the  English  to  supplant  the 
Dutch  Church  as  the  prevailing  religious  or¬ 
ganization  in  New  York.  The  act  of  the  As¬ 
sembly  procured  by  Governor  Fletcher,  though 
broad  in  its  scope,  was  destined  for  /that  pur¬ 
pose.  Under  that  act  Trinity  Church  was  or¬ 
ganized,  and  Fletcher  tried  to  obtain  authority 
to  appoint  all  the  ministers,  but  the  Assembly 
successfully  resisted  his  designs.  In  1695  Rev. 
John  Miller,  in  a  long  letter  to  the  Bishop  of 
London  on  the  condition  of  religion  and  mor¬ 
als,  drew  a  gloomy  picture  of  the  state  of  so¬ 
ciety  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  earnestly 
recommended  as  a  remedy  for  all  these  social 
evils  “to  send  over  a  bishop  to  the  Province  of 
New  York  duly  qualified  as  suffragan”  to  the 
Bishop  of  London,  and  five  or  six  young  minis¬ 
ters,  with  Bibles  and  prayer-books;  to  unite 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode 
Island  into  one  province ;  and  the  bishop  to  be 
appointed  governor,  at  a  salary  of  $7200,  his 
majesty  to  give  him  the  King’s  Farm  of  thirty 


CHURUBUSCO,  BATTLE  OF 

acres,  in  New  York,  as  a  seat  for  himself  and 
his  successors.  When  Sir  Edward  Hyde  (after¬ 
wards  Lord  Cornbury)  became  governor  of  the 
combined  provinces  of  New  York  and  New  Jer¬ 
sey,  in  1702,  even  violent  efforts  were  used  to 
make  the  liturgy  and  ritual  of  the  Church  of 
England  the  State  system  of  worship.  He  de¬ 
nied  the  right  of  preachers  or  schoolmasters  to 
exercise  their  functions  in  the  province  without 
a  bishop’s  license  ;  and  when  the  corporation  of 
New  York  resolved  to  establish  a  grammar- 
school,  the  Bishop  of  London  was  requested  to 
send  over  a  teacher.  In  violation  of  his  posi¬ 
tive  instructions,  the  governor  began  a  system¬ 
atic  persecution  of  all  religious  denominations 
dissenting  from  the  practices  of  the  Church  of 
England.  This  conduct  reacted  disastrously  to 
Trinity  Church,  which,  until  the  province  was 
rid  of  Cornbury,  had  a  very  feeble  growth.  (See 
Cornbury.) 

Church’s  Expedition.  In  May,  1704,  Gov¬ 
ernor  Dudley  sent,  from  Boston,  an  expedition 
to  the  eastern  bounds  of  New  England.  It  con¬ 
sisted  of  five  hundred  and  fifty  soldiers,  under 
Colonel  Benjamin  Church.  The  campaign  then 
undertaken  against  the  French  and  Indians  con¬ 
tinued  all  summer,  and  Church  inflicted  much 
damage  to  the  allies  at  Penobscot  and  Passa- 
maquoddy. 

Church’s  Expedition  to  the  Androscoggin. 

While  Phipps  was  operating  against  Quebec  in 
1690,  Colonel  Church  (which  see)  was  sent  on 
an  expedition  against  the  eastern  Indians.  He 
went  up  the  Androscoggin  River  to  the  site  of 
Lewiston,  Me.,  where  he  destroyed  a  large  quan¬ 
tity  of  corn,  and,  “for  example,”  put  to  death  a 
number  of  men,  women,  and  children  whom  ho 
had  captured.  The  Indians  retaliated  fearfully. 

Churubusco,  Battle  of.  After  the  victory 
at  Contreras  (which  see),  the  Americans  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  attack  the  fortresses  of  San  Antonio 
and  Churubusco.  The  latter  is  a  small  village 
six  miles  south  from  the  city  of  Mexico,  and 
connected  with  it  by  a  spacious  causeway.  At 
the  head  of  the  causeway,  near  the  village,  was 
erected  a  strong  redoubt,  mounted  with  batter¬ 
ies  and  heavily  garrisoned.  This  was  in  front 
of  the  bridge  over  the  Churubusco  River.  The 
Convent-church  of  San  Pablo,  with  its  massive 
stone  walls,  on  an  eminence,  was  converted  into 
a  fort,  and  around  it  was  the  hamlet,  defended 
by  a  covering  of  stone  walls  and  a  heavy  stone 
building  fortified.  The  outside  Avails  were 
pierced  for  cannons,  high  enough  to  fire  plung¬ 
ing  shot  upon  an  approaching  enemy.  All  the 
stores  and  artillery  saAred  from  the  wreck  of 
Contreras  were  gathered  at  Churubusco,  with 
much  sent  from  the  city,  for  Santa  Ana  had  re¬ 
solved  to  make  a  stand  at  this  place.  He  was 
at  the  city  with  12,000  troops.  When  the  Amer¬ 
icans  began  to  move  forward,  the  garrison  of 
Antonio,  perceiving  themselves  in  great  danger 
of  being  cut  off,  abandoned  the  fort  and  fled 
towards  Churubusco,  attacked  and  divided  on 
the  way.  The  retreat  of  the  Mexicans  from 
San  Antonio  and  the  general  march  of  all  the 
Americans  upon  Churubusco  began  the  grand 


249 


CINCINNATI  DEFENDED 


CHURUBUSCO,  BATTLE  AT 

movements  of  the  day.  The  divisions  of  Twiggs 
and  Pillow  were  advancing  on  the  west,  and  on 
a  causeway  south  the  division  of  Worth  was 
rapidly  advancing  to  storm  the  redoubt  at  the 
bridge.  General  Scott,  at  a  mile  distant  from 
Churubusco,  was  directing  all  the  movements. 
The  redoubt  at  the  bridge  was  carried  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet.  At  the  same  time  Twiggs 
was  assailing  the  fortified  church  and  hamlet, 
where  a  fierce  battle  raged  for  some  time. 
There  the  able  Mexican  general  Rincon  com¬ 
manded,  and  there  three  masses  of  Santa  Ana’s 
men  opposed  General  Shields.  The  veterans  of 
General  Persifer  F.  Smith,  who  had  captured 
Contreras,  were  conspicuous  in  this  fearful  con¬ 
test.  The  most  desperate  defence  at  the  church 
was  made  by  one  hundred  deserters  from  the 
American  army,  led  by  Thomas  Riley.  The 
alarmed  Mexicans  several  times  hoisted  a  white 
flag,  in  token  of  surrender,  when  these  Ameri¬ 
cans  with  halters  about  their  necks  as  often 


line  of  Mexican  defences,  opening  the  causeway 
to  the  city  and  leaving  it  no  other  resources 
but  its  fortified  gates  and  the  Castle  of  Chapul- 
tepec.  Full  4000  Mexicans  had  been  killed  or 
wounded  that  day ;  3000  were  made  prisoners. 
Thirty-seven  pieces  of  fine  artillery  had  been 
captured,  with  a  vast  amount  of  munitions  of 
war.  The  Americans  lost,  in  killed  and  wound¬ 
ed,  about  1100  men. 

Cincinnati  Defended.  General  E.  Kirby 
Smith,  invading  Keutucky  in  advance  of  Bragg 
(see  Bragg's  Invasion),  pushed  on  towards  the 
Ohio  River  with  the  purpose  of  capturing  Cin¬ 
cinnati.  The  invader  was  confronted  by  au 
unexpected  force  near  that  city.  General  Lew 
Wallace  was  at  Cincinnati  when  news  of  the 
disaster  at  Richmond,  Ky.  (which  see),  reached 
that  place.  He  was  ordered  by  General  Wright 
to  resume  the  command  of  Nelson’s  shattered 
forces,  but  was  called  back  to  provide  for  the 
defence  of  Cincinnati.  Half  an  hour  after  his 


view  op  Cincinnati  from  Newport  in  1812.  (See  page  250.) 


tore  it  down.  The  battle  raged  three  hours, 
when  the  church  and  the  other  defences  of 
Churubusco  were  captured.  Meanwhile  Gen¬ 
erals  Shields  and  Pierce  (afterwards  President 
of  the  United  States)  were  battling  furiously 
with  Santa  Ana’s  men,  partly  in  the  rear  of  the 
defences  of  Churubusco.  The  Mexicans  were 
there  7000  strong — 4000  infantry  and  3000  cav¬ 
alry — but  victory  again  crowned  the  Americans. 
This  was  the  fifth  victory  won  on  that  memora¬ 
ble  20th  of  August,  1847 — Contreras,  San  Anto¬ 
nio,  the  redoubt  at  the  bridge,  the  Church  of  San 
Pablo,  and  with  Santa  Ana’s  troops.  In  fact,  the 
combined  events  of  that  day  formed  one  great 
contest  over  a  considerable  extent  of  territory, 
and  might  properly  be  known  in  history  as  the 
“  Battle  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico.”  The  number 
engaged  on  that  day  was  9000  effective  Ameri¬ 
can  soldiers  and  32,000  Mexicans.  The  result 
was  the  capture  by  the  former  of  the  exterior 


arrival  he  issued  a  stirring  proclamation  (Sept. 
1,  1862)  as  commander  of  that  and  the  cities  of 
Covington  and  Newport,  on  the  Kentucky  side 
of  the  river.  He  officially  informed  the  inhab¬ 
itants  of  the  swift  approach  of  the  invaders  in 
strong  force,  and  called  upon  the  citizens  to  act 
promptly  and  vigorously  in  preparing  defences 
for  the  city.  He  ordered  all  places  of  business 
to  be  closed,  and  the  citizens  of  Cincinnati,  un¬ 
der  the  direction  of  the  mayor,  to  assemble,  an 
hour  afterwards,  in  convenient  public  places,  to 
be  organized  for  work  on  intrenchments  on  the 
south  side  of  the  river.  He  ordered  the  ferry¬ 
boats  to  cease  running,  and  proclaimed  martial 
law  in  the  three  cities.  This  was  a  bold,  start¬ 
ling,  but  necessary  proceeding.  The  principle 
of  action  embodied  in  the  proclamation  was, 
“Citizens  for  labor;  soldiers  for  the  battle.” 
Wallace  demanded  the  services  of  all  able-bod¬ 
ied  people.  The  respouso  was  wonderful.  In 


CINCINNATI,  FOUNDING  OF  250  CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OF  THE 


a  few  hours  he  had  an  army  of  workers  and 
lighters  forty  thousand  strong.  They  streamed 
across  the  river  on  a  pontoon  bridge  aud  swarm¬ 
ed  upon  the  hills  about  Covington.  Within 
three  days  after  the  proclamation  a  line  of  in- 
trenchments  ten  miles  in  length,  of  semicircular 
form,  was  constructed.  These  were  just  com¬ 
pleted,  when  full  fifteen  thousand  of  Smith’s 
troops  appeared.  Astonished  and  alarmed,  they 
retreated  in  great  haste.  Cincinnati  was  saved, 
and  the  citizens  gave  public  honors  to  General 
Wallace  as  the  deliverer  of  the  city. 

Cincinnati,  Founding  of.  Ensign  Luce,  of 
the  United  States  Army,  was  charged  with  the 
selection  of  a  site  for  a  block-house  on  Symmes’s 
Purchase  (which  see).  Symmes  wished  him  to 
build  it  at  North  Bend,  where  he  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  a  detachmeut  of  troops ;  but  Luce  was 
led  farther  up  the  river,  to  the  site  of  Cincin¬ 
nati,  on  account  of  his  love  for  the  pretty  young 
wife  of  a  settler,  who  went  there  to  reside  be¬ 
cause  of  his  attentions  to  her  at  the  Bend. 
Luce  followed  and  erected  a  block-house  there ; 
and  in  1790  Major  Doughty  built  Fort  Washing¬ 
ton  on  the  same  spot.  It  was  on  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  town  as  originally  laid  out,  be¬ 
tween  the  present  Third  aud  Fourth  Streets, 
east  of  Broadway.  A  village  grew  around  it. 
A  pedantic  settler  named  it  Losantiville,  from 
the  words  Vos  anti  ville,  which  he  interpreted 
“the  village  opposite  the  mouth” — mouth  of 
Licking  Creek.  It  was  afterwards  called  Cin-. 
cinuati.  The  name  was  suggested  by  General 
St.  Clair  in  honor  of  the  Society  of  the  Cin¬ 
cinnati.  The  fort  was  made  of  a  number  of 
strongly  built  log  cabins,  hewn  from  the  timber 
that  grew  on  the  spot.  These  were  a  story  and 
a  half  high,  arranged  for  soldiers’  barracks,  and 
occupied  a  hollow’  square  enclosing  about  an 
acre  of  ground.  In  the  autumn  of  1792  Gov¬ 
ernor  St.  Clair  arrived  at  the  post  aud  organ¬ 
ized  the  county  of  Hamilton,  and  the  village 
of  Cincinnati,  then  begun  around  the  fort,  was 
made  the  county  seat  of  the  territory.  In  1812 
it  contained  about  two  thousand  inhabitants. 
(See  illustration,  p.  249.) 

Cincinnati,  Society  of  the.  A  few  weeks 
before  the  disbanding  of  the  Continental  Army 
(June,  1783)  a  tie  of  friendship  had  been  formed 
among  the  officers,  at  the  suggestion  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Knox,  by  the  organization,  at  the  head¬ 
quarters  of  Baron  von  Steuben,  near  Fishkill 
Landing,  N.  Y.,  of  an  association  known  as 
the  “  Society  of  the  Cincinnati.”  Its  chief  ob¬ 
jects  were  to  promote  a  cordial  friendship  and 
indissoluble  union  among  themselves,  and  to  ex¬ 
tend  benevolent  aid  to  such  of  its  members  as 
might  need  assistance.  Washington  was  chosen 
the  first  president  of  the  society,  and  remained 
president-general  until  his  death.  General  Hen¬ 
ry  Knox  was  the  first  secretary-general.  State 
societies  were  formed,  auxiliary  to  the  general 
society.  To  perpetuate  the  association,  it  was 
provided  in  the  constitution  of  the  society  that 
the  eldest  masculine  descendant  of  an  original 
member  should  be  entitled  to  wear  the  Order 
aud  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the  society.  The 


Order,  or  badge,  of  the  society  consists  of  a  gold¬ 
en  eagle,  with  enamelling,  suspended  upon  a  rib¬ 
bon.  On  the  breast  of  the  eagle  is  a  medallion, 
with  a  device  representing  Cincinnatus  at  his 
plough  receiving  the  Roman  senators  who  came 
to  oiler  him  the  chief  magistracy  of  Rome.  The 


ORDER  OP  THE  CINCINNATI. 


members’  certificate  is  eighteen  and  a  half  inch¬ 
es  in  breadth  and  twenty  inches  in  length.  The 
general  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  is  still  in  ex¬ 
istence,  and  also  state  societies.  The  president- 
general  in  1876  was  Hamilton  Fish,  then  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State,  and  son  of  Colonel  Nicholas  Fish, 
one  of  the  original  members.  The  Order  worn 
by  the  president-general  at  the  meetings  of  the 
society  is  a  beautifully  jewelled  one.  It  was 
presented  to  Washington  by  the  French  officers. 
The  society  met  with  much  jealous  opposition 
from  the  earnest  republicans  of  the  day.  Among 
the  most  powerful  of  these  opponents  was  Judge 
JEdanus  Burke,  of  Charleston,  S.  C., who,  in  an 
able  dissertation,  undertook  to  prove  that  the 
society  created  two  distinct  orders  among  the 
Americans  —  first,  a  race  of  hereditary  nobles 
founded  on  the  military,  together  with  the  most 
influential  families  and  men  in  the  State;  and, 
second,  the  people,  or  plebeians.  These  suspi¬ 
cious  were  natural,  but  were  not  justified. 


CIRCULAR  LETTER,  MASSACHUSETTS  251 


CITY  OF  SPINDLES 


(^fjjLi/A-TtOA 

03  a  e  dociety  of ID  \ <x\ 

to  c&tnmornotrtte  feohrrfi  Xs>»*ntn>fac/tjav+  du/</u 
of /iiyi, iy  t/orvfi  in  fextac  o_/ft'tns  alia  m*t/£r- -Au&ttc. 

&  L„*.  /  r 

In  Testimony 

JWrrrr - //*.  d  zd/i  ■»/  ^  . 


UUOHj^P, 

M*  cS^rne  rircon  C/^j 

wntruxbrn d 


VlCUUUtiH 


mttreri  a  rut 


Circular  Letter  of  Massachusetts  (1768). 
The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  which  met 
Dec.  30, 1767,  having  appointed  a  large  commit¬ 
tee  to  consider  the  state  of  the  province,  adopt¬ 
ed  (Feb.  11, 1768)  a  circular  letter,  which  was  ad¬ 
dressed  to  the  speakers  of  the  various  colonial 
assemblies,  inviting  co-operation  and  mutual 
consultation  concerning  the  defence  of  colonial 
rights.  This  letter  embodied  the  sentiments  of 
a  petition  to  the  king  adopted  at  the  same  ses¬ 
sion.  It  gave  great  offence  to  the  ministry. 
When  it  reached  them,  Lord  Hillsborough,  Sec- 
retai’y  of  State  for  the  colonies,  sent  instructions 
to  the  governor  (Bernard)  of  Massachusetts  to 
call  upon  the  Assembly  to  rescind  the  letter, 
and,  in  the  event  of  non-compliance,  to  dissolve 
that  body.  It  was  then  the  most  numerous  leg¬ 
islature  in  America,  consisting  of  one  hundred 
ami  nine  members.  Instead  of  complying  with 
the  governor’s  demand,  they  made  the  instruc¬ 
tions  of  Hillsborough  a  fresh  cause  of  complaint 
against  the  ministry.  “  When  Lord  Hillsbor¬ 
ough  knows,”  said  Otis  in  the  Assembly,  “  that 
we  will  not  rescind  our  acts,  he  should  apply  to 
Parliament  to  rescind  theirs.  Let  Britons  re¬ 
scind  these  measures,  or  they  are  lost  forever.” 
Tbe  House  refused  to  rescind  by  a  vote  of  ninety- 
two  to  seventeen.  In  a  letter  to  the  governor 
notifying  him  of  their  non-compliance,  the  As¬ 
sembly  said,  “If  the  votes  of  this  House  are  to 
be  controlled  by  the  directions  of  a  minister,  we 
have  left  us  but  a  vain  semblance  of  liberty.” 
The  governor  proceeded  to  dissolve  the  Assem¬ 
bly;  but  before  that  was  accomplished  they  had 
prepared  a  series  of  accusations  against  him  and 
a  petition  to  the  king  to  remove  him.  The  an¬ 
swers  to  the  circular  letter  from  other  assem¬ 
blies  glowed  with  sympathy  and  assurances  of 
co-operation.  (See  Hillsborough's  Instructions.) 


Citizens.  By  a  change  in  the  political  char¬ 
acter  of  the  English-American  colonies,  the  word 
“  citizen ”  took  the  place  of  “  subject,”  and  was  as 
comprehensive  in  its  application  to  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  of  the  territories  included  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  In  our  republic  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  is  a  citizen,  with  regulations 
as  to  the  exercise  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
citizenship.  In  this  respect  our  republic  differs 
from  those  of  Greece  and  of  Italy.  In  the  for¬ 
mer,  citizenship  was  confined  to  a  body  of  kin¬ 
dred  families.  They  formed  an  hereditary  caste 
—  “a  multitudinous  aristocracy.”  The  system 
had  no  permanent  vitality,  and  the  Greek  and 
Italian  republics  died  out  for  want  of  citizens. 
In  the  new  American  republic  every  one  born 
on  American  soil  was  and  is  a  citizen,  by  virtue 
of  nativity ;  and,  by  the  grace  of  statute  law, 
foreign-born  persons  become  citizens  by  natu¬ 
ralization  laws  (which  see). 

City  of  Magnificent  Distances.  A  popular 
designation  of  the  city  of  Washington,  the  na¬ 
tional  capital,  said  to  have  been  first  applied 
by  President  Madison.  It  is  so  called  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  wide  open  spaces  caused  by  the 
peculiar  plan  of  its  streets,  and  being  originally 
laid  out  on  a  large  scale.  It  has  two  sets  of 
rectangular  streets,  seveuty  to  one  hundred  feet 
wide ;  and  these  are  intersected  obliquely  by  fif¬ 
teen  avenues,  from  one  hundred  and  thirty  to  one 
hundred  and  sixty  feet  wide,  forming  immense 
open  triangles  at  each  intersection.  These  tri¬ 
angles  have  been  enclosed  and  planted  with 
trees  within  a  few  years,  rendering  the  place 
less  a  city  of  magnificent  distances. 

City  of  Notions.  A  popular  name  given  to 
the  city  of  Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts. 

City  of  Spindles.  A  popular  name  given  to 


CITY  OF  THE  STEAIT 


252 


CIVIL  WAR  IN  MARYLAND 


tlie  city  of  Lowell,  Mass.,  the  greatest  cotton 
manufacturing  town  in  the  United  States. 

City  of  the  Strait.  The  popular  name  of 
Detroit  (the  French  word  for  “strait”),  situ¬ 
ated  upon  the  strait  between  lakes  St.Clair  and 
Erie. 

Civil  Rights  Bill.  Early  in  1866  Congress 
passed  a  bill  for  reducing  to  statute  form  tbe 
principles  of  the  thirteenth  ameudment  to  the 
Constitution  (which  see).  It  guaranteed  to 
every  citizen  of  the  United  States,  without  dis¬ 
tinction  of  race  or  color,  equal  civil  rights.  It 
was  passed  at  the  middle  of  March,  by  a  vote 
of  one  hundred  and  eleveu  against  thirty-eight. 
It  was  vetoed  by  President  Johnson  on  March 
27 ;  but  this  did  not  prevent  its  becoming  a  law 
by  the  constitutional  vote. 

Civil  War  in  Boston  Harbor  (1644).  The 
civil  war  in  England  extended  across  the  sea. 
The  vessels  of  London,  the  seat  of  parliamen¬ 
tary  power,  furnished  with  privateering  commis¬ 
sions,  took  every  opportunity  that  offered  to 
attack  those  of  Bristol,  and  other  western  ports, 
that  adhered  to  the  king.  In  July,  1644,  a  Lon¬ 
don  vessel  brought  a  west-of-England  prize  into 
Boston  harbor.  The  captain  exhibited  a  com¬ 
mission  from  Warwick,  High  Admiral  of  New 
England,  and  they  were  allowed  to  retain  their 
prize ;  but  when  another  London  vessel  attacked 
a  Dartmouth  ship  (September),  as  she  entered 
Boston  harbor  with  a  cargo  of  fine  salt,  the 
magistrates  sent  an  armed  force  to  prevent  the 
capture.  Because  of  a  defect  in  the  commission 
of  tbe  privateer,  the  prize  was  appropriated  as 
a  compensation  for  a  Boston  ship  which  had 
been  captured  on  the  high  seas  by  a  royalist 
vessel.  Some  persons  in  Boston  declared  them¬ 
selves  in  favor  of  the  king,  when  (March,  1645) 
such  turbulent  practices  were  strictly  forbid¬ 
den.  A  law  was  soon  passed  assuring  protec¬ 
tion  to  all  ships  that  came  as  friends ;  and  offi¬ 
cers  were  appointed  to  keep  the  peace,  and  to 
prevent  fighting  in  Boston  harbor,  except  “by 
authority.” 

Civil  War  in  Maryland,  The  First.  The 
irrepressible  Clayborne  (which  see)  stirred  up  a 
sort  of  politico-religious  civil  war  in  Maryland 
in  1644.  Already  hatred  between  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  settlers  had  been  en¬ 
gendered.  The  civil  war  was  then  raging  in 
England,  and  King  Charles  had  commissioned 
Lord  Baltimore,  through  his  colonial  officers,  to 
seize  any  ships  belonging  to  the  Parliament  par¬ 
ty  on  which  his  people  might  lay  hands.  Tbe 
ship  of  Richard  Ingle  was  captured  in  Mary¬ 
land  waters,  but  the  commander  escaped.  He 
joined  Clayborne  in  stirring  up  the  parliamen¬ 
tary,  or  Puritan,  faction  in  Maryland  against 
the  government  of  Lord  Baltimore.  Clayborne 
was  then  in  possession  of  Kent  Island,  and  there 
Ingle  joined  him  with  a  vessel  commissioned 
by  Parliament  as  a  letter  of  marque  (which 
see).  The  Protestants  were  then  in  open  rebell¬ 
ion,  and  the  insurrection  flamed  out  with  great¬ 
er  vehemence  than  the  Indian  war  which  had 
just  ended ;  but  it  did  not  last  so  long.  The 
rebels,  assisted  by  disaffected  Indians,  immedi¬ 


ately  triumphed,  and  the  governor  and  his  coun¬ 
cil  were  compelled  to  fly  to  Virginia  for  safety. 
For  about  a  year  and  a  half  the  insurgents  held 
the  reins  of  power,  and  the  horrors  of  civil  war 
brooded  over  once  happy  Maryland.  During 
the  turmoil  many  of  the  records  of  the  province 
were  destroyed,  and  a  larger  portion  of  them 
were  carried  to  Virginia  by  Captain  Ingle,  and 
lost.  Lord  Baltimore  wisely  commissioned  Will¬ 
iam  Stone,  a  Protestant  from  Virginia,  as  gov¬ 
ernor,  and  so  restored  peace  to  the  province. — 
The  Second  Civil  War  in  Maryland  broke 
out  in  1655.  The  republican  Parliament,  not 
trusting  Lord  Baltimore’s  professions  of  repub¬ 
licanism  implicitly,  appointed  a  commission,  of 
which  Clayborne  was  a  member,  to  govern  Vir¬ 
ginia.  They  entered  upon  their  duties  with  a 
high  hand.  Governor  Stone  was  removed.  The 
commissioners  took  possession  of  the  records, 
and  abolished  the  authority  of  Lord  Baltimore. 
A  few  months  afterwards  they  reinstated  Stone, 
put  Kent  and  Palmer’s  islands,  in  the  Chesa¬ 
peake,  iu  the  possession  of  Clayborne,  and  en¬ 
abled  the  “  outlaw  ”  to  triumph  over  his  old  en¬ 
emy,  Lord  Baltimore.  Cromwell  restored  Bal¬ 
timore’s  power  in  1658,  and  Stone  proclaimed 
the  acts  of  the  commissioners  rebellious.  He 
unwisely  displaced  all  the  officers  appointed  by 
them.  The  incensed  commissioners  returned  to 
Maryland,  deposed  Stone,  and  placed  the  gov¬ 
ernment  in  the  hands  of  ten  commissioners. 
These  proceedings  aroused  the  passions  of  the 
contending  factions  in  Maryland  into  fearful  in¬ 
tensity.  The  Protestants  (the  majority  iu  the 
Assembly),  with  the  narrow  bigotry  of  the  early 
Puritans  in  Massachusetts,  and  unmindful  of  the 
lessons  of  the  Toleration  Act  (which  see),  disfran¬ 
chised  the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  members 
of  the  Church  of  England  in  the  province,  by 
passing  a  law  declaring  that  “Papists  and 
Churchmen  ”  were  not  entitled  to  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  the  laws  of  Maryland.  These  zealots 
flogged  and  imprisoned  Quakers,  and  emulated 
the  narrowness  of  the  authorities  in  New  Eng¬ 
land.  Hearing  of  these  things,  Baltimore  ob¬ 
tained  an  audience  with  Cromwell,  and  protest¬ 
ed  against  the  injustice  of  Puritan  legislation  in 
Maryland.  Cromwell  assured  Baltimore  that  he 
disapproved  of  these  acts,  and  he  ordered  the 
commissioners  “  not  to  busy  themselves  about 
religion,  but  civil  government.”  So  encouraged, 
Lord  Baltimore  returned  to  vindicate  his  rights. 
Upbraiding  Stone  for  his  want  of  firmness,  he 
ordered  him  to  raise  an  army  for  the  restoration 
of  the  authority  of  the  proprietary.  Stone  acted 
vigorously.  He  raised  a  force,  consisting  chief¬ 
ly  of  Roman  Catholics,  seized  the  colonial  rec¬ 
ords,  resumed  the  office  of  governor,  and  so  in¬ 
augurated  civil  war.  Skirmishes  occurred ;  and 
finally  a  sharp  battle  was  fought  between  the 
Roman  Catholics  and  Puritans,  early  in  April, 
1655,  near  the  site  of  Annapolis,  in  which  Stone 
was  defeated  and  made  prisoner.  About  fifty  of 
his  party  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  govern¬ 
or  and  his  colleagues  were  tried  for  treason  and 
convicted.  Stone’s  life  was  spared,  but  four 
of  his  associates  were  hanged.  For  several 
mouths  afterwards  anarchy  prevailed  in  Mary- 


CIVIL  WAR  IN  RHODE  ISLAND 


253 


CLAIBORNE’S  CAMPAIGN 


land.  Then  a  former  insurgent  (Fendall)  was 
appointed  governor.  He  was  suspected,  but  by 
prudent  conduct  he  won  the  confidence  of  the 
Protestant  people.  On  the  death  of  Cromwell 
there  were  presages  of  a  change  in  colonial  af¬ 
fairs.  The  people  of  Maryland  did  not  wait 
upon  movements  in  Englaud,  but,  boldly  assert¬ 
ing  their  supreme  authority,  dissolved  the  pro¬ 
prietary  portion  of  the  General  Assembly  in  the 
spring  of  1660,  and  assumed  the  whole  legisla¬ 
tive  power  of  the  state.  The  popular  repre¬ 
sentatives  gave  Fendall  a  commission  as  gov¬ 
ernor. 

Civil  War  in  Rhode  Island  (1842).  There 
was  a  movement  in  Rhode  Island  to  adopt  a 
state  constitution  to  take  the  place  of  the  char¬ 
ter  given  by  Charles  II.  in  1663,  under  which 
the  people  of  Rhode  Island  had  been  governed 
about  one  hundred  and  eighty  years.  Disputes 
arose  concerning  the  proper  methods  to  be  pur¬ 
sued  in  making  the  change,  and  these  differ¬ 
ences  of  opinion  led  to  serious  events.  Two 
political  parties  were  formed,  known  respec¬ 
tively  as  the  “  Suffrage,”  or  radical  party,  and 
the  “  Law  and  Order,”  or  conservative  party. 
Each  adopted  a  constitution  for  the  state,  and 
elected  a  governor  and  legislature  under  it ; 
and  iu  May  and  June,  1843,  both  parties  were 
armed  in  support  of  their  respective  claims. 
The  state  was  on  the  verge  of  civil  war,  when 
the  interference  of  the  national  authority  was 
invoked.  The  President  sent  troops  to  Rhode 
Island  to  maintain  the  public  peace.  A  free 
coustitution,  adopted  by  the  “  Law  and  Order” 
party  in  November,  1842,  to  go  into  operation 
on  the  first  Tuesday  in  May,  1843,  was  sustained, 
and  became  the  law  of  the  land.  The  radical 
party  had  elected  Thomas  W.  Dorr  governor, 
and  the  conservatives  had  chosen  Samuel  W. 
King  for  chief  magistrate.  After  the  public 
peace  was  secured  and  the  new  government  had 
gone  into  operation,  Mr.  Dorr  was  arrested,  tried 
for  treason,  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  impris¬ 
onment  for  life.  The  excitement  having  passed 
away,  he  was  released  in  June,  1845,  but  was  de¬ 
prived  of  all  the  civil  rights  of  a  citizen.  These 
disabilities  were  removed  in  the  autumn  of  1853. 
(See  Rhode  Island.) 

Civil  War  in  Virginia.  (See  Dunmore's  War, 
1775.) 

Claiborne,  William  Charles  Cole,  was  born 
in  Virginia  in  1773 ;  died  in  Newr  Orleans,  Nov. 
23,  1817.  He  was  a  lawyer,  and  settled  in  Ten¬ 
nessee,  where  he  became  a  territorial  judge.  In 
1796  he  assisted  in  framing  a  state  constitution, 
and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1797  to 
1801.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  Mississippi  Territory,  and  was  a  commis¬ 
sioner,  with  Wilkinson,  to  take  possession  of 
Louisiana  when  it  was  purchased  from  France. 
On  the  establishment  of  a  new  government  in 
1804,  he  was  appointed  governor;  and  when  the 
State  of  Louisiana  was  organized  he  was  elected 
governor,  serving  from  1812  to  1816.  In  the  lat¬ 
ter  year  he  became  United  States  Senator,  but 
was  prevented  from  taking  his  seat  on  account 
of  sickness. 


Claiborne’s  Campaign  against  the  Creeks. 

The  Southern  Creeks,  under  the  direct  influ¬ 
ence  of  Weathersford  (see  Fort  Minims )  and  the 
British  and  Spanish  officers,  were  very  active 
and  sanguinary  in  the  region  of  the  forks  of  the 
Tombigbee  and  Alabama  rivers.  General  Flour¬ 
noy  ordered  (Oct.  12,  1813)  General  C.  C.  Clai¬ 
borne  to  advance  with  his  army  into  the  heart 
of  the  Creek  country  to  defend  the  white  citi¬ 
zens  while  gathering  their  crops ;  to  drive  the 
Indians  from  the  frontiers ;  to  follow  them  to 
their  contiguous  towns ;  and  to  kill,  burn,  and 
destroy  all  their  property  —  “negroes,  horses, 
and  cattle,”  and  other  effects — that  could  not 
be  brought  off.  This  sanguinary  order  of  the 
Georgia  general  wras  instantly  obeyed.  Clai¬ 
borne  scoured  the  country  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Tombigbee,  dispersing  Indian  bands  here 
and  there.  He  pushed  across  to  the  Alabama 
with  three  hundred  volunteers,  some  dragoons 
and  militia,  and  a  band  of  Choctaw  Indians  un¬ 
der  Pushamatalia,  and  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river  was  joined  (Nov.  17)  by  a  regiment  of  reg¬ 
ulars  uuder  Colonel  Russell.  There  he  con¬ 
structed  a  strong  stockade,  which  was  named 
Fort  Claiborne,  and  made  it  a  deposit  of  sup¬ 
plies.  Claiborne  apprised  Governor  Blount  and 
General  Jackson  of  this  depot,  and  also  of  the 
arrival  at  the  Spanish  fort  at  Pensacola  of  Eng¬ 
lish  vessels  with  supplies  for  the  Indians.  He 
determined  to  push  on  and  share  with  Jackson 
and  Coffee  the  danger  and  honor  of  bringing 
the  Creeks  into  submission.  With  a  considera¬ 
ble  force,  he  marched  (Dec.  12)  in  a  northeast¬ 
erly  direction  eighty  miles,  and  built  a  stockade 
for  stores,  which  he  called  Fort  Deposit.  Then  he 


pushed  on  through  an  almost  pathless  wilder¬ 
ness  thirty  miles  farther,  and  approached  Eco- 
nochaca,  or  Holy  Ground,  on  a  bluff  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Alabama,  the  present  Powell’s 
Ferry,  in  Lowndes  County.  It  was  a  noted  place, 
established  by  Weathersford  (see  Fort  Minims) 


CLAIMS  OF  CONNECTICUT 


254 


CLARKE 


after  the  visit  of  Tecumtlia  and  the  Prophet. 
After  a  severe  battle,  Claiborne,  having  defeat¬ 
ed  the  Indians,  laid  the  town  in  ashes.  Soon 
afterwards  the  terms  of  enlistment  of  most  of 
Claiborne’s  troops  expired,  and  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  write  to  the  Secretary  of  War  (June  23, 
1814)  that  he  had  only  sixty  men  left,  and  that 
their  time  was  nearly  out. 

Claims  of  Connecticut  (1662).  As  soon  as 
Connecticut  obtained  a  royal  charter  (1662), 
which  embraced  also  the  colony  of  New  Haven 
(which  see),  that  colony  put  forth  claims  under 
it  to  territory  on  Long  Island,  and  all  the  main¬ 
land  east  of  the  Hudson.  Several  Dutch  towns 
on  Long  Island,  peopled  chiefly  by  the  English, 
petitioned  Connecticut  to  receive  them.  St-uy- 
vesant,  alarmed,  hastened  to  Boston  to  inquire 
of  the  commissioners  for  the  united  colonies  if 
they  considered  a  former  settlement  of  the 
boundary  binding.  Agents  were  sent  on  the 
same  errand  to  Hartford.  The  New-Englanders 
all  promised  fairly ;  but  their  actions  were  sus¬ 
picious,  and  Stuyvesaut  called  a  convention  of 
deputies  to  consult  upon  public  affairs.  But  it 
was  not  long  before  the  English  claim  to  New 
Netherland  was  enforced  by  arms. 

Clark,  Abraham,  was  born  at  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.,  Feb.  15, 1726;  died  at  Rahway, N.  J.,  Sept.  15, 
1794.  He  was  a  self-taught,  strong-minded,  and 
energetic  man.  Bred  a  farmer,  he  taught  him¬ 
self  mathematics  and  a  knowledge  of  law  ;  and 
from  his  habit  of  giving  legal  advice  gratuitous¬ 
ly  he  was  called  “  the  poor  man’s  counsellor.” 
Mr.  Clark  was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety  in  Elizabethtown,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  (June  21,  1776)  one  of  the  five  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  New  Jersey  in  the  Continental 
Congress,  where  he  voted  for  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  He  served  in 
Congress  (excepting  a  single  session)  until  near 
the  close  of  1783.  He  was  one  of  the  commis¬ 
sioners  of  New  Jersey  who  met  at  Annapolis  in 
1786  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  national  com¬ 
mercial  intercourse,  which  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  National  Constitution  the  following  year, 
in  which  labor  he  was  chosen  to  be  a  partici¬ 
pant;  but  ill-health  compelled  him  to  decline. 
In  1790  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Second 
National  Congress,  and  retained  his  seat  until  a 
short  time  before  his  death. 

Clark,  Alvan,  artist  and  astronomer,  was 
born  at  Ashfield,  Mass.,  March  8,  1804.  Reared 
on  a  farm,  at  twenty-two  years  of  age  he  became 
a  calico  engraver  at  Lowell.  He  afterwards 
became  a  successful  portrait-painter ;  and  when 
over  forty  years  of  age  he  became  deeply  inter¬ 
ested  in  astronomy  and  in  the  construction  of 
telescopes.  With  instruments  of  his  own  man¬ 
ufacture  he  made  several  important  discoveries, 
recorded  in  the  “  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  As¬ 
tronomical  Society”  of  London.  He  is  the  in¬ 
ventor  of  a  double  eye-piece,  which  facilitates 
the  minute  measurements  of  very  small  celestial 
arcs.  He  had  been  for  many  years  without  a 
rival  iu  the  world  as  the  constructor  of  tele¬ 
scopes.  In  1863  the  French  Imperial  Academy 
of  Sciences  awarded  him  the  Lalaude  prize  for 


his  discovery  of  the  new  star  near  Sirius  with 
the  great  reflecting  telescope  made  by  himself. 
With  his  sons  he  engaged  in  making  telescopes 
at  Cambridge  until  his  death  in  1887. 

Clarke,  Elijah,  was  born  in  North  Carolina  ; 
died  in  Wilkes  County,  Ga.,  Dec.  15,  1799.  He 
went  to  Georgia  in  1774,  where  he  became  a  cap¬ 
tain  in  1776,  and  fought  both  British  and  In¬ 
dians  on  the  frontiers.  He  was  an  active  leader 
in  the  war  for  independence,  and  w’as  largely 
instrumental  in  the  capture  of  Augusta,  Ga., 
in  1781.  He  fought  many  battles  and  made  sev¬ 
eral  treaties  with  the  Indians ;  but  in  1794  he 
was  accused  of  a  design  to  establish  an  inde¬ 
pendent  government  among  the  Creeks,  where 
lie  had  settled  iu  violation  of  law. 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  born  iu  Albemarle 
County,  Va.,  Nov.  19, 1752 ;  died  near  Louisville, 
Ky.,  Feb.  13, 1818.  He  was  a  land  surveyor,  and 
commanded  a  company  in  Dun  more’s  war  against 
the  Indians  in  1774.  He  went  to  Kentucky  in 


1775,  and  took  command  of  the  armed  settlers 
there.  He  captured  Kaskaskia  and  other  towns 
in  1778,  which,  with  the  surrounding  region, 
were  organized  into  Illinois  County,  under  the 
jurisdiction  ofVirgiuia.  Commissioned  a  colo¬ 
nel,  he  successfully  labored  for  the  pacification 
of  the  Indian  tribes.  Learning  that  Governor 
Hamilton,  of  Detroit,  had  captured  Vincennes, 
Clark  led  an  expedition  against  him  (February, 
1779),  and  recaptured  it  (Feb. 20).  He  also  inter¬ 
cepted  a  convoy  of  goods  worth  ten  thousand  dol¬ 
lars,  and  afterwards  built  Fort  Jefferson,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Indians  from 
north  of  the  Ohio,  with  some  British,  raided  in 
Kentucky  in  June,  1780,  when  Clark  led  a  force 
against  the  Shawuoese  on  the  Grand  Miami,  and 
defeated  them  with  heavy  loss  at  Pickaway. 
Ho  served  in  Virginia  during  its  invasion  by 
Arnold  and  Cornwallis ;  and  in  1782  he  led  one 
thousand  mounted  riflemen  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Licking,  and  invaded  the  Scioto  Valley, 
burning  five  Indian  villages  and  laying  waste 
their  plantations.  The  savages  were  so  awed 


CLARKE 


255 


CLAY 


that  no  formidable  war  party  ever  afterwards 
appeared  in  Kentucky.  Clark  made  an  unsuc¬ 
cessful  expeditiou  against  the  Indians  on  the 
Wabash  with  one  thousand  men  in  1786.  His 
great  services  to  his  country  in  making  the 
frontiers  a  safe  dwelling-place  were  overlooked 
by  his  countrymen,  and  he  died  in  poverty  and 
obscurity. 

Clarke,  John,  one  of  the  founders  of  Rhode 
Island,  was  born  in  Bedfordshire,  Eng.,  Oct.  8, 
1609 ;  died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  April  20,  1676.  He 
came  to  Massachusetts,  but,  espousing  the  cause 
of  Anne  Hutchinson  (which  see),  and  claiming 
full  toleration  in  religious  belief,  he  was  obliged 
to  flee.  He  was  welcomed  to  Providence  by 
Williams.  He  was  one  of  the  company  who 
gained  Rhode  Island  from  the  Indians,  and  be¬ 
gan  a  settlement  at  Pocasset  in  1638.  A  preach¬ 
er  of  the  Gospel,  he  founded,  at  Newport  (1644), 
the  second  Baptist  Church  in  America.  He  was 
treasurer  of  the  colony  in  1649.  Mr.  Clarke  was 
persecuted  while  visiting  friends  in  Massachu¬ 
setts,  and  driven  out  of  the  colony.  He  accom¬ 
panied  Williams  to  England  in  1651  as  agent  for 
the  colony,  where  he  remained  nearly  twelve 
years,  and  returned  (1663)  with  a  second  charter 
for  Rhode  Island.  He  resumed  his  pastorate  at 
Newport,  where  for  three  successive  years  he 
wras  deputy-governor  of  the  colony. 

Clarke’s  Resolutions  (1861).  Perceiving  that 
the  labors  of  the  Senate  Committee  of  Thirteen 
(see  Thirty-sixth  Congress )  were  simply  wasted, 
Senator  Daniel  Clarke,  of  New  Hampshire,  of¬ 
fered  (Jan.  9, 1861)  two  resolutions  as  an  amend¬ 
ment  to  the  Crittenden  Compromise  (which  see). 
The  first  declared  that  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  were  ample  for  the  preservation  of 
the  Union  and  the  protection  of  all  material  in¬ 
terests  of  the  country ;  that  it  needed  to  be 
obeyed  rather  than  amended ;  and  that  an  ex¬ 
trication  from  present  danger  was  to  be  looked 
for  in  streuuous  efforts  to  preserve  the  peace, 
protect  the  public  property,  and  enforce  the 
laws,  rather  than  in  any  new  guarantees  for 
particular  interests,  compromises  for  particular 
difficulties,  or  concessions  to  unreasonable  de¬ 
mands.  The  second  declared  that  “  all  attempts 
to  dissolve  the  Union,  or  overthrow  or  abandon 
the  National  Constitution,  with  the  hope  or  ex¬ 
pectation  of  constructing  a  new  one,  were  dan¬ 
gerous,  illusory,  and  destructive ;  that,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  no 
such  reconstruction  is  practicable,  and  therefore 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  Union  and 
Constitution  should  be  devoted  all  the  energies 
of  the  government  and  the  efforts  of  all  good  citi¬ 
zens.”  (See  Thirty-sixth  Congress .)  This  amend¬ 
ment  was  adopted  by  a  vote  of  twenty-five 
against  twenty-three.  The  leading  secession¬ 
ists  in  the  Senate,  who  might  have  carried  the 
Crittenden  Compromise,  did  not  vote  on  this 
amendment,  for  they  had  determined  to  attempt 
to  dissolve  the  Union  at  all  hazards.  When,  on 
March  2,  Mason,  of  Virginia,  called  up  the  Crit¬ 
tenden  Compromise,  Clarke’s  amendment  was 
reconsidered  and  rejected,  so  that  there  might 
be  a  direct  vote  on  the  Crittenden  plan.  The 


latter  was  also  rejected  (March  3)  by  a  vote  of 
twenty  against  nineteen. 

Clay,  Green,  was  born  in  Powhatan  County, 
Va.,Aug.l4, 1757;  died  Oct.  31, 1826.  Before  lie 
was  twenty  years  old  he  emigrated  to  Kentucky, 
where  he  became  a  surgeon,  aud  laid  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  a  fortune.  He  represented  the  Kentucky 


GREEN  CLAY. 


district  in  the  Virginia  Legislature,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Virginia  convention  that  ratified 
the  National  Constitution.  He  also  assisted  in 
framing  the  Kentucky  Constitution  in  1799. 
Mr.  Clay  served  long  in  the  Kentucky  Legislat¬ 
ure.  In  the  spring  of  1813  he  led  three  thou¬ 
sand  Kentucky  volunteers  to  the  relief  of  Fort 
Meigs  (which  see) ;  and,  being  left  in  command 
of  that  post,  he  defended  it  against  an  attack  by 
British  and  Indians  under  Generals  Proctor  and 
Tecum  tha. 

Clay,  Henry,  statesman,  was  born  in  Han¬ 
over  County,  Va.,  April  12, 1777  ;  died  at  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  June  29,  1852.  Taught  the  rudi¬ 
ments  of  education  in  a  log-cabiu  school-house, 
he  labored  on  a  farm  until  he  was  fifteen  years 
of  age,  when  he  entered  the  office  of  the  High 
Court  of  Chancery,  in  Richmond,  at  which  time 
his  mother,  who  had  married  a  second  time,  em¬ 
igrated  to  Kentucky.  He  studied  law  under 
the  direction  of  Chancellor  Wythe,  and  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1797,  when  he  opened  a 
law-office  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  where  he  obtained 
an  extensive  practice.  In  1803  lie  was  elected 
to  the  Kentucky  Legislature,  aud  was  speaker 
in  1807-8.  He  became  United  States  Senator  in 
1808,  and  member  of  Congress  and  speaker  in 
1811-14.  Was  a  commissioner  to  treat  for  peace 
with  Great  Britain  in  1814 ;  and  afterwards,  in 
Congress,  was  five  times  elected  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Mr.  Clay  was  Sec¬ 
retary  of  State  in  the  cabinet  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  (1825-29),  and  again  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate  from  1831  till  1842.  Ho 
was  twice  defeated  as  a  candidate  for  the  Pres- 


CLAY 


256 


CLAYBORNE 


iilency  (1832  and  1844) ;  and  was  in  the  Senate 
for  the  last  time  from  1849  till  1852,  taking  a 
leading  part  in  the  compromise  measures  of 
1850,  as  he  did  in  those  of  1832.  Mr.  Clay  did 


HENRY  CLAY  AT  40. 


much  by  his  eloquence  to  arouse  a  war  spirit 
against  Great  Britain  in  1812 ;  and  his  efforts 
were  effective  in  securing  an  acknowledgment 
of  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
South  America.  He  always  advocated  the  thor¬ 
oughly  American  policy  of  President  Monroe  in 
excluding  European  influence  on  this  continent. 
There  is  a  fine  monument  erected  to  his  memory 
in  the  cemetery  at  Lexington,  Ivy. 


Clayborne  and  Cornwallis,  Fight  be¬ 
tween.  William  Clayborne  (which  see)  had 
resolved  to  maintain  his  claimed  rights  to  the 
Isle  of  Kent,  in  the  waters  of  Chesapeake  Bay. 
He  was  sustained  by  the  Virginians,  Govern¬ 
or  Harvey  alone  taking  sides  with  Lord  Bal¬ 
timore.  In  the  spring  of  1635  Clayborne  de¬ 
spatched  a  vessel  for  trading,  prepared  to  meet 
resistance.  The  Marylanders  sent  out  two  armed 
vessels  under  Cornwallis,  their  commissioner, 
or  councillor,  to  watch  for  any  illegal  traders 
within  the  bounds  of  their  province.  On  April 
23  they  seized  Clayborne’s  vessel.  The  latter 
sent  an  armed  boat,  under  the  command  of  Rat- 
cliffe  Warren,  a  Virginian,  to  recapture  the  ves¬ 
sel.  Cornwallis  met  Warren  with  one  of  his 
vessels  in  a  harbor  (May  10),  and  captured  it 
after  a  sharp  fight,  in  which  Warren  and  two 
of  his  men  were  killed  ;  also,  one  of  Cornwallis’s 
crew.  This  event,  caused  intense  excitement. 
The  first  Maryland  Assembly,  which  had  con¬ 
vened  just  before  the  event,  decreed  “that  of¬ 
fenders  in  all  murders  and  felonies  shall  suffer 
the  same  pains  and  forfeitures  as  for  the  same 
crimes  in  England.  A  requisition  was  made 
upon  Governor  Harvey  for  the  delivery  of  Clay¬ 
borne  to  the  Virginia  authorities.  That  func¬ 
tionary  decided  that  Clayborne  might  go  to 
England  to  justify  his  conduct  before  the  home 
government.  (See  Maryland.)  A  court  of  in¬ 
quiry — held  three  years  afterwards  to  investi¬ 
gate  the  matter  —  resulted  in  a  formal  indict¬ 
ment  of  Clayborne,  and  a  bill  of  attainder  pass¬ 
ed  against  him.  Thomas  Smith,  next  in  rank 
to  Warren,  was  hanged.  Clayborne,  who  was 
now  Treasurer  of  Virginia,  retaliated  against 
Maryland  by  stirring  up  civil  war  there.  (See 
Civil  War  in  Maryland.) 

Clayborne,  William,  one  of 
the  early  settlers  in  Virginia, 
and  at  one  time  a  member  of 
the  council  and  secretary  of  the 
colony.  In  1627  the  Governor 
of  Virginia  gave  him  authority 
to  explore  the  head  of  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay ;  and  in  1631  Charles  I. 
gave  him  a  license  to  make  dis¬ 
coveries  and  trade  with  the  In¬ 
dians  in  that  region.  With  this 
authority,  he  established  a  trad¬ 
ing-post  on  Kent  Island,  in  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay,  not  far  from  the  site 
of  Annapolis.  When  Lord  Balti¬ 
more  claimed  jurisdiction  over 
Kent  and  other  islands  in  the 
bay,  Clayborne  refused  to  ac¬ 
knowledge  his  title,  having,  as 
he  alleged,  an  earlier  one  from 
the  king.  Baltimore  ordered  the 
arrest  of  Clayborne.  Two  vessels 
were  sent  for  the  purpose,  when 
a  battle  ensued  between  them 
and  one  owned  by  Clayborne. 
The  Marylanders  were  repulsed, 
and  one  of  their  number  was 
killed.  Clayborne  was  indicted 
for  and  found  guilty  of  con¬ 
structive  murder  and  other  high 


clay’s  monument. 


CLAY’S  COMPROMISE 


257 


CLEM 


crimes,  and  fled  to  Virginia.  Kent  Island  was 
seized  and  confiscated  by  the  Maryland  au¬ 
thorities.  Sir  John  Harvey,  Governor  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  refused  to  surrender  Clayborne,  and  he 
went  to  England  to  seek  redress.  After  the 
king  beard  his  story  he  severely  reprimanded 
Lord  Baltimore  for  violating  royal  commands 
in  driving  Clayborne  from  Kent  Island.  The 
Lords  Commissioners  of  Plantations,  led  by  Arch¬ 
bishop  Laud,  made  a  decision  in  favor  of  Lord 
Baltimore  ;  but  Clayborne,  assisted  by  Captain 
Richard  Ingle,  stirred  up  the  people  to  rebell¬ 
ion,  and,  expelling  Governor  Leonard  Calvert 
(1645),  assumed  the  reins  of  government.  (See 
Calvert,  Leonard .)  In  1651  Clayborne  was  ap¬ 
pointed,  by  the  Council  of  State  in  England,  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  reducing  Virginia  to 
obedience  to  the  commonwealth  ruled  by  Parlia¬ 
ment  ;  and  he  also  took  part  in  governing  Mary¬ 
land  by  a  commission.  (See  Maryland.)  He 
was  soon  afterwards  made  secretary  of  the  col¬ 
ony  of  Virginia,  and  held  the  office  until  after 
the  restoration  of  monarchy  (1660)  in  England. 
Clayborne  was  one  of  the  court  that  tried  the 
captured  followers  of  Bacon.  (See  Bacon's  Re¬ 
bellion.)  He  resided  in  New  Kent  County,  Va., 
until  his  death,  and  is  the  chief  ancestor  of  the 
Claiborne  family  in  the  United  States. 

Clay’s  Compromise  (1832).  The  secret  his¬ 
tory  of  Clay’s  Compromise  Bill  in  1832,  which 
quieted  rampant  nullification  (whicli  see),  seems 
to  be  as  follows  :  Mr.  Calhoun,  as  leader  of  the 
nullifiers,  had  proceeded  to  the  verge  of  treason 
in  his  opposition  to  the  national  government, 
and  President  Jackson  had  threatened  him  with 
arrest  if  he  moved  another  step  forward.  Know¬ 
ing  the  firmness  and  decision  of  the  President, 
he  dared  not  take  the  fatal  step.  He  could  not 
recede,  or  even  stand  still,  without  compromis¬ 
ing  his  character  with  his  political  friends.  In 
this  extremity  a  mutual  friend  arranged  with 
Clay  to  propose  a  measure  which  would  satisfy 
both  sides  and  save  the  neck  and  reputation  of 
Calhoun.  In  discussing  the  matter  in  the  Sen¬ 
ate,  the  latter  earnestly  disclaimed  any  hostile 
feelings  towards  the  Union  on  the  part  of  South 
Carolina.  He  declared  that  the  state  authori¬ 
ties  looked  only  to  a  judicial  verdict  on  the  ques¬ 
tion,  until  the  concentration  of  United  States 
troops  at  Charleston  and  Augusta  (by  order  of 
the  President)  compelled  them  to  make  provi¬ 
sion  to  defend  themselves.  Clay’s  compromise 
only  postponed  civil  war  a  little  less  than  thirty 
years. 

Clearing-Houses  were  established  in  the 
United  States  about  1853,  for  the  convenience 
and  economy  of  banking  institutions  in  large 
cities.  This  system  originated  in  London.  By 
it  the  banks  of  a  city  become,  in  certain  opera¬ 
tions,  as  an  individual  in  work;  for  it  dispenses 
with  the  individual  clerical  labor  of  each  bank 
associated,  in  the  matter  of  the  exchange  of 
checks  and  drafts  and  bills  coming  in  from 
abroad.  Formerly  each  bank  employed  a  man 
to  go  around  every  day  and  collect  all  checks 
and  drafts  drawn  upon  it  by  other  banks  in  the 
city,  say  sixty  of  them  ;  therefore  sixty  men  had 
I.— 17 


to  be  thus  employed.  Now,  at  the  clearing¬ 
house,  a  messenger  and  a  clerk  from  each  bank 
appear  every  mpruiug,  each  clerk  taking  a  seat 
at  the  desk  of  his  designated  bank,  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  hollow  ellipse.  Each  messenger 
brings  with  him  from  his  bank  a  sealed  pack¬ 
age  for  every  other  bank,  properly  marked  with 
the  amount  enclosed,  containing  all  the  checks 
or  drafts  on  each  bank.  The  messengers  take 
their  places  near  the  desks  of  their  respective 
banks,  with  tabular  statements  of  the  amount 
seut  to  each  bank  and  tbe  aggregates.  These 
are  exhibited  to  the  respective  clerks  and  noted 
by  them  on  blauk  forms.  At  a  prescribed  hour 
the  manager  of  the  clearing-house  calls  to  order 
and  gives  the  word  for  proceeding,  when  all  the 
messengers  move  forward  from  left  to  right  of 
the  desks,  handing  in  to  them  the  packages  ad¬ 
dressed  to  their  respective  banks,  and  taking 
receipts  for  them  on  their  statements.  These 
clerks  make  a  mutual  exchange  of  all  claims, 
and  the  balauces,  if  any,  are  struck,  each  bank 
paying  in  cash  the  amount  of  such  balance. 
This  operation  occupies  about  one  hour,  within 
which  time  all  accounts  are  adjusted.  The  bal¬ 
ances  due  to  the  several  banks  are  paid  into  the 
clearing-house  within  about  another  hour.  And 
so  the  work  of  sixty  men  for  the  larger  part  of 
each  day  is  performed  by  the  clearing-house,  as 
one  individual,  iu  little  more  than  an  hour. 

Clem,  “Little  John,”  was  an  Ohio  volun¬ 
teer,  twelve  years  of  age,  in  the  battle  of  Chick- 
amauga  (which  see).  He  had  been  in  the  thick¬ 
est  of  the  fight,  and  three  bullets  had  passed 
through  his  hat,  when,  separated  from  his  com¬ 
panions,  he  was  seen  running,  with  a  musket 


JOHN  CLEM. 

in  his  hand,  by  a  mounted  Confederate  colonel, 
who  called  out,  “Stop!  you  little  Yankee  dev¬ 
il  !”  The  boy  halted  and  brought  his  musket 
to  an  order,  when  the  colonel  rode  up  to  make 
him  a  prisoner.  With  a  swift  movement,  young 


CLINTON 


258 


CLINTON 


Clem  brought  his  gun  up  and  fired,  killing  the 
colonel  instantly.  He  escaped  ;  and  for  this 
exploit  on  the  battle-field  he  was  made  a  ser¬ 
geant,  put  on  duty  at  headquarters  of  the  Army 
of  the  Cumberland,  and  placed  on  the  Roll  of 
Honor.  He  grew  to  manhood,  married,  and  was 
placed  in  position  in  one  of  the  departments  of 
government  at  Washington. 

Clinton,  Charles,  was  born  at  Longford,  Ire¬ 
land,  in  1690  ;  died  in  Ulster  County  (now  Or¬ 
ange),  N.  Y.,  Nov.  19, 1773.  With  a  number  of 
relatives  and  friends,  he  sailed  from  Ireland  for 
America  in  May,  1729.  His  destination  was 
Philadelphia ;  but  the  captain  of  the  vessel, 
with  a  view  to  their  destruction  by  starvation, 
so  as  to  obtain  their  property,  landed  them  on 
barren  Cape  Cod,  after  receiving  large  sums  of 
money  as  commutation  for  their  lives.  Mr. 
Clinton  and  his  family  and  friends  made  their 
way  to  Ulster  County,  about  sixty  miles  up  the 
Hudson  and  eight  miles  from  it,  in  1731,  and 
there  formed  a  settlement,  he  pursuing  the  occu¬ 
pation  of  farmer  and  surveyor.  Mr.  Clinton  was 
justice  of  the  peace,  county  judge,  and  lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel  of  Ulster  County,  to  which  he  gave 
its  name.  Two  of  bis  four  sons  were  generals 
in  the  war  for  independence,  and  his  youngest 
( George  )  was  governor  of  the  State  of  New 
York  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

Clinton,  De  Witt,  was  born  at  Little  Britain, 
Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  March  2, 1769  ;  died  at  Albany, 
Feb.  11, 1828.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  Col¬ 
lege  in  1786;  studied  law  ;  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1788,  but  practised  very  little.  He 


DE  WITT  CLINTON. 


was  private  secretary  to  his  uncle  George,  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  New  York,  in  1790-95,  in  favor  of  whose 
administration  he  wrote  much  in  the  newspa¬ 
pers.  He  was  in  the  Assembly  of  his  state  in 
1797,  and  from  1798  to  1802  was  a  Democratic 
leader  in  the  State  Senate.  He  was  mayor  of 
New  York  city  in  1803-7,  1809-10,  and  1811-14. 
He  was  an  earnest  promoter  of  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society  and 
the  American  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Opposed 
to  the  War  of  1812-15,  he  was  the  Peace  candi¬ 
date  for  the  Presidency  in  1812,  but  was  defeat¬ 
ed  by  James  Madison.  Mr.  Clinton  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  first  president  of  the  Literary 


and  Philosophical  Society  in  New  York,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  efficient  promoters  of  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  Erie  Canal.  In  1817-22,  and  in 
1824-27,  he  was  governor  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  He  was  the  most  conspicuous  actor  in 
the  imposing  ceremonies  at  the  opening  of  the 
Erie  Canal  in  the  fall  of  1825,  when,  outside  the 
Narrows,  he  poured  a  vessel  of  water  from  Lake 
Erie  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  as  significant  of 
their  wedding.  (See  Erie  Canal.) 

Clinton,  Efforts  of,  to  relieve  Corn¬ 
wallis.  A  few  days  after  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis  (which  see),  Sir  Henry  Clinton  ap¬ 
peared  at  the  entrance  of  Chesapeake  Bay  with 
vessels  containing  seven  thousand  troops ;  but 
he  was  too  late  to  serve  the  earl,  and  he  return¬ 
ed  to  New  York,  amazed,  mortified,  and  disheart¬ 
ened. 

Clinton,  George,  admiral  and  colonial  gov¬ 
ernor  of  New  York.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Francis,  sixth  Earl  of  Lincoln,  and  rose  to 
distinction  in  the  British  navy.  In  1732  he  was 
commissioned  a  commodore  and  governor  of 
Newfoundland.  In  September,  1743,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  governor  of  the  colony  of  New  York, 
and  retained  that  office  ten  years.  His  admin¬ 
istration  was  a  tumultuous  one,  for  his  temper¬ 
ament  and  want  of  skill  in  the  management  of 
civil  affairs  unfitted  him  for  the  duties.  He 
was  unlettered ;  and  being  closely  connected 
with  the  Dukes  of  Newcastle  and  Bedford,  he 
was  sent  to  New  York  to  mend  his  fortune.  In 
his  controversies  with  the  Assembly  he  was 
ably  assisted  byi  the  pen  of  Dr.  Cadwallader 
Golden,  afterwards  lieutenant -governor  of  the 
province.  His  chief  opponent  was  Daniel  Hitrs- 
mandeu,  at  one  time  chief-justice  of  the  colony. 
After  violent  quarrels  with  all  the  political  fac¬ 
tions  in  New  York,  he  abandoned  the  govern¬ 
ment  in  disgust,  and  returned  home  in  1753. 
He  became  governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital — a 
sinecure.  In  1745  he  was  appointed  vice-admi¬ 
ral  of  the  red,  and  in  1757  admiral  of  the  fleet. 
He  died  while  governor  of  Newfoundland,  July 
10, 1761. 

Clinton,  George,  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Ulster  County,  N.Y.,  July  26, 
1739;  died  in  Washington,  April  20,  1812.  He 
was  carefully  educated  by  his  father  and  a 
Scotch  clergyman,  a  graduate  of  the  University 
of  Aberdeen.  In  early  youth  George  made  a 
successful  cruise  in  a  privateer  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  and  soon  afterwards  joined  a 
militia  company,  as  lieutenant,  under  his  broth¬ 
er  James,  in  the  expedition  against  Fort  Fron- 
tenac  in  1758.  He  chose  the  profession  of  law, 
studied  it  under  William  Smith,  and  became  dis¬ 
tinguished  in  it  in  his  native  county.  In  1768 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Provincial  As¬ 
sembly,  wherein  he  soon  became  the  head  of  a 
Whig  minority.  In  1775  he  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress,  and  voted  for  the  resolu¬ 
tion  for  independence  in  1776;  but  the  invasion  i 
of  New  York  by  the  British  from  the  sea  called 
him  home,  and  he  did  not  sign  the  great  Decla¬ 
ration.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general, 
and  as  such  performed  good  service  in  his  state. 


CLINTON 


259 


CLINTON 


On  the  organization  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
in  1777,  lie  was  elected  the  first  governor,  and 
held  the  office,  by  successive  elections,  eighteen 
3 ears.  He  was  very  energetic,  both  in  civil  and 


GEORGE  CLINTON. 


military  affairs,  until  the  end  of  the  war;  and 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  preventing  the  con¬ 
summation  of  the  British  plan  for  separating 
New  England  from  the  rest  of  the  Union  by  the 
occupation  of  a  line  of  military  posts,  through 
the  Hudson  and  Champlain  valleys,  from  New 
York  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  In  1788  Governor 


CLINTON'S  MONUMENT. 


Clinton  presided  over  the  convention  held  at 
Poughkeepsie  to  consider  the  new  National  Con¬ 
stitution.  To  that  instrument  he  was  opposed, 


because  it  would  he  destructive  of  state  suprem¬ 
acy.  In  1801  he  was  again  elected  governor  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  and  in  1804  he  was  chosen 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  In  1808 
he  was  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  Presi¬ 
dency,  hut  was  beaten  by  Madison,  and  was  re¬ 
elected  Vice-President.  By  his  casting-vote  in 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  the  renewal  of 
the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States 
was  refused.  While  in  the  performance  of  his 
official  duties  at  Washington  he  died.  His  re¬ 
mains  rest  beneath  a  handsome  white  marble 
monument  in  the  Congressional  Buryiug-grouud 
at  Washington. 

Clinton,  James,  was  born  in  Orange  County, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  9, 1736 ;  died  Dec.  22, 1812.  He  was 
well  educated,  but  he  had  a  strong  inclination 
for  military  life.  Before  the  beginning  of  the 
war  for  independence  he  was  lieutenant-colo- 


JAMES  CLINTON. 


nel  of  the  militia  of  Ulster  County.  He  was  a 
captain  under  Bradstreet  in  the  capture  of  Fort 
Frouteuac  (which  see)  in  1758 ;  and  he  after¬ 
wards  was  placed  in  command  of  four  regi¬ 
ments  for  the  protection  of  the  frontiers  of  Ul¬ 
ster  and  Orange  counties  —  a  position  of  diffi¬ 
culty  and  danger.  When  the  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence  broke  out,  he  was  appointed  colonel 
of  the  Third  New  York  regiment  (June  30, 
1775),  and  accompanied  Montgomery  to  Que¬ 
bec.  Made  a  brigadier-general  in  August,  1776, 
he  was  active  in  the  service ;  and  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  Fort  Clinton,  in  the  Hudson  High¬ 
lands,  when  it  was  attacked  in  October,  1777. 
(See  Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery.)  In  1779 
he  joined  in  Sullivan’s  expedition  against  the 
Senecas  with  fifteen  hundred  men.  Ho  was 
stationed  at  Albany  during  a  great  part  of  the 
war;  but  he  was  present  at  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis  (which  see).  General  Clinton  was 
a  commissioner  to  adjust  the  boundary-line  be¬ 
tween  New  York  and  Pennsylvania;  and  was 
a  member  of  both  the  Assembly  and  Senate  of 
the  State  of  New  York. 

Clinton,  Sin  Henry,  was  born  in  1738;  died 
Dec.  23, 1795.  He  was  a  son  of  Admiral  George 
Clinton,  Governor  of  New  York.  He  entered  the 


CLINTON’S  DESPATCH 


260 


CLYMER 


army  when  quite  young,  and  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  in  1775,  when  he  was  sent 
to  America  with  Howe  and  Burgovne.  He  par¬ 
ticipated  in  the  battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill  (June 


SIR  USNRK  CLINTON. 


on  a  marauding  excursion,  hoping  to  draw 
Gates  from  Burgoyue’s  front  to  protect  the 
country  below.  On  the  day  after  the  capture 
of  the  forts  Sir  Henry  wrote  on  a  piece  of  tis¬ 
sue-paper  the  following  despatch  to  Burgoyne  : 
“ Nous  y  void  [here  we  are],  and  nothing  be¬ 
tween  us  and  Gates.  I  sincerely  hope  this  lit¬ 
tle  success  of  ours  may  facilitate  your  opera¬ 
tions.  In  answer  to  your  letter  of  the  28th 
September  by  C.  C.,  I  shall  only  say  I  cannot 
presume  to  order,  or  even  advise,  for  reasons 
obvious.  I  heartily  wish  you  success.  Faith¬ 
fully  yours. — H.  Clixton.”  This  despatch  was 
enclosed  in  an  elliptical  silver  bullet,  made  so 
as  to  separate  at  the  centre,  and  of  a  size  (as 
delineated  in  the  engraving)  small  enough  to 
be  swallowed  by  a  man,  if  necessary.  He  in¬ 
trusted  it  to  a  messenger  who  made  his  way 
north  on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  and,  being 
suspected  when  in  the  camp  of  George  Clin¬ 
ton  back  of  New  Windsor,  was  arrested.  When 
brought  before  General  Clinton,  he  was  seen  to- 
cast  something  into  his  mouth.  An  emetic  was 
administered  to  him,  which  brought  the  silver 
bullet  from  his  stomach.  The  despatch  was 
found  in  it,  and  the  prisoner  was  executed  as  a 
spy  at  Hurley,  a  few  miles  from  Kingston,  while 
that  village  was  in  flames  lighted  by  the  Brit¬ 
ish  marauders. 


17,  1775),  and  was  thereafter  active  in  service 
against  the  oppressed  colonists  until  June, 
1782,  when  he  returned  to  England.  He  suc¬ 
ceeded  General  Howe  as  commander-iu-chief 
of  the  British  forces  in  America  in  January,  1778. 

Clinton’s  Despatch.  In  October,  1777,  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  undertook  a  diversion  in  favor 
of  General  Burgoyne,  then  making  his  way 
towards  Albany  from  Canada,  in  accordance 
with  the  British  plan  (which  see)  of  conquest. 


Clymer,  Geokge,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1739 ;  died  at  Morrisville,  Peun.,  Jan.  23,  1813. 
Left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  seven  years,  his 
maternal  uncle  educated  him,  and  finally  left 
him  a  greater  portion  of  his  fortune.  He  was 
an  active  patriot  during  the  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
Safety  in  Philadelphia.  In  July,  1775,  he  was 
made  joint  treasurer  of  Pennsylvania  with  Mr. 
Hillegas ;  and  when,  in  December,  1776,  Congress 
fled  to  Baltimore,  Clymer  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  left  in  Phila¬ 
delphia  to  attend  to  the  public  in¬ 
terests.  (See  Baltimore,  Adjourn¬ 
ment  of  Congress  to.)  In  1777  he 
was  a  commissioner  to  treat  with 
the  Indians  at  Fort  Pitt ;  and  in 


Clinton,  with  a  strong  land  and  naval  force, 
had  captured  forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery, 
in  the  Hudson  Highlands  (Oct.  6),  and  sent 
forces  of  both  arms  of  the  service  up  the  river 


1780  he  assisted  in  organizing  the  Bank  of  North 
America  (which  see).  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
made  his  residence  at  Princeton,  N.  J. ;  and  in 
1784  he  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Leg- 


COAL 


261 


COBB 


islatnre.  In  1787  he  was  a  member  of  the  con¬ 
vention  that  framed  the  National  Constitution, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  first  Congress  under  it. 
A  collector  of  the  excise  duties  in  1791  which  led 
to  the  Whiskey  Insurrection  (which  see),  and 
serving  on  a  commission  to  treat  with  Southern 
Indians,  Mr.  Clymer,  after  concluding  a  treaty  (in 
Juue,  1796),  withdrew  from  public  life.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Pennsylvania  Agri¬ 
cultural  Society,  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Bank. 

Coal.  The  business  of  coal-mining  for  com¬ 
mercial  purposes  has  entirely  grown  up  during 
the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years.  It  was  known  be¬ 
fore  the  Revolution  that  coal  existed  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania.  So  early  as  1769,  a  blacksmith  (.Oba- 
diah  Gore)  in  the  Wyoming  Valley  used  coal 
found  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Forty 
years  afterwards  he  tried  the  successful  experi¬ 
ment  of  burning  it  in  a  grate  for  fuel.  During 
the  Revolution  anthracite  coal  was  used  in  the 
armory  at  Carlisle,  Penn.,  for  blacksmiths’  fires. 
In  1790  an  old  hunter  (Philip  Gintner)  in  the 
Lehigh  Valley  discovered  coal  near  the  present 
borough  of  Maucli  Chunk.  In  1792  the  “  Lehigh 
Coal-Mining  Compauy”  was  formed  for  mining 
it,  but  it  did  little  more  than  purchase  lands. 
In  1803  two  or  three  hundred  bushels  were  taken 
to  Philadelphia,  but  experiments  to  use  it  for 
ordinary  fuel  failed.  In  1812  Colonel  George 
Shoemaker  took  nine  wagon-loads  to  Philadel¬ 
phia,  but  could  not  sell  it.  It  was  soon  after¬ 
wards  used  with  success  in  rolling-mills  in  Del¬ 
aware  County,  and  it  soon  found  purchasers 
elsewhere.  But  it  was  not  until  1825  that  the 
coal-trade  began  to  assume  notable  proportions, 
when  authracite  was  used  in  factories  and  in 
private  houses  for  fuel.  The  whole  amount  of 
anthracite  sent  to  market  in  1820  was  365  tons. 
The  annual  product  of  the  coal-fields  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  about  1876  was  27,000,000  tons.  The 
entire  coal  product  of  the  country  in  1874  was 
about  50,000,000  tons — 24,000,000  anthracite  and 
over  25,000,000  bituminous. 

Coast  Survey,  The  United  States,  a  na¬ 
tional  undertaking  for  the  security  of  the  vast 
commerce  upon  the  very  extended  and  often 
dangerous  coasts  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
believed  that  to  Professor  Patterson,  of  Phila¬ 
delphia,  is  due  the  honor  of  having  first  sug¬ 
gested  to  President  Jefferson  the  idea  of  a  geo¬ 
detic  survey  of  the  coast.  Mr.  Gallatin  (which 
see)  was  then  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and 
warmly  approved  the  measure.  The  first  at¬ 
tempt  to  organize  a  national  coast  survey,  “for 
the  purpose  of  making  complete  charts  of  our 
coasts,  with  the  adjacent  shoals  and  soundings,” 
was  made  in  1807.  Congress  authorized  such  a 
survey,  and  appropriated  $50,000  for  the  pur¬ 
pose.  Mr.  Gallatin,  with  great  assiduity,  gath¬ 
ered  information  for  scientific  uses.  A  plan 
proposed  by  F.  R.  Hassler  (which  see)  was  adopt¬ 
ed,  but,  on  account  of  political  disturbances  in 
Europe  and  America,  nothing  was  done  in  the 
matter  until  1811,  when  Mr.  Hassler  was  sent  to 
Europe  for  instruments  and  standards  of  meas¬ 
ure.  The  war  that  ensued  (1812-15)  detained 


him  abroad.  On  his  return,  in  1815,  he  was 
formally  appointed  superintendent,  and  entered 
upon  the  duties  in  1816,  near  the  city  of  New 
York ;  but  in  less  than  two  years  it  was  discon¬ 
tinued.  Mr.  Hassler  resumed  it  in  1832,  and  the 
work  has  been  carried  on  continually  ever  since. 
Mr.  Hassler  died  in  1843,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander  Dallas  Bache.  On  his  death,  in  1867, 
Professor  Benjamin  Peirce  was  made  superin¬ 
tendent.  Professor  Bache  greatly  extended  the 
scope  of  the  survey,  including  an  investigation 
of  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  laws  of  tides,  and  their 
ebb  and  flow  in  harbors  and  rivers,  so  that  nav¬ 
igators  might  have  complete  information  con¬ 
cerning  the  tide-waters  of  the  United  States. 
The  observations  and  investigations  also  in¬ 
clude  meteorological  charts  —  changes  in  the 
weather  iu  different  seasons  at  various  points, 
and  the  laws  of  storms.  During  the  Civil  War 
the  work  ceased  on  the  southern  coasts,  for  the 
insurgents  captured  some  of  the  vessels  em¬ 
ployed  iu  the  survey ;  and  officers  and  pilots 
engaged  in  the  work  were  transferred  to  ser¬ 
vice  in  the  navy,  and,  with  their  minute  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  coasts,  greatly  assisted  in  suppress¬ 
ing  the  insurrection.  Professor  Peirce  still  fur¬ 
ther  extended  the  enterprise,  so  as  to  constitute 
a  great  national  triangulation — a  geodetic  sur¬ 
vey  intended  to  embrace  the  shores  of  the  At¬ 
lantic  and  Pacific  oceans  within  its  limits,  and 
to  form,  by  means  of  triangulation,  a  grand 
chain  across  the  continent.  The  operations  of 
“  field-work ”  are  carried  on  simultaneously  at 
many  points  on  the  coast.  The  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coasts  are  divided  into  nine,  and  the  Pa¬ 
cific  coast  into  two,  sections,  each  having  its 
triangulation,  astronomical,  topographical,  and 
hydrographical  parties,  all  working  indepen¬ 
dently,  but  upon  the  same  system,  so  that  the 
whole  will  form  a  connected  survey  from  Maine 
to  Texas  and  from  San  Diego  to  the  forty-ninth 
parallel  on  the  Pacific.  The  coast  of  Alaska 
(which  see),  since  its  acquisition,  has  been  add¬ 
ed  to  the  field  of  operations.  There  are  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  coast  survey  ninety-four  civilians 
of  different  grades  and  eleven  officers  of  the 
navy,  a  number  of  the  latter  being  required 
for  vessels  engaged  in  hydrography.  Besides 
these,  there  are  nearly  one  hundred  others  em¬ 
ployed  as  computers,  draughtsmen,  engravers, 
and  clerks.  The  whole  work  is  under  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department, 
while  a  superintendent  directs  all  the  details 
of  the  work,  governs  the  movements  of  the  par¬ 
ties,  and  controls  the  expenditures. 

Cobb,  Howell,  was  born  in  Jefferson  County, 
Ga.,  Sept.  7, 1815;  died  in  New  York  city,  Oct.  9, 
1868.  He  was  a  lawyer  by  profession,  and  was 
solicitor-general  of  the  western  circuit  of  Geor¬ 
gia  from  1837  to  1841 ;  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1843  to  1851 ;  speaker  of  the  Thirty-first 
Congress ;  and  governor  of  Georgia  from  1851 
to  1853.  He  was  again  in  Congress  from  1856 
to  1857,  and  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  un¬ 
der  Buchanan  from  1857  to  1860.  He  was  a 
zealous  promoter  of  the  insurrection  against 
the  government  in  1860-61,  and  was  chosen 
president  of  the  convention  at  Montgomery 


COBBETT 


262  COCKBURN  IN  THE  CHESAPEAKE 


(Feb.  4,  1861)  that  organized  the  Confederate 
government.  He  became  a  brigadier- general 
in  the  Confederate  army;  and  at  the  close  of 


HOWELL  COBB. 


the  war  he  opposed  all  the  measures  for  the 
reorganization  of  the  government. 

Cobbett,  William,  was  born  at  Earn  ham,  Sur¬ 
rey,  England,  March  9, 1762;  died  June  18, 1835. 
He  was  the  self-educated  son  of  a  farmer,  and  in 
his  early  manhood  was  eight  years  in  the  army, 
rising  to  the  rank  of  sergeant-major.  He  ob¬ 
tained  his  discharge  in  1791,  married,  and  came 
to  America  in  1792,  when  he  became  a  pam¬ 
phleteer,  bookseller,  and  journalist,  having  es¬ 
tablished  Peter  Porcupine’s  Gazette  (which  see)  iu 
1794.  Heavily  tiued  for  libel  on  Dr.  Rush,  in 
Philadelphia,  his  business  was  brokeu  up,  and 
in  1800  lie  returned  to  England.  In  1802  he 
begau  his  famous  Weekly  Political  Register,  which 
he  conducted  with  ability  about  thirty  years, 
but  which  caused  him  to  incur  fines  and  impris¬ 
onment  because  of  his  libellous  utterances.  He 
came  to  America  in  1817,  but  returned  in  1819, 
taking  with  him  the  bones  of  Thomas  Paine.  , 
He  continued  the  business  of  writing  and  pub¬ 
lishing,  and  many  of  his  books,  written  in  vig¬ 
orous  Anglo-Saxon,  are  very  useful.  He  enter¬ 
ed  Parliament  in  1832,  and  was  a  member  sev¬ 
eral  years.  His  political  writings,  being  an 
abridgment  of  one  hundred  volumes,  were  col¬ 
lected  and  published,  in  twelve  volumes,  under 
the  title  of  Porcupine’s  Works. 

Cobbett’s  Revenge.  That  able,  unscrupu¬ 
lous,  and  often  coarse  pamphleteer  and  journal¬ 
ist,  William  Cobbett,  issued  many  libels  in  his 
Peter  Porcupine’s  Gazette.  He  attacked  Dr.  Rush, 
of  Philadelphia,  because  of  his  treatment  of  yel¬ 
low-fever  cases,  especially  of  his  blood-letting. 
Rush  prosecuted  him  for  libel,  and  obtained  a 
verdict  for  $5000  damages  That  suit  had  been 
brought  to  trial  on  the  day  of  Washington’s 
death  ( Dec.  14,  1799 ),  aud  Cobbett  remarked 
that  it  was  a  singular  coincidence  that  while 
the  great  patriot  was  dying  in  consequence  of 
the  too  free  use  of  the  lancet  (see  Washington, 
Death  of),  he  should  be  mulcted  in  a  verdict  of 
$5000  for  exposing  and  ridiculing  the  dangerous 
practice  in  yellow  -  fever.  In  anticipation  of 
the  verdict,  Cobbett  stopped  his  paper  and  re¬ 


moved  to  New  York,  where  he  was  threatened 
with  imprisonment,  but  procured  bail.  There 
he  issued  a  series  of  vigorously  written  pam¬ 
phlets,  called  Rush  Lights,  in  which  he  exhibit¬ 
ed,  in  vivid  colors,  the  various  phases  of  charac¬ 
ter  of  all  engaged  in  his  prosecution.  Then  he 
went  back  to  England,  and  issued  Porcupine’ s 
Works,  in  twelve  octavo  volumes,  which  sold 
largely  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlautic.  In  these 
he  exhibited  such  pictures  of  his  American  ene¬ 
mies  that  he  tasted  the  sweets  of  revenge. 

Cockade  Proclamation.  On  Nov.  5,  1796, 
Adet,  the  French  minister  to  the  United  States, 
issued  a  proclamation,  or  order,  calling  upon  all 
Frenchmen  in  the  United  States,  in  the  name  of 
the  French  Directory,  to  mount  and  wear  the 
tricolored  cockade,  “  the  symbol  of  a  liberty  the 
fruit  of  eight  years’  toils  and  five  years’  victo¬ 
ries.”  Adet  declared  in  his  proclamation  that 
any  Frenchman  who  might  hesitate  to  give  this 
indication  of  adherence  to  the  Republic  should 
not  be  allowed  the  aid  of  the  French  consular 
chanceries  or  the  national  protection.  The  tri- 
colored  cockade  was  at  once  mounted,  not  only 
by  the  French  residents,  but  by  many  American 
citizens  who  wished  to  signify  in  this  marked 
manner  their  attachment  to  the  French  Repub¬ 
lic.  This  “cockade  proclamation,”  as  the  Fed¬ 
eralists  called  it  in  derision,  was  the  origin  of 
the  practice,  for  several  years,  of  wearing  a  cock¬ 
ade  as  a  badge  of  party  distinction. 

Cockburn  in  the  Chesapeake  (1813).  (See 
Amphibious  Warfare.)  Admiral  Sir  G.  Cockburn 
had  taken  his  chief  position  in  Lynn  Haven  Bay 
for  carrying  on  his  marauding  expeditions  on 
the  coasts  of  Virginia,  Delaware,  and  Maryland. 
These  plundered  and  burned  farm-houses,  car¬ 
ried  off  negroes  and  armed  them  against  their 
masters,  and  seized  live-stock.  Sometimes  he 
was  engaged  in  more  honorable  warfare.  On 
April  3,  1813,  a  flotilla  of  a  dozen  boats  filled 
with  armed  men  from  the  British  fleet,  under 
Lieutenant  Polkingthorue  of  the  St.  Domingo,  74 
guns,  entered  the  Rappahannock  River  and  at¬ 
tacked  the  Baltimore  privateer  Dolphin,  10  guns, 
Captain  Stafford,  and  three  armed  schooners  pre¬ 
pared  to  sail  for  France.  The  three  smaller  ves¬ 
sels  were  soon  taken,  but  the  struggle  with  the 
Dolphin  was  severe.  She  was  boarded,  and  for 
fifteen  minutes  a  contest  raged  fearfully  on  her 
deck,  when  the  Dolphin  struck  her  colors.  Cock- 
burn  now  went  up  the  Chesapeake  with  the  brigs 
Fantome  and  Moliaick,  and  the  tenders  Dolphin, 
Racer,  aud  Highflyer,  and  proceeded  to  destroy 
Frenchtown,  a  hamlet  of  about  a  dozen  houses, 
on  the  western  coast  of  Delaware.  Cockburn 
made  the  Fantome  his  flag-ship.  The  only  de¬ 
fenders  of  the  hamlet  were  a  few  militia  who 
came  down  from  Elkton,  and  some  drivers  of 
stages  and  transportation-wagons.  The  former 
garrisoned  a  redoubt  which  had  just  been  erect¬ 
ed,  upon  which  lay  four  irou  cannons.  They 
were  vanquished  aud  retired.  The  storehouses 
were  plundered  and  burned,  but  the  women  and 
children  were  well  treated.  Property  on  land 
w  orth  $25,000  was  destroyed,  and  on  the  waiter 
five  trading  -  vessels  were  consumed.  Thence 


COCKBURN  ON  THE  COAST 


263 


COFFEE 


Cockburn  went  up  the  bay  to  Havre  de  Grace, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Susquehanna,  which  he 
plundered  and  burned.  (See  Havre  de  Grace.) 
Afterwards  Cockburn  attacked  the  villages  of 
Fredericktown  and  Georgetown  (May  6,  1813), 
on  the  Sassafras  River.  They  contained  from 
forty  to  fifty  houses  each.  He  first  visited  Fred¬ 
ericktown,  on  the  north  shore.  The  militia,  un¬ 
der  Colonel  Veazy,  made  a  stout  resistance,  but 
were  compelled  to  retire.  The  village  was  laid  iu 
ashes,  and  the  storehouses  were  plundered  and 
burned.  The  marauders  then  crossed  over  to 
Georgetown,  and  served  it  in  the  same  way.  So 
delighted  was  Cockburn  with  his  success  in 
plundering  and  burning  defenceless  towns  that 
he  declared  he  should  not  be  contented  until  he 
had  burned  every  house  in  Baltimore.  Having 
deprived  three  villages  on  the  Chesapeake  of 
property  worth  at  least  $70,000,  Cockburn  re¬ 
turned  to  the  fleet. 

Cockburn  on  the  Coast  of  the  Carolinas. 

Early  in  July,  1813,  Admiral  Cockburn,  with  a 
part  of  his  marauding  fleet,  went  southward 
from  Hampton  Roads  to  plunder  and  destroy. 
His  vessels  were  the  Sceptre,  74  guns  (flag-ship), 
Romulus,  Fox,  and  Nemesis.  Off  Ocracoke  Inlet, 
he  despatched  (July  12, 1813)  about  eight  hun¬ 
dred  armed  men  in  barges  to  the  waters  of  Pam¬ 
lico  Sound.  There  they  attacked  the  Anaconda 
and  Atlas,  two  American  privateers,  and  capt¬ 
ured  both.  The  crew  of  one  escaped,  and  gave 
the  alarm  at  New  Berne.  The  British  boats  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  attack  that  place,  but  found  it  too  well 
prepared  to  warrant  their  doing  so.  They  capt¬ 
ured  Portsmouth,  and  plundered  the  country 
around.  They  decamped  in  haste  (July  16),  car¬ 
rying  with  them  cattle  and  other  property,  and 
many  slaves,  to  whom  they  falsely  promised 
their  freedom.  These,  and  others  obtained  the 
same  way,  Cockburn  sold  in  the  West  Indies  on 
his  private  account.  Leaving  Pamlico  Sound, 
the  marauder  went  down  the  coast,  stopping  at 
and  plundering  Dewees’s  and  Capers’s  islands, 
and  tilling  the  whole  region  of  the  Lower  Santee 
with  terror.  Informed  of  these  outrages,  the 
citizens  of  Charleston  prepared  for  the  recep¬ 
tion  of  the  marauders.  Fort  Moultrie  and  other 
fortifications  were  strengthened,  breast -works 
were  thrown  up  at  exposed  places,  and  a  body 
of  militia  was  gathered  at  Point  Pleasant.  In 
anticipation  of  the  coming  of  an  army  of  liber¬ 
ation,  as  they  were  falsely  informed  Cockbnrn’s 
men  were,  the  negroes  were  prepared  to  rise  and 
strike  for  freedom.  (See  Servile  Insurrection  threat¬ 
ened.)  Cockburn  did  not  venture  into  Charles¬ 
ton  harbor,  but  went  down  to  Hilton  Head,  from 
which  he  carried  off  slaves  and  cattle.  Then  he 
visited  the  Georgia  coast,  and  at  “Dungenness 
House,”  the  fine  estate  of  General  Nathaniel 
Greene,  on  Cumberland  Island,  he  made  his  head¬ 
quarters  for  the  winter,  sending  his  marauders 
out  in  all  directions  to  plunder  the  plantations 
on  the  neighboring  coast. 

Cockburn,  Sin  George,  was  born  in  London 
in  1771 ;  died  in  August,  1853.  He  entered  the 
royal  navy  in  1783,  and  was  rear-admiral  in  1812. 
He  was  in  command  of  a  small  squadron  on  the 


North  American  station  in  1813,  and  made  ma¬ 
rauding  expeditions  on  the  coasts  of  the  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay  and  farther  south.  (See  Amphibious 
Warfare.)  He  was  concerned  in  the  sack  of 
Washington  in  1814,  and  in  au  unsuccessful  at¬ 
tempt  to  capture  Baltimore  in  the  same  year. 
He  was  knighted  iu  1815,  and  made  a  major- 
general  of  marines  iu  1821. 

Coddington,  William,  a  founder  of  Rhode 
Island,  was  boru  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in 
1601;  died  Nov.  1, 1678.  He  came  to  America  in 
1630  as  a  magistrate  of  Massachusetts  appointed 
by  tbe  crown.  He  was  a  prosperous  merchant 
in  Boston,  but,  taking  the  part  of  Anne  Hutchin¬ 
son  (see  Hutchinson  Controversy),  he  was  so  perse¬ 
cuted  that,  with  eighteen  others,  he  removed  to 
the  island  of  Aquidueck  (now  Rhode  Island), 
where,  on  the  organization  of  a  government,  he 
was  appointed  judge,  or  chief  ruler.  In  March, 
1640,  Coddington  was  elected  governor,  and  held 
the  office  seven  years.  He  went  to  England  iu 
1651,  and  in  1674-75  he  was  again  governor.  He 
had  adopted  the  tenets  of  the  Quakers. 

Codification  of  the  Laws  of  Massachusetts 

(1648).  There  was  a  consultation  respecting  the 
laws  in  1634,  since  which  time  committees,  con¬ 
sisting  of  magistrates  and  elders,  had  been  ap¬ 
pointed  every  year  to  prepare  a  code.  Finally, 
in  1648,  the  whole  of  the  laws  were  collected, 
codified,  and  printed  at  Cambridge. 

Coffee,  John,  was  born  in  Nottaway  County, 
Va.,  in  1772;  died  near  Florence,  Ala.,  July  7, 
1833.  His  profession  was  that  of  a  surveyor. 
Iu  December,  1812,  he  was  colonel  of  Tennessee 


JOHN  COFFEE. 


volunteers  under  Jackson,  and  was  with  him  in 
all  his  wars  with  the  Creek  Indians.  He  was 
with  him  also  in  his  expedition  to  Pensacola 
(which  see),  and  in  the  defence  of  New  Orleans. 
In  1817  he  was  surveyor  of  public  lands. 


COFFIN 


COINAGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


204 


Coffin,  Sir  Isaac,  was  born  in  Boston,  May  16, 
1759;  died  at  Cheltenham,  England,  July  23, 
1839.  He  was  the  son  of  a  collector  of  the  cus¬ 
toms  in  Boston,  who  was  a  zealous  loyalist.  He 
entered  the  British  navy  in  1773,  became  a  lieu¬ 
tenant  iu  1776,  and  was  active  on  the  American 
coast  at  different  times  during  the  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence.  He  served  under  Rodney,  was  made 
post -captain  in  1790,  and  rear-admiral  of  the 
blue  iu  1804,  in  which  year  he  was  knighted.  In 
June,  1814,  he  was  created  admiral  of  the  blue, 
and  in  1820  admiral  of  the  white.  He  was  a 
member  of  Parliament  in  1818.  Having  a  real 
attachment  for  his  native  country,  he  endowed 
a  “  Coffin  School  ”  in  Nantucket,  where  many  of 
his  relatives  lived,  aud  gave  for  its  support 
$12,500. 

Coinage  in  the  United  States.  Wampum 
had  depreciated  iu  value  as  currency  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  over-production,  and  a  final  blow  was 
given  to  it  as  a  circulating  medium  in  New  Eng¬ 
land  by  an  order  from  the  authorities  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts  not  to  receive  it  in  payment  of  taxes. 
As  fast  as  coin  came  to  the  colony  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  by  trade  with  the  West  Indies,  it  was  sent 
to  Euglaud  to  pay  for  goods  purchased  there. 
To  stop  this  drain  of  specie,  Massachusetts  set 
up  a  mint,  and  coined  silver  threepences,  six¬ 
pences,  aud  shillings,  each  bearing  tlie  figure  of 
a  pine-tree  on  one  side,  and  the  words  “New 
England”  on  the  other.  The  silver  was  alloyed 
a  quarter  below  the  English  standard,  with  the 
expectation  that  the  debasement  would  prevent 
the  coin  leaving  the  country.  Thus  the  pound 
currency  of  New  England  came  to  be  one  fourth 
less  than  the  pound  sterling  of  Great  Britain  ; 
and  this  standard  was  afterwards  adopted  by 
the  British  Parliament  for  all  the  English  Amer¬ 
ican  colonies.  The  “  mint-house”  in  Boston  ex¬ 
isted  about  thirty-four  years.  All  the  coins  is¬ 
sued  from  it  bore  the  dates  1652  or  1662,  the 
same  dies  being  used,  probably,  throughout  the 
thirty-four  years  of  coining.  Some  coins  had 
been  made  in  Bermuda  for  the  use  of  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  colony  as  early  as  1644.  Copper  coins 
bearing  the  figure  of  an  elepliaut  were  struck  in 
England  for  the  Carolinas  and  New  England  in 
1694.  Coins  were  also  struck  for  Maryland,  bear¬ 
ing  the  effigy  of  Lord  Baltimore.  In  1722-23, 
William  Wood  obtained  a  royal  patent  for  coin¬ 
ing  small  mouey  for  the  “English  plantations 
in  America.”  He  made  it  of  pinchbeck — an  al¬ 
loy  of  copper  and  tin.  One  side  of  the  coin  bore 
the  image  of  George  I.,  and  on  the  other  was  a 
large  double  rose,  with  the  legend  Rosa  Ameri¬ 
cana  utile  dulci.  In  the  coinage  of  1724  the  rose 
was  crowned.  This  base  coin  was  vehemently 
opposed  in  the  colonies.  A  writer  of  the  day, 
speaking  of  the  speculation,  said  Wood  had  “  the 
conscience  to  make  thirteen  shillings  out  of  a 
pound  of  brass.”  The  power  of  coinage  was  ex¬ 
ercised  by  several  of  the  independent  states  from 
1778  until  the  adoption  of  the  National  Consti¬ 
tution.  A  mint  was  established  at  Rupert,  Vt., 
by  legislative  authority  in  1785,  whence  copper 
cents  were  issued,  bearing  on  one  side  a  plough 
aud  a  sun  rising  from  behind  hills,  and  on  the 
other  a  radiated  eye  surrounded  by  thirteen 


stars.  Some  lialf-cents  also  were  issued  by  the 
Vermont  mint.  In  the  same  year  the  Legislat¬ 
ure  of  Connecticut  authorized  the  establishment 
of  a  mint  at  New  Haven,  whence  copper  coins 
were  issued  having  on  one  side  the  figure  of  a 
human  head,  and  on  the  other  that  of  a  young 
woman  holding  an  olive-branch.  This  mint  con¬ 
tinued  in  operation  about  three  years.  In  1786 
parties  obtained  authority  from  the  Legislature 
of  New  Jersey  to  coiu  money,  and  they  estab¬ 
lished  two  mints  in  that  state  :  one  not  far  from 
Morristown,  and  the  other  at  Elizabethtown. 
On  one  side  of  this  coinage  was  the  head  of  a 
horse,  with  a  plough  beneath  ;  and  on  the  re¬ 
verse  a  shield.  The  head  of  a  horse  and  three 
ploughs  now  form  the  chief  device  of  the  great 
seal  of  New  Jersey.  Cents  and  lialf-cents  were 
issued  iu  Massachusetts  iu  1788,  exhibiting  on 
one  side  an  eagle  with  a  bundle  of  arrows  in  the 
right  talon,  an  olive-branch  in  the  left,  and  a 
shield  on  its  breast  bearing  the  word  “  cent.” 
That  device  was,  and  is  now,  the  chief  on  the 
great  seal  of  the  United  States.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  Massachusetts  cent  was  the  figure  of 
an  Indian  holding  a  bow  and  arrow  ;  also  a  sin¬ 
gle  star.  So  early  as  the  adoption  of  the  “  Arti¬ 
cles  of  Confederation  ”  (1781)  the  subject  of  na¬ 
tional  coinage  occupied  the  attention  of  states¬ 
men.  In  1782,  Robert  Morris,  Superintendent  of 
Finance,  submitted  to  the  Continental  Congress 
a  plan  for  a  metallic  currency  for  the  United 
States,  arranged  by  Gouverneur  Morris,  who  at¬ 
tempted  to  harmonize  all  the  moneys  of  the 
states.  He  found  that  the  l-440th  part  of  the 
Spanish  milled  dollar  was  a  common  divisor  of 
all  the  various  currencies.  Starting  with  that 
fraction  as  a  unit,  he  proposed  the  following  ta¬ 
ble  of  moneys :  Ten  units  to  be  equal  to  one 
penny,  teu  pence  to  one  bill,  ten  bills  to  one  dol¬ 
lar  (about  seveuty-five  cents  of  our  present  cur¬ 
rency),  and  ten  dollars  to  one  crown.  The  super¬ 
intendent  reported  the  plan  to  Congress  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1782,  and  employed  Benjamin  Dudley,  of 
Boston,  to  construct  machinery  for  a  mint.  The 
subject  was  debated  from  time  to  time,  and  on 
April  22, 1783,  some  coins  were  submitted  to  Con¬ 
gress  as  patterns.  Nothing  further  was  done  in 
the  matter  (and  Mr.  Dudley  was  discharged)  un¬ 
til  1784,  when  Mr.  Jefferson,  chairman  of  a  com¬ 
mittee  appointed  for  the  purpose,  submitted  a 
report,  disagreeing  with  that  of  Morris  because 
of  the  diminutive  size  of  its  unit.  He  proposed 
to  strike  four  coins  upon  the  basis  of  the  Spanish 
milled  dollar  as  follows:  A  golden  piece  of  the 
value  of  ten  dollars,  a  dollar  in  silver,  a  tenth  of 
a  dollar  in  silver,  and  a  hundredth  of  a  dollar  in 
copper.  This  report  was  adopted  by  Congress 
in  1785,  and  was  the  origin  of  our  copper  cent, 
silver  dime  and  dollar,  and  golden  eagle.  The 
following  year  (October,  1786)  Congress  framed 
an  ordinance  for  the  establishment  of  a  mint, 
but  nothing  further  was  done  until  1787,  when 
the  Board  of  Treasury,  by  authority  of  Congress, 
contracted  with  James  Jarvis  for  three  hundred 
tons  of  copper  coins  of  the  prescribed  standard, 
which  were  coined  at  a  mint  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.  They  bore  the  following  devices :  On  one 
side  thirteen  circles  linked  together;  a  small 


COINAGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  265  COINAGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


circle  in  the  middle,  with  the  words  “  American 
Congress”  within  it,  and,  in  the  centre,  the  sen¬ 
tence  “We  are  one.”  On  the  other  side  a  sun¬ 
dial,  with  the  sun  above  it,  and  the  word  “Fu- 
gio;”  and  around  the  whole,  “Continental  Cur¬ 
rency,  1776.”  Below  the  dial,  “Mind  your  busi¬ 
ness.”  A  few  of  these  pieces,  it  is  said,  were  struck 
in  a  mint  at  Kupert,Vt.  The  national  Constitu¬ 


tion,  framed  in  1787,  vested  the  right  of  coinage 
exclusively  in  the  national  government.  The  es¬ 
tablishment  of  a  mint  was  authorized  by  act  of 
Congress  in  April,  1792,  but  it  did  not  go  into  full 
operation  until  1795.  (See  Mint.)  By  that  act 
the  golden  eagle  often  dollars  was  to  weigh  270 
grains,  the  parts  in  the  same  proportion  ;  all  of 
the  fineness  of  twenty-two  carats.  The  silver  dol¬ 
lar,  of  one  hundred  cents,  was  to  weigh  416  grains, 
the  fractions  in  proportion  ;  the  fineness,  892.4 
thousandths.  The  copper  cent  was  to  weigh  264 
grains;  the  half-ceut  in  proportion.  In  1793  the 
weight  of  the  cent  was  reduced  to  208  grains, 
and  the  half-cent  in  the  same  proportion.  Laws 
were  enacted  in  1793  for  establishing  a  mint,  and 
David  Rittenhouse  was  appointed  first  director; 
but  it  did  not  go  into  full  operation  before  1795, 
the  intervening  time  being  spent  in  experiment¬ 
ing.  During  that  time, a  great  variety  of  sil¬ 
ver  and  copper  coins  appeared,  among  them  the 
“Liberty-cap  cent,”  so  called  because  it  bore  on 


LIBERTY- CAP  CENT. 

one  side  a  liberty-cap  surrounded  by  rays  of 
light,  and  on  the  other  a  head  of  Washington. 
The  subject  of  a  device  for  the  national  coins 
produced  warm  debates  in  Congress.  The  head 
of  the  President  was. objected  to  because  it  was 
an  imitation  of  royalty,  and  a  head  of  Liberty 
was  adopted.  The  mint  was  established  at  Phil¬ 
adelphia,  and  it  was  the  only  one  in  the  country 
until  1835,  when  three  branches  were  erected: 
one  at  Charlotte,  N.  C. ;  another  at  Dalilonega, 
Ga. ;  and  a  third  in  New  Orleans.  These  went 
into  operation  in  1837-38.  In  1854  a  branch  mint 
was  established  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and  in  1870 
another  at  Carson  City,  Nev.  Assay  offices  were 


established  at  New  York  in  1854 ;  at  Denver, 
Col.,  in  1864  ;  and  at  Boise  City,  Id.,  in  1872.  In 
1873  Congress  made  the  mint  and  assay  offices  a 
bureau  of  the  Treasury  Department,  the  title  of 
the  chief  officer  of  which  is  Superintendent  of 
the  Mint  at  Philadelphia.  He  is  under  the  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury,  and  is  appointed  by  the 
President  for  the  term  of  five  years.  On  ac¬ 
count  of  the  increased  price  of 
copper  in  1776  the  weight  of  the 
cent  was  reduced  to  168  grains, 
and  the  half-cent  in  proportion. 
An  act  was  passed  in  June,  1834, 
changing  the  weight  and  fineness 
of  the  gold  coin,  and  the  relative 
value  of  gold  and  silver.  The 
weight  of  the  eagle  was  reduced  to 
258  grains,  and  the  parts  iu  pro¬ 
portion,  of  which  232  grains  must 
be  pure  gold,  making  the  fineness 
twenty -one  carats.  The  silver 
coinage  was  not  then  changed, 
but  in  January,  1837,  Congress  re¬ 
duced  the  weight  of  the  silver 
dollar  to  412^  grains,  and  the  parts  in  propor¬ 
tion.  By  act  of  March  3,  1849,  there  were  add¬ 
ed  to  the  series  of  gold  coins  the  double  eagle 
and  the  dollar;  and  in  February,  1853,  a  three- 
dollar  piece.  On  March  3, 1851,  there  was  added 
to  the  silver  coins  a  three-cent  piece  (a  legal 
tender  for  sums  not  exceeding  thirty  cents),  and 
this  piece  continued  to  be  coined  until  April  1, 
1853,  when  its  fineness  was  raised  and  its  weight 
reduced.  By  act  of  Feb.  21,  1853,  gold  alone 
was  made  a  legal  tender,  and  the  weight  of  the 
half-dollar  was  reduced  to  206  grains,  and  small¬ 
er  coins  in  proportion.  Silver  was  made  a  legal 
tender  only  to  the  amount  of  five  dollars.  The 
silver  dollar  was  not  included  in  the  change,  but 
remained  a  legal  tender.  The  copper  cent  and 
half-cent  were  discontinued  in  1857,  and  a  new 
cent  of  copper  and  nickel  was  coined.  In  1864 
the  coinage  of  the  bronze  cent  was  authorized ; 
also  two-cent  pieces.  By  act  of  March  3, 1865,  a 
three-cent  piece  was  authorized,  of  three  fourths 
copper  and  one  fourth  nickel.  May  16,  1866,  a 
coinage  of  five-ceut  pieces,  three  fourths  copper 
and  one  fourth  nickel,  was  authorized.  The 
coinage  act  of  1873  prescribes  the  fineness  of  all 
gold  and  silver  coins  to  bo  .900.  The  gold  coins 
are  of  the  same  denomination  as  before ;  the  sil¬ 
ver  coins  are  a  “  trade  -  dollar,”  weighing  420 
grains ;  a  half-dollar,  or  fifty-eent  piece  ;  a  quar- 
ter-dollar,  and  a  dime.  There  were  also  five- 
cent  and  three-cent  silver  coins  issued.  The 
issuing  of  coins  other  than  those  enumerated  in. 
the  act  is  prohibited.  It  is  provided  that  upon 
the  coins  of  the  United  States  there  shall  be  the 
following  devices  and  legends:  Upon  one  side 
an  emblem  of  Liberty,  with  the  word  “  Liberty  ” 
and  the  year  of  the  coinage;  and  upon  the  re¬ 
verse  the  figure  of  an  eagle,  with  the  inscrip¬ 
tions  “United  States  of  America”  and  “E  plu- 
ribus  unuin,”  and  a  designation  of  the  value  of 
the  coin;  but  on  the  gold  dollar  and  three-dol- 
lar  pieces,  the  dime,  five-,  three-,  and  one-cent 
pieces,  the  figure  of  the  eagle  shall  be  omitted; 
and  on  the  reverse  of  the  silver  trade-dollar  the 


COKE 


266 


COLFAX 


weight  and  the  fineness  of  the  coin  shall  he  in- 

© 

scribed,  with  the  motto  “  In  God  we  trust”  add¬ 
ed  when  practicable. 

Coke,  Edward,  was  born  at  Mileham,  Nor¬ 
folk,  Eng.,  Feb.  1,  1552 ;  died  at  Stoke  Poges, 
Buckinghamshire,  Sept.  3,  1633.  He  began  the 
profession  of  law  in  1578,  and  quickly  rose  to  the 
highest  rank.  Passing  through  different  grades 
of  judicial  office,  he  became  lord  chief-justice  of 
England,  opposed  in  his  whole  course  by  a  pow¬ 
erful  rival,  Francis  Bacon.  Coke  was  a  violent 
and  unscrupulous  man,  and  carried  his  points 
in  court  and  in  politics  by  sheer  audacity,  helped 
by  tremendous  intellectual  force.  As  attorney- 
general,  he  conducted  the  prosecution  of  Sir  W al¬ 
ter  Raleigh  with  shameful  unfairness ;  and  from 
the  beginning  of  his  reign  King  James  I.  feared 
and  hated  him,  but  failed  to  suppress  him. 
Coke  was  in  the  Privy  Council  and  in  Parlia¬ 
ment  in  1621  when  the  question  of  monopolies 
by  royal  grants  was  brought  before  the  House 
in  the  case  of  the  Council  of  Plymouth  and 
the  New  England  fisheries.  Coke  took  ground 
against  the  validity  of  the  patent,  and  so  direct¬ 
ly  assailed  the  prerogative  of  the  king.  In  oth¬ 
er  cases  he  took  a  similar  course ;  and  when  the 
king  censured  the  House  of  Commons,  as  com¬ 
posed  of  “  fiery,  popular,  and  turbulent  spirits,” 
Coke,  speaker  of  the  House,  invited  that  body 
to  an  assertion  of  its  rights,  independent  of  the 
king,  in  the  form  of  a  protest  entered  on  its 
minutes.  The  angry  monarch  sent  for  the  book, 
tore  out  the  record  of  the  protest  with  his  own 
hands,  dissolved  Parliament,  and  caused  the  ar¬ 
rest  and  the  imprisonment  of  Coke,  Pym,  and 
other  members  for  several  months  in  the  Tow¬ 
er.  After  that  he  was  a  thorn  in  the  side  of 
James  and  his  successor.  He  kept  up  the  con¬ 
test  against  the  royal  prerogative  until  Charles 
I.  lost  his  head  in  support  of  it.  In  1628  Coke 
retired  from  public  life,  and  died,  five  years  after¬ 
wards,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age.  His 
Jleports  and  other  writings  upon  law  and  juris¬ 
prudence  were  numerous  and  most  important. 
He  published  Coke  upon  Littleton  in  1628. 

Cold  Winter.  In  January  and  February,  1780, 
the  cold  was  so  intense  that  the  harbor  of  New 
York  was  so  strongly  bridged  with  ice  that  the 
British  dragged  cannons  over  it  from  New  York 
to  Staten  Island.  Knyphausen  was  in  command 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  he  became  alarmed 
for  its  safety,  because  thus  deprived  of  all  the 
advantages  of  its  insular  situation.  The  pickets 
were  doubled  and  all  the  people  put  under  arms, 
so  as  to  prevent  a  surprise  by  patriots  who  might 
cross  the  Hudson  on  the  ice.  The  garrison  and 
inhabitants,  cut  off  from  their  usual  supplies  by 
water,  experienced  a  great  scarcity  of  fuel  and 
fresh  provisions., 

Colden,  Cadwallader,  was  born  at  Dunse, 
Scotland,  Feb.  17, 1688;  died  on  Long  Island,  N.Y., 
Sept.  28,  1776.  He  graduated  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Edinburgh  in  1705,  and  became  a  phy¬ 
sician  and  mathematician.  In  1708  he  emigrat¬ 
ed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  returned  to  his  native 
country  in  1712.  He  came  again  to  America  in 
1716,  and  in  1718  made  his  abode  in  New  York, 


where  he  was  made  first  surveyor-general  of  the 
colony,  became  a  master  in  chancery,  and,  in 
1720,  obtained  a  seat  in  Governor  Burnet’s  coun¬ 
cil.  He  received  a  patent  for  lauds  in  Orange 
Couuty,  N.  Y.,  uine  or  ten  miles  from  Newburgh, 


CADWALLADER  COLDEN. 


and  there  he  went  to  reside  in  1755.  Becoming 
president  of  the  council,  he  administered  the  gov¬ 
ernment  in  1760,  and  was  made  lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor  in  1761,  which  station  he  held  until  his 
death,  being  repeatedly  placed  at  the  head  of 
affairs  by  the  absence  or  death  of  governors. 
During  the  Stamp  Act  excitement  the  populace 
burned  his  coach.  After  the  return  of  Governor 
Tryon  in  1775,  he  retired  to  his  seat  on  Long 
Island.  Dr.  Colden  wrote  a  History  of  the  Fire 
Indian  Nations  of  Canada  in  1727.  He  was  an  ar¬ 
dent  student  of  botany,  and  introduced  the  Lin- 
usean  system  into  Ameiica.  He  published  scien- 
ti tic  works  and  was  a  correspondent  of  the  lead¬ 
ing  men  of  science  in  Europe. 

Cole,  Thomas,  painter,  was  born  at  Bolt.on- 
le-moors,  Lancashire,  Eng.,  Feb.  1,  1801 ;  died 
at  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  11,  1847.  His  parents, 
who  lived  in  America,  had  gone  to  England  pre¬ 
vious  to  his  birth,  and  returned  in  1819,  settling 
in  Philadelphia,  where  Thomas  practised  the  art 
of  wood-engraving.  He  began  portrait-painting 
in  Steubenville,  Ohio,  in  1820,  soon  wandered  as 
an  itinerant  in  the  profession,  and  finally  be¬ 
came  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  American  land¬ 
scape  painters.  He  established  himself  in  New 
York  in  1825.  The  charming  scenery  of  the  Hud¬ 
son  employed  his  pencil  and  brush,  and  orders 
for  his  landscapes  soon  came  from  all  quarters. 
From  1829  to  1832  he  was  in  Europe,  and  on  his 
return  he  made  bis  home  at  Cat-skill,  where  he 
resided  until  his  death.  His  two  great  finished 
works  are  “The  Course  of  Empire  ”  and  “The 
Voyage  of  Life,”  the  former  consisting  of  a 
series  of  five,  and  the  latter  of  four,  pictures. 
He  produced  many  other  fine  compositions  in 
landscape  and  figures,  which  gave  him  a  place 
at  the  head  of  his  profession.  Mr.  Cole  left  un¬ 
finished  at  his  death  a  series  entitled  “The 
Cross  and  the  World.”  Mr.  Cole  also  wrote  a 
dramatic  poem,  and  was  a  writer  of  tales. 

Colfax,  Schuyler,  grandson  of  the  last  com¬ 
mander  of  Washington’s  life-guard,  was  boru 
in  New  York  city,  March  23.  1823.  He  was  a 


COLIGNI 


287 


COLLEGE  OF  NEW  JERSEY 


merchant’s  clerk  for  three  years,  and  then,  with 
his  family,  he  went  to  New  Carlisle,  St.  Joseph’s 
Co.,  Iud.,  where  for  five  years  he  was  a  clerk 
in  a  country  store.  In  1841  his  step-father,  Mr. 
Mathews,  was  elected  county  auditor,  and  he  re- 


8CHUYLER  COLFAX. 


moved  to  South  Bend  and  made  Schuyler  his 
deputy.  There  he  studied  law,  and  finally  es¬ 
tablished  a  weekly  newspaper.  In  1850  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Indiana  State  Constitutional 
Convention,  and  the  next  year  was  a  candidate 
for  Congress,  but  was  not  elected.  In  1856  the 
newly  formed  Republican  party  elected  him  to 
Congress,  and  he  was  re-elected  for  six  consecu¬ 
tive  terms.  In  December,  1863,  he  was  elected 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
was  re-elected  speaker  in  1865  and  1867.  On 
Mai'ch  4,  1869,  Mr.  Colfax  was  made  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent,  with  General  Grant  as  President.  He  died 
suddenly  January  15, 1885. 

Coligni,  Jasper  de,  was  born  at  Cliatillon- 
sur-Loing,  Feb.  16, 1517 ;  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  24, 
1572.  In  1539  he  was  introduced  to  Francis  I., 
of  France,  entered  the  military  service,  was 
knighted  because  of  his  merits  as  a  soldier,  and 


.TASl’ER  DE  COLIGNI. 


soon  became  noted  as  the  best  officer  in  the 
army.  He  was  made  colonel  in  the  French  in¬ 
fantry,  and  also  admiral,  and  may  be  regarded 


as  the  founder  of  the  French  military  system. 
Coligni  was  governor  of  Picardy  in  1557,  and 
while  fighting  in  defence  of  St.  Quentin  he  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards.  Endowed 
with  deep  religious  feelings,  he  became  a  de¬ 
voted  Calvinist — a  Huguenot — and  in  1555  and 
1562  he  made  attempts  to  secure  an  asylum  in 
America  for  his  persecuted  brethren.  In  this  he 
was  not  successful.  (See  Huguenots  in  America.) 
With  the  Prince  of  Cond6,  he  was  a  leader  of 
the  Protestant  army  in  France  in  the  civil  war 
between  1560  and  1570.  In  the  latter  year  he 
appeared  at  the  court  of  Charles  IX.,  who  was 
ruled  by  his  infamous  mother,  Catherine  de’ 
Medici.  His  influence  aroused  the  jealousy  of 
the  Roman  Catholics,  and  lie  was  deserted  by 
his  monarch  and  the  queen  mother.  She  had 
failed  to  bring  the  Duke  of  Guise,  his  rival,  to 
the  scaffold,  and  she  joined  the  league  against 
the  Huguenots,  which  found  horrid  expression 
in  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  France  on 
the  eve  of  the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew.  Co¬ 
ligni  was  selected  as  one  of  the  first,  victims  on 
that  fatal  night.  Belime,  a  German  assassin 
employed  by  the  Duke  of  Guise,  led  a  band  of 
murderers,  with  concealed  weapons,  to  the  room 
of  the  admiral.  He  held  a  boar-spear  in  his 
hand.  The  majestic  presence  of  Coligni,  and 
the  serenity  of  his  deportment,  abashed  the 
leader  at  first,  and  he  was  about  to  retire,  when 
one  of  his  comrades  whispered  “  coward !  ”  in 
his  ear.  Behine  instantly  plunged  the  spear  in 
Coligni’s  heart,  and  he  fell  dead  at  the  feet  of 
his  murderers.  His  body  was  cast  out  of  a  win¬ 
dow  into  a  court,  where  the  Duke  of  Guise  was 
waiting  for  the  consummation  of  the  crime. 
The  head  of  the  admiral  was  severed  from  his 
body  and  taken  to  Catherine,  while  his  remains 
were  dragged  through  the  streets  of  Paris,  red 
with  the  blood  of  his  murdered  co-religionists, 
and  hanged  on  a  gibbet  at  Montfaugon.  Cathe¬ 
rine  had  the  head  of  the  admiral  embalmed  and 
sent  to  the  Pope,  Gregory  XII.,  at  Rome.  The 
pontiff  ordered  a  Te  Denm  to  be  sung  over  the 
event  and  caused  a  medal  to  be  struck  in  com¬ 
memoration  of  it.  Coligni’s  remains  were  se¬ 
cretly  taken  from  the  gibbet  by  his  servants 
and  buried  at  Chantilly,  and  in  1786  Montes¬ 
quieu  transferred  them  to  his  estate  at  Manper- 
ties,  where  he  dedicated  a  chapel  and  erected  a 
monument  to  the  memory  of  the  martyr  admi¬ 
ral. 

College  of  New  Jersey  (now  Princeton), 
one  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  English-American  colonies.  It  was 
founded  under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian 
Synod  of  New  York,  which  then  included  New 
Jersey  in  its  jurisdiction.  A  charter  was  ob¬ 
tained  in  1746,  and  it  was  opened  for  students  in 
May,  1747,  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.  The  same 
year  it  was  removed  to  Newark,  and  in  1757  it 
was  transferred  to  Princeton,  where  a  new  col¬ 
lege  edifice,  named  Nassau  Hall,  had  just  been 
completed.  That  name  was  given  in  honor  of 
William  III.,  “of  the  illustrious  house  of  Nas¬ 
sau.”  The  college  itself  was  often  called  “  Nas¬ 
sau  Hall,”  but  it  is  now  universally  known  as 
Princeton  College.  It  suffered  much  during 


COLLEGE  OF  RHODE  ISLAND 


2G8 


COLLISION 


tbe  Revolution,  being  occupied  as  barracks  and 
hospital  by  both  armies.  (See  Princeton,  Battle 
of.)  The  president  (Dr.  Witherspoon)  and  two 
of  the  alumni  (Benjamin  Rush  and  Richard 
Stockton)  were  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dependence  ;  and  several  of  the  leading  patriots 
during  the  war,  and  statesmen  afterwards,  were 
graduates  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  Gen¬ 
eral  Washington  and  the  Continental  Congress 
were  present  at  the  “commencement”  in  1783. 
Other  buildings  were  erected,  and  it  had  steady 
prosperity  until  the  breaking-out  of  the  Civil 
War  in  1861.  Nassau  Hall  was  burned  in  1855, 
and  speedily  rebuilt.  The  Civil  War  reduced 
the  number  of  its  students,  but  it  regained  them, 
and  more,  when  peace  came.  In  1868  Rev.  Janies 
McCosh,  from  Belfast,  Ireland,  was  called  to  the 
presidency  of  the  college — a  man  of  great  en¬ 
ergy  and  activity.  During  his  administration 
many  tine  buildings  were  added  to  the  institu¬ 
tion,  and  more  than  $1,000,000  have  been  given 
to  the  college.  One  gentleman  (John  C.  Green) 
has  given  $750,000  to  endow  a  scientific  school, 
erect  a  library,  and  a  building  for  lectures  and 
recitations.  The  college  buildings  are  mostly 
of  stone;  the  grounds  are  well  shaded  with 
trees  ;  the  library  contains  nearly  sixty  thou¬ 
sand  volumes,  and  the  various  endowments  to 
the  college  proper  amount  to  about  $600,000. 
There  have  been  eleven  presidents,  all  of  them 
clergymen.  The  first  was  Rev.  Jouathan  Dick¬ 
inson.  A  theological  seminary  connected  with 
the  college  was  founded  in  1812,  and  occupies 
similar  plain  stone  buildings.  Its  library  con¬ 
tained  about  twenty-four  thousand  volumes  in 
1876,  and  its  endowments  amounted  to  $400,000. 

College  of  Rhode  Island  (now  Brown  Uni¬ 
versity),  one  of  the  higher  colonial  institutions 
of  learning,  the  charter  of  which  was  obtained  in 
February,  1764,  was  established  at  Providence, 
R.  I.  The  associated  Baptist  churches  of  Phil¬ 
adelphia  moved  in  the  matter  in  1763.  The  sub¬ 
ject  was  laid  before  the  leading  Baptists  at  New¬ 
port,  R.  I.,  the  funds  for  the  purpose  were  raised, 
and  the  charter  obtained  for  “The  College  of 
Rhode  Island,”  in  which  was  a  provision  that 
“  into  this  liberal  and  catholic  institution  shall 
never  be  admitted  any  religious  tests;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  all  the  members  hereof  shall  for¬ 
ever  enjoy  full,  free,  absolute,  and  uninterrupt¬ 
ed  liberty  of  conscience;  and  that  the  public 
teaching  shall,  in  general,  respect  the  sciences, 
and  that  the  sectarian  differences  of  opinion 
shall  not  make  any  part  of  the  public  and  clas¬ 
sical  instruction.”  The  government  was  placed 
under  a  . board  of  t  welve  fellows,  of  whom  eight, 
including  the  president,  must  be  Baptists  ;  and 
thirty-six  trustees,  of  whom  twenty-two  must 
be  Baptists,  five  Friends  or  Quakers,  four  Con- 
gregationalists,  and  five  Episcopalians,  this  pro- 
portion  representing  the  different  denomina¬ 
tions  then  in  the  colony.  Rev.  James  Manning 
was  elected  the  first  president  in  September, 
1765.  Nicholas  Brown,  a  wealthy  and  distin¬ 
guished  citizen  of  Providence,  became  a  munifi¬ 
cent  benefactor  of  the  college,  and  in  1804  it  re¬ 
ceived  the  name  of  Brown  University.  His  gifts 
amounted  to  about  $100,000.  The  uuiversity  has 


established  an  agricultural  college  in  connection 
with  it,  in  accordance  with  the  provision  of  Con¬ 
gress.  (S e>e>  Agricultural  Colleges.)  It  has  five  col¬ 
lege  buildings,  a  museum,  and  a  library  contain¬ 
ing  over  forty  thousand  volumes.  From  1765  to 
1876  the  uuiversity  had  six  presidents — namely, 
James  Manning,  Asa  Messer,  Francis  Wayland, 
Barnas  Sears,  Alexis  Caswell,  and  E.  G.  Robin¬ 
son.  (See  Colonial  Colleges;  also  Nicholas  and  J. 
Carte r  Brown.) 

Colleges  in  the  United  States.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  universities  and  colleges  in  the  United 
States  in  1886,  was  364,  with  4211  instructors  and 
60,011  students.  Of  these  institutions,  51  were 
under  the  control  of  Roman  Catholics.  Only  16 
of  them  had  libraries  containing  over  25,000  vol¬ 
umes.  Many  of  them,  particularly  the  younger 
ones,  are  open  to  both  sexes.  There  are  several 
colleges  exclusively  for  women.  The  first  es¬ 
tablished  of  these  was  Vassal-  College  at  Pough¬ 
keepsie.  Few  of  these  colleges  were  established 
before  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  in  1783  ;  and 
only  six  were  organized  before  1820.  Between 
1820  and  1840,  forty  were  established.  About 
sixty  are  uusecturiau. 

Collision  between  State  Authority  and  the 
National  Judiciary.  In  1808  a  case  which  had 
been  in  existence  since  the  Revolution  brought 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania  into  collision  with  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  During 
the  disputes  in  the  case  alluded  to — about  prize- 
money — David  Rittenhouse,  as  state  treasurer 
of  Pennsylvania,  had  received  certain  certificates 
of  national  debt.  Rittenhouse  settled  his  ac¬ 
counts  as  treasurer  in  1788  and  resigned  his  of¬ 
fice,  but  still  retained  these  certificates,  having 
given  his  bond  to  the  judge  of  the  state  court  to 
hold  him  harmless  as  to  other  claimants.  The 
certificates  were  held  by  Rittenhouse  to  indem¬ 
nify  him  against  the  bond  he  had  given.  When 
the  public  debt  was  funded  he  caused  these  cer¬ 
tificates  to  be  funded  in  his  own  name,  but  for 
the  benefit  of  whom  it  might  concern.  Ritten- 
honse  died  in  1801,  leaving  his  three  daughters 
executors  of  his  estate.  They  were  called  upon 
by  the  State  Treasurer  to  deliver  the  certificates 
to  him  and  pay  over  the  accrued  interest.  They 
refused  to  do  so,  on  account  of  a  pending  suit  in 
the  state  court  by  a  claimant  for  the  amount. 
The  state  court  finally  declined  to  interfere,  on 
the  technical  ground  that  it  was  an  admiralty 
matter  and  was  not  cognizable  in  a  court  of 
common  law.  The  claimant  then  applied  to 
the  United  States  District  Court  for  an  order  to 
compel  the  executors  of  Rittenhouse  to  pay  over 
to  him  the  certificates  and  accumulated  inter¬ 
est,  then  amounting  to  about  $15,000.  Such  a 
decree  was  made  in  1803,  when  the  Legislature 
of  Pennsylvania  passed  a  law  to  compel  the  ex¬ 
ecutors  to  pay  the  funds  into  the  state  treasury, 
pledging  the  faith  of  the  state  to  hold  them 
harmless.  Finally  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  issued  a  mandamus  for  the  judge 
of  the  district  court  to  carry  the  decree  into  ex¬ 
ecution,  despite  the  state  law.  It  was  done 
(March  12,  1809);  but  the  marshal,  when  he 
weut  to  serve  the  process  of  attachment,  found 


COLONIAL  ARTILLERY  ' 


269 


COLONIAL  MANUFACTURES 


the  houses  of  the  respondents  protected  by  an 
armed  guard,  who  resisted  his  entrance  by  bay¬ 
onets.  These  guards  were  state  militia,  under 
General  Bright,  with  the  sanction  of  the  gov¬ 
ernor.  The  legislature  and  the  governor  now 
receded  somewhat.  The  former  made  an  appro¬ 
priation  of  $18,000  to  meet  any  contingency ; 
and  finally,  after  a  show  of  resistance,  which, 
to  some,  threatened  a  sort  of  civil  war  in  the 
streets  of  Philadelphia,  the  governor  paid  over 
the  sum  to  the  marshal  out  of  the  appropria¬ 
tion.  This  was  a  blow  to  the  doctrine  of  state 
supremacy,  which  still  held  a  large  place  in  the 
political  creed  of  the  people  of  all  the  states. 
The  supremacy  of  the  national  judiciary  was 
fully  vindicated. 

Colonial  Artillery.  The  whole  train  of  ar¬ 
tillery  possessed  by  the  English-Americau  col¬ 
onies  when  the  first  war  for  independence  broke 
out  (April  19,  1775)  was  composed  of  four  field- 
pieces,  two  belonging  to  citizens  of  Boston,  and 
two  to  the  province  of  Massachusetts.  In  1788 
the  Secretary  of  War  called  the  attention  of 
Congress  to  the  fact  that  there  were  in  the  ar¬ 
senals  of  the  United  States  “  two  brass  caunons, 
which  constituted  one  moiety  of  the  field  artil¬ 
lery  with  which  the  late  war  was  commenced 
on  the  part  of  the  Americans.”  Congress  by 
resolution  directed  the  Secretary  to  have  suit¬ 
able  inscriptions  placed  on  them;  and  as  they 
belonged  to  Massachusetts,  he  was  instructed  to 
deliver  them  to  the  order  of  the  governor  of 
that  state.  The  two  pieces  belonging  to  citi¬ 
zens  of  Boston  were  inscribed  respectively, 
“  The  Hancock,  Sacred  to  Liberty,”  and  “  The 
Adams,  Sacred  to  Liberty;”  with  the  additional 
words  on  each,  “  These  were  used  in  many  en¬ 
gagements  during  the  war.”  (See  Artillery.) 

Colonial  Colleges.  There  were  nine  higher 
institutions  of  learning  in  the  English-American 
colonies  before  the  breaking-out  of  the  old  war 
for  independence  —  namely,  Harvard  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts;  William  and  Mary  in  Virginia;  Yale 
in  Connecticut ;  King’s  in  New  York  ;  College  of 
New  Jersey  and  Queen’s  in  New  Jersey ;  College 
of  Rhode  Island;  Dartmouth  in  New  Hamp¬ 
shire;  and  University  of  Pennsylvania.  (See 
notices  of  the  respective  colleges.)  Hainpden- 
Sidney  College  was  founded  in  1775,  just  as  the 
war  broke  out.  In  these  colonial  institutions 
many  of  the  brightest  statesmen  of  the  last 
century  and  beginning  of  this  were  educated. 

Colonial  Concurrence  in  Virginia’s  Resolu¬ 
tions.  In  1769  the  British  Parliament,  by  reso¬ 
lutions,  censured  the  votes,  resolutions,  and  pro¬ 
ceedings  of  Massachusetts  against  the  Mutiny 
Act  (which  see).  That  portion  of  them  which 
proposed  to  bring  offenders  from  that  colony  to 
Great  Britain  for  trial  highly  offended  the  Amer¬ 
icans.  The  Virginia  Assembly  passed  strong 
resolutions  condemnatory  of  the  proceedings  of 
Parliament;  and  these  were  followed  by  similar 
resolutions  passed  by  the  Assemblies  of  New 
York,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  North  and  South 
Carolina. 

Colonial  Congress,  Early.  Soon  after  the 
attack  on  Schenectady  (1690),  the  government 


of  Massachusetts  addressed  a  circular  letter  to 
all  the  colonies  as  far  south  as  Maryland,  invit¬ 
ing  them  to  send  commissioners  to  New  York,  to 
agree  upon  some  plan  of  operations  for  the  de¬ 
fence  of  the  whole.  Delegates  from  Massachu¬ 
setts,  Connecticut,  and  New  York  met  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  May,  1690,  and  the  campaign 
against  Canada  was  planned.  This  was  the  first 
Colonial  Congress.  (See  Ring  William's  War.) 

Colonial  Currency,  Regulation  op  the. 
Complaints  were  made  of  the  diversity  which 
existed  in  the  several  colonies  in  the  moneys  of 
account,  and  of  the  various  rates  at  which  the 
Spanish  coins,  which  formed  the  principal  circu¬ 
lation,  passed  current  in  different  places.  It 
was  believed  that  coin  might  be  kept  in  the 
country  by  enhancing  its  nominal  value ;  and 
this  value  was  further  increased  by  the  depre¬ 
ciation  of  the  circulating  bills  of  credit.  A  royal 
proclamation  in  1704  established  for  all  the  col¬ 
onies  the  old  New  England  standard,  by  fixing 
the  value  of  the  dollar  at  six  shillings  (seventy- 
five  cents  of  our  currency);  and  this  proclama¬ 
tion  was  reinforced  in  1707  by  an  act  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  inflicting  severe  penalties  on  such  as  dis¬ 
regarded  it.  This  regulation  of  the  currency 
was  evaded  or  openly  disregarded  by  some  of 
the  colonies;  and  at  length  the  circulating  me¬ 
dium  was  thrown  into  still  greater  confusion 
by  new  issues  of  paper  money. 

Colonial  Manufactures,  Restrictions  upon. 
As  soon  as  the  American  colonies  begau  to  man¬ 
ufacture  for  themselves,  they  encountered  the 
jealousy  of  the  English  manufacturers.  The 
act  of  1663  extended  to  the  “  vent  of  English 
woollens,  and  other  manufactures  and  commodi¬ 
ties.”  In  1699  Parliament  declared  that  “no 
wool,  yarn,  or  woollen  manufactures  of  the 
American  plantations  should  be  shipped  there, 
or  even  laden,  in  order  to  he  transported  thence 
to  any  place  whatever.”  This  was  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  restrictions  on  onr  colonial  manufact¬ 
ures.  In  1719  the  House  of  Commons  said  that 
“  the  erecting  of  manufactories  in  the  colonies 
tended  to  lessen  their  dependence  upon  Great 
Britain.”  The  colonies  continually  increased  in 
population  and  in  the  products  of  their  industry 
and  economy,  and  complaints  from  interested 
persons  were  as  constantly  made  to  the  British 
government  that  they  were  not  only  carrying  on 
trade  but  setting  up  manufactories  detrimental 
to  Great  Britain.  In  1731  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons  directed  t  he  Board  of  Trade  to  inquire  and 
report  respecting  the  matter.  They  reported 
that  paper,  iron,  flax,  hats,  and  leather  were 
manufactured  in  the  colonies;  that  there  were 
more  manufactories  set  up  in  the  colonies  north¬ 
ward  of  Virginia,  “particularly  in  New  Eng¬ 
land,”  than  in  any  other  of  the  British  colonies  ; 
that  they  were  capable  of  supplying  their  own 
wants  in  manufactured  goods,  and  therefore  det¬ 
rimental  to  British  interests,  and  made  less  de¬ 
pendent  on  the  mother  country.  The  company 
of  hatters  in  London  complained  that  large 
numbers  of  hats  were  manufactured  in  New  Eng¬ 
land,  and  exported  to  foreign  countries ;  and 
through  their  influence  an  act  of  Parliament  was 


COLONIAL  PEACE,  TREATY  FOR  270  COLONIAL  POPULATION,  INCREASE  OF 


procured  (1732),  not  only  to  prevent  such  expor¬ 
tation,  and  to  prevent  their  being  carried  from 
one  colony  to  another,  but  to  restrain,  to  a  cer¬ 
tain  extent,  the  manufacture  of  them  in  the  col¬ 
onies.  They  were  forbidden  being  shipped,  or 
even  laden  upon  a  horse  or  cart,  with  an  intent 
to  be  exported  to  any  place  whatever.  The  co¬ 
lonial  hatters  were  forbidden  to  employ  more 
than  two  apprentices  at  the  same  time ;  and  no 
negro  was  permitted  to  work  at  the  business. 
In  1750  an  act  was  passed  permitting  pig  and 
'bar  iron  to  be  imported  from  the  colonies  to 
London  duty  free,  but  prohibited  the  erection 
or  coutiuuauce  of  auy  “  mill  or  other  engine  for 
slitting  and  rolling  iron,  or  any  plating  forge  to 
work  with  a  belt  hammer,  or  any  furnace  for 
making  steel  in  the  colonies,  under  the  penalty 
of  $1000.”  Every  such  mill,  engine,  plating  forge, 
and  furnace  was  declared  a  “  nuisance,”  which, 
if  not  abated  within  thirty  days,  was  subject  to 
a  forfeit  of  $2500.  This  was  really  oppressive  ; 
and  some  of  the  colonies,  regarding  these  acts 
as  violations  of  their  charters,  obeyed  them  only 
sufficiently  to  prevent  an  open  rupture.  The 
narrow  views  of  publicists  like  Dr.  Daveuantand 
Sir  Josiah  Child,  and  the  greed  of  Euglish  man¬ 
ufacturers,  stimulated  Parliament  to  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  such  unjust  measures.  Mr.  Child,  no 
doubt,  expressed  the  convictions  of  the  English 
mind  when  he  wrote,  in  1670,  that  “  New  Eng¬ 
land  was  the  most  prejudicial  plantation  to  the 
kingdom.”  In  fact,  the  people  of  England  from 
an  early  period  regarded  the  North  American 
colonies,  particularly  those  of  New  England,  as 
their  rivals  in  navigation  aud  trade.  Child  de¬ 
clared  that  “  there  is  nothing  more  prejudicial, 
and  in  prospect  more  dangerous  to  any  mother 
kingdom,  than  the  increase  of  shipping  in  her 
colonies,  plantations,  and  provinces.”  Dr.  Dave- 
naut,  who  wrote  later,  was  in  accordance  with 
these  narrow  views  of  Child.  The  proceedings 
of  the  British  government  were  generally  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  views  of  these  writers.  It  is 
believed  that  Adam  Smith  (1770)  was  the  first 
English  writer  who  dared  to  deny,  not  only  the 
policy,  but  the  justice  of  these  features  in  the 
British  colonial  system.  In  his  Wealth  of  Na¬ 
tions,  he  says,  after  giving  an  outline  of  that 
system  :  “  To  prohibit  a  great  people,  however, 
from  making  all  they  can  of  every  part  of  their 
own  produce,  or  from  employing  their  stock  and 
industry  in  the  way  they  judge  most  advanta¬ 
geous  to  themselves,  is  a  manifest  violation  of 
the  most  sacred  rights  of  mankiud.” 

Colonial  Peace,  Treaty  for.  Ou  the  16th 
of  November,  1686,  a  treaty  of  peace  aud  neu¬ 
trality  was  concluded  at  London  between  Eng¬ 
land  and  France,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that 
there  should  be  a  firm  peace,  as  well  in  South 
as  in  North  America,  ou  the  continents  and  isl¬ 
ands,  by  sea  and  land  ;  that  no  soldiers  or  armed 
men  living  either  in  the  English  or  Frencli- 
American  colonies  and  islands  should  commit 
any  act  of  hostility  or  damage  to  either  party, 
or  give  any  assistance  or  supplies  of  men  or 
victuals  ‘‘to  the  wild  Indians”  with  whom 
either  king  should  have  war;  that  both  parties 
should  enjoy  the  possessions  and  prerogatives 


they  then  possessed ;  that  the  governors  and 
officers  of  either  nation  should  be  strictly  en¬ 
joined  to  give  no  assistance  or  protection  to 
any  pirates  of  whatever  nation,  and  should  pun¬ 
ish  as  pirates  all  such  as  should  fit  out  any  ship 
without  lawful  commission  aud  authority. 

Colonial  Policy  of  William  III.  The  Con¬ 
vention  Parliament  that  gave  the  crown  of  Eng¬ 
land  to  William  and  Mary  adopted  a  Bill  of 
Rights,  which  the  new  monarchs  confirmed  by 
their  signatures.  It  recited  the  grievances  suf¬ 
fered  by  the  people  during  the  preceding  reign, 
and  solemnly  asserted  the  right  of  subjects  to 
petition  ;  the  right  of  Parliament  to  freedom  of 
debate ;  the  right  of  electors  to  choose  represent¬ 
atives  freely,  and  other  privileges  as  rights  of 
the  people.  This  Bill  of  Rights  contained  the 
fundamental  principles  of  political  liberty,  yet 
the  crown  hesitated  to  apply  them  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish  people  who  formed  the  American  colonies. 
The  most  renowned  jurists  of  the  reign  of  Will¬ 
iam  seem  not  to  have  formed  a  complete  concep¬ 
tion  of  the  true  connective  principle  between  the 
parent  country  and  its  colonies  ;  of  the  extent  of 
the  royal  prerogative  as  applied  to  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  each  ;  while  the  jurisdiction  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  was  by  all  admitted  to  be  coextensive  with 
the  boundaries  of  the  empire.  When  the  colo¬ 
nial  assemblies,  in  imitation  of  the  Convention 
Parliament,  hastened  to  enact  bills  of  rights, 
William,  who  seems  to  have  abated  nothing  of 
the  high  ground  of  his  predecessors  concerning 
royal  prerogatives,  gave  decided  and  repeated 
negatives.  He  negatived  provincial  acts  for  es¬ 
tablishing  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus ;  he  con¬ 
tinued  the  prohibition  of  printing  in  the  colo¬ 
nies,  introduced  by  James  into  his  instructions 
for  the  royal  governors;  and  statesmen  aud  ju¬ 
rists  of  liberal  views  recognized  an  extent  of 
the  royal  prerogative  in  the  colonies  which  they 
desired  at  home.  Chief-justice  Holt  advised 
his  sovereign  to  assume  the  government  of 
Maryland  ou  a  supposed  necessity,  without  any 
forms  of  law  ;  and  another  distinguished  jurist 
doubted  how  far  the  Marylanders  were  entitled 
to  the  benefit  of  Magna  Charta.  And  the  wisest 
cabinet  William  ever  had  denied  to  the  New- 
Englanders  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  because  “  it  had  never  been  conferred  ou 
the  colonists  by  any  king  of  Englaud.”  Mr. 
Locke,  with  other  philosophers  (see  Fundament¬ 
al  Constitutions )  solemnly  advised  the  sovereign 
to  appoint  “a  captain -general  over  the  Eng- 
lish-American  colonies,  with  dictatorial  power 
to  levy  and  command  an  army  without  their 
own  consent,  or  even  the  approbation  of  Parlia¬ 
ment.” 

Colonial  Population,  Increase  of.  From 
the  English  Revolution  (1688)  to  the  beginning 
of  the  French  and  Indian  War  in  1754  (which  see), 
a  period  of  sixty-six  years,  the  growth  in  the  pop¬ 
ulation  had  been  rapid.  In  New  England,  the  in¬ 
crease  had  been  from  75,000  to  425,000 ;  New 
York,  from  20,000  to  85,000;  New  Jersey,  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland,  from  47,000 
to  372,000 ;  Virginia,  from  50,000  to  168,000 ;  and 
the  Caroliuas  and  Georgia,  from  8000  to  135,000. 


COLONIAL  USAGES  PEEPETUATED  271  COLONIZATION  SOCIETY,  AMERICAN 


In  1768  John  Dickinson  wrote  :  “  We  are  all 
tillers  of  the  earth  from  Nova  Scotia  to  West 
Florida.  We  are  a  people  of  cultivation,  scat¬ 
tered  over  au  immense  territory  ;  communica¬ 
ting  with  each  other  by  means  of  good  roads 
and  navigable  rivers;  united  by  the  hands  of  a 
mild  and  beneficent  government ;  all  respecting 
the  laws  without  dreading  their  power,  because 
they  are  equitable.” 

Colonial  Usages  Perpetuated.  The  Revo¬ 
lution  made  no  sudden  or  violent  change  in 
the  laws  or  political  institutions  of  America  be¬ 
yond  casting  off  the  superintending  power  of 
Great  Britain,  and  even  that  power  was  replaced, 
to  a  limited  extent,  by  the  authority  of  Con¬ 
gress.  The  most  marked  peculiarity  of  the 
change  was  the  public  recognition  of  the  theory 
of  the  equal  rights  of  man.  This  theory  was 
first  publicly  promulgated  by  the  First  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress  in  the  Declaration  of  Colonial 
Rights.  It  was  reiterated  in  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  and  was  tacitly  recognized  as  the 
foundation  of  all  the  state  governments.  Yet, 
to  a  great  extent,  it  remained  a  theory  only,  for 
human  slavery  was  fostered  and  defended,  by 
which  four  millions  of  the  people  of  the  Repub¬ 
lic  were  absolutely  deprived  of  their  natural 
rights,  when  the  proclamation  of  President  Lin¬ 
coln  (Jan.  1,  1863)  reduced  the  theory  to  prac¬ 
tice,  and  made  all  men  and  women  within  the 
United  States  absolutely  free.  (See  Emancipa¬ 
tion  Proclamation. ) ’  In  civil  affairs,  colonial 
usages,  in  modified  forms,  were  apparent.  In 
Pennsylvania,  two  persons  from  each  county 
were  to  he  chosen  every  seven  years  to  act  as  a 
“  Council  of  Censors,”  with  power  to  investigate 
all  branches  of  the  Constitution.  The  Constitu¬ 
tion  of  New  York  established  a  “  Council  of  Re¬ 
vision,”  composed  of  the  governor,  chancellor, 
and  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  to  which  were 
submitted  all  hills  about  to  pass  into  laws.  If 
objected  to  by  the  council,  a  majority  of  two 
thirds  in  both  branches  of  the  Legislature  was 
required  to  pass  them.  A  “  Council  of  Appoint¬ 
ment”  was  also  provided  for,  consisting  of  six¬ 
teen  senators,  to  be  annually  elected  by  the  As¬ 
sembly,  four  from  each  of  the  four  senatorial 
districts  into  which  the  state  was  at  first  divided. 
All  nominations  to  office  by  the  governor  re¬ 
quired  the  sanction  of  this  council.  By  the  Con¬ 
stitution  of  Georgia  all  mechanics,  even  though 
destitute  of  pecuniary  qualifications,  were  enti¬ 
tled  to  vote  by  virtue  of  their  trades ;  and  every 
person  entitled  to  vote  and  failing  to  do  so  was 
subjected  to  a  fine  of  five  pounds. 

Colonial  War  Expenditures.  The  English- 
Ainericau  colonies,  mindful  of  the  importance  of 
their  position,  and  of  the  necessity  for  defence 
against  the  encroachments  of  their  French  neigh¬ 
bors,  gave  freely  of  their  substance  to  carry  on 
the  contest  for  the  mastery.  The  Seven  Years’, 
or  French  and  Indian,  War  probably  cost  the 
colonies,  in  the  aggregate,  full  $20,000,000,  be¬ 
sides  the  flower  of  their  youth.  During  the  con¬ 
test,  from  1756  to  1763,  Parliament  granted  the 
colonies  about  $5,500,000,  leaving  the  latter  to 
suffer  the  loss  of  nearly  $15,000,000  by  exertions  i 


to  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  British  realm 
and  to  defend  their  homes  and  firesides.  Massa¬ 
chusetts  alone  had  expended  $2,500,000,  and  kept 
from  four  to  seven  thousand  men  in  the  field  a 
portion  of  each  year,  besides  garrisons  and  re¬ 
cruits  to  the  regular  regiments.  Connecticut 
had  expended  no  less  than  $2,000,000.  The  out¬ 
standing  debt  of  New  York,  incurred  by  the  war, 
was  nearly  $1,000,000,  and  of  Virginia  $800,000  ; 
and  the  other  Southern  colonies  had  spent  money 
freely.  By  disease  and  weapons  of  war  thirty 
thousand  colonial  soldiers  had  fallen  in  the 
struggle. 

Colonization  of  Negroes  First  Proposed. 

The  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  to  propose  a  scheme  for  the  colonization 
of  free  colored  people.  He  suggested  that  ne¬ 
groes  might  he  emancipated  and  a  “public  pro¬ 
vision  he  made  to  transport  them  to  Africa, 
where  they  might  probably  live  better  than  in 
any  other  country.”  Out  of  this  suggestion  un¬ 
doubtedly  originated  the  American  Colonization 
Society. 

Colonization  Society,  American.  The  idea 
of  restoring  Africans  in  America  to  their  native 
country  occupied  the  minds  of  philanthropists 
at  an  early  period.  It  seems  to  have  been  first 
suggested  by  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins  and  Rev. 
Ezra  Stiles,  of  Newport,  R.  I.,  where  the  African 
slave-trade  was  extensively  carried  on.  They 
issued  a  circular  on  the  subject  in  August,  1773, 
in  which  they  invited  subscriptions  to  a  fund 
for  founding  a  colony  of  free  negroes  from  Amer¬ 
ica  on  the  western  shore  of  Africa.  A  contribu¬ 
tion  was  made  by  ladies  of  Newport  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  1774,  and  aid  was  received  from  Massachu¬ 
setts  and  Connecticut.  After  the  Revolution 
the  effort  was  renewed  by  Dr.  Hopkins,  and  he 
endeavored  to  make  arrangements  by  which  free 
blacks  from  America  might  join  the  English  col¬ 
ony  at  Sierra  Leone,  established  in  1787,  for  a 
liomljffor  destitute  Africans  from  different  parts 
of  the  world,  and  for  promoting  African  civiliza¬ 
tion.  He  failed.  In  1793  he  proposed  a  plan  of 
colonization  to  he  carried  on  by  the  several 
states  and  by  the  national  government.  He  per¬ 
severed  in  his  unavailing  efforts  until  bis  death, 
in  1803.  The  subject  continued  to  be  agitated 
from  time  to  time,  and  in  1815  a  company  of 
thirty-eight  colored  persons  emigrated  to  Sierra 
Leone  from  New  Bedford.  Steps  had  been  taken 
as  early  as  1811  for  the  organization  of  a  coloni¬ 
zation  society.  A  meeting  at  Princeton,  at  which 
Samuel  J.  Mills,  the  eminent  promoter  of  mis¬ 
sions,  R.  B.  Finley,  E.  B.  Caldwell,  and  F.  S.  Key 
were  conspicuous,  considered  such  a  proposition  ; 
and  on  Dec.  23,  1816,  the  constitution  of  “The 
American  Colonization  Society  ”  was  adopted  at 
a  meeting  in  Washington,  and  the  first  officers 
were  chosen  Jan.  1, 1817.  All  reference  to  eman¬ 
cipation,  present  or  future,  was  specially  dis¬ 
claimed  by  the  society,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
current  session  of  Congress  Henry  Clay,  John 
Randolph,  Bushrod  Washington,  and  other  slave¬ 
holders  took  a  leading  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  society.  The  same  year  (1817)  Mr.  Mills  and 
Ebeuezor  Burgess  wore  sent  to  Africa  to  select  a 


COLONIZATION  SOCIETY,  AMERICAN  272  COLORADO,  THE  STATE  OF 


site  for  the  colony.  They  chose  Sherboro  Island 
and  the  coast  adjoining;  but  the  settlement  was 
finally  made  at  Cape  Mesurada,  between  Sierra 
Leone  and  the  Ivory  Coast.  In  March,  1819, 
Congress  appropriated  $100,000  for  the  purpose 
of  sending  back  to  Africa  such  slaves  as  should 
be  surreptitiously  imported.  Provision  was  made 
for  agents  and  emigrants  to  be  sent  out,  and 
early  in  1820  the  society  appointed  an  agent, 
put  $30,000  at  his  disposal,  and  sent  in  a  govern¬ 
ment  vessel  thirty-eight  emigrants,  who  were  to 
erect  tents  for  the  reception  of  at  least  three  hun¬ 
dred  recaptured  Africans.  The  society  was  rep¬ 
resented  in  the  colony  by  Jehudi  Ashmun,  who 
arrived  there  Aug.  3,  1822.  The  agents  of  the 
United  States  were  instructed  not  to  exercise 
any  authority  over  the  colonists,  and  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  colony  was  assumed  by  the  soci¬ 
ety.  A  constitution  for  the  colony  (which  was 
named  Liberia)  was  adopted  (Jan.  24,  1820),  by 
which  all  the  powers  of  the  government  were 
•vested  in  the  agent  for  the  society.  But  the  col¬ 
onists  demurred,  and  Ashmun  abandoned  the 
undertaking.  In  1824  a  plan  for  a  civil  govern¬ 
ment  in  Liberia  was  adopted,  by  which  the  so¬ 
ciety  retained  the  privilege  of  ultimate  decision. 
Another  constitution  was  adopted  in  1828,  by 
which  most  of  the  civil  power  was  secured  to 
the  colonists.  In  1841  Joseph  J.  Roberts,  a  col¬ 
ored  man,  was  appointed  governor  by  the  soci¬ 
ety.  Import  duties  were  levied  on  foreign  goods, 
and  out  of  this  grew  a  temporary  difficulty  with 
the  British  government.  British  subjects  vio¬ 
lated  the  navigation  law  with  impunity,  and 
when  the  British  government  was  appealed  to, 
the  .answer  was  that  Liberia  had  no  national  ex¬ 
istence.  In  this  emergency  the  society  surren¬ 
dered  such  governmental  power  as  it  had  re¬ 
tained,  and  recommended  the  colony  to  proclaim 
itself  a  sovereign  independent  state.  It  was 
done,  and  such  a  declaration  of  independence 
was  made  July  26, 1847.  The  next  year  the  in¬ 
dependence  of  Liberia  was  acknowledged  %  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  France.  So  the 
American  Colonization  Society  became  mainly 
instrumental  in  the  foundation  of  Liberia,  and 
of  having  sustained  the  colony  until  it  became 
self-supporting.  Since  that  consummation  the 
society  has  continued  to  send  out  emigrants,  and 
to  furnish  them  with  provisions  and  temporary 
dwellings;  and  it  has  materially  aided  the  state 
in  the  development  of  its  commerce  and  agri¬ 
culture.  It  has  also  aided  in  the  dissemination 
of  Christianity  in  that  region,  and  in  the  promo¬ 
tion  of  education  and  the  general  welfare  of  the 
country.  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery  the  num¬ 
ber  of  applicants  for  passage  to  Liberia  has  much 
increased.  The  whole  amount  of  receipts  of  the 
society  from  its  foundation  to  1875  was,  in  round 
numbers,  $2,400,000,  and  those  of  the  auxiliary 
societies  a  little  more  than  $400,000.  The  whole 
number  of  emigrants  that  had  been  sent  out 
to  that  date  by  the  parent  society  was  nearly 
fourteen  thousand,  and  the  Maryland  Society 
had  sent  about  twelve  hundred  and  fifty ;  also 
live  thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty -two 
Africans  recaptured  by  the  United  States  gov¬ 
ernment  had  been  returned.  The  society  has 


had  five  presidents — namely,  Bushrod  Washing¬ 
ton,  Charles  Carroll,  James  Madison,  Henry  Clay, 
and  J.  H.  B.  Latrobe  —  all  slaveholders.  (See 
Liberia.) 

Colony  on  the  Santilla.  On  the  banks  of  the 
Santilla,  in  the  remote  South,  below  the  Alfama- 
lia,  and  on  Cumberland  Island,  on  the  coast,  a 
band  of  adventurers  seated  themselves  in  1756, 
and  established  a  colony,  which  they  called  New 
Hanover.  They  framed  rules  for  its  government, 
and  held  possession  of  the  country  southward  as 
far  as  the  St.  Mary’s  River,  in  defiance  of  any 
warnings  from  the  government  of  South  Caroli¬ 
na,  and  from  the  Spaniards  of  St.  Augustine. 

Colorado,  Admission  of  the  State  of.  On 
July  4,  1876,  Colorado  Territory,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  had  applied  for  admission  into  theUuion 
more  than  ten  years  before,  was  admitted  as  a 
state.  It  was  the  crowning  act  of  the  first  cen¬ 
tury  of  the  political  existence  of  the  Republic. 
That  act  made  the  number  of  states  thirty-eight ; 
and  the  number  of  territories  then  remaining, 
and  preparing  to  become  states,  was  ten.  Two 
bounded  domains  —  namely,  Alaska  and  the  In¬ 
dian  Territory  (which  see) — had  not  yet  secured 
territorial  governments.  Alaska  received  a  Dis¬ 
trict  Government  in  May,  1884. 

Colorado,  The  State  of,  a  mountainous  and 
high  plateau  region,  between  Kansas  and  Ne¬ 
braska  on  the  east,  Utah  on  the  west,  Wyoming 
Territory  on  the  north,  and  New  Mexico  and 
Texas  on  the  south,  was  organized  as  a  territory 

Feb.  28,  1861,  from 
parts  of  its  several 
contiguous  neigh¬ 
bors.  The  portion 
north  of  the  Arkan¬ 
sas  River,  and  east 
of  the  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tains,  was  included 
in  the  Louisiana  pur¬ 
chase  of  1803  (  see 
Louisiana),  and  the 
remainder  in  the 
Mexican  cession  of 
1848.  Francis  Vas- 
quez  de  Coronado  (which  see)  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  first  European  explorer  of  this 
region  in  1540.  In  1806  President  Jefferson 
sent  an  expedition,  under  Lieutenant  Z.M.  Pike, 
to  explore  this  region,  and  they  nearly  crossed 
the  territory  from  north  to  south  in  the  moun¬ 
tain  region,  and  discovered  the  mountain  known 
as  Pike’s  Peak.  In  1820  another  expedition, 
under  Colonel  S.  H.  Long,  visited  this  region  ; 
and  in  1842-44  Colonel  Fremont  crossed  it  in  his 
famous  passage  over  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Be¬ 
fore  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  is  be¬ 
lieved  that  no  white  inhabitants  lived  in  Colora¬ 
do,  excepting  a  few  Mexicans  and  Spaniards  in 
the  southern  portion.  Gold  was  discovered  there, 
near  the  mouth  of  Clear  Creek,  in  1852  by  a  Cher¬ 
okee  cattle-trader.  This  and  other  discoveries  of 
the  precious  metal  had  brought  about  four  hun¬ 
dred  persons  to  Colorado  in  1858-59  ;  and  the  first 
discovery  of  a  gold-bearing  lode  was  by  John  H. 
Gregory,  May  6,  1859,  in  what  is  now  known  as 


273 


COLUMBUS 


COLORS,  SURRENDER  OF' 


the  “  Gregory  Mining  District,”  in  Gilpin  County. 
An  attempt  to  organize  government  among  the 
miners  was  made  by  the  erection  of  Arapahoe 
County,  and  the  election  of  a  representative  to 
the  Kansas  Legislature,  Nov.  6, 1858.  He  was  in¬ 
structed  to  urge  the  separation  of  the  district 
from  Kansas  and  the  organization  of  a  new  ter¬ 
ritory.  The  first  movement  for  a  territorial  gov¬ 
ernment  was  by  a  convention  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  delegates  held  at  Denver  in  the  au¬ 
tumn  of  1859,  who  decided  to  memorialize  Con¬ 
gress  on  the  subject.  Colorado  was  admitted  as 
a  state  J uly  4, 1876.  Population  in  1880, 194, 327. 

Colors,  Surrender  of,  at  Yorktown.  The 
delivery  of  the  colors  of  the  several  British  regi¬ 
ments  at  Yorktown,  twenty- eight  in  number, 
was  performed  in  this  wise :  twenty-eight  Brit¬ 
ish  captains,  each  hearing  a  flag  in  a  case,  were 
drawn  up  in  line.  Opposite  to  these  were  twen¬ 
ty-eight  American  sergeants  in  a  line  to  receive 
them.  Colonel  Hamilton,  who  had  the  direction 
of  the  movement,  appointed  an  ensign  to  couduct 
the  ceremony.  When  that  officer  gave  the  order 
for  the  British  captains  to  advance  two  paces 
and  deliver  up  their  colors,  and  the  American 
sergeants  to  advance  two  paces  to  receive  them, 
the  former  hesitated,  and  gave  as  a  reason  that 
they  were  unwilling  to  surrender  their  flags  to 
non-commissioned  officers.  Hamilton,  who  was 
at  a  distance,  observed  the  hesitation,  and  rode 
up  to  inquire  the  cause.  On  being  informed,  he 
willingly  spared  the  feelings  of  the  vanquished 
captains,  and  ordered  the  ensign  to  receive  them 
himself  and  hand  them  to  the  sergeants. 

Columbia,  Capture  of.  There  was  no  ade¬ 
quate  military  force  for  the  protection  of  Colum¬ 
bia,  the  capital  of  South  Carolina,  when  Sher¬ 
man’s  army  appeared  before  it,  Feb.  16,  1865. 
Beauregard  was  in  command  of  troops  there  who 
burned  bridges  spanning  the  Congaree  and  Sa¬ 
luda  rivers,  but  could  not  keep  the  Nationals 
back.  Beauregard  made  a  slight  show  of  resist¬ 
ance  and  withdrew,  Wade  Hampton,  in  command 
of  the  rear-guard,  lingering  in  the  town  until  the 
Nationals  were  about  to  enter  it.  Sherman  gave 
orders  for  the  destruction  of  all  arsenals  and  pub¬ 
lic  property  not  needed  for  the  use  of  the  army, 
as  well  as  all  railroads,  depots,  and  machinery, 
but  to  “spare  all  dwellings,  colleges,  schools, 
asylums,  and  harmless  private  property.”  On 
the  evening  of  Feb.  17  Sherman  and  Howard 
rode  into  the  city.  It  had  been  surrendered  by 
the  civil  authorities  to  Colonel  Stone,  who  had 
posted  men  about  the  town  to  protect  persons 
and  property.  The  wind  was  then  blowing  a 
gale.  Wade  Hampton,  regardless  of  danger  to 
the  city,  ordered  all  the  cotton  in  the  town  to  he 
burned,  to  prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  invaders.  When  Sherman  entered,  the  cot¬ 
ton  was  in  the  streets,  with  the  cords  and  bag¬ 
ging  cut.  Some  of  the  hales  were  already  on 
fire  by  Hampton’s  orders.  The  wind  scattered 
the  burning  cotton,  which  set  fire  to  the  roofs 
of  houses  in  various  parts  of  the  city.  The  Na¬ 
tional  troops  partially  subdued  the  flames,  but 
they  broke  out  afresh  in  the  night,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours  the  beautilul  capital  ot 
I.— 18 


South  Carolina  was  a  smoking  ruin.  Hampton 
ungenerously  charged  the  conflagration  to  Sher¬ 
man. 

Columbus  and  the  Courtier.  Mendoza, 
Grand  Cardinal  of  Spain,  after  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  had  honored  Columbus  on  his  return 
from  his  first  voyage,  invited  him  to  a  feast, 
and,  giving  the  navigator  the  honored  seat  at 
table,  excited  the  jealousy  of  some  of  the  no¬ 
bility  present.  A  courtier,  moved  by  a  narrow 
feeling  of  personal  aud  national  jealousy  —  for 
Columbus  was  lately  only  a  poor  Italian  — 
asked  the  admiral,  in  a  flippant  manner,  wheth¬ 
er  he  thought  that,  in  case  he  had  not  discov¬ 
ered  the  Indies  (which  it  was  believed  he  had 
found),  there  were  not  men  in  Spain  who  would 
have  been  equal  to  the  enterprise  ?  Columbus 
immediately  took  an  egg  that  was  before  him, 
and  invited  the  courtier  to  make  it  stand  on 
one  of  its  ends.  He  could  not.  All  the  company 
tried  in  vain  to  do  it.  Then  Columbus  struck 
the  egg  upon  the  table,  so  as  to  flatten  the  end 
by  a  fracture,  and  left  it  standing.  “  Any  oue 
could  do  that,”  said  the  courtier.  “After  I 
have  shown  the  way,”  replied  the  admiral. 
“  Gentlemen,”  he  continued,  “after  I  have 
shown  a  new  way  to  India,  nothing  is  easier 
than  to  follow.”  The  courtier  was  answered. 

Columbus  as  a  Prophet.  Returning  from 
Central  America  (1503),  Columbus  was  wrecked 
on  the  island  of  Jamaica.  He  sent  to  Santo 
Domingo  for  succor,  but  none  came  for  months 
afterwards.  The  Spaniards  becoming  burden¬ 
some  to  the  natives,  the  latter  contemplated 
the  destruction  of  Columbus  aud  his  party. 
The  astronomical  knowledge  of  the  latter  en¬ 
abled  him  to  overawe  the  natives.  He  told 
them  the  auger  of  God  would  he  manifested  on 
a  particular  night  by  withdrawing  the  light  of 
the  moon,  and,  if  they  continued  to  refuse  sup¬ 
port  to  the  white  people — who  were  the  special 
favorites  of  the  Great  Spirit  —  they  would  be 
destroyed.  At  the  time  predicted  an  eclipse 
of  the  moon  occurred.  The  barbarians  were 
struck  with  terror,  and  instantly  brought  him 
an  ample  supply  of  provisions,  begging  him  to 
ask  the  Great  Spirit  to  spare  them.  He  did  so. 
The  eclipse  went  off,  and  from  that  day  the  na¬ 
tives  avoided  giving  ofl'ence  to  the  great  navi¬ 
gator  and  his  companions. 

Columbus,  Bartholomew,  elder  brother  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  was  born  in  Genoa  about 
1432;  died  in  1514.  In  1470,  when  Christopher 
went  to  Lisbon,  Bartholomew  was  there  en¬ 
gaged  as  a  mariner  and  a  constructor  of  maps 
and  charts.  It  is  believed  that  he  visited  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  with  Bartholomew  Diaz. 
Christopher  sent  him  to  England  to  seek  the 
aid  of  Henry  VII.  in  making  a  voyage  of  discov¬ 
ery.  He  was  captured  by  pirates,  and  long  re¬ 
tained  a  captive;  aud,  on  his  return  through 
France,  he  first  heard  of  his  brother’s  great  dis¬ 
covery  beyond  the  Atlantic,  and  that  he  had 
sailed  on  a  second  voyage.  Bartholomew  was 
cordially  received  at  the  Spanish  court,  and 
Queen  Isabella  sent  him  in  command  of  three 
store-ships  for  the  colony  in  Hispaniola,  or 


COLUMBUS 


274 


COLUMBUS 


Santo  Domingo.  His  brother  received  him 
witli  joy,  and  made  him  lieutenant-governor 
of  the  Indies.  He  was  uncommonly  brave  and 
energetic,  and,  when  his  brother  was  sent  to 
Spain  in  chains,  Bartholomew  shared  his  im¬ 
prisonment,  was  released  with  him,  and  was 
made  Lord  of  Mona — an  island  near  Santo  Do¬ 
mingo. 

Columbus,  Christopher  (Cristoforo  Colum- 
bo),  was  born  in  or  near  Genoa  about  the 
year  1435.  At  the  age  of  ten  years  he  was 
placed  in  the  University  of  Pavia,  where  he 
was  instructed  in  the  sciences  which  pertain 
to  navigation.  In  1450  he  entered  the  marine 
service  of  Genoa,  and  remained  in  it  twenty 
years.  His  brother,  Bartholomew,  was  then 
in  Lisbon,  engaged  in  constructing  maps  and 
charts,  and  making  an  occasional  voyage  at 
sea.  Thither  Christopher  went  in  1470.  Prince 


CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 


Henry  of  Portugal  was  then  engaged  in  ex¬ 
plorations  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  seeking 
for  a  passage  to  India  south  of  that  continent. 
The  merchants  of  western  Europe  were  then 
debarred  from  participation  in  the  rich  com¬ 
merce  of  the  East  by  way  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  by  their  powerful  and  jealous  rivals  the 
Italians,  and  this  fact  stimulated  explorations 
for  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa.  Prince 
Henry  had  persisted  in  his  etforts  in  the  face 
of  opposition  of  priests  and  learned  professors, 
and  had  already,  by  actual  discovery  by  his 
navigators,  exploded  the  erroneous  belief  that 
the  equator  was  impassable  because  of  the  ex¬ 
treme  heat  of  the  air  and  water.  Columbus 
hoped  to  find  employment  in  the  prince’s  ser¬ 
vice,  but  Henry  died  soon  after  the  Genoese  ar¬ 
rived  in  Lisbon.  In  the  chapel  of  the  Convent 
of  All-Saints  at  Lisbon,  Columbus  became  ac¬ 
quainted  with  Felipa,  daughter  of  Palestrello, 


an  Italian  cavalier  then  dead,  who  had  been 
one  of  the  most  trusted  of  Prince  Henry’s  navi¬ 
gators.  Mutual  love  led  to  marriage.  The 
bride’s  mother  placed  in  the  hands  of  Colum¬ 
bus  the  papers  of  her  husband,  which  opened 
to  his  mind  a  new'  field  of  contemplation  and 
ambition.  The  desire  for  making  explorations 
in  the  western  waters  was  powerfully  stimu¬ 
lated  by  stories  of  vegetable  productions,  tim¬ 
ber  handsomely  carved,  and  the  bodies  of  two 
men  with  dusky  skins,  which  had  been  washed 
ashore  at  the  Azores  from  some  unknown  land 
in  the  west.  These  had  actually  been  seen  by 
Pedro  Correo,  a  brother  of  the  wife  of  Colum¬ 
bus.  These  things  confirmed  Columbus  in  his 
belief  that  the  earth  was  a  sphere,  and  that 
Asia  might  be  reached  by  sailing  westward 
from  Europe.  He  laid  plans  for  explorations, 
and,  in  1474,  communicated  them  to  the  learned 
Florentine  cosmographer,  Paul  Toscanelli, 
who  gave  him  an  encouraging  answer,  and 
sent  him  a  map  constructed  partly  from 
Ptolemy’s  and  {tartly  from  descriptions  of 
Farther  India  by  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian 
traveller  who  told  of  Cathay  (China)  and 
Zipango  (Japan)  in  the  12th  century.  In 
1477  Columbus  sailed  northwest  from  Por¬ 
tugal  beyond  Iceland  to  latitude  73°,  when 
pack-ice  turned  him  back  ;  and  it  is  be¬ 
lieved  that  he  went  southward  as  far  as 
the  coast  of  Guinea.  Unable  to  lit  out 
a  vessel  for  himself,  it  is  stated  that  he 
first  applied  for  aid,  but  in  vain,  to  the 
Genoese.  With  like  ill -success  he  ap¬ 
plied  to  King  John  of  Portugal,  who  fa¬ 
vored  his  suit,  but  priests  and  professors 
interposed  controlling  objections.  The 
king,  however,  sent  a  caravel  ostensibly 
with  provisions  for  the  Cape  de  Verd 
Islands,  but  with  secret  instructions  to  the 
commander  to  pursue  a  course  westward 
indicated  by  Columbus.  The  fears  of  the 
mariners  caused  them  to  turn  back  from 
the  threatenings  of  the  turbulent  Atlantic. 
Disgusted  with  this  pitiful  trick,  reduced 
to  poverty,  and  having  lost  his  wife,  he 
determined  to  leave  Portugal  and  ask  aid 
elsewhere.  With  his  son,  Diego,  he  left  Lis¬ 
bon  for  Spain  secretly  in  1484,  while  his  brother, 
Bartholomew,  prepared  to  go  to  England  to  ask 
aid  for  the  projected  enterprise  from  Henry  VII. 
Genoa  again  declined  to  help  him ;  so  also  did 
Venice;  and  he  applied  to  the  powerful  and 
wealthy  Spanish  Dukes  of  Medina-Sidonia  and 
Medina-Celi.  They  declined,  but  the  latter  rec¬ 
ommended  the  project  to  Qneeu  Isabella  (see 
Isabella),  then  with  her  court  at  Cordova,  who 
requested  the  navigator  to  be  sent  to  her.  In 
that  city  he  became  attached  to  Donna  Beatrice 
Enriques,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Ferdinand, 
born  in  1487,  who  became  the  biographer  of  his 
father.  It  was  an  inauspicious  moment  for  Co¬ 
lumbus  to  lay  his  projects  before  the  Spanish 
monarchs,  for  their  courts  were  moving  from 
place  to  place,  in  troublous  times,  surrounded 
by  the  din  and  pageantry  of  war.  But  at  Sala¬ 
manca  he  was  introduced  to  King  Ferdinand  by 
Mendoza,  Archbishop  of  Toledo  and  Grand  Car- 


COLUMBUS 


275 


COLUMBUS 


dinal  of  Spain.  A  council  of  astronomers  and 
cosmographers  was  assembled  at  Salamanca  to 
consider  tbe  project.  They  decided  that  the 
scheme  was  visionary,  unscriptural,  and  irre¬ 
ligious,  and  the  navigator  was  in  danger  of  ar¬ 
raignment  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisi¬ 
tion.  For  seven  years  longer  the  patient  navi¬ 
gator  waited,  while  the  Spanish  monarchs  were 
engaged  with  the  Moors  in  Granada,  during 
which  time  Columbus  served  in  the  army  as  a 
volunteer.  Meanwhile  the  King  of  Portugal  had 
invited  him  (1488)  to  return,  aud  Henry  VII. 
had  also  invited  him  by  letter  to  come  to  the 
court  of  England,  giving  him  encouraging  prom- 


Palos,  with  scientific  men,  were  invited  to  the 
convent  to  confer  with  Columbus,  and  Piuzon 
offered  to  furnish  aud  command  a  ship  for  ex¬ 
plorations.  Marcheua,  who  had  been  Queen  Isa¬ 
bella’s  confessor,  wrote  to  her,  asking  an  inter¬ 
view  with  her  for  Columbus.  It  was  granted. 
Marcheua  rode  to  the  camp  of  the  monarchs  at 
Santa  Fd,  when  the  queen  sent  a  little  more 
than  two  hundred  dollars  to  Columbus  to  en¬ 
able  him  to  appear  decently  at  court.  He  ex¬ 
plained  his  project  to  the  sovereigns.  He  had 
already,  by  the  operations  of  a  poetic  tempera¬ 
ment,  regarded  himself  as  a  preordained  gospel- 
bearer  to  the  heathen  of  unknown  lands.  His 


THU  SHIPS  OP  COI.UMI1US. 


ises  of  aid.  But  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  treated 
him  kindly,  and  he  remained  in  Spain  until  1491, 
when  ho  set  out  to  lay  his  projects  before  Charles 
VIII.  of  France.  On  his  way,  at  the  close  of  a 
beautiful  October  day,  he  stopped  at  the  gate 
of  the  Franciscan  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  de 
Kabida,  near  the  port  of  Palos,  in  Andalusia, 
and  asked  for  refreshment  for  his  boy,  Diego. 
The  prior  of  the  convent,  Juan  Perez  de  Mar- 
chena  became  interested  in  the  conversation  of 
the  stranger,  and  he  invited  him  to  remain  as 
his  guest.  To  him  Columbus  unfolded  his  plans. 
Alonzo  Pinzou  aud  other  eminent  navigators  at 


name  implied  it — “  Christ- bearer and  hear¬ 
ing  that  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  intended  to  de¬ 
stroy  the  sepulchre  of  Jesus,  lie  recorded  a  vow 
that  he  would  devote  the  proceeds  of  his  ex¬ 
plorations  to  the  rescue  of  that  holy  place  from 
destruction.  He  urged  his  suit  with  eloquence, 
but  the  queen’s  confessor  opposed  the  demands 
of  Columbus,  and  he  left  Granada — just  con¬ 
quered  from  the  Moors — for  France.  A  more 
enlightened  civil  officer  at  court  remonstrated, 
and  the  queen  sent  for  him  to  return.  Ferdi¬ 
nand  said  their  wars  had  so  exhausted  the  treas¬ 
ury  that  money  could  not  bo  spared  lor  the  en- 


COLUMBUS 


276 


COLUMBUS 


terprise.  Tlie  queen  declared  that  she  would 
pledge  her  crown  jewels,  if  necessary,  to  supply 
the  money,  and  would  undertake  the  enterprise 
for  her  own  crown  of  Castile.  (See  Isabella.) 
An  agreement  was  signed  by  their  majesties 
and  Columbus  at  Santa  F6,  April  17,  1492,  by 
which  he  and  his  heirs  should  forever  have  the 
office  of  admiral  over  all  lands  he  might  discov¬ 
er,  with  honors  equal  to  those  of  Grand  Admiral 
of  Castile ;  that  he  should  be  viceroy  aud  gov¬ 
ernor-general  over  the  same ;  that  he  should  re¬ 
ceive  one  tenth  of  all  mineral  aud  other  prod¬ 
ucts  that  might  be  obtained ;  that  he  and  his 
lieutenants  should  be  the  sole  judges  in  all  dis¬ 
putes  that  might  arise  between  his  jurisdiction 
aud  Spain,  and  that  he  might  advance  one 


nous — some  indications  of  land  were  discovered 
late  iu  the  night  of  the  11th  of  October.  Many 
times  they  had  been  deceived  by  presages  of 
land,  and  what  they  thought  were  actual  dis¬ 
coveries  of  it.  The  crown  had  offered  a  little 
more  than  one  hundred  dollars  to  the  man  who 
should  first  discover  land,  and  to  this  Columbus 
added  the  prize  of  a  silken  doublet.  All  eyes 
were  continually  on  the  alert.  At  ten  o’clock 
on  the  night  of  the  11th,  Columbus  was  on  his 
deck,  eagerly  watching  for  signs  of  land,  when 
he  discovered  a  light  on  the  verge  of  the  hori¬ 
zon.  Early  the  next  morning,  Rodrigo  Tricena, 
a  sailor  of  the  Pinta ,  first  saw  land;  but  the 
award  was  given  to  Columbus,  who  saw  the 
light  on  the  land.  At  dawn  a  wooded  shore 
lay  before  them ;  aud,  after  a  perilous  voy¬ 
age  of  seventy-one  days,  the  commander, 
with  the  banner  of  the  expedition  in  his 
hand,  leading  his  followers,  lauded,  as  they 
supposed,  on  the  shores  of  Farther  India. 
Columbus,  clad  in  scarlet  and  gold,  first 
touched  the  beach.  A  group  of  naked  na¬ 
tives,  with  skins  of  a 
copper  hue,  watched 
their  movements  with 
awe,  and  regarded  the 
strangers  as  gods.  Be¬ 
lieving  he  was  in  In¬ 
dia,  Columbus  called 
the  inhabitants  “  In¬ 
dians.”  (See  Indians.) 

Columbus  took  pos¬ 
session  of  the  land  in 
the  name  of  the  crown 
of  Castile.  He  soon 
discovered  it  to  be  an 
island  —  one  of  the 
Bahamas  —  which  he 
named  San  Salvador. 

Sailing  southward,  he 
discovered  Cuba,  Hay- 

ti  (see  Santo  Domingo),  BANNER  0P  TnE  EXPEDITI0N. 
and  other  islands,  and 

these  were  denominated  the  West  Indies. 
He  called  Hayti  Hispaniola,  or  Little  Spain. 
On  its  northern  shores  the  Santa  Maria  was 
wrecked.  With  her  timbers  he  built  a  fort, 
and  leaving  thirty-nine  men  there  to  defend 


it 


and  the  interests  of  Castile,  he  sailed  in 


landing  of  columbus.  (From  an  Ancient  Manuscript.) 

eighth  in  any  venture,  and  receive  a  corre¬ 
sponding  share  of  the  profits.  He  was  also 
authorized  to  enjoy  the  title  of  Don,  or  noble. 
The  monarchs  fitted  out  two  small  vessels — 
caravels,  or  undecked  ships  —  and  one  larger 
vessel.  Leaving  Diego  as  page  to  Prince  Juan, 
the  heir  apparent,  Columbus  sailed  from  Palos 
in  the  decked  vessel  Santa  Maria,  with  Martin 
Alonzo  Pinzon  as  commander  of  the  Pinta,  and 
his  brother,  Vincent  Yanez  Pinzon,  as  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Nina,  the  two  caravels.  They 
left  the  port  with  a  complement  of  officers  and 
crews  on  Friday  morning,  Aug.  3,  1492,  and  af¬ 
ter  a  voyage  marked  by  tempests — the  crew  in 
mortal  fear  most  of  the  time,  aud  at  last  muti¬ 


the  Nina  for  Spain  in  January,  1493,  taking 
with  him  several  natives  of  both  sexes.  On 
the  voyage  he  encountered  a  fearful  tem¬ 
pest,  but  arrived  safely  in  the  Tagus  early  in 
March,  where  the  King  of  Portugal  kindly  re¬ 
ceived  him.  On  the  15th  he  reached  Palos,  and 
hastened  to  the  court  at  Barcelona,  with  his  na¬ 
tives,  specimens  of  precious  metals,  beautiful 
birds,  and  other  products  of  the  newly  found 
regions.  There  he  was  received  with  great 
honors ;  all  his  dignities  were  reaffirmed,  and 
on  the  25th  of  September,  1493,  he  sailed  from 
Cadiz  with  a  fleet  of  seventeen  ships  and  fifteen 
hundred  men.  Most  of  these  were  merely  ad¬ 
venturers,  and  by  quarrels  aud  mutinies  gave 
the  admiral  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  After  dis¬ 
covering  the  Windward  Islands,  Jamaica,  and 
Porto  Rico,  founding  a  colony  on  Hispaniola,  and 


COLUMBUS 


277 


leaving  his  brother,  Bartholomew,  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  island,  he  returned  to  Spain, 
reaching  Cadiz  July  11, 1494.  Jealousy  had  pro¬ 
mulgated  many  slanders  concerning  him  ;  these 
were  all  swept  away  in  his  presence.  The  nobles 
were  jealous  of  him,  and  used  every  means  in 
their  power  to  thwart  his  grand  purposes  and 
to  bring  him  into  disrepute.  He  calmly  met 
their  opposition  by  reason,  and  often  confused 
them  by  simple  illustrations.  (See  Columbus 
and  the  Courtier .)  He  had  already,  by  his  suc¬ 
cess,  silenced  the  clamor  of  the  ignorant  and 
superstitious  priesthood  about  the  “  unscriptu- 
ral”  aud  “  irreligious”  character  of  his  proposi¬ 
tion,  and  finally,  on  May  30,  1498,  Columbus 
sailed  from  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda,  with  six 
ships,  on  his  third  voyage  of  discovery.  He 
took  a  more  southerly  course,  and  discovered 
the  continent  of  South  America  on  the  1st  of 
August, at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Orinoco,  which 
he  supposed  to  he  one  of  the  rivers  flowing  out 
of  Eden.  Having  discovered  several  islands, 
and  the  coast  of  Pard,  he  finally  went  to  Hispa¬ 
niola  to  recruit  his  enfeebled  health.  The  col¬ 
ony  was  in  great  disorder,  and  his  efforts  to  re¬ 
store  order  caused  him  to  be  made  the  victim 
of  jealousy  and  malice.  He  was  misrepresent¬ 
ed  at  the  Spanish  court,  and  Francisco  de  Bo- 
badilla  was  sent  from  Spain  to  inquire  into  the 
matter.  He  was  ambitious  and  unscrupulous, 
and  he  sent  Columbus  aud  his  brother  to  Spain 
in  chains,  usurping  the  government  of  the  isl¬ 
and.  The  commander  of  the  ship  that  conveyed 
him  across  the  sea  offered  to  liberate  him  while 
on  board  his  vessel.  “  No,”  he  proudly  replied ; 
“  the  chains  have  been  put  on  by  command  of 
their  majesties,  and  I  will  wear  them  until  they 
shall  order  them  to  he  taken  off.  I  will  pre¬ 
serve  them  afterwards  as  relics  and  memorials 
of  the  reward  of  my  services.”  The  monarchs 
and  the  people  of  Spain  were  indignant  at  this 
treatment  of  the  great  discoverer.  He  was  re¬ 
leased,  aud  Bobadilla  was  recalled,  hut,  through 
the  influence  of  the  jealous  Spanish  nobles,  Ni¬ 
colas  Ovando  was  appointed  by  the  king  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Hispaniola,  instead  of  Columbus.  The 
great  admiral  was  neglected  for  a  while,  when 
the  earnest  queen,  Isabella,  caused  an  expedi¬ 
tion  to  be  fitted  out  for  him,  and,  on  May  9, 
1502,  he  sailed  from  Cadiz  with  a  small  fleet, 
mostly  caravels.  He  was  not  allowed  to  refit 


A  SPANISH  CARAVEL. 


at  his  own  colony  of  Hispaniola  or  Santo  Domin¬ 
go,  aud  he  sailed  to  the  western  verge  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  in  search  of  a  passage  through 


COLUMBUS,  EVACUATION  OF 

what  he  always  believed  to  be  Zipango  (Japan) 
to  Cathay,  or  China.  After  great  sufferings,  he 
returned  to  Spain  in  November,  1504,  old  and  in¬ 
firm,  to  find  the  good  queeu  dead,  and  to  expe¬ 
rience  the  bitterness  of  neglect  from  Ferdinand, 
her  husband.  His  claims  were  rejected  by  the 
ungrateful  monarch,  and  he  lived  in  poverty 
and  obscurity  in  Valladolid  until  May  20,  1500, 
when  he  died.  In  a  touching  letter  to  a  friend 
just  before  his  death,  he  wrote,  “  I  have  no 
place  to  repair  to  except  an  inn,  and  am  often 
with  nothing  to  pay  for  my  sustenance.”  For 
seven  years  his  remains  lay  unnoticed  in  a  con¬ 
vent  at  Valladolid,  when  the  ashamed  Ferdi¬ 
nand  had  them  removed  to  a  monastery  in  Se¬ 
ville,  aud  erected  a  monument  to  his  memory  on 
which  were  inscribed  the  words,  “A  Castilla 
y  a  Leon  Nuevo  Mundo  Dio  Colon”— “To 
Castile  and  Leon  Columbus  gave  a  New  World.” 
He  died  in  the  belief  that  the  continent  he  had 
discovered  was  Asia.  His  remains  were  con¬ 
veyed  (with  those  of  his  son,  Diego),  in  1536,  to 
Santo  Domingo,  where  they  were  deposited  in 
the  cathedral,  and  there  they  yet  remain.  A 
noble  monument  to  his  memory  has  been  erect¬ 
ed  in  the  city  of  Genoa,  Italy.  (See  page  278.) 

Columbus,  Diego,  son  of  Christopher,  was 
born  about  the  year  1472,  in  Lisbon.  He  ac¬ 
companied  his  father  to  Spain,  and  was  in¬ 
structed,  in  his  youth,  at  the  Monastery  of 
Santa  Maria  de  Rabida,  near  Palos,  under  the 
care  of  Father  Marcliena,  the  prior  of  the  es¬ 
tablishment.  He  was  afterwards  nurtured  in 
the  bosom  of  the  Spanish  court  as  an  attend¬ 
ant  upon  Prince  Juan,  and  developed,  in  young 
manhood,  much  of  the  iudomitable  spirit  of  his 
father.  After  the  death  of  the  latter  he  made 
unavailing  efforts  to  procure  from  King  Ferdi¬ 
nand  the  offices  and  rights  secured  to  his  father 
and  his  descendants  by  solemn  contract.  At 
the  end  of  two  years  he  sued  the  king  before 
the  Council  of  the  Indies  (which  see),  aud  ob¬ 
tained  a  decree  in  his  favor  aud  a  confirmation 
of  his  title  to  the  vice-royalty  of  the  West  In¬ 
dies.  In  1509  he  sailed  for  Santo  Domingo  with 
his  young  wife,  and  superseded  Nicolas  Ovando 
as  governor,  who  had  been  wrongfully  put  in  that 
office  by  the  king.  (See  Santo  Domingo.)  The 
same  year  he  planted  a  settlement  in  Jamaica; 
and  in  1511  he  sent  Diego  Velasquez,  with  a 
small  number  of  troops,  to  conquer  Cuba,  and 
the  victor  was  made  captain-general  of  the  isl¬ 
and.  (See  Cuba.) 

Columbus  (Ky.),  Evacuation  of.  When 
Fort  Donelson  fell,  Columbus  was  no  longer 
tenable.  Beauregard  was  now  in  command  on 
the  borders  of  the  Mississippi,  aud,  pursuant  to 
orders  from  Richmond,  he  directed  General  Polk 
to  evacuate  Columbus  and  transfer  his  troops 
and  as  much  of  the  munitions  of  war  as  possible 
to  places  of  greater  safety.  New  Madrid  and 
New  Madrid  Bend,  in  Missouri,  and  Island  No. 
10,  in  the  Mississippi,  were  chosen  for  this  pur- 
*pose.  Meanwhile  Commodore  Foote  had  put  in 
motion  a  fleet  of  gunboats  on  the  Mississippi, 
aud  accompanying  transports  bore  two  thou¬ 
sand  troops  under  General  W.  T.  Sherman. 


COLUMBUS,  SHIP  OF,  WRECKED  278 


COMANCHES 


the  columbus  monument  in  Genoa.  (See  page  277.) 


When,  on  March  4,  1862,  this  armament  ap¬ 
proached  Columbus,  the  Union  flag  was  seen 
floating  there.  It  had  been  unfurled  the  pre¬ 
vious  evening  by  a  scouting-party  of  Illinois 
troops  from  Paducah,  who  found  the  place  de¬ 
serted  by  Confederate  soldiers.  Sherman  left  a 
garrison  in  the  fortifications,  and  Foote  return¬ 
ed  to  Cairo  to  prepare  for  a  siege  of  New  Madrid 
and  Island  No.  10. 

Columbus,  Ship  of.  wrecked.  After  Co¬ 
lumbus  discovered  the  island  of  Cuba  (which 
he  named  Juanna,  in  honor  of  the  son  of  the 
Spanish  monarch),  he  sailed  eastward  and  dis¬ 
covered  Hayti,  which  he  named  Hispaniola.  It 
was  afterwards  called  Santo  Domingo.  There, 
on  shoals,  his  careless  sailors  lost  one  of  his 
ships.  The  native  prince,  Guacanagari,  showed 
great  sympathy,  and  placed  a  guard  to  protect 
the  property  of  the  ship.  The  event  occurred  on 
Christmas-day,  and  Columbus  called  the  place 
La  Navidad — the  nativity.  The  natives  saved 


II  everything  from  the  wreck, 
treated  the  crew  kindly,  and 
were  requited  with  cruel  wrong. 

Column  of  Marble  at  York- 
town.  The  Continental  Con¬ 
gress,  sitting  at  Philadelphia, 
when  the  glad  news  of  the 
capture  of  Cornwallis  and  his 
army  reached  them,  passed  a 
vote  of  thanks  to  Washington, 
Rochambeau,  and  De  Grasse, 
the  corps  of  artillery  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Knox,  and  their  respective 
officers  and  men.  Also,  on  the 
same  day  the  Congress  re¬ 
solved,  “That  the  United  States, 
in  Congress  assembled,  will 
cause  to  be  erected  at  York, 
in  Virginia,  a  marble  column, 
adorned  with  emblems  of  the 
alliance  between  the  United 
States  and  his  Christian  majes¬ 
ty,  and  inscribed  with  a  suc¬ 
cinct  narrative  of  the  surrender 
of  Earl  Cornwallis  to  his  ex¬ 
cellency  General  Washington, 
Commander-in-chief  of  the  com¬ 
bined  forces  of  America  and 
France;  to  his  excellency  the 
Count  de  Rochambeau,  com¬ 
manding  the  auxiliary  troops 
of  his  most  Christian  majesty 
in  America ;  and  to  his  ex¬ 
cellency  the  Count  de  Grasse, 
commanding  the  naval  forces 
of  France  in  Chesapeake  Bay.” 
The  column  has  never  been 
erected. 

Colyer’s  Christian  Work  at 
New  Berne.  Vincent  Colyer, 
a  well-known  citizen  of  New 
York,  and  originator  of  the 
United  States  Christian  Com¬ 
mission  (which  see),  was  with 
Burnside  in  his  expedition  to 
the  coast  of  North  Carolina, 
for  the  purpose  of  administering  to  the  wants 
of  the  poor  and  ignorant  colored  people.  After 
the  capture  of  New  Berne  (which  see),  and  his 
labors  in  the  hospitals  .were  ended,  he  was 
placed,  by  Burnside,  in  charge  of  the  helpless 
inhabitants  of  that  town.  He  began  his  benev¬ 
olent  work  by  finding  remunerative  labor  for 
the  able-bodied.  He  opened  evening-schools  for 
the  instruction  of  the  colored  people,  in  which 
over  eight  hundred  most  eager  pupils  were 
nightly  seen,  some  of  the  New  England  soldiers 
acting  as  teachers.  But  this  Christian  work 
was  suddenly  stopped  in  May,  1862,  when  Ed¬ 
ward  Stanley,  a  North  Carolinian,  was  appoint¬ 
ed,  by  the  President,  military  governor  of  the 
state.  The  closing  of  these  schools  was  the 
first  administrative  act  of  the  new  governor,  be¬ 
cause,  he  said,  the  laws  of  North  Carolina  made 
it  “a  criminal  offence  to  teach  the  blacks  to 
read.”  (See  United  States  Christian  Commission .) 

Comanches.  This  is  a  roving  and  warlike 


COMBAHEE,  SKIRMISH  NEAR  THE  279  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF 


tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  the  Sho¬ 
shone  family  (see  Shoshones ),  who,  when  first 
known,  inhabited  the  region  from  the  head¬ 
waters  of  the  Brazos  and  Colorado  rivers  to 
those  of  the  Arkansas  aud  Missouri,  some  of 
their  bands  penetrating  to  Santa  Fe,  in  New 
Mexico,  and  to  Durango,  in  Mexico.  The  Span¬ 
iards  and  the  tribes  on  the  Central  Plains,  like 
the  Pawnees,  have  felt  their  power  in  war  from 
an  early  period.  They  called  themselves  by  a 
name  signifying  “  live  people,”  believed  in  one 
supreme  Father,  and  claim  to  have  come  from 
towards  the  setting  sun.  The  tribe  is  divided 
into  eight  bands,  and  all  are  expert  horsemen. 
The  French  in  Louisiana  first  penetrated  their 
country  in  1718,  buying  horses  from  them,  and 
in  1724  made  a  treaty  with  them.  They  were 
then  numerous.  One  village  visited  by  the 
French  had  140  lodges,  containing  1500  women, 
2000  children,  and  800  warriors.  Until  1783, 
they  had  long  and  bloody  wars  w’ith  the  Span¬ 
iards,  when,  their  great  war-chief  being  slain,  a 
peace  was  established.  They  numbered  5000  in 
1780.  In  1816  they  lost  4000  of  their  popula¬ 
tion  by  small-pox.  So  late  as  1847  their  num¬ 
ber  was  estimated  at  10,000,  with  over  2000 
warriors ;  in  1872,  at  a  little  over  4000.  They 
have  always  been  troublesome.  Some  of  them 
were  on  a  reservation  in  Texas,  but  were  ex¬ 
pelled.  The  government  is  now  trying  the  ex¬ 
periment  of  placing  them  on  a  reservation  in 
the  western  part  of  the  Indian  Territory.  Many 
of  them  continue  to  roam,  and  ridicule  the  idea 
of  settling  down. 

Combahee,  Skirmish  near  the  (  1782 ). 
When  General  Leslie,  the  British  commander 
in  Charleston,  heard  of  the  proceedings  in  Par¬ 
liament,  he  proposed  to  General  Greene  a  cessa¬ 
tion  of  hostilities.  Greene  referred  the  matter 
to  Congress,  but  did  not  relax  his  vigilance. 
Leslie  also  requested  Greene  to  allow  him  to 
purchase  supplies  for  his  army.  Unwilling  to 
nourish  a  viper  in  his  bosom,  Greene  refused, 
and  Leslie  resorted  to  force  to  obtain  supplies. 
Late  in  August  (1782)  he  attempted  to  ascend 
the  Combahee  for  the  purpose.  He  was  op¬ 
posed  by  the  Americans  under  General  Gist,  of 
the  Maryland  line.  Colonel  John  Laurens  vol¬ 
unteered  in  the  service,  and  in  a  skirmish  at 
daybreak  (Aug.  25)  he  was  killed.  His  was  al¬ 
most  the  last  life  sacrificed  in  the  old  war  for 
independence. 

Combs,  Leslie,  was  born  in  Kentucky  in 
1794.  His  father  was  an  officer  in  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  and  a  hunter.  Leslie  was  the  youngest  of 
twelve  children,  and  was  distinguished  for  en¬ 
ergy  and  bravery  in  the  War  of  1812-15.  He 
commanded  a  company  of  scouts,  and  did  ad¬ 
mirable  service  for  the  salvation  of  Fort  Meigs. 

(  See  Combs's  Mission. )  Being  made  prisoner 
near  Fort  Meigs,  lie  was  taken  by  the  Indians, 
his  captors,  to  Fort  Miami,  below,  where  he 
was  compelled  to  run  the  gauntlet  (see  Running 
the  Gauntlet),  in  which  he  was  pretty  severely 
■wounded.  His  life  was  saved  by  the  humanity 
of  Tecumtha.  Combs  became  a  general  of  the 
militia,  and  was  always  a  zealous  politician  and 


active  citizen.  His  mind  was  quite  vigorous 
until  his  eighty-seventh  year.  He  died  at  Lex¬ 
ington,  Ky.,  Aug.  22, 1881.  He  was  a  Union  man 
during  the  Civil  War. 


LESLIE  COMBS. 


Combs’s  Mission.  When  General  Harrison 
was  about  to  be  closely  besieged  in  Fort  Meigs 
(May,  1813),  he  sent  Captain  William  Oliver  to 
urge  General  Green  Clay  to  push  forward  rap¬ 
idly  with  the  Kentuckians  he  was  then  leading 
towards  the  Maumee  Rapids.  While  Colonel 
Dudley,  whom  Clay  had  sent  forward,  was  on 
his  way  down  the  Au  Glaize  River,  Clay  heard 
of  the  perilous  condition  of  Fort  Meigs,  aud  re¬ 
solved  to  send  word  to  Harrison  of  his  near  ap¬ 
proach.  He  called  for  a  volunteer,  when  Leslie 
Combs — then  nineteen  years  of  age — promptly 
responded.  “  When  we  reach  Fort  Defiance,” 
said  Combs,  “if  you  will  furnish  me  with  a 
good  canoe,  I  will  carry  your  despatches  to 
General  Harrison  and  return  with  his  orders. 
I  shall  only  require  four  or  five  volunteers  and 
one  of  my  Indian  guides  to  accompany  me.” 
Combs  was  properly  equipped,  aud  on  May  1  he 
started  on  his  perilous  errand,  accompanied  by 
two  brothers  named  Walker  and  two  others 
( Paxtou  aud  Johnson);  also  by  young  Black 
Fish,  a  Shawnoese  warrior.  They  passed  the 
Rapids  in  safety,  when  the  roar  of  the  siege 
met  their  ears.  Great  peril  was  in  their  way. 
It  was  late  in  the  morning.  To  remain  where 
they  were  until  night  or  to  go  on  was  equally 
hazardous.  “We  must  go  on,”  said  the  brave 
Combs.  As  they  passed  the  last  bend  in  the 
stream  that  kept  the  fort  from  view  they  were 
greatly  rejoiced  to  see  that  “  the  flag  was  still 
there,”  aud  that  the  garrison  was  holding  out 
against  a  strong  besieging  force.  Suddenly  they 
were  assailed  by  some  Indians  in  the  woods,  and 
were  compelled  to  turn  their  canoe  towards  the 
opposite  shore,  where  they  abandoned  it.  One  of 
the  party  was  killed  and  another  badly  wound¬ 
ed.  Combs  and  his  unhurt  companions  made 
their  way  back  to  Fort  Defiance. 

Commander-in-chief  of  the  Continental 


COMMERCE  ALARMED 


280 


COMMISSIONERS  TO  CANADA 


Army,  Appointment  of  the.  General  Arte- 
mas  Ward,  of  Massachusetts,  the  senior  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  provincial  militia,  assumed  the 
chief  command  of  the  volunteers  who  gathered 
near  Boston  after  the  skirmishes  at  Lexington 
and  Concord.  He  was  good  and  virtuous,  but 
aged,  and  not  possessed  of  sufficient  military 
ability  or  personal  activity  to  make  an  ener¬ 
getic  commander  of  a  large  army.  The  Pro¬ 
vincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  apprehended 
the-meltiug-away  of  the  army  gathered  at  Cam¬ 
bridge  unless  a  more  efficient  leader  might  be 
found,  and,  to  avoid  giving  offence,  they  asked 
the  Continental  Congress  to  assume  the  regula¬ 
tion  and  direction  of  that  army.  Joseph  War¬ 
ren,  in  a  private  letter  to  Samuel  Adams,  wrote 
that  the  request  was  to  be  interpreted  as  a  de¬ 
sire  for  the  appointment  of  a  new  chief  com¬ 
mander  of  all  the  troops  that  might  be  raised. 
Just  then  news  arrived  of  the  approach  of  re¬ 
inforcements  for  Gage,  under  generals  Clinton, 
Howe,  and  Burgoyne,  and  Congress  felt  the  im¬ 
portance  of  acting  promptly.  At  the  sugges¬ 
tion  of  John  Adams,  the  army  was  adopted  as 
a  continental  one  (see  Continental  Army);  and, 
at  the  suggestiou  of  the  New  England  delega¬ 
tion,  Thomas  Johnson,  of  Maryland,  nominated 
George  Washington,  of  Virginia,  for  cominauder- 
in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  inchoate  republic. 
He  was  elected  (June  15,  1775)  by  unanimous 
vote,  and  on  the  following  morning  John  Han¬ 
cock,  President  of  Congress,  officially  announced 
to  Washington  his  appointment.  The  Virginia 
colonel  arose  and,  in  a  brief  and  modest  speech, 
formally  accepted  the  office.  After  expressing 
doubts  of  his  ability  to  perform  the  duties  sat¬ 
isfactorily,  he  said,  “As  to  pay,  sir,  I  beg  leave 
to  assure  the  Congress  that,  as  no  pecuniary  con¬ 
sideration  could  have  tempted  me  to  accept  the 
arduous  employment  at  the  expense  of  my  do¬ 
mestic  ease  and  happiness,  I  do  not  wish  to 
make  any  profit  from  it.  I  will  keep  an  exact 
account  of  my  expenses.  Those,  I  doubt  not, 
they  will  discharge,  and  that  is  all  I  desire.” 
Washington  was  then  a  little  past  forty-three 
years  of  age.  He  left  Philadelphia  for  Cam¬ 
bridge  a  week  later,  where  he  arrived  on  the 
2d  of  July;  and  at  about  nine  o’clock  on  the 
morning  of  the  3d,  standing  in  the  shade  of  an 
elm-tree  (yet  living)  in  Cambridge,  he  formally 
assumed  the  command  of  the  army,  then  num¬ 
bering  about  sixteen  thousand  men,  all  New- 
Englauders. 

Commerce  Alarmed  (1861).  The  patriotic 
action  of  the  New  York  Legislature  (see  New 
York,  Position  of),  and  the  official  suggestion  of 
Mayor  Wood  that  the  city  of  New  York  would  do 
well  to  “  secede  ”  aud  set  itself  up  as  a  free  and 
independent  city,  alarmed  the  commercial  classes 
of  that  emporium,  aud  these  and  large  capitalists 
hastened  to  propose  conciliation  by  making  any 
concession  to  the  demands  of  “  the  South.”  A 
war  would  sweep  thousands  of  the  debtors  of 
New  York  merchants  into  absolute  ruin,  and  mill¬ 
ions  of  dollars’  worth  of  bills  receivable  in  the 
hands  of  their  creditors  would  be  made  worth¬ 
less.  On  Jan.  12,  1861,  a  memorial,  numerously 
signed  by  merchants  and  capitalists,  was  sent  to 


Congress,  praying  that  body  to  legislate  in  the 
interests  of  peace,  and  to  give  assurances,  “  with 
any  required  guarantees,”  to  the  slaveholders, 
that  their  right  to  regulate  slavery  within  their 
respective  states  should  be  secured ;  that  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  should  be  faithfully  execut¬ 
ed  ;  that  Personal  Liberty  Acts  in  “possible  con¬ 
flict”  with  that  law  should  be  “  readjusted,”  and 
that  they  should  have  half  the  territories  wlierof 
to  organize  slave-labor  states.  They  were  as¬ 
sured,  the  memorialists  said,  that  such  meas¬ 
ures  “  would  restore  peace  to  their  agitated 
country.”  This  was  followed  by  another  me¬ 
morial,  adopted  Jan.  18,  at  the  rooms  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  similar  in  tone  to  the  oth¬ 
er,  and  substantially  recommending  the  Critten¬ 
den  Compromise  (which  see)  as  a  basis  of  pa¬ 
cification.  It  was  taken  to  Washington  city  ear¬ 
ly  in  February,  with  forty  thousand  names  at¬ 
tached  to  it.  At  an  immense  meeting  of  citizens 
at  the  Cooper  Institute,  New  York,  Jan.  24,  it 
was  resolved  to  send  three  commissioners  to  six 
of  the  “  seceded  states,”  instructed  to  confer 
with  “  delegates  of  the  people,”  in  convention 
assembled,  in  regard  to  the  “  best  measures  cal¬ 
culated  to  restore  the  peace  aud  integrity  of  the 
Union.” 

Commissioners  of  Customs.  Parliament  in 
1767  provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  board 
of  revenue  commissioners  for  America,  with  its 
seat  at  Boston,  for  the  enforcement  of  the  old 
and  new  revenue  laws.  They  arrived  at  Boston 
in  May,  and  soon  became  involved  in  trouble 
with  the  people. 

Commissioners  of  Indian  Affairs.  The  Con¬ 
gress  perceived  the  importance  of  cultivating 
friendly  relations  with  the  surrounding  Indiau 
tribes,  and  three  boards  for  the  purpose  were 
created  (July  11, 1775):  One  for  the  Six  Nations 
and  other  northern  tribes;  a  second  for  the 
Cherokees,  and  a  third  for  the  intervening  na¬ 
tions.  Five  hundred  dollars  were  voted  for  the 
educatiou  of  Indian  youths  at  Wheelock’s  School, 
then  recently  established  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  aud 
efforts  were  made  to  engage  some  of  them  either 
as  allies  in  the  Avar  or  to  a  strict  neutrality. 
The  commissioners  were  invested  with  power  to 
make  treaties  with  the  Indians  aud  to  employ 
men  influential  among  the  Indians  to  assist 
them.  They  were  authorized  to  arrest  any 
agents  of  the  British  government  Avho  might  be 
found  stirring  up  the  Indians  to  hostilities.  A 
friendly  “  talk  ”  with  the  Six  Nations  was  adopt¬ 
ed,  and  measures  taken  which  in  a  great  degree 
secured  the  neutrality,  at  least,  of  the  barbari¬ 
ans  on  our  borders. 

Commissioners  to  Canada.  In  March,  1776, 
the  Continental  Congress  appointed  Dr.  Frank¬ 
lin,  Samuel  Chase,  and  Charles  Carroll  a  board 
of  commissioners,  invested  with  full  authority 
to  proceed  to  Canada  and  direct  military  affairs 
there ;  to  promise  a  guarantee  of  the  estates  of 
the  clergy ;  to  establish  a  free  press ;  to  offer 
the  Canadians  free  trade  with  all  nations ;  to 
invite  them  to  form  a  free  and  independent  gov¬ 
ernment  for  themselves,  and  to  join  the  con¬ 
federated  colonies.  They  arrived  at  Montreal, 


COMMISSIONERS  TO  FOREIGN  COURTS  281  COMMITTEE  OF  ONE  HUNDRED 


where  Arnold  was  in  command,  at  the  close  of 
April ;  but  they  were  too  late.  A  general  im¬ 
pression  prevailed  there  that  the  Republican 
army  would  soon  be  driven  out  of  Canada,  for 
large  reinforcements  for  Carleton  were  daily  ex¬ 
pected.  Without  an  army,  without  hard  money, 
without  credit,  the  commissioners  could  not  ask 
the  Canadians  to  join  them.  Perceiving  that 
the  chief  object  of  their  mission  could  not  be 
attained,  it  was  determined  to  withdraw  the 
troops  to  St.  John,  and  there  to  so  strengthen 
them  and  their  position  that  they  would  form 
an  impassable  barrier  to  an  invasion  from  the 
north.  The  commissioners  soon  returned. 

Commissioners  to  Foreign  Courts.  Soon 
after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  a  plan  of 
treaties  with  foreign  governments  was  reported 
by  a  committee  on  that  subject,  and  Franklin, 
Deane,  and  Jefferson  were  appointed  (Sept.  26, 
1776)  commissioners  to  the  French  court.  Un¬ 
willing  to  leave  his  wife,  whose  health  was  de¬ 
clining,  Jefferson  refused  the  appointment,  and 
Arthur  Lee,  then  in  London,  was  substituted  for 
him  ;  and  after  the  loss  of  New  York  these  com¬ 
missioners  were  urged  to  press  the  subject  of 
a  treaty  of  alliance  and  commerce.  Commis¬ 
sioners  were  also  appointed  to  other  European 
eourts  in  1777  ;  Arthur  Lee  to  that  of  Madrid  ; 
his  brother  William  (lately  one  of  the  sheriffs 
of  London)  to  Vienna  and  Berlin,  and  Ralph 
Izard,  of  South  Carolina,  to  Florence.  All  but 
the  French  mission  were  failures.  Arthur  Lee 
was  not  allowed  to  enter  Madrid,  and  went  on  a 
fruitless  errand  to  Germany  ;  Izard  made  no  at¬ 
tempt  to  visit  Florence,  and  William  Lee  visited 
Berlin  without  accomplishing  anything.  There 
his  papers  were  stolen  from  him,  through  the 
contrivance,  it  was  believed,  of  the  British  resi¬ 
dent  minister. 

Commissioners  to  urge  Secession.  In  or¬ 
der  to  carry  out  the  design  of  the  few  leaders 
of  the  secession  scheme  to  have  the  whole  fif¬ 
teen  slave-labor  states  belong  to  a  projected 
“  Southern  Confederacy,”  four  of  the  state  con¬ 
ventions  which  adopted  ordinances  of  secession 
appointed  commissioners  to  go  to  these  several 
states  as  seductive  missionaries  in  the  cause  of 
disunion.  The  names  and  destinations  of  these 
were  as  follows :  South  Carolina  sent  to  Alaba¬ 
ma  A.  P.  Calhoun  ;  to  Georgia,  James  L.  Orr; 
to  Florida,  L.  W.  Spratt ;  to  Mississippi,  M.  L. 
Bonham  ;  to  Louisiana,  J.  L.  Manning  ;  to  Ar¬ 
kansas,  A.  C.  Spain  ;  to  Texas,  J.  B.  Kershaw. 
Alabama  sent  to  North  Carolina  Isham  W.  Gar¬ 
rett  ;  to  Mississippi,  E.  W.  Petters ;  to  South 
Carolina,  J.  A.  Elmore ;  to  Maryland,  A.  F.  Hop¬ 
kins;  to  Virginia,  Frank  Gilmer;  to  Tennessee, 
L.  Pope  Walker;  to  Kentucky,  Stephen  F.  Hale ; 
to  Arkansas,  John  A.  Winston.  Georgia  sent  to 
Missouri  Luther  J.  Glenn ;  to  Virginia,  Henry 

L.  Benning.  Mississippi  sent  to  South  Caro¬ 
lina  C.  E.  Hooker  ;  to  Alabama,  Joseph  W. 
Matthews;  to  Georgia,  William  L.  Harris  ;  to 
Louisiana,  Wirt  Adams;  to  Texas,  H.  H.  Mil¬ 
ler;  to  Arkansas,  George  B.  Fall ;  to  Florida,  E. 

M.  Yerger ;  to  Tennessee,  T.  J.  Wharton ;  to  Ken¬ 
tucky,  W.  S.  Featlierstone;  to  North  Carolina, 


Jacob  Thompson,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  ; 
to  Virginia,  Fulton  Anderson  ;  to  Maryland,  A. 
H.  Handy  ;  to  Delaware,  Henry  Dickinson  ;  to 
Missouri,  —  Russell. 

Committee  of  Congress  at  Cambridge. 

The  seeming  apathy  of  Congress  iu  respect  to 
the  army  besieging  Boston  greatly  perplexed 
Washington.  The  cool  season  was  approaching, 
and  not  only  powder  and  artillery  were  want¬ 
ing,  but  fuel,  shelter,  clothing,  provisions,  and 
the  wages  of  the  soldiers.  Washington,  wearied 
by  ineffectual  remonstrances,  at  length  wrote  a 
letter  to  Congress,  implying  his  sense  that  the 
neglect  of  that  body  had  brought  matters  in  his 
army  to  a  crisis.  He  submitted  to  their  consid¬ 
eration  the  wants  of  the  army,  a  mutinous  spirit 
prevailing  among  them,  and  the  danger  that, 
when  the  terms  of  enlistment  of  all  the  troops 
excepting  the  regulars  should  expire  in  Decem¬ 
ber,  it  would  be  difficult  to  re-eulist  them  or  get 
new  recruits.  Congress  had  really  no  power  to 
provide  an  adequate  remedy  for  this  state  of 
things ;  therefore  it  appointed  a  committee 
(Sept.  30,  1775),  consisting  of  Dr.  Franklin, 
Lynch,  and  Harrison,  to  repair  to  the  camp, 
and,  with  the  New  England  colonies  and  Wash¬ 
ington,  devise  a  plan  for  renovating  the  army. 
They  arrived  at  Cambridge  Oct.  15.  With  such 
a  representati  ve  of  Congress  as  Franklin  and 
such  a  military  leader  as  Washington,  the  New 
Englaud  commissioners  worked  harmoniously ; 
and  they  devised  a  scheme  for  forming,  govern¬ 
ing,  and  supplying  a  new  army  of  about  twenty- 
three  thousand  men,  whom  the  general  was  au¬ 
thorized  to  enlist  without  delay. 

Committee  of  Fifty-one.  The  Conservative 
Republicans  of  New  York,  alarmed  by  the  bold 
movements  of  the  more  radical  Sons  of  Liberty, 
appointed  a  grand  Committee  of  Fifty-one,  as 
true  “representatives  of  public  sentiment.” 
They  repudiated  a  message  sent  to  Boston 
(May  14,  1774)  by  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  recom¬ 
mending  the  revival  of  non-importation  meas¬ 
ures,  but  they  heartily  approved  of  a  general 
congress.  The  radical  “Liberty  Boys”  were 
offended,  and  their  “Vigilance  Committee” 
called  a  meeting  of  citizens  (July  6)  iu  The 
Fields  (which  see).  It  was  the  largest  gath¬ 
ering  ever  before  seen  in  New  York.  The  meet¬ 
ing  was  addressed  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  then 
a  student  iu  King’s  (now  Columbia)  College.  It 
was  his  first  speech,  and  a  most  remarkable 
one ;  and  it  stirred  the  people  with  so  much  in¬ 
dignation  that  the  alarmed  Committee  of  Fifty- 
one  referred  the  nomination  of  deputies  to  the 
Continental  Congress  to  their  radical  brothers 
called  the  “  Tribunes”  (which  see).  At  the  same 
time  they  offended  some  of  their  own  more  zealous 
members  by  denouncing  the  resolutions  adopted 
by  the  meeting  in  the  Fields  as  seditious,  and 
eleven  members  withdrew  from  the  committee. 
Not  long  afterwards  this  timid  committee  disap¬ 
peared.  (See  Patricians  and  Tribunes.) 

Committee  of  One  Hundred.  When  the 
Provincial  Congress  had  begun  its  first  session, 
the  Sons  of  Liberty  iu  the  city  of  New  York  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  organize  a  provisional  municipal  gov- 


COMMITTEE  OF  CORRESPONDENCE  282 


COMMON  SENSE 


srnment.  Tliey  called  a  meeting  of  citizens 
(May  5,  1775),  at  which  a  Committee  of  One 
Hundred  was  chosen,  invested  with  the  charge 
of  city  affairs,  the  people  pledging  themselves 
to  obey  the  orders  of  the  committee  until  other 
arrangements  should  be  made  by  the  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress.  While  the  Provincial  Congress 
legislated,  the  Committee  of  One  Hundred  exe¬ 
cuted  the  expressed  will  of  the  people. 

Committee  of  Secret  Correspondence.  On 
Sept.  18,  1775,  the  Coutiuental  Congress  ap¬ 
pointed  Messrs.  Welling,  Franklin,  Livingston, 
Alsop,  Deane,  Dickinson,  Langdou,  McKean, 
and  Ward  a  “Secret  Committee”  to  contract 
for  the  importation  from  Europe  of  ammuni¬ 
tion,  small-arms,  and  cannons,  and  for  such  a 
purpose  Silas  Deane  was  soon  sent  to  France. 
By  a  resolution  of  the  Congress,  April  17,  1777, 
the  name  of  this  committee  was  changed  to 
“  Committee  of  Foreign  Affairs,”  whose  func¬ 
tions  were  like  those  of  the  (present)  Secretary 
of  State. 

Committee  of  Sixty.  After  the  Provincial 
Assembly  of  New  York  had  adjourned,  never  to 
meet  again  (April  3,  1775),  a  Committee  of 
Sixty  was  appointed  in  the  city  of  New  York 
to  enforce  the  regulations  of  the  American  As¬ 
sociation  (which  see).  Warmly  supported  by 
the  Sons  of  Liberty,  they  took  the  lead  in  po¬ 
litical  matters.  By  their  recommendation  the 
people  in  the  several  counties  chose  representa¬ 
tives  for  a  Provincial  Congress,  which  body  first 
convened  on  May  22,  1775. 

Committee  of  States.  The  Articles  of  Con¬ 
federation  having  provided  for  the  appointment 
of  a  committee  composed  of  one  delegate  from 
each  state,  to  sit  during  each  annual  recess  of 
Congress,  such  a  committee  was  appointed  at 
the  session  of  1783-84.  They  split  into  irrecon¬ 
cilable  parties  and  abandoned  their  post  (June, 
1784),  leaving  the  Confederate  government  or 
league  of  states  without  any  head.  The  experi¬ 
ment  was  never  tried  again. 

Committees  of  Correspondence.  At  a  town 
meeting  held  in  Boston  (Oct.  22,  1772)  a  large 
committee,  composed  of  the  most  active  popular 
leaders,  was  appointed  to  state  in  an  address 
the  rights  of  the  colonies,  more  especially  those 
of  Massachusetts;  to  communicate  and  publish 
the  same  to  the  several  towns  of  the  province, 
to  the  other  colonies,  and  to  the  world  ;  stating 
the  infringements  and  violations  of  those  rights, 
from  time  to  time,  by  the  British  government, 
and  to  request  an  interchange’  of  sentiments. 
This  was  done  in  a  masterly  manner,  and  Frank¬ 
lin,  in  England,  caused  the  address  and  report 
to  be  published  in  London,  with  a  preface  of 
his  own.  Ou  the  reception  of  these  documents, 
the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  appointed  a 
committee  to  obtain  authentic  accounts  of  all 
proceedings  of  Parliament  or  the  ministry  which 
might  affect  the  rights  of  the  colonies.  The 
committee  was  also  authorized  to  open  a  cor¬ 
respondence  and  communication  with  the  other 
colonies.  This  system  of  committees  of  corre¬ 
spondence  became  general,  and  a  powerful  aid  in 
producing  unanimity  of  sentiment  in  the  various 


colonies.  This  was  the  first  and  most  important 
step  towards  political  union. 

Committees  of  Inspection.  In  many  of  the 
uow  American  states  the  class  known  as  Tories 
or  adherents  to  the  crown  were  in  a  minority, 
and  in  many  places  suffered  indignities,  such  as, 
if  offensively  active,  receiving  a  covering  of  tar 
and  feathers,  being  carted  around  as  a  public 
spectacle,  and  other  abuses  which  personal  and 
political  malignity  could  inflict.  To  prevent 
such  disgraceful  scenes,  which  would  lead  to  re¬ 
taliation  and  the  rule  of  mob  law,  the  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress  specially  committed  the  over¬ 
sight  of  Tories  and  suspected  persons  to  the  reg¬ 
ularly  appointed  committees  of  inspection  and 
observation  for  the  several  counties  and  dis¬ 
tricts.  The  Tories  were  also  exposed  to  the 
dangers  from  the  law,  for  the  Whigs  (see  Whigs 
and  Tories')  had  taken  all  power  info  their  hands, 
and  required  allegiance  to  state  governments 
from  all  the  inhabitants.  The  consequence  was 
that  many  left  the  states  and  became  refugees 
in  Great  Britain  or  in  its  American  provinces. 

Common  Schools,  Early,  in  New  England. 
In  1649  provision  was  made  in  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  Code  for  the  establishing  of  common  schools 
in  that  province.  By  it  every  township  was 
required  to  maintain  a  school  for  reading  and 
writing ;  and  every  town  of  a  hundred  house¬ 
holders,  a  grammar-school,  with  a  teacher  qual¬ 
ified  to  “fit  youths  for  the  university”  (Har¬ 
vard).  This  school-law  w  as  re-enacted  in  Con¬ 
necticut  in  the  very  same  terms  ;  and  was  adopt¬ 
ed  also  by  Plymouth  and  New  Haven.  The  pre¬ 
amble  to  this  law  declared  that,  “  it  being  one 
chief  project  of  that  old  deluder,  Sathan,to  keep 
men  from  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  as 
in  former  times  keeping  them  in  an  unknown 
tongue,  so  in  these  later  times  persuading  men 
from  the  use  of  tougues,  so  that  at  the  least  the 
true  sense  and  meaning  of  the  original  might  be 
clouded  wfith  false  glossing  of  saint-seeming  de¬ 
ceivers,  and  that  learning  may  not  be  buried  in 
the  grave  of  our  fathers,”  therefore  this  law  was 
enacted. 

“Common  Sense.”  At  the  suggestion  of 
Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  of  Philadelphia,  it  is  said, 
Thomas  Paine  put  forward  a  powerfully  written 
pamphlet,  at  the  beginning  of  1776,  in  favor  of 
the  independence  of  the  colonies.  Its  terse, 
sharp,  incisive,  and  vigorous  sentences  stirred 
the  people  with  irrepressible  aspirations  for  in¬ 
dependence.  A  single  sentence  will  indicate  its 
character:  “The  nearer  any  government  ap¬ 
proaches  to  a  republic,  the  less  business  there  is 
for  a  king ;  in  England  a  king  hath  little  more 
to  do  than  to  make  war  and  give  away  places. 
Arms  must  decide  the  contest  [between  Great 
Britain  and  America]  ;  the  appeal  was  the  choice 
of  the  king,  and  the  continent  hath  escaped  the 
challenge.  The  sun  never  shone  on  a  cause  of 
greater  worth.  ’Tis  not  the  affair  of  a  city,  a 
county,  a  province,  or  a  kingdom,  but  of  a  conti¬ 
nent — of  at  least  oue  eighth  part  of  the  habita¬ 
ble  globe.  ’Tis  not  the  concern  of  a  day,  a  year, 
or  an  age ;  posterity  are  virtually  involved  in  it, 
even  to  the  end  of  time.  .  .  .  Freedom  hath  been 


COMMUNISTIC  SOCIETIES  IN  AMERICA  283 


CONCILIATORY  BILLS 


hunted  round  the  globe :  Asia  and  Africa  hath 
long  expelled  her;  Europe  regards  her  like  a 
stranger ;  and  England  hath  given  her  warning 
to  depart.  O,  receive  the  fugitive,  and  prepare 
an  asylum  for  mankind.”  The  effect  of  Common 
Sense  was  marvellous.  Its  trumpet  tones  awak¬ 
ened  the  continent,  and  made  every  patriot’s 
heart  beat  with  intense  emotion.  It  was  read 
with  avidity  everywhere;  and  the  public  appe¬ 
tite  for  its  solid  food  was  not  appeased  until  one 
hundred  thousand  copies  had  fallen  from  the 
press.  The  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  voted 
to  the  author  $2500.  Washington,  in  a  letter 
written  at  Cambridge,  highly  applauded  it,  and 
all  over  the  colonies  there  were  immediate  move¬ 
ments  in  favor  of  absolute  independence.  (See 
Paine ,  Thomas .) 

Communistic  Societies  in  America.  There 
are  but  eight  of  these  societies  in  name.  These 
are  the  Shakers,  established  in  the  Eastern  States 
in  the  closing  decade  of  the  last  century,  and  in 
the  West  in  1808;  the  Rappists,  established  in 
1805 ;  the  Baumelers,  or  Zoarites,  established  in 
1817  ;  the  Eben-Ezers ,  or  Amana  communists,  es¬ 
tablished  in  1844  ;  the  Bethel  Commune,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1844 ;  the  Oneida  Perfectionists,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1848  ,  the  Icarians,  who  date  from  1849, 
and  the  Aurora  Commune,  which  dates  from  1852. 
These  eight  societies  consist,  in  fact,  of  not  less 
than  seventy-two  communes.  The  Shakers  have 
fifty-eight  of  these,  the  Amana  Society  seven, 
and  the  Perfectionists  two.  The  remaining  so¬ 
cieties  consist  of  but  a  single  commune  each. 
Of  all,  only  two  of  the  societies  remain  under 
the  guidance  of  their  founders.  These  communes 
numbered  in  the  aggregate,  in  1874,  about  5000 
persons,  including  children,  and  were  then  scat¬ 
tered  in  thirteen  states,  in  which  they  own  prob¬ 
ably  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  acres  of 
land.  The  lowest  estimate  of  their  wealth  is 
$12,000,000,  almost  the  whole  of  it  created  by 
patient  industry  and  frugality.  All  these  com¬ 
munes  have  as  their  bond  of  union  some  form  of 
religious  belief.  The  Shakers  and  Rappists  are 
the  only  celibates  among  these  societies.  For  a 
minute  account  of  the  communistic  societies  in 
America,  see  a  work  on  the  subject  by  Charles 
Nordhoff,  1875. 

Community  System  in  New  England.  The 

lands  of  the  Plymouth  Colony  were  held  in  com¬ 
mon  by  the  “Pilgrims”  and  their  partners,  the 
London  merchants.  In  1627  the  “  Pilgrims  ”  sent 
Isaac  Allerton  to  England  to  negotiate  for  the 
purchase  of  the  shares  of  the  London  adventur¬ 
ers,  with  their  stocks,  merchandise,  lands,  and 
chattels.  He  did  so  for  $9000,  payable  in  nine 
years  in  equal  annual  instalments.  Some  of  the 
principal  persons  of  the  colony  became  bound 
for  the  rest,  and  a  partnership  was  formed,  into 
which  was  admitted  the  head  of  every  family, 
and  every  young  man  of  age  and  prudence.  It 
was  agreed  that  every  single  freeman  should 
have  one  share;  and  every  father  of  a  family 
have  leave  to  purchase  one  share  for  himself, 
one  for  his  wife,  and  one  for  every  child  living 
with  him;  that  every  one  should  pay  his  part 
of  the  public  debt  according  to  the  number  of 


his  shares.  To  every  share  twenty  acres  of  ara¬ 
ble  land  were  assigned  by  lot ;  to  every  six 
shares,  one  cow  and  two  goats,  and  swiue  in  the 
same  proportion.  This  agreement  was  made  in 
full  court,  Jan.  3, 1628.  The  joint-stock  or  com¬ 
munity  system  was  then  abandoned,  a  division 
of  the  movable  property  was  made,  and  twenty 
acres  of  land  nearest  to  the  town  were  assigned 
in  fee  to  each  colonist. 

Company  of  Free-traders.  When  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Pennsylvania  was  granted  to  William 
Penn,  a  number  of  settlements  already  existed 
there.  A  royal  proclamation  confirming  the  grant 
to  Penn,  and  another  from  Penn  himself,  were 
sent  to  these  settlements  by  the  hand  of  William 
Markham  in  the  summer  of  1681.  In  his  proc¬ 
lamation  Penn  assured  the  settlers  that  they 
should  live  free  under  laws  of  their  own  mak¬ 
ing.  Meanwhile  adventurers  calling  themselves 
the  Company  of  Free -traders  made  a  contract 
with  the  proprietor  for  the  purchase  of  lands  at 
the  rate  of  about  ten  dollars  the  hundred  acres, 
subject  to  a  perpetual  quit-rent  of  one  shilling 
for  every  one-hundred-acre  grant ;  the  purchas¬ 
ers  also  to  have  lots  in  a  city  to  be  laid  out. 
Three  vessels  filled  with  these  emigrants  soon 
sailed  for  the  Delaware,  with  three  commission¬ 
ers,  who  bore  a  plan  of  the  city,  and  a  friendly 
letter  from  Penn  to  the  Indians,  whom  he  ad¬ 
dressed  as  brethren. 

Compton,  Lizzie.  A  sprightly  Canadian  girl 
of  this  name,  sixteen  years  of  age,  dressed  in 
man’s  apparel,  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States  during  the  Civil  War,  and  served 
in  various  regiments  for  eighteen  months.  She 
was  in  seven  different  regiments,  and  partici¬ 
pated  in  several  battles.  At  Fredericksburg  she 
was  severely  wounded.  On  account  of  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  her  sex,  she  was  several  times  mustered 
out  of  the  service,  and  then  she  would  re-enlist 
in  another  regiment.  She  was  in  a  sharp  fight 
between  Morgan’s  guerillas  and  Colonel  Moore’s 
Michigan  troops  at  Green  River,  Ky.  (June  4, 
1863),  where  she  was  again  wounded. 

Conciliatory  Bills  (Lord  North’s  Second). 
When  Parliament  reassembled  after  the  Christ¬ 
mas  holidays  (January,  1778),  the  Opposition  ex¬ 
posed  the  losses,  expenses,  and  hopelessness  of 
the  war  with  the  colonists;  and,  to  the  surprise 
and  disgust  of  some  of  his  most  ardent  support¬ 
ers,  Lord  North  presented  a  plan  for  reconcilia¬ 
tion  (Feb.  17),  and  declared  he  had  always  been  in 
favor  of  peace,  and  opposed  to  taxing  the  Amer¬ 
icans.  He  introduced  two  bills:  one  renouncing, 
on  the  part  of  the  British  Parliament,  any  in¬ 
tention  to  levy  taxes  in  America — conceding,  in 
substance,  the  whole  original  ground  of  dispute ; 
the  other  authorizing  the  appointment  of  five 
commissioners,  the  commanders  of  the  naval  and 
military  forces  to  be  two,  with  ample  powers  to 
treat  for  the  re-establishment  of  royal  authority. 
Meanwhile  David  Hartley,  an  opponent  of  the 
war,  was  sent  to  Paris  to  open  negotiations  with 
the  American  commissioners  there.  The  war  had 
already  (1775-78)  cost  Great  Britain  more  than 
twenty  thousand  men,  $100,600,000  of  public  ex¬ 
penditure,  and  five  hundred  and  fifty  British 


CONCILIATORY  PROPOSITION  284  CONFEDERATE  CONGRESS,  ACTS  OF 


vessels,  chiefly  in  the  merchant  service,  captured 
by  American  cruisers,  worth  about  $12,000,000, 
besides  a  loss  of  trade  with  America,  suspension 
of  American  debts,  and  the  confiscation  of  the 
property  of  American  loyalists.  Added  to  all 
was  the  danger  of  a  war  with  France.  Copies 
of  these  conciliatory  bills  arrived  in  America  in 
the  middle  of  April  (1778),  and  the  Congress  took 
immediate  action  upon  them,  for  the  partisans 
of  the  crown  were  very  active  in  circulating 
them  among  the  people.  A  committee  of  that 
body  criticised  these  bills  very  keenly,  showing 
their  deceptiveness.  Fearing  the  effect  of  the 
bills  upon  the  people,  they  were  ordered  to  be 
printed  in  the  newspapers,  together  with  the  re¬ 
port  of  the  committee,  which  concluded  with  a 
resolution,  unanimously  adopted,  denouncing  as 
opeu  and  avowed  enemies  all  who  should  at¬ 
tempt  a  separate  treaty,  and  declaring  that  no 
conference  should  be  held  with  any  commission¬ 
ers  until  the  British  armies  should  be  first  with¬ 
drawn,  or  the  independence  of  the  United  States 
acknowledged. 

Conciliatory  Proposition,  Lord  North’s 
(1775).  In  the  midst  of  the  hot  debate  in  Par¬ 
liament  on  the  New  England  Restraining  Bill, 
Lord  North  astonished  the  king,  the  ministry, 
and  the  nation  by  himself  bringing  forward  a 
conciliatory  proposition,  not  unlike  that  offered 
by  Chatham  just  before  (Feb.  1),  which  required 
the  colonists  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  and 
superintending  power  of  Parliament,  but  pro¬ 
vided  that  no  tax  should  ever  be  levied  except 
by  the  consent  of  the  colonial  assemblies.  It 
also  contained  a  provision  for  a  congress  of  the 
colonies  to  vote,  at  the  time  of  making  this  ac¬ 
knowledgment,  a  free  grant  to  the  king  of  a  cer¬ 
tain  perpetual  revenue,  to  be  placed  at  the  dis¬ 
posal  of  Parliament.  All  the  assemblies  rejected 
the  proposition.  A  committee  of  the  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress,  to  which  the  proposition  had  been 
referred,  made  a  report  (July  31, 1775),  in  which 
the  generally  unsatisfactory  character  and  the 
unsafe  vagueness  of  the  ministerial  offer  were 
fully  exposed.  The  Cougress  accepted  the  re¬ 
port,  and  published  it  to  the  world. 

Concord.  (See  Lexington  and  Concord.) 

Conestoga,  Massacre  of  Indians  at.  (See 
Paxton  Boys.) 

Confederate  Association  for  the  Relief  of 
Maimed  Soldiers.  While  the  loyal  people  were 
carrying  on  the  benevolent  work  of  the  United 
States  Sanitary  and  Christian  Commissions 
(which  see)  for  the  benefit  of  the  Union  soldiers, 
similar  efforts,  though  not  on  so  grand  a  scale, 
were  put  forth  by  the  benevolent  minded  in  the 
slave-labor  states  for  the  benefit  of  the  Confed¬ 
erate  soldiers.  They  labored  in  the  good  work 
most  zealously  (especially  the  women),  to  the 
extent  of  their  ability,  and  conferred  vast  bene¬ 
fits  upon  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  of  the 
Confederate  Army.  We  have  no  special  reports 
of  the  result  of  their  labors,  but  we  know  that 
they  were  a  great  blessing  to  the  recipients  of  the 
kiudly  care  of  the  matrons  and  maidens  of  the 
South.  Among  the  variety  of  organizations  for 
benevolent  purposes  was  one  called  The  Confed¬ 


erate  Association  for  the  Relief  of  Maimed  Soldiers. 
The  object  was  to  supply  artificial  limbs  gratu¬ 
itously  to  soldiers  who  had  lost  their  natural 
ones. 

Confederate  Commissioners.  The  Confed¬ 
erate  government  at  Montgomery  (which  see) 
appointed  three  commissioners  to  treat  with  the 
National  government  upon  various  topics  of 
mutual  interest,  and  for  the  “  settlement  of  all 
questions  of  disagreement  between  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  United  States  and  that  of  the  Con¬ 
federate  States  upon  principles  of  right,  justice, 
equity,  and  good  faith.”  Two  of  these — John 
Forsyth,  of  Alabama,  and  Martin  J.  Crawford, 
of  Georgia  —  arrived  in  Washington  March  5, 
1861.  On  the  11th  they  made  a  formal  applica¬ 
tion  through  a  senator  for  an  official  interview 
with  the  Secretary  of  State.  It  was  declined, 
and  on  the  13th  they  sent  to  the  Secretary  a 
sealed  communication,  in  w  hich  they  set  forth 
the  object  of  their  mission  and  asked  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  an  early  day  when  they  might  pre¬ 
sent  their  credentials  to  the  President.  This 
first  attempt  of  the  so-called  “  Confederate  States 
of  America”  to  gain  a  recognition  of  sovereignty 
for  the  Confederacy  failed,  for  the  administra¬ 
tion  refused  to  receive  them  other  than  as  pri¬ 
vate  citizens.  The  commissioners  urged  that 
seven  states  had  exercised  “  the  inherent  right 
of  secession,”  withdrawn  from  the  Union  and 
formed  a  confederacy,  and  claimed  the  right 
of  a  foreign  power  to  be  treated  as  equals. 
To  this  the  President,  through  the  Secretary 
(Mr.  Seward),  said  that  he  could  not  admit  that 
secession  was  possible,  that  any  states  w  ere  out 
of  theUniou ;  that  the  “  Confederate  States”  were 
not  a  foreign  power;  and  that  he  could  not  “  rec¬ 
ognize  them  as  diplomatic  agents,  or  hold  corre¬ 
spondence  or  other  communication  with  them.” 
This  course  at  the  outset  gave  the  country  con¬ 
fidence  in  the  firmness  and  wisdom  of  President 
Lincoln.  The  commissioners,  after  giving  the 
Secretary  of  State  a  lecture,  returned  home, 
April  11, 1861. 

Confederate  Congress,  Acts  of  (1861).  Jef¬ 
ferson  Davis  called  the  Confederate  Congress  to 
assemble  at  Montgomery  on  April  29, 1861.  That 
body  passed  (May  9)  an  act  of  fifteen  sections 
recognizing  the  existence  of  war  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Confederate  States,  and 
concerning  the  commissioning  of  privateers. 
The  preamble  declared  that  the  Confederate 
States  had  made  earnest  efforts  to  establish 
friendly  relations  between  themselves  and  the 
United  States,  but  the  latter  had  refused  and 
had  prepared  to  make  war  upon  the  former  and 
blockade  its  ports.  Such  being  the  case,  they 
declared  that  war  existed  between  “  the  two 
governments.”  They  authorized  the  “  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Confederate  States”  to  use  their 
whole  land  and  naval  force  to  meet  “  the  war 
thus  commenced,”  and  to  issue  commissions  to 
privateers  under  the  seal  of  the  Confederate 
States.  (See  Confederate  Government  Seal.)  The 
tenth  section  of  the  act  offered  a  bounty  of  $20 
for  each  person  who  might  be  on  board  any 
armed  ship  or  vessel  belonging  to  the  United 


CONFEDERATE  CONSCRIPTIONS  285 


CONFEDERATE  FINANCES 


States,  at  the  commencement  of  an  engagement, 
which  should  he  burned,  sunk,  or  destroyed  by 
any  vessel  commissioned  as  a  privateer,  of  equal 
or  inferior  force.  They  also  offered  a  bounty  of 
$25  for  every  prisoner  captured  by  a  privateer 
aud  delivered  to  an  ageut  of  the  “  Confed¬ 
eracy.”  Davis  had  not  waited  for  this  legal 
sanction,  but  issued  commissions  for  privateers 
immediately  after  his  proclamation,  April  17. 
(See  Davis’s  Proclamation.) 

Confederate  Conscriptions.  In  1862  the 
Confederate  Congress  authorized  the  President 
to  call  out  all  able-bodied  persons  between  the 
ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five  to  serve  in  the 
army.  After  the  fall  of  Vicksburg  and  the  dis¬ 
aster  at  Gettysburg  the  volunteer  enlistments 
were  few,  and  Davis  found  it  difficult  to  recruit 
his  shattered  armies,  for  there  was  general  dis¬ 
couragement,  aud  no  bounties  were  offered.  So 
the  Confederate  government  took  measures  to 
force  men  into  the  army,  and  appointed  agents 
in  every  county  to  seize  supplies,  if  necessary, 
for  the  use  of  the  army ;  and  at  about  the  close 
of  1863  the  Confederate  Congress  passed  an  ex¬ 
traordinary  act,  which  declared  “every  white 
man  in  the  Confederacy,  between  the  ages  of 
eighteen  and  forty-five  years,  to  be  in  the  mili¬ 
tary  service  aud  subject  to  the  articles  of  war 
and  military  discipline  and  penalties  ;  and  that 
upon  failure  to  report  for  duty  at  a  military  sta¬ 
tion  within  a  certain  time,  he  would  be  liable 
to  the  penalty  of  death  as  a  deserter.” 

Confederate  Constitution,  The,  was  ratified 
by  a  state  convention  in  Alabama  March  13, 
1861 ;  by  the  state  convention  of  Georgia  on  the 
16th ;  by  Louisiana  on  the  21st ;  by  Texas  on 
the  25th  ;  by  Mississippi  on  the  30th,  aud  by 
South  Carolina  on  April  5th. 

Confederate  Diplomatic  Agents.  As  soon 
as  Jefferson  Davis  was  seated  in  the  presidential 
chair  (see  Inauguration  of  Davis )  and  the  league 
had  assumed  a  national  character,  he  sent  com¬ 
missioners  to  Europe  to  secure  formal  recog¬ 
nition  by,  and  make  commercial  regulations 
with,  the  leading  governments  there.  These 
commissioners  were  W.  L.  Yancey,  of  Alabama  ; 
P.  A.  Rust,  of  Louisiana;  A.  Dudley  Mann,  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  T.  Butler  King,  of  Georgia.  Yancey, 
who  lacked  about  every  requisite  of  a  states¬ 
man,  but  who  could  fill  with  wild  passion  an 
excitable  populace  at  home,  was  sent  to  Eng¬ 
land.  Rust,  a  Frenchman,  who  had  emigrated  to 
Louisiana  in  early  life,  married  a  woman  of  for¬ 
tune,  and  reached  a  seat  on  the  bench  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  that  state,  was  sent  to  France. 
Mann,  a  dull  statistician  of  moderate  ability,  was 
sent  to  Holland ;  and  King,  an  extensive  slave¬ 
holder  and  farmer,  was  sent  to  Belgium.  They 
could  not  inspiro  the  confidence  of  the  rulers 
mid  statesmen  of  Europe,  either  in  the  justice 
or  the  ultimate  success  of  their  cause.  They 
wandered  about,  seeking  in  vain  for  willing 
listeners  to  their  tales  of  woe  and  promise,  in ! 
diplomatic  circles,  and  finally  abandoned  the' 
mission,  to  the  relief  of  those  who  had  become 
wearied  by  their  importunities. 

Confederate  Finances  (1861).  The  con¬ 


gress  at  Montgomery  found  it  necessary  to  have 
money  to  carry  on  a  war  against  the  Union.  So, 
abandoning  the  dream  of  free-trade  in  which 
many  had  indulged,  and  wbich  it  was  believed 
would  bring  to  their  doors  the  luxuries  of  the 
■world,  they  proposed  tariff  laws,  and  even  went 
so  far  as  to  propose  an  export  duty  on  the  great 
staple,  cotton,  on  whose  supposed  regal  power 
they  confidently  leaned  for  support.  “I  appre¬ 
hend,”  said  Cobb,  who  proposed  the  last-named 
measure,  “  that  we  are  conscious  of  the  power 
we  hold  in  our  hands,  by  reason  of  our  producing 
that  staple  so  necessary  to  the  world.  I  doubt 
not  that  power  will  exert  an  influence  mightier 
than  armies  or  naATies.  We  know  that  by  an 
embargo  we  could  soon  place  not  only  the  United 
States,  but  many  of  the  European  powers,  under 
the  necessity  of  electing  between  such  a  recog¬ 
nition  of  our  independence  as  we  require,  or  do¬ 
mestic  revulsions  at  home.  ”  They  issued  bonds 
in  February,  1861,  but  failed  to  find  customers 
for  them.  In  May  the  “  Congress  ”  gave  the  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury  discretionary  power  to 
issue,  in  lieu  of  bonds,  $20,000,000  in  treasury 
notes,  not  bearing  interest,  in  denominations 
of  not  less  than  $5,  to  “  be  receivable  in  pay¬ 
ment  of  all  debts  or  taxes  due  to  the  Confed¬ 
erate  States,  except  the  export  duty  on  cotton 
or  in  exchange  for  bonds  authorized  to  be  is¬ 
sued.”  These  notes  were  made  payable  in 
specie  at  the  end  of  two  years  from  the  date 
of  their  issue.  Another  scheme  was  set  forth 
in  an  act  approved  May  21,  which  forbade  debt¬ 
ors  to  individuals  or  corporations  in  the  free- 
labor  states  from  making  payments  of  the  same 
“  to  their  respective  creditors,  or  their  agents 
or  assignees,  during  the  existing  war,”  but  to 
pay  the  amount  of  their  indebtedness  “into  the 
treasury  of  the  Confederate  States,  in  specie  or 
treasury  notes,  aud  receive  for  the  same  the 
treasurer’s  certificate,”  these  certificates  to  be 
redeemable  at  the  close  of  the  war  and  the  res¬ 
toration  of  peace,  in  specie  or  its  equivalent.  It 
was  estimated  that  the  amount  due  by  men  in 
the  “  Confederate  States”  to  dealers  in  the  free- 
labor  states  at  that  time  was  about  $200,000,- 
000.  All  honorable  men  refused  to  countenance 
this  scheme  of  villany,  and  refrained  from  re¬ 
porting  their  indebtedness,  but  took  every  op¬ 
portunity  to  liquidate  the  claims  of  Northern 
creditors.  This  notable  scheme  failed  to  put 
much  money  in  the  treasury  of  the  Confederate 
States.  Then  another  scheme  was  planned  to 
raise  money.  Cotton  was  made  the  main  basis 
for  the  credit  of  bonds  issued  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury.  They  secured  very  little  money 
from  this  source,  but  got  from  the  producers  al¬ 
most  everything  required  for  the  consumption  of 
their  armies,  for  a  while.  The  plan  was  for  the 
planters  to  subscribe  for  the  use  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  a  certain  sum  of  money  out  of  the  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  a  certain  number  of  bales  of  cotton, 
when  sold,  the  planter  being  allowed  to  retain 
the  custody  of  his  cotton  and  the  right  to  choose 
his  time  for  its  sale.  When  sold,  he  received  the 
amount  of  his  subscription  in  bonds  of  the  Con¬ 
federacy.  The  people  had  little  faith  in  these 
bonds,  but  were  willing  to  invest  in  them  the 


CONFEDERATE  FINANCES 


286 


CONFEDERATE  GOVERNMENT 


surplus  of  their  productions  which  they  could 
not  sell.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  an¬ 
nounced  in  July  that  subscriptions  to  the  cot- 
tou  loan  amounted  to  over  $50,000,000.  Bonds 


of  this  subscription  to  the  amount 
of  over  $15,000,000  were  disposed 
of  in  Europe,  chiefly  in  England. 
(See  Cotton  Loan.) 

Confederate  Government  at 
Richmond.  Notwithstanding 
troops  were  pouring  into  Wash¬ 
ington  for  the  defence  of  the 
go vernmentjthe  Confederates  felt 
confident  that  they  would  yet  be 
able  to  seize  the  capital.  Their 
government  was  removed  from 
Montgomery  to  Richmond  (May 
21,  1861),  that  it  might  be  near 
the  theatre  of  operations  against 
the  National  capital.  They  then 
had  forty  thousand  troops  in  the 
field,  of  whom  about  twenty-five 
thousand  were  concentrating  in 
Virginia.  They  had  seut  agents 
abroad  to  seek  aid  and  recogni¬ 
tion  from  foreign  governments ; 
had  commissioned  numerous  pri¬ 
vateers  to  depredate  on  the  com¬ 
merce  of  the  United  States  ;  had 
extinguished  the  lights  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty -one  light¬ 
houses  on  the  coast  between  Cape 
Henry,  Va.,  and  the  Rio  Grande, 
Texas;  enlisted  actively  in  their 
revolutionary  schemes  the  gov¬ 
ernors  of  thirteen  states ;  and  in¬ 
surrection  had  assumed  the  char¬ 
acter  of  rebellion.  Feeling  con¬ 
fident  of  soon  occupying  the  Na¬ 
tional  capital,  the  Vice-President 
of  the  Confederacy  (A.  H.  Ste¬ 
phens)  said  in  a  speech  at  Atlanta, 
Ga.  (May  23, 1861),  after  referring 
to  the  occupation  of  the  capital 
by  loyal  soldiery :  “  Their  filthy 
spoliation  of  the  public  buildings 
and  the  works  of  art  at  the  capi¬ 
tal,  and  their  preparations  to  de¬ 
stroy  them,  are  strong  evidences 
to  my  mind  that  they  do  not  in¬ 
tend  to  hold  or  defend  that  place, 
but  to  abandon  it,  after  having 
despoiled  and  laid  it  in  ruins. 
Let  them  destroy  it,  savage-like, 
if  they  will.  We  will  rebuild  it ; 
we  will  make  the  structures  more 
glorious.  Phcenix-like,  new  and 
more  substantial  structures  will 
rise  from  its  ashes.  Planted  anew, 
under  the  auspices  of  our  superior 
institutions,  it  will  live  and  flour¬ 
ish  throughout  all  ages.” 

Confederate  Government, 

Flight  of  (1865).  While  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  Richmond,  the  Con¬ 
federate  capital,  were  at  their  re¬ 
spective  places  of  worship  (Sun¬ 
day,  April  2,  1865),  the  fearful  message  from 
Lee,  “  My  lines  are  broken  in  three  places ; 
Richmond  must  be  evacuated  this  evening,” 
reached  the  doomed  city.  Jefferson  Davis, 


CONFEDERATE  GOVERNMENT 


237  CONFEDERATE  GOVERNMENT  SEAL 


President  of  the  Confederacy,  was  at  St.  Paul’s 
(Episcopal)  Church,  when  the  message  was  put 
in  his  hands  by  Colonel  Taylorwood.  He  im¬ 
mediately  left  the  church.  There  was  a  deep 
and  painful  silence  for  a  moment,  when  the  re¬ 
ligious  services  were  closed  and  the  rector  (Dr. 
Miunegerode)  dismissed  the  congregation,  after 
giving  notice  that  General  Ewell,  the  com¬ 
mander  in  Richmond,  desired  the  local  forces  to 
assemble  at  three  o’clock  P.M.  The  Secretary 
of  State  (Benjamin),  being  a  Jew,  was  not  at 
church  ;  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  (Mallory),  a 
Roman  Catholic,  was  at  mass,  in  St.  Peter’s 
Cathedral ;  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (Tren- 
holm)  was  sick  ;  the  Postmaster-general  (Rea¬ 
gan)  was  at  Dr.  Petrie’s  Baptist  Church ;  and 
the  Secretary  of  War  (Breckinridge)  was  at  Dr. 
Duncan’s  Church*  The  inhabitants  of  the  city 
were  kept  in  the  most  painful  suspense  for 
hours,  for  rumor  was  busy.  The  government 
was  as  sileut  as  the  Sphinx.  Towards  evening 
wagons  were  loaded  at  the  departments  and 
driven  to  the  stations  of  the  Danville  Railway, 
preparatory  to  the  flight  of  the  government  offi¬ 
cers.  At  eight  o’clock  in  the  evening  President 
Davis  left  the  city  by  railway,  taking  with  him 
horses  and  carriages  to  use  in  case  the  road 
should  be  interrupted,  declaring  that  he  would 
not  give  up  the  struggle,  but  would  make  other 
efforts  to  sustain  the  cause.  At  nine  o’clock  the 
Virginia  Legislature  fled  from  the  city.  The 
Confederate  Congress  had  already  departed ;  and 
all  that  remained  of  the  government  in  Rich¬ 
mond  at  midnight  was  the  War  Department, 
represented  by  Major  Melton.  The  gold  of  the 
Louisiana  banks  that  had  been  sent  to  Rich¬ 
mond  for  safe-keeping,  and  that  of  the  Rich¬ 
mond  banks,  was  sent  away  by  the  Danville 
Railway  early  in  the  day.  The  Confederate  gov¬ 
ernment  halted  in  its  flight  at  Danville,  where 
an  attempt  was  made  at  reorganization,  to  con¬ 
tinue  the  contest  “so  long  as  there  was  a  man 
left  in  the  Confederacy.”  On  hearing  of  the 
surrender  of  Lee,  t-liey  fled  from  Danville  to 
Greensborough,  N.  C.,  and  made  their  official 
residence  in  a  railroad  carriage,  where  they  re¬ 
mained  until  the  15th,  when,  it  being  seen  that 
the  surrender  of  Johnston  was  inevitable,  they 
again  took  flight  ou  horses  and  in  ambulances 
for  Charlotte,  for  the  railway  was  crippled.  (See 
Stoneman’s  Raid.)  There  Davis  proposed  to  es¬ 
tablish  the  future  capital  of  the  Confederacy. 
The  surrender  of  Johnston  caused  the  Confed¬ 
eracy  to  vanish  into  nothingness.  The  fugitive 
leaders  of  the  government  now  took  flight  again 
on  horseback,  escorted  by  two  thousand  cavalry. 
They  turned  their  faces  towards  the  Gulf  ofMex- 
ico,  for  the  way  to  Mississippi  and  Texas  was 
barred.  At  Charlotte,  George  Davis,  the  Confed¬ 
erate  attorney-general,  resigned  his  office;  Tren- 
liolm  gave  up  the  secretaryship  of  the  treasury 
ou  the  banks  of  the  Catawba,  where  Postmas¬ 
ter-general  Reagan,  having  no  further  official 
business  to  transact,  took  Trenholm’s  place. 
The  flight  continued  Gulfward,  the  escort  con¬ 
stantly  diminishing.  At  Washington,  Ga.,  the 
vest  of  Davis’s  cabinet  deserted  him,  only  Rea¬ 
gan  remaining  faithful.  Mallory,  the  Secre¬ 


tary  of  the  Navy,  doubtful  whether  his  official 
services  would  be  needed  on  the  Gulf,  fled,  with 
Wigfall,  to  La  Grange,  where  he  met  his  family 
and  was  subsequently  arrested ;  and  Benjamin 
fled  to  England.  Davis’s  family  had  accom¬ 
panied  him  from  Danville  to  Washington  ;  now, 
for  prudential  reasons,  they  separated,  but  were 
soon  reunited  ;  and  near  Irwiusville,  the  capital 
of  Irwin  County,  Ga.,  three  miles  south  from 
Macon,  Davis  was  arrested  by  National  cavalry 
on  the  morning  of  May  11,  1865,  and  taken  a 
prisoner  to  Fortress  Monroe.  (See  Davis,  Jeffer¬ 
son,  Capture  of.) 

Confederate  Government,  Preparations  of 
for  Flight.  President  Davis  and  his  colleagues 
were  so  thoroughly  alarmed  when  the  Nationals 
were  approaching  Richmond  by  land  and  water 
in  May,  1862,  that  they  made  preparations  to  fly 
into  South  Carolina.  The  archives  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment  were  sent  to  Lynchburg  and  Columbia. 
The  railway  tracks  over  the  bridges  were  cov¬ 
ered  with  plank  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  ar¬ 
tillery.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  had  a 
special  train,  the  steam  of  the  locomotive  con¬ 
tinually  up,  ready  for  flight.  Disgusted  and 
alarmed  at  this  cowardice  of  the  civil  leaders  of 
the  cause,  the  Legislature  of  Virginia,  then  in 
session,  passed  resolutions  (May  14,  1862)  call¬ 
ing  upon  the  government  of  the  Confederate 
States  to  defend  Richmond  at  all  hazards,  and 
resolved,  with  a  clearness  that  deprived  the 
trembling  executive  and  his  associates  of  every 
excuse  but  fear,  that  the  “  President  be  assured 
that  whatever  destruction  or  loss  of  property  of 
the  state  or  individuals  shall  thereby  result,  will 
be  cheerfully  submitted  to.”  It  is  believed  that 
this  action  was  inspired  by  General  Joseph  E. 
Johnston.  But  for  this,  the  members  of  the 
civil  government  would  have  been  seen  flying 
to  South  Carolina  for  personal  safety. 

Confederate  Government  Seal.  A  seal  is  a 
symbol  of  sovereignty  within  certain  bounds. 
On  April  30,  1863,  a  joint  resolution  of  the  Con- 
uress  of  the  “Confederate  States  of  America” 


became  a  law  for  the  establishment  of  a  seal, 
declaring  that  it  should  “  consist  of  a  device 
representing  an  equestrian  portrait  of  Wash¬ 
ington  (after  the  statue  which  surmounts  his 
monument  at  Richmond)  surrounded  with  a 
wreath  composed  of  the  principal  agricultural 


CONFEDERATE  GOVERNMENT  SEAL  288 


CONFEDERATE  NAVY 


products  of  the  Confederacy — cotton,  tobacco, 
sugar-cane,  corn,  wheat,  and  rice — aud  having 
around  its  margin  the  words,  “  The  Confeder¬ 
ate  States  of  America,  Feb.  22,  1862  ”  (the 
date  of  the  establishment  of  the  permanent 
government),  with  the  motto  “  Deo  Findice.” 
Soon  after  the  passage  of  this  law,  the  Confed¬ 
erate  Secretary  of  State  (J.  P.  Benjamin)  wrote 


Richmond.  It  was  engraved  in  solid  silver.  It 
was  sent  by  the  way  of  Bermuda,  but  it  did  not 
reach  Richmond  until  about  the  time  when  the 
Confederacy  was  broken  up.  The  writer  was 
informed  by  the  attorney-general  of  the  Con¬ 
federacy  at  the  time  of  its  dissolution,  that  the 
seal  was  never  used — no  Confederate  commis¬ 
sion  ever  boro  this  emblem  of  sovereignty.  In 


CONFEDERATE  NAVAL  COMMISSION. 


to  the  Confederate  representative  in  England 
(J.  M.  Mason),  directing  him  to  have  a  seal  made 
by  the  best  artist.  Mr.  Mason  employed  Joseph 
S.  Wyon,  chief  “  seal  eugraver  to  the  queen,”  to 
do  the  work.  It  was  completed  early  in  July, 
1864,  and  placed  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  Chap¬ 
man,  of  the  Confederate  Army,  to  convey  it  to 


1876  it  was  in  the  possession  of  T.  J.  Pickett, 
who  was  the  commissioner  of  the  Confederacy 
in  Mexico.  The  engraving  on  page  287  is  about 
half  the  size  of  the  original. 

Confederate  Navy  (1861).  The  “  Confeder¬ 
ate  States”  lacked  the  ingenuity  and  skill  to 
cousti’uct  vessels  of  war,  but,  by  the  early  seizure 


CONFEDERATE  PRIVATEERS 


289  CONFEDERATE  ROSETTE  AND  BADGE 


of  vessels  belonging  to  the  United  States  and  by 
purchase,  they  bad  several  armed  vessels  at  sea. 
They  had  appropriated  to  their  use  six  United 
State  revenue  cutters,  which  were  fitted  up  as 
privateers,  and  purchased  and  fitted  out  about 
a  dozen  others.  The  first  of  the  purchased  ves¬ 
sels  was  named  the  Lady  Davis,  in  honor  of  the 
wife  of  Jefferson  Davis.  She  was  armed  with 
24-pouuders  and  placed  under  the  command  of 
Lieutenant  T.  B.  Huger,  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  who  had  deserted  his  flag.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  “  Confederate  States  ”  Navy, 
which  never  assumed  formidable  proportions 
until  ships  built,  armed,  and  manned  in  British 
ports  wrere  permitted  to  enter  the  Confederate 
service.  The  Confederacy  bad  engraved  in  Eng¬ 
land  a  very  fine  naval  commission,  which  wTas 
given  to  the  commanders  of  all  their  vessels.  It 
was  much  superior  in  artistic  execution  to  the 
commissions  issued  to  National  naval  officers. 
Our  engraving  is  a  perfect  fac-simile  of  it,  a  little 
less  than  one  third  the  size  of  the  original.  It 
was  printed  on  elegant  vellu  m.  The  space  with¬ 
in  the  wreath  covering  the  trophies  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  was  the  place  of  the  seal. 

Confederate  Privateers.  Tlie  Confederate 
Congress  resolved  (February,  1862)  to  prosecute 
the  war  with  vigor.  Before  the  close  of  July 
following  they  had  more  than  twenty  vessels 
afloat  as  privateers  to  depredate  upon  American 
commerce,  and  had  destroyed  millions  of  dollars’ 
worth  of  property.  At  the  first,  the  most  for¬ 
midable  of  these  were  the  Nashville  and  Sumter. 


PRIVATEER  SHIP  SUMTER. 


The  former  was  a  side-wheel  steamer,  carried  a 
crew  of  eighty  men,  and  was  armed  with  two 
long  12-pound  rifled  cannons.  She  was  de¬ 
stroyed  (Feb.  28,  1862)  by  the  Montaulc,  Captain 
Worden,  in  the  Ogeechee  River.  The  career  of 
the  Sumter  was  also  short,  but  much  more  active 
and  destructive.  She  had  a  crew  of  sixty-five 
men  and  twenty-five  marines,  and  was  heavily 
armed.  She  had  run  the  blockade  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  River  (Jan.  30,  1861),  ran 
among  the  West  India  Islands,  making  many 
prizes  of  vessels  bearing  the  American  flag,  and 
became  the  terror  of  the  American  merchant 
service,  skilfully  eluding  National  vessels  of 
war  sent  out  to  capture  her.  She  crossed  the 
Atlantic,  and,  at  the  close  of  1861,  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  seek  the  shelter  of  friendly  British 
guns  at  Gibraltar.  There  she  was  watched  by 
I.— 19 


the  Tuscarora,  United  States  Navy,  and  was  sold 
early  in  1862.  Mr.  Laird,  a  ship-builder  at  Liv¬ 
erpool  and  a  member  of  the  British  Parliament, 
contracted  to  build  sea-rovers  for  the  Confeder¬ 
ates.  The  first  of  his  production  that  went  to 
sea  was  the  Oreto.  Mr.  Adams,  the  American 
Minister,  called  the  attention  of  the  British  gov¬ 
ernment  to  the  matter  (Feb.  18, 1862),  but  noth¬ 
ing  was  done.  She  went  to  a  British  port  of 
the  Bahamas,  and  ran  the  blockade  at  Mobile, 
under  British  colors,  with  a  valuable  cargo. 
Her  name  was  changed  to  Florida,  and  she  was 
placed  in  charge  of  a  late  officer  of  the  United 
States  Navy  (John  Newland  Maffit),  and  again 
went  to  sea  in  December.  The  Florida  hovered 
most  of  the  time  off  the  American  coast,  closely 
watched,  everywhere  leaving  a  track  of  desola¬ 
tion  behind  her.  She  ran  down  to  the  coast  of 
South  America,  and,  alarmed  at  the  presence  of 
a  National  vessel  of  war,  ran  in  among  the  Bra¬ 
zilian  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Bahia.  Captain  Col¬ 
lins,  of  the  Wachusett,  ran  in  (Oct.  7,  1864),  board¬ 
ed  the  Florida,  lashed  her  to  his  vessel,  and  bore 
her  to  Hampton  Roads,  Va.,  where  she  was  sunk. 
The  most  famous  of  the  Auglo-Confederate  ves¬ 
sels  was  the  Alabama,  built  by  Laird  and  com¬ 
manded  by  Raphael  Senunes,  who  had  been  cap¬ 
tain  of  the  Sumter.  Her  career  is  elsewhere  re¬ 
lated.  (See  Alabama.)  The  career  of  the  Shenan¬ 
doah,  another  Anglo-Confederate  privateer,  was 
largely  in  the  Indian,  Southern,  and  Pacific 
oceans,  plundering  and  destroying  American  ves¬ 
sels.  On  the  borders  of  the  Frozen  ocean,  near 
Behring’s  Strait,  she  attended  a  convention  of 
American  whaling  ships  (June  28, 1865)  without 
being  suspected,  as  she  bore  the  United  States 
flag.  Suddenly  she  revealed  her  character, 
and  before  evening  she  had  made  prizes  of  ten 
whalers,  of  wffiich  eight  were  burned  in  a  group 
before  midnight.  It  was 
the  last  act  in  the  drama 
of  the  Civil  War.  Her 
commander,  informed  of 
the  close  of  the  war,  sailed 
for  England,  gave  up  the 
vessel  to  a  British  war¬ 
ship  as  a  prize,  and  made 
himself  rich  by  pocketing 
the  money  that  belonged 
to  his  companions.  His 
name  wTas  James  L.  Wad¬ 
dell,  and  he  bore  a  com¬ 
mission  from  the  Confed¬ 
erate  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  The  Shenandoah 
was  a  Clyde-built  steam¬ 
er,  long  and  rakish,  of 
seven  hundred  and  ninety 
tons  burden.  She  was 
manned,  says  her  his¬ 
torian  (C.  E.  Hunt),  by 
“  Southern  gentlemen.” 

Against  the  sending  out 
of  all  these  vessels  Mr. 

Adams  protested  in  vain. 

Confederate  Rosette 
and  Badge.  The  ro¬ 
sette  was  made  of  blue 


■lilliwiii,  i 

Mil!!!1 . . 

HR 


CONFEDERATE  ROSETTE  AND 
RADGE. 


CONFEDERATE  STATES  CONGRESS  290  CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


satin  ribbon,  surrounding  a  disk  containing  two 
circles,  in  tlie  centre  of  which  was  a  portrait  of 
Jefferson  Davis.  On  one  were  the  words,  “  OUR 
First  President.  The  Right  Man  in  the 
Right  Place.”  On  the  other  were  seven  stars 
and  the  name  of  Jefferson  Davis.  Attached 
to  this  was  a  badge  of  white  satin,  on  which 
was  printed,  in  proper  colors,  the  “  Confeder¬ 
ate”  Hag.  Ove£  it  were  the  words,  “  The  South 
Forever.  Southern  Confederation.”  Be¬ 
low  it  were  the  words  “  Jeff.  Davis,  President ; 
A.  H.  Stephens,  Vice-President.”  (See  Palmetto 
Cockade. ) 

Confederate  States  Congress,  Second  Ses¬ 
sion  of  the.  The  government  of  the  Confed¬ 
erate  States  was  transferred  from  Montgomery 
to  Richmond,  and  there  the  third  session  was 
opened  at  noon,  July  20,  1861.  The  members 
were  called  to  order  by  Howell  Cobb.  Presi¬ 
dent  Davis,  in  his  message,  congratulated  his 
associates  on  the  accession  of  states  to  the 
league;  declared  that  the  National  government 
had  revealed  its  intention  to  make  the  war  one 
of  subjugation  ;  that  the  Confederates  had  not 
begun  the  war;  that  the  Confederacy  was  “a 
great  and  powerful  nation  ;”  that  their  nation¬ 
ality  had  been  recognized  by  the  establishment 
of  “  blockades  by  sea  and  land ;”  and  that  the 
National  government  had  repudiated  the  idea 
of  the  Confederates  being  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  by  making  war  upon  them  “  with  a  sav¬ 
age  ferocity  unknown  to  modern  civilization.” 
He  charged  that  “  rapine  and  plunder”  was  the 
rule  of  the  loyal  soldiers;  that  they  plundered 
and  destroyed  private  houses;  that  they  made 
special  war  on  women  and  children  by  depriv¬ 
ing  them  of  the  means  of  procuring  medicines, 
and  that  they  had  committed  outrages  on  de¬ 
fenceless  women.  The  Congress  passed  an  act 
(Aug.  8,  1861)  which  authorized  the  banishment 
from  the  limits  of  the  Confederate  States  of 
every  masculine  citizen  of  the  United  States 
(with  some  exceptions  named)  over  fourteen 
years  of  age  who  acknowledged  its  authority. 
The  couits  were  authorized  to  arrest  all  Union 
men  who  did  not  proclaim  their  allegiance  to 
the  Confederacy  or  leave  its  limits  within  forty 
days,  and  to  treat  them  as  “alien  enemies.” 
Another  act  authorized  the  confiscation  of  every 
species  of  property  of  such  “  alien  enemies,”  or 
absent  citizens  of  the  United  States,  with  ex¬ 
ceptions  already  alluded  to  (citizens  of  slave- 
labor  states  yet  in  the  Union).  Measures  for 
the  increase  and  officering  of  the  army  and 
navy  and  for  extensive  financial  operations 
were  adopted.  It  was  reported  that  the  Con¬ 
federates  then  had  200,000  soldiers  in  the  field, 
and  President  Davis  was  authorized  to  increase 
this  force  by  an  addition  of  400,000  volunteers, 
to  serve  for  not  less  than  one  year  nor  more  than 
three  years.  He  was  also  authorized  to  send  ad¬ 
ditional  commissioners  to  Europe  ;  also,  to  in¬ 
flict  retaliation  upon  the  persons  of  prisoners  of 
war. 

Confederate  States  Government,  Perma¬ 
nent.  The  provisional  government  of  the  so- 
called  Confederate  States  ended  on  Feb.  8,  1862, 


when  the  permanent  government  was  organ¬ 
ized.  Jefferson  Davis  had  been  unanimously 
chosen  President  for  a  term  of  six  years.  He 
chose  for  his  cabinet  Judah  P.  Benjamin,  of 
Louisiana,  Secretary  of  State ;  George  W.  Ran¬ 
dolph,  of  Virginia,  Secretary  of  War ;  S.  R.  Mal¬ 
lory,  of  Florida,  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  C.  G. 
Memminger,  of  South  Carolina,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  ;  J.  H.  Reagan,  of  Texas,  Postmaster- 
general,  and  T.  H.  Watts,  of  Alabama,  Attorney- 
general.  Randolph  resigned  in  the  autumn, 
and  James  A.  Seddon,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Rich¬ 
mond,  was  made  Secretary  of  War  in  his  place. 
On  the  same  day  a  Congress,  professedly  elected 
by  the  people,  assembled  at  Richmond,  in  which 
all  of  the  slave-labor  states  were  represented  ex¬ 
cepting  Maryland  and  Delaware.  Whether  the 
members  of  Congress  had  been  elected  on  the 
following  Virginia  plan  is  not  recorded:  “It 
being  necessary  to  form  a  ticket  of  electors,” 
said  a  leading  newspaper  of  Richmond,  “  and 
the  time  being  too  short  to  call  a  convention  of 
the  people,  it  was  suggested  that  the  Richmond 
editors  should  prepare  a  ticket,  thus  relieving 
the  people  of  the  trouble  of  making  elections.” 
The  ticket  was  so  formed  and  voted  upon.  “  Ev¬ 
ery  district  in  the  state,”  said  the  journalist,  “  is 
embraced  in  this  editorial  report.”  Devices  for 
seals  of  the  various  departments  were  adopted, 
and  the  seals  were  made  in  England.  (See  Con¬ 
federate  Government  Seal.) 

“Confederate  States  of  America.”  When  the 
convention  at  Montgomery  (which  see)  adopted 
a  permanent  constitution,  the  name  “  Confeder¬ 
ate  States  of  America”  was  given  to  the  league. 
This  was  a  misnomer,  for  no  states,  as  states, 
had  confederated.  No  state,  as  a  state,  was  at 
any  time  during  the  war  in  insurrection  or  re¬ 
bellion  ;  only  certain  persons  in  certain  states 
were  in  a  condition  of  insurrection  or  rebellion. 
An  ancient  poet  asked,  “  What  constitutes  a 
state?”  and  answered  his  own  question,  “Men, 
high-minded  men”  —  in  other  words,  as  applied 
to  our  free  government,  the  people.  The  peo¬ 
ple  in  the  “seceded  states”  had  never  been 
asked  to  sanction  the  ordinances  of  secession ; 
had  no  voice  in  the  choice  of  members  of  the 
convention  at  Montgomery,  which  assumed  the 
powers  of  a  general  government ;  had  never 
spoken  concerning  the  constitution  which  these 
men  had  framed,  and  had  no  voice  in  forming 
the  government  called  the  “  Confederate  States 
of  America.”  It  was  only  a  confederation  of 
politicians,  leagued  for  the  avowed  purpose 
of  overturning  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  Equally  misnamed  is  a  history  of  the 
war  by  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  which  he  called 
a  War  between  the  States.  There  never  was  a  war 
between  the  states. 

“Confederate  States  of  America,”  Perma¬ 
nent  Constitution  of  the.  On  the  11th  of 
March  the  “  Congress”  at  Montgomery  adopted 
a  permanent  constitution  for  the  Confederacy, 
and  gave  to  the  league  the  title  of  “  Confeder¬ 
ate  States  of  America.”  In  its  preamble  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  state  supremacy  was  fully  recognized  in 
the  following  words :  “  We,  the  people  of  the 


CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA  291  CONFEDERATES,  CONVENTION  OF 


Confederate  States,  each  state  acting  in  its  sov¬ 
ereign  and  independent  character,”  etc.  It  was 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  with  cer¬ 
tain  omissions  and  alterations.  It  fixed  the  term 
of  service  of  the  President  and  Vice-President  at 
six  years,  and  made  the  former  ineligible  to  re- 
election. 

“Confederate  States  of  America,”  Ratifi¬ 
cation  of  Permanent  Constitution  of  the. 
The  Constitution  was  submitted  to  the  several 
revolutionary  or  secession  conventions  for  ratifi¬ 
cation.  This  was  done  on  their  reassembling, 
respectively.  The  Convention  of  Alabama  rati¬ 
fied  it  on  March  13,  1861 ;  of  Georgia  on  March 
14th  ;  of  Louisiana,  March  21st ;  of  Mississippi, 
March  26th  ;  of  South  Carolina,  April  3d.  In 
the  Mississippi  Convention  some  of  the  ablest 
men  proposed  to  submit  the  Constitution  to  the 
people,  but  this  democratic  idea  was  voted  down 
by  the  voices  of  8eveut57-eight  against  seven. 
None  of  the  conventions  ever  ventured  to  allow 
the  people  to  vote  freely  on  their  own  acts,  or 
on  the  subject  of  forming  a  Southern  confed¬ 
eracy.  The  whole  authority  in  the  new  govern¬ 
ment  was  vested,  by  palpable  usurpation,  in  the 
hands  of  the  politicians.  The  revolutionary 
movements  in  which  the  people  were  so  deeply 
interested  were  wholly  controlled  by  a  few  self- 
constituted  leaders. 

“Confederate  States,”  State  Department 
Seal  of  the.  At  Richmond  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederate  States  devised  seals  for  their  several 
departments.  That  of  the  State  Department, 
which  would  be  seen  abroad  more  than  any 


other,  had  in  its  centre  an  escutcheon  quartered 
by  a  St.  Andrew’s  cross  bearing  ten  stars.  In 
the  upper  quartering  was  a  ship  under  full  sail, 
and  in  each  of  the  other  three  was  an  agricultu¬ 
ral  product  of  the  South.  From  the  top  of  the 
escutcheon  were  emitted  rays  of  light.  Under  it 
was  a  ribbon  bearing  the  motto  “Nulla  patiua 
AMICTA3  fidei  meaning,  “  No  country,  no  father- 
land,  that  does  not  keep  faith that  is  to  say, 
“  We  reject  the  National  government  because  it 
is  faithless.”  Around  the  whole  were  the  words 
“  Department  of  State.  Confederate  States 
of  America.” 

Confederates,  Convention  of,  at  Mont¬ 


gomery  (1861).  On  the  same  day  (Feb.  4, 1861) 
when  the  Peace  Congress  (which  see)  assembled 
at  Washington  to  consider  measures  for  preserv¬ 
ing  the  Union,  delegates  from  six  states  wherein 
conventions  had  adopted  ordinances  of  secession 
assembled  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  to  form  a  con¬ 
federacy  for  the  destruction  of  the  Union.  In 
that  convention,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Ala¬ 
bama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Florida  were 
represented.  They  met  in  the  State  House  at 
Montgomery,  a  city  then  of  sixteen  thousand  in¬ 
habitants,  situated  on  the  Alabama  River,  three 
hundred  miles  by  its  course  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  delegates  were  forty-two  in  num¬ 
ber.*  The  sessions  began  in  the  legislative  hall, 
with  R.  W.  Barnwell,  of  South  Carolina,  as  tem¬ 
porary  chairman.  Rev.  Basil  Manly  invoked 
the  blessings  of  God  upon  the  premeditated  la¬ 
bors  of  the  convention.  Howell  Cobb,  of  Georgia, 
was  appointed  permanent  president  of  the  con¬ 
vention,  and  Johnson  F.  Hooper,  of  Montgomery, 
was  chosen  clerk.  In  his  speech  ou  taking  the 
chair  Cobb  declared  that  they  met  as  “  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  sovereign  states  which  had  dis¬ 
solved  their  political  connection  with  the  United 
States;”  that  the  separation  was  a  “fixed,  an 
irrevocable  fact — perfect,  complete,  and  perpet¬ 
ual  ;”  counselled  his  associates  to  assume  the  re¬ 
sponsibility  necessary  for  the  accomplishment 
of  the  work  they  had  entered  upon ;  and  con¬ 
cluded  by  saying,  “With  a  consciousness  of  the 
justice  of  our  chuse,  and  with  confidence  in  the 
guidance  and  blessings  of  a  kind  Providence,  we 
will  this  day  inaugurate  for  the  South  a  new 
era  of  peace,  security,  and  prosperity.”  It  was 
agreed  that  all  votes  should  be  taken  by  states. 
It  was  perceived  at  the  outset  that  perfect  har¬ 
mony  in  the  convention  could  not  be  expected. 
Nearly  all  of  the  delegates,  as  private  letters 
show,  were  aspirants  for  office  in  the  inchoate 
empire.  Each  felt  himself,  like  Bottom  the 
Weaver,  capable  of  performing  any  part  in  the 
drama  then  opening,  either  as  “Lion,”  “Pyra- 
inus,”  “  Wall,”  or  “  Moonshine.”  The  South  Car¬ 
olinians  were  specially  willing  to  bear  the  bur¬ 
den  of  public  office.  Judge  McGrath,  who  laid 
aside  his  judicial  robes  at  Charleston,  sent  word 
by  Memminger  that  he  would  like  to  be  made 
attorney-general.  Robert  Barnwell  Rhett,  the 
“father  of  secession  in  South  Carolina,”  thought 
himself  peculiarly  fitted  for  secretary  of  war, 
and  evinced,  in  letters  to  his  sou,  special  sensi¬ 
tiveness  because  his  claims  to  distinction  had 
been  overlooked.  Memminger  aspired  to  be  sec¬ 
retary  of  the  treasury,  and  James  Chesnut,  Jr., 
who  had  “patriotically”  made  a  sacrifice  of  his 
seat  in  the  United  States  Senate,  was  spoken  of 


*  The  following  aro  the  names  of  the  delegates  :  South  Car¬ 
olina — R.  B.  Rhett,  James  Chesnut,  Jr.,  W.  1'.  Miles,  T.  J.  With¬ 
ers,  R.  W.  Barnwell,  C.  G.  Memminger,  L,  M.  Keitt.  W.  W. 
Boyce.  Georgia— Robert  Toombs,  Howell  Cobb,  Benjamin  II. 
Hill,  Alexander  II.  Stephens,  Francis  Barbour,  Martin  J.  Craw¬ 
ford,  E.  A.  Nisbett,  Augustus  B.  Wright,  Thomas  R.  R.  Cobb, 
Augustus  Keenan.  Alabama — Richard  W.  Walker,  Robert  H. 
Smith.  Colin  J.  McRae,  John  Gill  Shorter,  S.  F.  Hale,  David  I’. 
Lewis.  Thomas  Foarn,  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  W.  P.  Chilton.  Mississip¬ 
pi — Willie  P.  Harris,  Walker  Brooke,  A.  M.  Clayton,  W.  S.  Bar¬ 
ry,  J.  T.  Harrison,  .J.  A.  P.  Campbell, W.  S.  Wilson.  Louisiana 
—John  Perkins,  Jr.,  Duncan  F.  Kennu,  C.  M.  Conrad,  E.  Spen¬ 
cer,  Henry  Marshall.  Florida — Jackson  Morton,  James  Pow¬ 
ers,  W.  B.  Ochiltree. 


CONFEDERATES,  CONVENTION  OF  292  CONFEDERATES  ON  THE  POTOMAC 


as  a  fitting  head  of  the  new  nation.  Some  auto¬ 
graph  letters  before  the  writer  are  rich  revela¬ 
tions  of  disappointed  ambition.  In  the  conven¬ 
tion,  Rhett  counselled  the  same  violence  that  the 
South  Carolinians  had  practised  at  Charleston, 
and  when  his  recommendations  were  met  by 
calm  opposition,  he  denounced  his  associates  ps 
cowards  and  imbeciles.  “  If  the  people  of 
Charleston  should  burn  the  whole  crew  in  effigy 
I  should  not  be  surprised,”  he  wrote,  Feb.  11, 
1861.  Men  like  Stephens,  Hill,  Brooke,  and  Per¬ 
kins  controlled  the  fiery  spirits  like  Rhett  and 
Toombs  in  the  convention,  and  it  soon  assumed 
a  dignity  suited  to  the  gravity  of  the  occasion. 
The  sessions  were  generally  held  in  secret.  On 
the  second  day  Memminger,  of  South  Carolina, 
offered  resolutions  declaring  it  to  be  expedient 
forthwith  to  form  a  confederacy  of  “  seceded 
states,”  and  that  a  committee  of  thirteen  be  ap¬ 
pointed  to  report  a  plan  for  a  provisional  gov¬ 
ernment  on  the  basis  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  that  all  propositions  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  a  provisional  government  be  referred  to 
that  committee.  Alexander  H.  Stephens  then 
moved  that  the  term  “  congress,”  instead  of 
“  convention,”  be  used  when  applied  to  the  body 
then  in  session,  which  was  agreed  to.  Commis¬ 
sioners  from  North  Carolina  appeared  (Feb.  6), 
and  were  invited  to  seats  in  the  convention. 
They  came  only  as  commissioners  from  a  “  state 
yet  in  the  Union,”  instructed  to  effect  an  “hon¬ 
orable  and  amicable  adjustment  of  all  the  diffi¬ 
culties  that  distract  the  country,  upon  the  basis 
of  the  Crittenden  Compromise  (which  see),  mod¬ 
ified  by  the  Virginia  Legislature.”  Their  mis¬ 
sion  was  fruitless,  for  that  “congress”  was  op¬ 
posed  to  any  form  of  conciliation.  On  the  7th 
n  resolution  from  the  Legislature  of  Alabama, 
offering  the  “Provisional  Government  of  the 
Confederacy  of  Seceding  States  the  sum  of 
$500,000  as  a  loan,”  was  accepted.  On  the  same 
day  Memminger,  chairman  of  the  committee  of 
thirteen,  presented  a  plan  of  government.  It 
was  discussed  in  secret  session,  when  the  Con¬ 
stitution  of  the  United  States,  with  some  impor¬ 
tant  modihcations,  was  adopted  as  the  form  of 
government  of  the  new  Confederacy.  (See  Con¬ 
federate  States  of  America.)  This  provisional 
Constitution  received  the  unanimous  vote  of 
the  convention ;  yet  the  violent  Rhett  fulmi¬ 
nated,  through  the  Charleston  Mercury,  anathe¬ 
mas  against  if,  especially  on  account  of  a  tariff 
clause,  the  prohibition  of  the  African  slave-trade, 
and  the  adoption  of  the  three-fifths  rule  of  rep¬ 
resentation  for  slaves,  as  in  the  National  Con¬ 
stitution.  “  Let  your  people,”  he  said,  “  prepare 
their  minds  for  a  failure  in  the  future  permanent 
Southern  Constitution,  for  South  Carolina  is 
about  to  be  saddled  with  almost  every  griev¬ 
ance,  except  abolition,  against  which  she  so  long 
struggled,  and  has  just  withdrawn  from  the 
United  States  Government.”  On  the  9th  of 
February  the  president  of  the  convention  and 
all  the  members  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  provisional  Constitution,  and  at  noon  the 
doors  of  the  hall  were  thrown  open  to  the  pub¬ 
lic,  and  the  convention  proceeded  to  the  elec¬ 
tion  of  a  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 


Confederacy.  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi, 
was  choseu  President  by  unanimous  vote;  and 
by  a  like  vote  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  of  Georgia, 
was  chosen  Vice-President.  (See  Inauguration 
of  Jefferson  Davis.  )  The  chairman  of  the  con¬ 
vention  appointed  committees  on  foreign  rela¬ 
tions.  postal  affairs,  finance,  commerce,  military 
and  naval  affairs,  judiciary,  patents  and  copy¬ 
rights,  and  printing.  All  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  not  incompatible  with  the  new  order  of 
things  were  continued  in  force  temporarily.  A 
committee  was  appointed  to  report  a  constitu¬ 
tion  of  permanent  government  for  the  Confed¬ 
eracy.  On  the  13th  a  delegate  from  Texas  (John 
Gregg)  took  his  seat  in  the  convention.  The 
others  were  on  the  way.  Preparations  were 
made  for  the  organization  of  an  army  and  navy, 
and  to  make  provision  for  deserters  of  the  old 
flag.  On  Feb.  18  Davis  and  Stephens  were  in¬ 
augurated,  aud  the  oath  of  office  was  adminis¬ 
tered  to  Davis  by  Howell  Cobb,  president  of  the 
congress.  The  convention  authorized  him  to 
accept  one  hundred  thousand  volunteers,  and  to 
assume  control  of  “all  military  operations  be¬ 
tween  the  Confederate  States ;”  and  at  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  March  it  recommended  the  several  states 
to  cede  to  the  “  Confederate  States”  the  forts, 
arsenals,  dock-yards,  aud  other  public  establish¬ 
ments  within  their  respective  domains  which 
they  had  wrested  from  the  United  States.* 

Confederates  on  the  Line  of  the  Potomac. 
Detachments  of  Confederates  from  headquarters 
at  Manassas  took  a  position  at  Munson’s  Hill, 
within  six  miles  of  the  Capitol  as  the  bird  flies, 
and  they  kept  up  the  blockade  of  the  Potomac 
below  Washington  by  batteries  on  the  Virginia 
shore.  When  the  government  proposed  to  re¬ 
move  that  blockade,  and  National  troops  began 
to  push  back  the  Cou federate  advance,  the  lat¬ 
ter  retired  from  Munson’s  Hill,  late  in  Septem- 

*  The  proceedings  of  this  convention,  and  of  the  “Provi¬ 
sional  Government  of  the  Confederate  States,”  have  never 
been  printed.  The  original  manuscripts  were  discovered  by 
some  of  General  Wilson’s  command  at  Athens,  Ga. ,  after  the 
downfall  of  the  Confederacy.  They  were  in  three  boxes  in  one 
of  the  recitation-rooms  of  the  University  of  Georgia.  A  cor¬ 
respondent  of  the  New  York  Herald ,  writing  from  Athens  on 
the  19th  of  June,  1865,  gives  the  following  interesting  history 
of  these  papers,  which  consist  of  journals,  correspondence,  etc. : 
“  As  the  Provisional  Congress  was  about  to  expire,  a  proposi¬ 
tion  was  made  that  the  journals  should  be  published.  This 
was  objected  to  on  the  ground  of  furnishing  much  valuable 
information,  and  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  and  requiring 
the  president  of  the  Congress,  Howell  Cobb,  to  have  three  cop¬ 
ies  made  of  all  the  journals.  He  was  at  that  time  in  the  army, 
commanding  the  Sixteenth  Georgia  Regiment,  and  down  on 
the  Peninsula,  below  Richmond.  He  at  once  engaged  J.  D. 
Hooper,  former  clerk,  to  undertake  the  job.  Whatever  were 
his  hinderances  it  is  not  known;  but  he  did  very  little,  and, 
after  having  them  on  hand  for  a  long  time,  died.  They  were 
then  shipped  to  a  gentleman  in  Georgia,  with  a  request  to 
complete  the  work.  Papers  were  missing,  requiring  months 
to  find;  materials  hard  to  get,  and  the  work  therefore  never 
was  completed.  They  were  at  one  time  held  in  Atlanta,  but 
the  Unionists  coming  too  near,  were  hurried  off  to  West  Point, 
Ga.  There  a  stirring  rumor  of  a  raid  springing  up,  they  wTere 
carried  to  Tallapoosa  County,  Ala.,  on  a  plantation.  In  march¬ 
ing  from  Dadeville  to  Loachapoka,  General  Rousseau  passed 
within  four  miles  of  the  house  where  they  were;  and  when 
his  men  were  destroying  the  railroad  at  Notasulga,  and  were 
having  the  little  fight  near  Chehaw,  the  boxes  were  hid  out  in 
the  woods  two  miles  off,  and  were  watched  by  two  negro  men. 
They  wore  then  removed  to  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  thence,  when 
Sherman  came  tearing  down  through  Georgia  like  a  wild 
horse,  they  were  pushed  along  into  the  upper  part  of  South 
Carolina.  Thence,  in  the  spring,  they  were  brought  over  to 
this  place.  ”  These  journals  are  among  the  archives  of  the 
“  Confederate  Government  ”  at  Washington  city. 


CONFEDERATES  ABANDONED 


293  CONGRESS  AND  ROMAN  CATHOLICS 


ber.  After  that  there  were  some  struggles  for 
the  possession  of  the  Upper  Potomac.  Skir¬ 
mishes  occurred  at  Levvinsville,  Ya.,  and  at 
Darnestown,  Md.,  in  which  the  Nationals  were 
victors.  By  the  middle  of  October  (1861)  the 
Confederates  occupied  a  line  from  Fairfax  Court¬ 
house  well  up  towards  Leesburg.  Meanwhile 
some  National  troops  had  crossed  the  river  at 
Harper’s  Ferry  (Oct.  8, 1861)  to  seize  some  wheat, 
when  a  large  body  of  Confederates  menaced 
them.  Colonel  Geary  went  over  with  reinforce¬ 
ments  for  the  Nationals,  and  on  the  hills  back 
of  the  village  he  had  a  severe  engagement  with 
the  insurgents  and  repulsed  them.  Then  all  the 
Nationals  recrossed  the  river  with  their  spoils. 
At  Lewinsville  the  Nationals  lost  two  killed  and 
ten  wounded.  The  skirmish  at  Darnestown, 
Md.,  between  National  pickets  and  four  hundred 
and  fifty  Virginians,  continued  about  two  hours. 
The  assailants  (the  Virginians)  were  repulsed, 
with  a  loss  of  ten  killed  and  many  wounded ; 
only  one  National  was  killed.  At  Harper’s  Fer¬ 
ry  Geary  lost  four  killed,  seven  wounded,  and 
two  taken  prisoners. 

Confederates,  The,  abandoned  by  Great 
Britain.  In  April,  1864,  the  British  minister  at 
Washington  was  permitted  to  send  to  Jefferson 
Davis  a  letter  from  Earl  Russell,  the  British  for¬ 
eign  secretary,  in  which  that  officer,  in  the  name 
of  “  her  Majesty’s  government,” protested  against 
the  further  procuring  by  the  Confederates  of 
vessels  within  the  British  dominions  to  be  used 
for  piratical  or  privateering  purposes.  He  said, 
“  Her  Majesty’s  government  protests  and  remon¬ 
strates  agaiust  any  further  efforts  on  the  part 
of  the  so-called  Confederate  States  to  procure  ves¬ 
sels  in  Great  Britain  for  hostile  purposes  against 
the  United  States.”  And  “  her  Majesty’s  govern¬ 
ment  further  protests  and  remonstrates  against 
all  acts  in  violation  of  the  neutrality  laws  of  the 
realm.”  These  words,  uttered  by  one  who  per¬ 
sonally  and  in  the  name  of  his  government  had 
given  the  insurgents  all  the  “  aid  and  comfort” 
in  his  power  which  a  wise  prudence  would  al¬ 
low,  kindled  the  hot  indignation  of  the  Confed¬ 
erates.  Mr.  Davis  instructed  one  of  his  assist¬ 
ants  to  reply  that  it  “  would  be  inconsistent 
with  the  dignity  of  the  position  he  [Mr.  Davis] 
fills  as  chief  magistrate  of  a  nation  comprising 
a  population  of  more  than  twelve  millions,  oc¬ 
cupying  a  territory  many  times  larger  than  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  possessing  resources  un¬ 
surpassed  by  those  of  any  other  country  on  the 
face  of  the  globe,  to  allow  the  attempt  of  Earl 
Russell  to  ignore  the  actual  existence  of  the 
Confederate  States,  and  to  contemptuously  style 
them  ‘so  called,’  to  pass  without  a  protest  and 
a  remonstrance.  The  President  therefore  does 
protest  and  remonstrate  against  this  studied  in¬ 
sult  ;  and  he  instructs  me  to  say  that  in  future 
any  document  in  which  it  may  be  repeated  will 
bo  returned  unanswered  and  unnoticed.” 

Confiscation  Act,  Confederate.  From  the 
Confederate  “Department  of  Justice”  went  out 
instructions, late  in  the  summer  of  1861,  to  put  in 
force  the  Confiscation  Act  of  the  Confederate 
Congress  at  its  third  session  (which  see),  that  all 


persons,  Americans  or  Europeans,  having  a  dom¬ 
icile  in  the  “  Confederate  States,  and  carrying 
on  business  or  traffic  within  the  states  at  war 
with  the  Confederacy  ”  were  “  deemed  enemies 
that  the  property  of  every  kind  of  these  persons 
should  be  seized  and  held,  and  that  the  receiv¬ 
ers  of  the  same  should  apply  to  the  clerk  of 
courts  for  writs  of  garnishment  [a  warning  or 
notice  to  a  person  to  appear  in  court  and  give 
information,  such  person  being  called  a  gar¬ 
nishee],  commanding  persons  suspected  of  hold¬ 
ing  in  trust  the  property  of  an  “alien  enemy” 
to  appear  and  answer  such  questions,  under  oath, 
touching  such  custody,  as  might  be  propounded. 
The  authorized  persons  making  the  seizures  were 
furnished  with  a  formula  of  questions  for  the 
garnishees,  which  implied  the  establishment  of 
a  court  of  inquisition  of  the  most  despotic  kind. 
Under  this  searching  sequestration  act  a  vast 
amount  of  property  belonging  to  loyal  owners 
in  the  free-labor  states  was  seized,  swelling  the 
entire  loss  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  states  by 
the  repudiation  of  or  inability  to  pay  honest 
debts  by  the  business  men  of  the  South  to  about 
$300,000,000.  Few  men  had  the  boldness  to  op¬ 
pose  this  measure.  It  was  a  strong  arm  for  pro¬ 
ducing  a  solid  South  (which  see).  J.  L.  Petti¬ 
grew,  of  Charleston,  however,  boldly  opposed  it  in 
open  court,  denouncing  thelaw  as  unknown  to  the 
jurisprudence  of  any  civilized  nation.  He  was 
served  with  a  writ  of  garnishment,  but  refused 
to  obey  it,  telling  the  court  plainly  that  such 
proceedings  were  “  no  better  than  those  which 
made  the  English  Star  Chamber  and  Spanish 
Inquisition  odious  to  every  lover  of  liberty.” 

Congregational  Church  in  South  Caroli¬ 
na.  Hearing  of  spiritual  destitution  in  South 
Carolina,  a  church  was  gathered  at  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  with  the  design  of  settling  in  that  South¬ 
ern  colony  to  encourage  and  promote  the  growth 
of  religion  there.  With  its  pastor,  Joseph  Lord, 
this  congregation  arrived  at  Charleston  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1695,  formed  a  settlement  on  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Ashley  River,  which  they 
called  Dorchester,  and  there,  on  Feb.  2, 1696,  the 
Lord’s  Supper  was  for  the  first  time  adminis¬ 
tered  in  that  colony. 

Congress  and  the  Roman  Catholics.  With 
a  singular  lack  of  discretion,  the  first  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress,  while  anxious  to  have  the  Cana¬ 
dians  for  their  allies  in  the  inevitable  struggle 
then  impending,  oft'ended  the  Roman  Catholics 
of  that  country  by  expressions  in  their  address 
to  the  people  of  Great  Britain.  They  asserted 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  had  “dis¬ 
pensed  impiety,  bigotry,  persecution,  murder, 
and  rebellion  through  every  part  of  the  world.” 
In  the  .address  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Quebec,  drawn  up  by  John  Dickinson, 
all  old  religious  prejudices  and  jealousies  were 
condemned  as  unworthy  of  high-minded  men, 
and  the  Swiss  cantons  were  cited  as  examples 
of  a  union  composed  of  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  states.  This  somewhat  soothed  the 
irritation  caused  by  the  other  address,  but  the 
words  of  the  latter  were  remembered  to  the  in¬ 
jury  of  the  American  cause. 


CONGRESS,  APATHY  OF  THE  294  CONGRESS,  NATIONAL 


Congress,  Apathy  of  the  (1779).  Faction 
had  corrupted  or  enfeebled  patriotism  in  Con¬ 
gress  in  1779,  and  there  prevailed  a  general  ap¬ 
athy  in  that  body  concerning  public  affairs. 
Washington  saw  clearly  the  danger,  and  fre- 
qnently  warned  Congress  of  it,  assuring  them 
that  the  British  ministers  plainly  intended  to 
prosecute  the  war  vigorously,  and  make  a  per¬ 
manent  conquest  of  the  South.  But  the  Con¬ 
gress  did  not  provide  for  reinforcements  for  the 
army,  for  they  believed  the  war  was  near  its 
end.  Ill  this  belief  they  were  confirmed  by  the 
action  of  the  French  minister  at  Philadelphia, 
who  had  been  instructed  to  ascertain  the  ulti¬ 
mate  demands  of  theUnited  States,  and  to  mould 
them  into  a  form  acceptable  to  Spain.  (See 
French  Interest ,  etc.,  and  Convention  between  France 
and  Spain.)  The  answer  of  Congress  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish  communication  in  1778  implied  a  willingness 
to  treat  with  Great  Britain  on  her  recognition 
of  American  independence.  But  they  could  not, 
without  violating  the  treaty  with  France,  make 
a.  peace  that  did  not  include  the  latter  country. 
On  Jan.  14,  1779,  the  Congress  resolved  unani¬ 
mously  “  that  as  neither  France  nor  these  United 
States  may  of  right,  so  they  will  not  conclude 
either  truce  or  peace  with  the  common  enemy 
without  the  formal  consent  of  their  ally  first  ob¬ 
tained.” 

Congress  at  New  London.  In  1711  a  con¬ 
gress  of  colonial  governors  was  held  at  New  Lon¬ 
don,  Conn.,  to  concert  measures  concerning  the 
proposed  campaign  against  Canada. 

Congress  for  Permanent  Independence. 

Late  in  December,  1776,  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress,  which  had  tied  from  Philadelphia  and  re¬ 
assembled  at  Baltimore,  cast  aside  its  hitherto 
temporizing  policy.  Up  to  this  time,  the  Con¬ 
gress  had  left  on  their  journal  the  suggestion 
that  a  reunion  with  Great  Britain  might  be  the 
consequence  of  a  delay  in  France  to  declare  im¬ 
mediately  and  explicitly  in  their  favor.  Now 
they  voted  to  “assure  foreign  courts  that  the 
Congress  and  people  of  America  are  determined 
to  maintain  their  independence  at  all  events.” 
It  was  resolved  to  offer  treaties  of  commerce  to 
Prussia,  Austria,  and  Tuscany,  and  to  ask  for 
the  intervention  of  those  powers  to  prevent 
Russian  or  German  troops  from  serving  against 
the  United  States.  They  also  drew  up  a  sketch 
for  an  offensive  alliance  with  France  and  Spain 
against  Great  Britain.  These  measures  delight¬ 
ed  the  more  radical  members  in  Congress  and, 
with  the  victory  at  Trenton  which  immediately 
followed,  inspirited  the  people. 

Congress,  National,  Called  Session  of  the 
(1861).  On  Thursday,  July  4, 1861,  the  Thirty- 
seventh  Congress  assembled  in  the  Capitol  at 
Washington  in  extraordinary  session,  in  compli¬ 
ance  with  the  call  of  President  Lincoln,  April  15. 
In  the  Senate  twenty-three  states,  and  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  twenty -two  states 
and  one  territory,  were  represented.  There 
were  forty  senators  and  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
four  representatives.  Teu  states,  in  which  the 
political  leaders  had  adopted  ordinances  of  se¬ 
cession,  were  not  represented.  In  both  Houses 


there  was  a  large  majority  of  Unionists.  It  was 
the  first  session  of  this  Congress,  and  Galusha  A. 
Grow,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  chosen  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives.  The  President, 
in  liis  message,  confined  his  remarks  to  the  spe¬ 
cial  object  for  which  the  Congress  had  been 
called  together.  He  recited  the  many  and 
grave  offences  of  the  conspirators  against  the 
life  of  the  nation,  such  as  the  seizure  of  pub¬ 
lic  property,  making  preparations  for  war,  and 
seeking  the  recognition  of  foreign  powers  as 
an  independent  nation.  In  the  act  of  firing 
on  Fort  Sumter,  “  discarding  all  else,”  he  said, 
“  they  have  forced  upon  the  country  the  dis¬ 
tinct  issue,  ‘immediate  dissolution  or  blood.’” 
He  reviewed  the  conduct  of  the  Virginia  poli¬ 
ticians,  condemned  the  policy  of  armed  neutral¬ 
ity  proposed  in  some  of  the  border  states,  al¬ 
luded  to  the  call  for  soldiers,  and  the  necessity 
of  vindicating  the  power  of  the  National  gov¬ 
ernment.  “  It  is  now  recommended,”  he  said, 
“that  you  give  the  legal  means  for  making  the 
contest  a  short  and  decisive  one ;  that  you  place 
at  the  control  of  the  government  for  the  work 
at  least  400,000  men  and  $400,000,000.  ...  A 
right  result  at  this  time  will  be  worth  more  to 
the  world  than  ten  times  the  men  and  ten  times 
the  money.  .  .  .  The  people  will  save  the  gov¬ 
ernment  if  the  government  itself  will  do  its 
part  only  indifferently  well.”  He  alluded  to 
the  preponderance  of  Union  sentiment  among 
the  people  in  the  South,  and  stated  the  remark¬ 
able  fact  that,  while  large  numbers  of  officers 
of  the  army  and  navy  had  proved  themselves 
unfaithful,  “  not  one  common  soldier  or  sailor  is 
known  to  have  deserted  his  flag.  .  .  .  This  is  the 
patriotic  instinct  of  plain  people.  They  under¬ 
stand,  without  an  argument,  that  the  destroy¬ 
ing  of  the  government  which  was  made  by 
Washington  means  no  good  to  them.”  The 
President  assured  the  people  that  the  sole  ob¬ 
ject  of  the  exercise  of  the  war-power  should  be 
the  maintenance  of  the  national  authority  and 
the  salvation  of  the  life  of  the  republic.  After 
expressing  a  hope  that  the  views  of  Congress 
were  coincident  with  his  own,  the  President 
said,  “  Having  chosen  our  course  without  guile 
and  with  pure  motives,  let  us  renew  our  trust 
in  God  and  go  forward  without  fear  and  with 
manly  hearts.”  There  were  important  reports 
from  the  departments  accompanying  the  Presi¬ 
dent’s  message.  The  Secretary  of  War  (Mr. 
Cameron)  recommended  the  enlistment  of  men 
for  three  years,  with  a  bounty  of  $100,  for  the 
additional  regiments  of  the  regular  army;  also, 
that  appropriations  be  made  for  the  construc¬ 
tion,  equipment,  and  current  expenses  of  rail¬ 
ways  and  telegraphs  for  the  use  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  ;  for  the  furnishing  of  a  more  liberal  sup¬ 
ply  of  approved  arms  for  the  militia,  and  an  in¬ 
crease  in  the  clerical  force  of  his  department. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (Mr.  Chase)  asked 
for  $240,000,0*00  for  war  expenses,  and  $80,000,000 
to  meet  the  ordinary  demands  for  the  fiscal  year. 
He  proposed  to  raise  the  $80,000,000,  in  addition 
to  the  sum  of  nearly  $66,000,000,  by  levying  in¬ 
creased  duties  on  specified  articles,  and  also  by 
certain  internal  revenues,  or  by  the  direct  taxa- 


CONGRESS,  NATIONAL  295  CONGRESS,  NATIONAL 


tion  of  real  and  personal  property.  For  war 
purposes,  he  proposed  a  national  loan  of  not 
less  than  $100,000,000,  to  he  issued  in  the  form 
of  Treasury  notes,  bearing  au  annual  interest  of 
seven  and  three  tenths  per  cent.,  or  one  cent  a 
day  on  fifty  dollars,  in  sums  from  $50  to  $5000. 
He  proposed  to  issue  bonds  or  certificates  of 
debt,  in  the  event  of  the  national  loan  proving 
insufficient,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $100,- 
000,000,  to  be  made  redeemable  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  government  after  a  period  not  exceeding 
thirty  years,  and  bearing  interest  not  exceeding 
seven  per  cent.  He  also  recommended  the  issue 
of  another  class  of  Treasury  notes,  not  to  exceed 
in  amount  $50,000,000,  bearing  an  interest  of 
3.65  per  cent.,  and  exchangeable,  at  the  will  of 
the  holder,  for  Treasury  notes.  The  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  asked  Congress  to  sanction  his  acts 
(see  Navy,  the,  1861),  and  recommended  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  an  assistant-secretary  in  his  de¬ 
partment.  Congress  acted  promptly  on  the 
suggestions  of  the  President.  It  was  found  at 
the  outset  that  there  were  a  few  members  of 
Congress  who  were  in  thorough  sympathy  with 
the  Secessionists;  but,  while  these  prolonged 
the  debates,  the  majority  of  loyal  men  was  so 
overwhelming  that  the  disloyal  ones  conlcl  not 
defeat  the  will  of  the  people.  On  the  first  day 
of  the  session  Senator  Wilson,  of  Massachusetts, 
Chairman  of  the  Military  Committee  of  the  Up¬ 
per  House,  gave  notice  that  he  should,  the  next 
day,  submit  six  bills  having  for  their  object  the 
suppression  of  the  rebellion.  These  were  all 
adopted  afterwards.  They  were,  1.  To  ratify 
and  confirm  certain  acts  of  the  President  for 
the  suppression  of  insurrection  and  rebellion ; 
2.  To  authorize  the  employment  of  volunteers 
to  aid  in  enforcing  the  laws  and  protecting 
public  property;  3.  To  increase  the  present  mil¬ 
itary  establishment  of  the  United  States;  4.  To 
provide  for  the  better  organization  of  the  mili¬ 
tary  establishment ;  5.  To  promote  the  efficiency 
of  the  army ;  6.  For  the  organization  of  a  vol¬ 
unteer  militia  force,  to  be  called  the  National 
Guard  of  the  United  States.  At  an  early  day 
the  Senate  took  measures  to  purge  itself  of 
disloyal  members  by  expelling  the  following 
ten  Senators :  James  M.  Mason  and  R.  M.  T. 
Hunter  of  Virginia,  Thomas  L.  Clingman  and 
Thomas  Bragg  of  North  Carolina,  James  Clies- 
nut,  Jr.,  of  South  Carolina,  A.  O.  P.  Nicholson 
of  Tennessee,  W.  K.  Sebastian  and  Charles  B. 
Mitchell  of  Arkansas,  and  John  Hemphill  and 
Louis  T.  Wigfall  of  Texas.  On  July  13  the 
places  of  Mason  and  Hunter  were  filled  by  John 
S.  Carlisle  and  W.  J.  Willey,  appointed  by  the 
Legislature  of  “reorganized  (West)  Virginia.” 
On  the  same  day  John  B.  Clark,  of  Missouri,  was 
expelled  from  the  House  of  Representatives  as 
a  traitor  to  his  country.  Every  measure  for 
the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  proposed  by 
the  President  and  heads  of  departments  was 
adopted.  On  the  19th  the  venerable  J.  J.  Crit¬ 
tenden  (see  Crittenden  Compromise),  who  was  then 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  of¬ 
fered  a  joint  resolution,  “  That  the  present  de¬ 
plorable  civil  war  has  been  forced  upon  the 
country  by  the  disunionists  of  the  Southern 


States,  now  in  revolt  against  the  constitutional 
government,  and  in  arms  around  the  capital; 
that  in  this  national  emergency,  banishing  all 
feelings  of  mere  passion  or  resentment,  we  will 
recollect  only  our  duty  to  our  country;  that 
this  war  is  not  waged,  on  our  part,  in  any  spirit 
of  oppression,  nor  for  any  purpose  of  conquest 
or  subjugation,  nor  for  the  purpose  of  over¬ 
throwing  or  interfering  with  the  rights  or  es¬ 
tablished  institutions  of  those  states,  but  to  de¬ 
fend  and  maintain  the  supremacy  of  the  Con¬ 
stitution,  and  to  preserve  the  Union,  with  all 
the  dignity,  equality,  and  rights  of  the  several 
states,  unimpaired  ;  and  that  as  soon  as  these 
objects  are  accomplished  the  war  ought  to 
cease.”  It  was  laid  over  until  Monday.  On 
Sunday  (July  21)  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run  was 
fought.  Notwithstanding  the  capital  was  filled 
with  fugitives  from  the  shattered  army,  and  it 
was  believed  by  many  that  the  seat  of  govern¬ 
ment  was  at  the  mercy  of  its  enemies,  Congress, 
with  sublime  faith,  debated  as  calmly  as  before. 
By  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  Mr.  Crittenden’s 
resolution  was  adopted,  and  a  few  days  after¬ 
wards  one  identical  with  it  passed  the  Senate 
by  a  vote  almost  as  decisive.  It  was  such  a 
solemn  refutation  of  the  false  charges  of  the 
Confederate  leaders,  that  it  was  a  war  for  sub¬ 
jugation  and  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  that  it 
was  not  allowed  to  be  published  in  the  Confed¬ 
eracy.  On  the  same  day  Congress  resolved  to 
spare  nothing  essential  for  the  support  of  the 
government,  and  pledged  “  to  the  country  and 
the  world  the  employment  of  every  resource,  na¬ 
tional  and  individual,  for  the  suppression,  over¬ 
throw,  and  punishment  of  rebels  in  arms.”  They 
passed  a  bill  providing  for  the  confiscation  of 
property  used  for  insurrectionary  purposes,  and 
that  the  master  of  a  slave  who  should  employ 
him  in  any  naval  or  military  service  against 
the  government  of  the  United  States  should  for¬ 
feit  all  right  to  his  services  thereafter.  When 
Congress  had  finished  the  business  for  which  it 
was  called,  and  had  made  ample  provision  in 
men  and  means  for  the  suppression  of  the  re¬ 
bellion,  it  adjourned  (Aug.  6),  after  a  session 
of  thirty -three  days.  The  product  of  its  la¬ 
bors  consisted  in  the  passage  of  sixty-one  public 
and  seven  private  bills  and  five  joint  resolu¬ 
tions.  On  the  day  before  its  adjournment  it 
requested  the  President  to  appoint  a  general 
fast-day. 

Congress,  National,  Extraordinary  Ses¬ 
sion  of  the  (1797).  On  May  13,  there  was  a  full 
quorum  of  both  houses  of  Congress  assembled  at 
Philadelphia.  In  the  Senate  was  a  decided  Fed¬ 
eral  majority.  The  object  of  the  session  was 
to  consider  the  relations  with  France.  To 
these  the  President  alluded  in  his  opening  mes¬ 
sage,  and  declared  his  intention  to  adhere  to 
the  neutral  policy  of  the  last  administration. 
The  answer  to  the  speech  was  an  approval  of 
it;  yet  sympathy  for  the  French  caused  much 
hesitation  in  deciding  upon  positive  measures. 
But  measures  were  adopted  looking  to  a  possible 
war  with  France.  In  a  session  of  eight  weeks 
acts  were  passed  apportioning  to  the  states  a 
detachment  of  80,000  militia,  to  bo  ready  to 


CONGRESS,  NATIONAL  296  CONGRESS,  THE  RESIDENCE  OF 


march  at  a  moment’s  warning;  appropriating 
$115,000  for  the  further  fortification  of  harbors; 
prohibiting  the  exportation  of  arms  and  ammu¬ 
nition,  and  encouraging  their  importation;  au¬ 
thorizing  the  equipment  of  three  frigates,  and 
their  employment,  with  an  increased  number  of 
revenue  cutters,  for  the  defence  of  the  coast. 
And  the  act  imposed  a  tine  of  $10,000  and  ten 
years’  imprisonment  on  any  citizen  who  might 
be  engaged  in  fitting  out  any  private  armed 
vessel  to  cruise  against  nations  with  whom  the 
United  States  were  at  peace,  or  against  the  ves¬ 
sels  and  property  of  their  fellow-citizens.  The 
sum  of  $800,000  was  appropriated  to  carry  out 
these  measures,  and  the  duties  on  some  im¬ 
ported  goods  were  increased.  These  measures 
were  violently  opposed  by  the  Republicans,  but 
they  were  finally  passed.  The  administration, 
willing  to  try  further  peaceable  measures,  sent 
two  envoys  extraordinary  to  France.  (See  En¬ 
voys  to  France.') 

Congress,  National,  Extraordinary  Ses¬ 
sion  of  the  (1837).  In  consequence  of  the  em¬ 
barrassments  occasioned  by  the  Specie  Circular 
(which  see)  and  the  sudden  collapse  of  the  credit 
system  (which  see),  there  had  been  in  the  city  of 
New  York  alone  mercantile  failures  to  the  amount 
of  more  than  $100,000,000.  Fifteen  months  before 
property  had  been  destroyed  in  that  city  by  a 
disastrous  tire  (December,  1835)  of  the  estimated 
value  of  over  $20,000,000.  The  effects  of  these 
failures  and  losses  by  fire  were  felt  to  the  re¬ 
motest  parts  of  the  Union,  and  credit  and  confi¬ 
dence  were  destroyed.  Early  in  May  (1837)  a 
deputation  of  merchants  and  bankers  waited 
upon  President  Van  Bnren  with  a  petition  pray¬ 
ing  him  to  defer  the  collection  of  duties,  rescind 
the  Specie  Circular,  and  call  an  extraordinary 
session  of  Congress.  Their  prayer  was  rejected ; 
and  when  that  fact  became  known,  nearly  all 
the  banks  in  the  country  suspended  specie  pay¬ 
ment.  On  May  16  the  Legislature  of  New  York 
passed  an  act  authorizing  the  suspension  of 
specie  payments  for  one  year.  The  measure 
embarrassed  the  national  government,  for  it  was 
unable  to  obtain  silver  and  gold  to  discharge 
its  own  obligations.  The  public  good  demanded 
legislative  relief,  and  the  President  called  an 
extraordinary  session  of  Congress  to  convene 
Sept.  4.  In  his  message  to  that  body  he  proposed 
the  establishment  of  an  independent  treasury  for 
the  public  funds,  totally  distinct  from  all  bank¬ 
ing  institutions ;  but  during  a  session  of  forty- 
three  days  Congress  did  very  little  for  the  gen¬ 
eral  relief  from  commercial  depression,  except¬ 
ing  the  authorizing  of  an  issue  of  Treasury  notes 
in  amount  not  exceeding  $10,000,000. 

Congress,  National,  Extraordinary  Ses¬ 
sion  of  the  (1841).  On  March  17, 1841,  Presi¬ 
dent  Harrison  issued  a  proclamation  for  the  as¬ 
sembling  of  the  Twenty -seventh  Congress  in 
extraordinary  session  on  May  31,  next  ensuing. 
They  convened  at  the  appointed  time.  Presi¬ 
dent  Tyler,  in  his  message,  referred  to  the  useful¬ 
ness  of  a  national  bank,  so  that  it  was  believed 
he  would  sanction  a  bill  for  the  creation  of  one. 
The  Congress  proceeded  to  adopt  measures  for 


the  relief  of  the  business  cbmmunity.  They  re¬ 
pealed  the  Sub-Treasury  Act,  and  passed  a  bank¬ 
rupt  law  which  untied  the  energies  of  thousands 
of  enterprising  and  honest  men,  though  it  bore 
hard  on  the  creditor  class  for  a  while.  The  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury,  Mr.  Ewing,  strongly 
urged  the  chartering  of  another  United  States 
Bank.  It  was  known  that  President  Tyler 
bad  decided  constitutional  objections  to  the  old 
bank,  and  had  assisted  Jackson  in  his  war  upon 
it.  A  bill  was  proposed,  free,  it  was  thought, 
from  his  objections.  It  was  passed  Ang.  6,  as 
the  great  Whig  measure  of  the  session,  and  sent 
to  the  President.  At  the  end  of  ten  days  he 
vetoed  it,  giving  his  objections.  The  Whigs  in 
Congress  were  bewildered,  and  great  anxiety 
was  felt  throughout  the  couutry.  It  could  not 
be  carried  over  the  veto.  Another  bill  was  pre¬ 
pared,  and  by  Mr.  Webster  laid  before  the  Pres¬ 
ident,  who  approved  it.  While  this  was  pend¬ 
ing,  a  private  letter,  written  by  Mr.  Botts,  of 
Virginia,  was  made  public,  in  which  the  Pres¬ 
ident  was  charged  with  infidelity  to  the  party 
in  power.  “  He  will  be  an  object  of  execration 
with  both  parties,”  wrote  Mr.  Botts.  This  so 
irritated  the  President  that  he  resolved  not  to 
sanction  any  law  for  chartering  a  national  bank 
that  might  be  passed  at  that  session.  The  sec¬ 
ond  bill  was  passed  early  in  September,  which 
he  also  vetoed.  He  had  expressed  a  strong  de¬ 
sire  to  haire  this  matter  postponed  until  the  reg¬ 
ular  session,  but  the  friends  of  the  measure  were 
impatient.  They  now  denounced  him  as  a 
traitor  to  the  party  which  had  elevated  him. 
His  act  caused  the  dissolution  of  the  cabinet — 
Mr.  Webster  only  remaining.  He  did  so  be¬ 
cause  public  interests  would  suffer  by  his  leav¬ 
ing  at  that  juncture.  Mr.  Webster  felt  tliat  the 
bank  matter  had  been  pushed  with  too  much 
haste  and  persistency,  considering  the  state  of 
the  President’s  mind,  and  he  wrote  :  “  I  thought 
his  known  wishes  ought  to  be  complied  with. 
I  think  so  still.” 

Congress,  Pay  of  Members  of  (1814).  The 
pay  of  members  of  Congress  (House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives)  had  been  six  dollars  a  day  until  1814, 
when,  on  account  of  the  increased  expense  of  liv¬ 
ing,  they  fixed  it  at  an  annual  salary  of  $1500, 
without  regard  to  the  length  of  the  session.  At 
the  same  time  bills  were  introduced  to  increase 
the  salaries  of  foreign  ministers,  but  these  failed 
to  pass.  This  act  of  the  members  of  Congress 
in  voting  themselves  a  higher  salary  produced 
great  excitement  throughout  the  country.  It 
opposed  the  popular  doctrine  that  all  public 
officers  and  servants  should  be  kept  on  short  al¬ 
lowance  ;  and  so  indignant  were  the  frugal  peo¬ 
ple  that  at  the  next  election  many  of  the  offend¬ 
ing  Congressmen  lost  their  election.  Even  the 
popular  Henry  Clay  was  driven  to  a  close  can¬ 
vass.  The  act  was  repealed. 

Congress,  The  Residence  of.  The  question, 
where  shall  be  the  permanent  residence  of  Con¬ 
gress,  or  seat  of  the  general  government,  was 
agitated  in  the  summer  of  1783.  Philadelphians 
supposed  it  would  be  fixed  at  that  city,  but 
when  they  adjourned  to  Princeton  (see  Fkiladel- 


CONGRESSIONAL  REPORTS 


297 


phia,  Biot  in),  the  question  excited  much  inter¬ 
est  and  a  great  deal  of  local  feeliug.  One  party 
wished  the  national  capital  to  be  at  the  Dela¬ 
ware  River  —  in  other  words,  at  Philadelphia  ; 
another  wished  it  to  be  on  the  Potomac.  Mary¬ 
land  offered  to  cede  Annapolis  for  the  purpose  ; 
New  York  offered  Kingston  on  the  Hudson  ;  and 
the  Council  of  Pennsylvania,  anxious  to  bring 
Congress  back  from  Princeton,  apologized  for 
their  timid  conduct  in  the  presence  of  militia¬ 
men.  It  was  finally  agreed  that  two  federal 
cities  should  be  erected — one  near  the  Falls  of 
the  Delaware,  the  other  near  the  falls  of  the 
Potomac,  the  sessions  to  be  held  alternately  in 
each.  Until  these  cities  should  be  built  the 
sessions  were  to  be  held  alternately  at  Annapolis 
and  Trenton.  This  plau  was  not  carried  out. 
In  1790  a  tract  of  laud  ten  miles  square,  lying 
on  each  side  of  the  Potomac,  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and 
was  called  the  District  of  Columbia.  There  the 
seat  of  governmeut  was  fixed,  and  has  l’emained 
ever  since.  The  capital  city — named  Washing¬ 
ton  in  honor  of  the  beloved  patriot — was  laid 
out  in  1791,  and  the  erection  of  the  Capitol  was 
commenced  in  1793,  the  seat  of  the  national  gov¬ 
ernment  being  removed  to  Washington  city  in 
1801. 

Congressional  Reports.  At  the  first  session 
of  the  National  Congress,  held  at  New  York,  re¬ 
porters  had  been  admitted  to  the  floor  of  the 
House,  and  the  debates  had  not  only  been  pub¬ 
lished  from  day  to  day  in  the  newspapers,  but, 
at  the  close  of  the  session,  were  collected  in 
two  octavo  volumes,  called  The  Congressional 
Begister.  These  reports  were  not  satisfactory  to 
some  members,  who  proposed  to  withdraw  from 
the  reporters  the  privileges  of  the  floor.  The 
reporters  retired  to  the  gallery.  At  the  next 
session  the  subject  came  up,  and  there  was  a 
tacit  admission  of  a  discretionary  power  in  the 
speaker  to  admit  to  the  floor  or  galleries  such 
stenographers  as  he  might  think  proper.  The 
Congressional  Begister  did  not  extend  beyond  a 
third  volume.  After  the  removal  of  Congress  to 
Philadelphia  the  country  was  mainly  indebted 
to  the  enterprise  of  the  publisher  of  the  Phila¬ 
delphia  Gazette,  who  employed  a  stenographer  or 
two  for  that  purpose,  and  from  the  columns  of 
which  most  of  the  other  newspapers  copied.  In 
1796  a  scheme  was  brought  forward  to  employ 
a  reporter  as  an  officer  of  the  House  at  a  salary 
of  $4000  a  year,  but  it  was  not  adopted. 

Congreve  Rocket,  The,  in  the  military  art, 
is  a  very  destructive  species  of  firework,  the 
best  kind  of  which  was  invented  by  Sir  William 
Congreve,  and  called  after  his  name.  The  body 
of  the  implement  is  cylindrical,  and  its  head 
conical.  It  is  filled  with  very  inflammable  ma¬ 
terials,  on  the  combustion  of  which,  as  in  the 
common  sky-rocket,  the  body  is  impelled  for¬ 
ward  with  an  accelerated  motion. 

Connecticut,  Acts  of.  Connecticut,  in  1774, 
was  second  only  to  Massachusetts  in  population, 
wealth,  patriotism,  and  military  resources.  In 
1774  its  Legislature  provided  for  organizing  an 
effective  militia,  prohibited  the  importation  of 


CONNECTICUT,  CHARTER  OF 

slaves,  and  ordered  the  several  towns  to  provide 
double  the  usual  quantity  of  balls  and  flints. 
They  also  directed  the  issue  of  £15,000  in  bills 
of  credit  of  the  colony,  and  made  a  small  in¬ 
crease  of  the  taxes.  This  was  the  first  issue  of 
paper  money  in  the  colonies  in  preparing  for  the 
war  for  independence. 

Connecticut  and  New  Netherland.  The 

Charter  of  Connecticut,  given  in  1662  (see  Con¬ 
solidation  of  Connecticut  and  New  Haven),  included 
not  only  the  whole  of  Long  Island,  but  Northern 
New  Netherland,  iu  the  Hudson  River  region. 
By  a  treaty  which  Stuyvesaut  had  made  at 
Hartford  in  1650,  the  English  towns  on  Long 
Island  were  allowed  the  right  to  accept  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  Connecticut,  if  they  chose  to  do  so. 
This  right  was  now  questioned,  and  it  compli¬ 
cated  matters  so  far  as  the  claims  of  the  Dutch 
were  concerned.  But  Stuyvesaut  would  not 
yield  without  a  struggle  to  a  curtailment  of  his 
domains,  and  for  two  years  the  controversy  went 
on.  Stuyvesaut  visited  Boston  and  conferred 
with  the  Commissioners  of  the  United  New  Eng¬ 
land  Colonies,  but  gained  nothing.  Commis¬ 
sioners  sent  to  Hartford  were  equally  unsuc¬ 
cessful.  Meanwhile,  emissaries  from  New  Eng¬ 
land  stirred  up  the  settlers  in  Westchester  Coun¬ 
ty  (N.  Y.)  and  all  over  Long  Island  with  discon¬ 
tent  of  Dutch  rule.  Led  by  two  bold  men,  a 
considerable  armed  force  went  from  town  to 
town  on  Long  Island  changing  the  names  of 
places,  deposing  magistrates,  aud  proclaiming 
the  territory  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  Charles 
II.  Stuyvesaut,  seeing  how  matters  were  going, 
lowered  his  pretensions,  and  agreed  that  the 
towns  on  Long  Island,  Dutch  and  English, 
should  be  free,  respectively,  from  interference 
from  either  government.  These  disputations, 
and  the  interference  of  John  Scott,  produced 
stirring  events  whose  records  fill  a  large  space 
iu  the  local  and  intercolonial  history  of  Long 
Island,  New  Netherland,  and  Connecticut. 

Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania.  There  was 
civil  war  in  Pennsylvania,  at  one  time,  between 
the  settlers  from  Connecticut  in  the  Wyoming 
Valley  and  the  Pennsylvanians.  Connecticut 
claimed  the  soil  under  its  ancient  charter.  (See 
Western  Beserve.)  Finally,  late  iu  1781,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  applied  to  a  Federal  court,  established 
under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  to  decide 
the  territorial  question  as  to  the  righteous  claim¬ 
ant  to  Wyoming  and  the  northern  half  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  claimed  by  Connecticut  as  within  her 
chartered  limits.  A  court  of  five  judges  met 
(November,  1782)  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  made, 
at  the  close  of  a  six  weeks’  session,  a  unanimous 
decision  in  favor  of  Pennsylvania.  Connecticut 
acquiesced  when  Congress  confirmed  the  de¬ 
cision,  aud  the  town  and  county  of  Westmore¬ 
land,  organized  by  the  Connecticut  Assembly, 
ceased  to  exist.  The  people  of  Wyoming  con¬ 
tinued  uneasy,  and  once  or  twice  were  on  the 
point  of  rebellion,  chiefly  because  the  Pennsyl¬ 
vanians  refused  to  recognize  the  land  titles 
claimed  by  Connecticut. 

Connecticut,  Charter  of.  On  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  monarchy  iu  England,  the  Connecticut 


CONNECTICUT,  CHARTER  OF  293  CONNECTICUT,  COLONY  OF 


colonists  had  fears  regarding  their  political  fut¬ 
ure,  for  they  had  been  stanch  republicans  dur¬ 
ing  the  interregnum.  The  General  Assembly 
therefore  resolved  to  make  a  formal  acknowl¬ 
edgment  of  t  heir  allegiance  to  the  king,  and  ask 
him  for  a  charter.  A  petition  to  that  effect  was 
signed  in  May,  1661,  and  Governor  Wiuthrop 
bore  it  to  the  monarch.  He  was  at  first  coolly 
received,  but  by  the  gift  to  the  king  of  a  pre- 
cions  memento  of  the  sovereign’s  dead  father, 
the  heart  of  Charles  was  touched,  aud,  turning 
to  Lord  Clarendon,  who  was  present,  he  said, 
“  Do  you  advise  me  to  grant  a  charter  to  this 
good  man  and  his  people  ?”  “  I  do,  sire,”  an¬ 

swered  Clarendon.  “  It  shall  be  done,”  said 
Charles,  aud  Wiuthrop  was  dismissed  with  a 
hearty  shake  of  his  hand,  aud  a  blessing  from 
the  royal  lips.  (See  Wiuthrop,  John.)  A  charter 
was  issued  May  1,  1662  (N.  S.).  It  confirmed 
the  popular  constitution,  aud  contained  more 
liberal  provisions  than  any  that  had  yet  been 
issued  by  royal  hands.  It  defined  the  bounda¬ 
ries  so  as  to  include  the  New  Haven  Colony  and 
a  part  of  Rhode  Island  on  the  east,  and  west¬ 
ward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  New  Haven 
Colony  reluctantly  gave  its  consent  to  the  union 
in  1665,  but  Rhode  Island  refused.  A  dispute 
concerning  the  boundary-line  between  Connec¬ 
ticut  and  Rhode  Island  lasted  more  than  sixty 
years.  The  charter,  engrossed  on  parchment  and 
decorated  with  a  finely  executed  miniature  of 
Charles  II.  (done  in  India-ink  by  Samuel  Cooper, 
it  is  supposed,  who  was  an  eminentLondon  minia¬ 
ture  paiuter  of  the  time),  was  brought  across 
the  sea  in  a  handsome  mahogany  box,  in  which 
it  is  still  preserved  in  the  State  Department  of 
Connecticut.  (See  Charles  II.)  It  was  of  so  gen¬ 
eral  a  character,  and  conferred  such  large  powers, 
that  when  Connecticut  became  an  independent 
state  it  was  considered  a  good  fundamental  law 
for  the  commonwealth,  and  was  not  changed 
until  1818.  It  provided  for  the  election  of  the 
governor  of  the  colony  and  the  magistrates 
by  the  people,  substantially  as  under  the  pre¬ 
vious  constitution  ;  allowed  the  free  transpor¬ 
tation  of  colonists  and  merchandise  from  Eng¬ 
land  to  the  colony ;  guaranteed  to  the  colonists 
the  rights  of  English  citizens ;  provided  for  the 
making  of  laws  and  the  organization  of  courts 
by  the  General  Assembly,  and  the  appointment 
of  all  necessary  officers  for  the  public  good  ;  for 
the  organization  of  a  military  force,  and  for  the 
public  defence.  Determined  to  hold  absolute 
rule  over  New  England,  King  James  II.  made 
Andros  a  sort  of  viceroy  (see  Andros),  with  in¬ 
structions  to  take  away  the  colonial  charters. 
For  the  purpose  of  seizing  that,  of  Connecticut, 
whose  General  Assembly  had  refused  to  surren¬ 
der  it,  Audros  arrived  at  Hartford,  where  the 
Assembly  was  in  session  in  their  meeting-house, 
Oct.  31,  1687  (O.  S.).  He  was  received  by  the 
Assembly  with  the  courtesy  due  to  his  rank 
when  he  appeared  before  them,  with  armed  men 
at  his  back,  and  demanded  the  charter  to  be  put 
into  his  hands.  It  was  then  near  sunset.  A 
debate  upon  some  unimportant  subject  was  con¬ 
tinued  until  after  the  candles  were  lighted. 
Then  the  long  box  containing  the  charter  was 


brought  in  and  placed  upon  the  table.  A  pre¬ 
concerted  plan  to  save  it  was  now  put  into  oper¬ 
ation.  Just  as  the  usurper  was  about  to  grasp 
the  box  with  the  charter,  the  candles  were 
snuffed  out.  When  they  were  relighted  the 
charter  was  not  there,  and  the  members  were 
seated  in  proper  order.  The  charter  had  been 
carried  out  in  the  darkness  by  Captain  Wads¬ 
worth,  aud  deposited  in  the  trunk  of  a  hollow 
oak-tree  on  the  outskirts  of  the  village.  (See 
Charter  Oak.)  Andros  was  compelled  to  content 
himself  with  dissolving  the  Assembly,  and  writ¬ 
ing  in  a  bold  baud  “  Finis  ”  in  the  journal  of 
that  body.  When  the  Revolution  of  1688  swept 
the  Stuarts  from  the  English  throne,  the  char¬ 
ter  was  brought  from  its  hiding-place,  and  un¬ 
der  it  the  colonists  of  Connecticut  flourished  for 
one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  years  afterwards. 

Connecticut,  Colony  of,  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  English-American  colonies,  was  proba¬ 
bly  first  discovered  by  a  European,  Adrian  Block, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River,  in 
1613.  (See  New  York.)  That  stream  the  Dutch 
called  Versch-watei  (fresh-water)  River ;  the  In¬ 
dians  called  it  Qua-nek-ta-cut,  “  long  river.”  The 
Dutch  laid  claim  to  the  adjoining  territory  by 
right  of  discovery,  while  the  English  made  a 
counter-claim  soon  afterwards,  based  upon  a 
patent  issued  by  the  king  to  English  subjects. 
The  agent  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company 
took  formal  possession  by  proclamation  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley  so  early  as  1623  in  the  name 
of  the  States-General  of  Holland,  and  a  peace¬ 
able  and  profitable  trade  with  the  Indians  might 
have  been  carried  on  had  not  the  Dutch  exas¬ 
perated  the  natives  by  seizing  one  of  their  chiefs 
and  demanding  a  heavy  ransom  for  his  release. 
A  Dutch  embassy  which  visited  Plymouth  tried 
to  get  the  Pilgrims  to  abandon  Cape  Cod  Bay 
and  seat  themselves,  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
New  Netherland,  in  the  fertile  Connecticut  Val¬ 
ley  (see  Dutch,  The,  at  Plymouth );  and  a  Mohegan 
chief,  moved  by  equally  strong  self-interest,  in¬ 
vited  them  to  the  same  territory,  his  object  be- 
iug  to  make  the  English  a  barrier  between  his 
people  and  the  powerful  and  warlike  Pequods. 
(See  Pequod  War.)  In  1632  Edward  Winslow 
visited  the  Connecticut  Valley,  and  confirmed 
the  truth  of  all  the  pleasant  things  the  Dutch 
and  Indians  had  said  about  it.  The  fame  of  it 
had  already  reached  Old  England,  and  two  years 
before  Winslow’s  visit  Charles  I.  had  granted 
the  soil  of  that  region  to  Robert,  Earl  of  War¬ 
wick,  and  he  transferred  it  to  William,  Viscount 
Say  and  Seal ;  Robert,  Lord  Brook,  and  their  as¬ 
sociates.  This  was  the  original  grant  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  and  the  territory  was  defined  as  ex¬ 
tending  westward  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pa¬ 
cific  Ocean.  The  Dutch,  having  purchased  the 
valley  from  the  Indians,  the  rightful  owners, 
built  a  redoubt  just  below  the  site  of  Hartford, 
called  Fort  Good  Hope,  in  1633,  and  took  pos¬ 
session.  Governor  Wiuthrop  of  Massachusetts, 
wrote  to  Van  Twiller  at  Manhattan  that  Eng¬ 
land  had  granted  the  valley  to  English  subjects, 
a  nd  the  Dutch  must  “  forbear  to  build  t  here.” 
Van  Twiller  courteously  replied  that  the  Dutch 
had  already  purchased  the  country  from  the  In- 


CONNECTICUT,  COLONY  OF 

dians  and  “  set  up  a  house,  with  intent  to  plant. 
The  Dutch  fiually  withdrew,  and  in  1635-36  the 
first  permanent  settlement  in  the  valley  was 
made  at  Hartford  by  emigrants  from  Massachu¬ 
setts.  *  The  first  church  was  built  there  in  1635, 
and  the  first  court,  or  legislative  assembly,  was 
convened  at  Hartford  in  1636.  The  next  year 
occurred  the  distressing  war  with  tbe  Pequods, 
Which  resulted  in  their  annihilation.  (See  Con¬ 
necticut  Valley,  First  Settlers  in.)  A  year  later  a 
settlement  was  begun  on  the  site  of  New  Haven, 
and  a  sort  of  theocratic  government  for  it  was 
established.  (See  A Teio  Haven  Colony.)  Governor 
Winthrop’s  son,  John,  came  from  England,  and 
assumed  the  office  of  governor  of  the  colony  in 
the  Connecticut  Valley  in  1636,  with  instruc¬ 
tions  to  build  a  fort  and  plant  a  colony  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River.  A  dispute 
with  the  Plymouth  people  arose  about  the  right 
of  emigrants  from  Massachusetts  in  the  valley, 
but  it  was  soon  amicably  settled.  A  constitu¬ 
tion  for  the  government  of  the  colony  in  the 
valley  was  approved  by  a  general  vote  of  the 
people  (Jan.  14, 1639).  It  was  a  remarkable  doc¬ 
ument,  and  formed  the  basis  of  a  charter  after¬ 
wards  obtained  from  the  king.  (See  Connecticut, 
First  Constitution  of.)  When  monarchy  was  re¬ 
stored  in  England  the  people  hastened  to  avow 
their  allegiance  to  the  crown  and  apply  for  a 
charter.  One  was  px-ocured  from  Charles  II.  in 
1662  embracing  the  Connecticut  and  New  Haven 
colonies,  and  the  union  was  perfected  in  1665. 
It  gave  the  people  jurisdiction  over  the  whole 
lauds  within  its  limits ;  provided  for  the  election 
of  a  govei-nor,  deputy -governor,  twelve  assist¬ 
ants,  or  magistrates,  and  two  deputies  from  each 
town ;  indeed,  it  substantially  agreed  with  the 
former  constitution.  It  was  so  acceptable  to  the 
people  of  Connecticut  that  it  was  the  only  con¬ 
stitution  of  the  province  and  state  until  1818, 
when  the  present  one  was  formed.  The  govern¬ 
ment  was  at  first  a  pure  democracy,  but  it  be¬ 
came  a  representative  one  in  1670.  By  order  of 
James  II.  Governor  Andros  was  ordered  to  take 
away  the  charter,  but  he  was  outwitted  by  the 
political  leaders,  and  it  was  saved.  (See  Char¬ 
ter  Oak.)  Andros  seized  the  government,  but  it 
resumed  its  independent  functions  (May  9, 1689) 
after  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary.  There 
were  some  changes  in  the  colonial  government, 
and  from  the  union  of  the  colonies  until  1701 
the  General  Assembly  had  met  at  Hartford. 
Thereafter  it  was  ordered  that  the  May  session 
should  be  held  in  Hartford,  and  the  October  ses¬ 
sion  in  New  Haven.  The  laws  of  the  colony  were 
very  rigid,  and  some  were  severe.  (See  Blue 
Laws.)  In  the  war  for  independence  no  other 
state,  in  accordance  with  its  population,  fur¬ 
nished  so  many  men  for  the  public  seiwice,  or 
so  much  aid,  according  to  its  means  ;  for  a  most 
patriotic,  energetic,  and  indefatigable  govern¬ 
or  (see  Trumbull)  was  at  the  head  of  its  af¬ 
fairs.  (See  Brother  Jonathan.)  The  delegates 
from  Connecticut  in  Congress  were  instructed 
by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  General  Assembly 
to  vote  for  independence,  and  after  that  it  took 
its  place  with  the  twelve  other  colonies  as  an 
independent  state. 


299  CONNECTICUT,  FIRST  CONSTITUTION 

Connecticut  Commission.  The  Puritan  set¬ 
tlement  on  the  Connecticut  River  made  by  the 
ministers  at  Newton  (Messrs.  Hooker  and  Stone) 
in  1636,  with  all  their  congregations,  was  so  re¬ 
mote  from  the  seat  of  govei’nment  that  Roger 
Ludlow  and  seven  others  were  commissioned  by 
the  authoi'ities  of  Massachusetts  to  exercise  all 
the  powers  of  government  there,  legislative  and 
executive.  This  commission  was  limited  to  one 
year.  With  the  aid  of  a  jury  they  dispensed 
civil  and  criminal  justice.  Their  first  court  was 
held  April  26,  1636. 

Connecticut  Emigrants  near  Natchez.  Late 
in  the  spring  of  1781  news  reached  the  Connec¬ 
ticut  settlei's  near  Natchez  that  a  British  licet 
was  ascending  the  Mississippi.  This  intelli¬ 
gence  caused  them  to  attack  and  capture  Fort 
Passmore,  to  use  it  as  a  defence.  The  rumor 
was  false ;  and  when  the  Connecticut  people 
saw  their  mistake,  and  heard  of  the  capture  of 
Pensacola  by  the  Spaniards,  they  so  feared  Span¬ 
ish  vengeance  that  they  resolved  to  flee  through 
the  woods  to  Georgia.  Men,  women,  and  chil¬ 
dren  set  out  ou  horseback,  and  during  a  journey 
of  four  months  they  suffered  terribly  from  hun¬ 
ger  and  the  hostility  of  the  Indians.  On  reach¬ 
ing  the  frontiers  of  that  state  they  divided  into 
two  companies.  One  fell  among  American  pa¬ 
triots  on  the  frontier,  the  other  made  their  way 
to  the  British  post  at  Sunbury. 

Connecticut,  First  Constitution  of.  A 
constitution  for  the  colony  of  Connecticut  (in 
the  valley)  was  adopted  by  th^  vote  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  Jan.  14,  1639.  It  was  the  first  example  in 
history  of  a  written  constitution  organizing  a 
government  and  defining  its  powers;  and  its 
leading  features  have  been  copied  into  the  con¬ 
stitutions  of  the  several  states  of  our  Union. 
After  declaring  that  the  Word  of  God  requii'es 
human  governments,  and  that  the  object  of  such 
governments  is  to  protect  and  preserve  the 
moral  and  civil  welfare  of  the  people,  it  pro¬ 
vided  for  three  departments  of  government — 
legislative,  judicial,  and  executive — -all  to  be 
filled  by  persons  to  be  appointed  by,  and  to  de¬ 
rive  their  power  from,  the  people.  The  freemen 
consisted  of  those  w  ho  had  been  admitted  inhab¬ 
itants  by  the  towns  themselves.  These  were' to 
meet  annually  in  April  at  a  “court  of  election” 
for  the  choice  of  so  many  magistrates  and  other 
public  officers  as  should  be  found  requisite,  one 
of  whom  was  to  be  designated  .as  governor.  All 
elections  were  by  ballot.  The  governor  was 
voted  for  first,  and  elected  by  a  plurality  vote ; 
then  the  magistrates  or  assistants  were  voted 
for  in  a  similar  manner.  The  governor  sat  with 
the  magistrates  in  their  judicial  capacity,  and 
both  the  governor  and  magistrates  sat  with  the 
deputies  elected  by  the  several  towns  in  a  legis¬ 
lative  capacity.  If  the  deputies  constituted  a 
majority  of  the  General  Assembly,  the  legisla¬ 
tive  power  was  substantially  in  the  hands  of  the 
people,  while  the  governor  and  magistrates  could 
advise  as  to  necessary  legislation.  As  there  were 
to  be  tw?o  sessions  of  the  Legislature  annually, 
one  in  the  spring,  called  “Court  of  Election,” 
and  the  other  in  the  fall,  for  enacting  laws  and 


CONNECTICUT,  LEGISLATURE  OF  300  CONNECTICUT  STAMP-MASTER 


performing  other  public  services,  the  towns  chose 
their  deputies  semi-aunually.  Under  this  con¬ 
stitution  the  Connecticut  colony  nourished.  It 
recognized  no  higher  human  power  than  the 
people.  Connecticut,  under  it,  was  practically 
an  independent  government.  The  constitution 
formed  the  basis  of  the  charter  granted  by  Charles 
II.  in  1662.  (See  Connecticut,  Charter  of .) 

Connecticut,  First  Division  of  the  Legis¬ 
lature  of,  into  Two  Houses.  Iu  1696  the 
General  Assembly  of  Connecticut  was  first  di¬ 
vided  into  two  houses.  The  governor  (or,  in  his 
absence,  the  deputy -governor)  aud  assistants 
composed  the  upper  house,  and  the  deputies  reg¬ 
ularly  returned  from  the  towns  in  the  colony 
were  called  the  lower  house.  The  governor 
presided  iu  the  upper  house ;  the  lower  house 
chose  a  speaker  to  preside  over  their  delibera¬ 
tions.  All  laws  became  so  only  by  the  mutual 
consent  of  the  two  houses. 

Connecticut,  First  General  Court  in.  The 
commission  of  Ludlow  and  others  having  ex¬ 
pired,  the  commissioners’  court  iu  the  valley  of 
the  Connecticut  was  succeeded  in  1637  by  a  gen¬ 
eral  court,  which  consisted  of  eight  magistrates 
chosen  by  all  the  freemen,  and  three  deputies 
from  the  three  towns  or  settlements,  then  con¬ 
taining  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  inhabi¬ 
tants.  The  first  session  of  this  court  was  begun 
May  1,  1637,  at  Hartford.  They  deliberated 
upon  a  subject  in  which  the  existence  of  the 
little  colony  was  concerned.  The  Pequods,  who 
had  killed  thirty  Englishmen  in  the  valley,  and 
tortured  their  captives,  were  attempting  to  form 
a  confederacy  of  the  tribes  to  extirpate  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  and  the  destruction  of  the  colouy  seemed 
imminent.  That  first  general  court  determined 
that  the  three  towns  of  Windsor,  Hartford,  and 
Wethersfield  should  carry  on  an  offensive  war 
against  these  Indians,  and  voted  that  ninety  men 
should  be  immediately  raised  for  the  purpose. 
(See  Pequod  TTar.) 

Connecticut  Mediation.  In  hopes  that  mat¬ 
ters  might  yet  be  reconciled,  notwithstanding 
British  soldiers  and  armed  patriots  had  come  to 
blows,  Governor  Trumbull  and  the  Connecticut 
Legislature  sent  a  deputation  to  Gage  (May  1, 
1775)  as  mediators.  Alarmed  by  this  movement, 
the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  remon¬ 
strated  against  any  separate  negotiations.  They 
also  voted  General  Gage  to  be  a  public  enemy, 
and  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  tyrants,  whom 
there  was  no  further  obligation  to  obey.  The 
Connecticut  deputation  did  nothing. 

Connecticut,  Original  Patent  of.  Robert, 
Earl  of  Warwick,  having  received  in  1630  a  grant 
from  the  Council  of  Plymouth  of  “all  that  part  of 
the  northeast  extending  from  the  Narraganset 
River  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  a  straight 
line  near  the  shore  towards  the  southeast,  as 
the  coast  lies,  towards  Virginia,  and  within  that 
breadth  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  South 
Sea  [Pacific],”  made  over  to  William,  Viscount 
Say  and  Seal,  and  Robert,  Lord  Brook,  and  asso¬ 
ciates,  the  whole  territory  of  this  grant  by  a 
patent  issued  March  19, 1631.  This  is  the  orig¬ 
inal  patent  of  Connecticut. 


Connecticut  Regiments,  Mutiny  of.  Pressed 
down  by  want — w  ant  of  clothes,  food,  and  pay 
— two  of  the  Connecticut  regiments  in  the  Con¬ 
tinental  army  at  Morristown,  in  May,  1780,  pa¬ 
raded  under  arms,  declaring  their  iutentiou  to 
return  home  or  to  obtain  subsistence  for  them¬ 
selves.  The  appeals  of  Washington  (whom  they 
almost  adored)  to  their  patriotism  brought  them 
back  to  duty  ;  aud  on  the  appearance  of  the  en¬ 
emy  at  that  time  they  rallied  as  one  man  in  de¬ 
fence  of  the  flag.  Greene  had  just  written  pri¬ 
vately  to  the  President  of  Congress  iu  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  :  “  Should  there  be  a  want  of  provisions, 
we  cannot  hold  together  many  days,  in  the  pres¬ 
ent  temper  of  the  army.” 

Connecticut  River,  Depredations  in  the. 
Ou  the  first  alarm  occasioned  by  the  blockade  of 
the  New  England  coast,  militia  had  been  called 
out  to  guard  the  more  exposed  points  of  the  Con¬ 
necticut  shores.  Regulars  had  afterwards  been 
substituted  by  the  War  Department,  but  during 
the  winter  of  1813-14  these  had  been  withdrawn. 
Governor  Smith  remonstrated,  and  warned  the 
government  of  the  danger,  but  his  words  were 
unheeded.  The  consequence  wTas  that  six  boats, 
with  two  hundred  men  from  the  British  block¬ 
ading  squadron,  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Con¬ 
necticut  River  (April  8,  1814),  ascended  that 
stream  several  miles,  and  destroyed  full  twenty 
vessels  which  had  collected  there  as  a  place  of 
safety.  It  was  this  neglect  of  the  New  England 
coast  by  the  national  government  that  formed 
one  of  the  grounds  of  complaint  by  the  Hartford 
Convention  (which  see). 

Connecticut  Sanctions  Independence.  On 
June  14,  1776,  the  Connecticut  Assembly  in¬ 
structed  its  delegates  in  Congress  in  favor  of 
independence,  foreign  alliance,  and  a  permanent 
union  of  the  colonies.  The  plan  of  a  confedera¬ 
tion  was  not  to  go  into  effect  until  it  should  re¬ 
ceive  the  assent  of  the  several  legislatures. 

Connecticut  Stamp-master,  The.  Jared  In- 
gersoll,  then  in  England,  accepted  the  office  of 
stamp-master  or  stamp-distributor,  under  the 
provision  of  the  Stamp  Act.  He  arrived  at  Bos¬ 
ton  from  abroad  iu  August,  1765.  He  was  late 
agent  of  the  Province  of  Connecticut.  His  ad¬ 
vent  in  Connecticut  was  hailed  with  scorn, 
even  by  former  personal  friends.  Assured  of 
the  protection  of  the  governor,  Ingersoll  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  execute  the  duties  of  his  office.  The 
people  threatened  him.  The  initials  of  his  name 
were  pointed  to  as  those  of  Judas  Iscariot.  His 
house  was  surrounded  and  a  demand  made  for 
him  to  resign.  “I  know  not,”  he  said,  “if  I 
have  power  to  resign.”  A  town  meeting  in 
New  Haven  (September,  1765)  earnestly  desired 
Ingersoll  “to  resign  the  stamp  office  immediate¬ 
ly.  “  I  shall  wait,”  said  Ingersoll,  “  to  see  how 
the  General  Assembly  is  inclined.”  Already  the 
people  were  moving  elsewhere.  Several  hun¬ 
dred  wTere  on  horseback,  in  three  divisions,  from 
Norw  ich,  New  London,  and  Wiudliam,  and  oth¬ 
er  adjacent  towns,  with  eight  days’  provisions. 
The  men  wTere  armed  with  newly  barked  cud¬ 
gels.  Ingersoll  proposed  to  meet  them  at  Hart¬ 
ford.  He  set  out  alone,  but  soon  found  himself 


CONNECTICUT  STATE  ARMY 


301 


CONNECTICUT  VALLEY 


under  a  large  escort  of  mounted  club-armed 
men,  who  conducted  him  to  Wethersfield  and 
there  bade  Ingersoll  resign.  He  asked  leave  to 
go  to  Hartford.  “  You  shall  not,”  it  Avas  an¬ 
swered,  “go  two  rods  until  you  resign.”  He 
had  sent  a  messenger  to  the  governor  and  the 
Assembly  and  tried  to  delay  the  act  until  he 
should  hear  from  them.  The  people  became 
alarmingly  impatient,  and  Ingersoll,  saying 
“The  cause  is  not  worth  dying  for,”  publicly 
resigned,  declaring  it  was  his  own  free  act. 
“  Swear  to  it,”  said  the  crowd.  He  excused 
himself.  “Then  shout  ‘Liberty  and  property’ 
three  times.”  He  did  so.  After  dinner  a  caval¬ 
cade  of  one  thousand  horsemen  escorted  him 
from  Wethersfield  to  Hartford,  and  Ingersoll 
was  compelled  to  read  the  paper  which  he  had 
signed  in  the  hearing  of  the  Assembly.  This  is 
a  fair  representative  picture  of  the  treatment  of 
the  stamp-distributors  in  all  the  colonies.  They 
all  resigned. 

Connecticut  State  Army.  The  project  of 
invading  Canada  had  drawn  off  the  regulars  in 
garrison  on  the  sea-board  towards  the  inland 
frontier,  even  before  the  declaration  of  war 
(June,  1812).  On  this  account  a  call  for  militia 
detachments  to  do  garrison  duty  was  made. 
The  governors  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecti¬ 
cut  denied  the  necessity  for  such  a  call,  and  the 
former  urged  weighty  objectious  to  it.  He  said 
the  coasts  of  Massachusetts  were  thickly  popu¬ 
lated  and  its  militia  well  disciplined,  and  at  the 
first  appearance  of  danger  of  invasion  they  could 
immediately  be  summoned  to  the  defence  of  the 
territory.  The  Articles  of  War  enacted  by  Con¬ 
gress  gave  the  command,  when  the  militia  and 
regulars  acted  together,  to  the  superior  officer 
present,  whether  of  the  militia  or  the  regular 
army;  in  cases  of  equal  rank  the  regular  officers 
to  take  precedence.  To  secure  the  command 
of  the  New  England  militia  to  regular  officers, 
the  first  calls  had  been  made  for  detached  com¬ 
panies,  without  the  regular  quota  of  field  offi¬ 
cers.  This  was  complained  of  as  being  an  ir¬ 
regularity,  to  which  the  governors  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  and  Connecticut  refused  to  submit.  Tfiey 
even  denied  the  constitutional  validity  of  the 
Articles  of  War,  in  which  they  were  supported 
by  the  opinions  of  the  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Massachusetts.  Finally  the  Legislat¬ 
ure  of  Connecticut  passed  a  law  (October,  1812) 
for  raising  a  provincial  army  of  two  thousand 
six  hundred  men  for  special  state  defence,  and 
made  Colonel  David  Humphreys  commander-in- 
chief  of  it.  The  avowed  object  of  the  measure 
Avas  to  provide  for  the  defence  of  the  soil  of 
Connecticut  by  a  method  less  expensive  and 
vexatious  than  by  furnishing  detachments  of 
militia. 

Connecticut,  State  of.  Under  the  charter 
given  by  Charles  II.,  in  1662,  Connecticut,  like 
Rhode  Island,  assumed  independence  in  1776, 
and  did  not  frame  a  new  constitution  of  govern¬ 
ment.  Under  that  charter  it  was  governed  until 
1818.  Connecticut,  under  its  charter,  claimed 
lands  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  and  in  trying  to 
enforce  this  claim  much  trouble  ensued.  (See 


Susquehanna  Company.  Western  Reserve,  and  Fire 
Lands.)  During  the  Revolution  that  state  was 
lavish  in  its  supply  of  men  and  money  for  the 
American  cause,  and  while  other  colonies  were 
at  the  beginning  annoyed  by  royal  governors, 

Connecticut  from 
the  beginning  was 
governed  by  rulers 
chosen  by  the  peo¬ 
ple.  In  1814  Hart¬ 
ford,  Conn.,  became 
the  theatre  of  a  fa¬ 
in  ous  couArention 
which  attracted 
much  anxious  at¬ 
tention  for  a  while. 
(See  Hartford  Con¬ 
vention.)  In  1818  a 
convention  of  dele¬ 
gates  from  each  town  in  the  state  assembled  at 
Hartford  and  framed  a  constitution,  which  was 
adopted  by  the  people  at  an  election  on  the  5th 
of  October.  During  the  late  Civil  War  that  state 
furnished  to  the  National  army  54,882  soldiers, 
of  whom  1094  men  and  97  officers  were  killed 
in  action,  666  men  and  48  officers  died  from 
wounds,  and  3246  men  and  63  officers  from  dis¬ 
ease.  There  were  reported  “  missing  ”  389  men 
and  21  officers.  Population  in  1880,622,760. 

Connecticut  Towns  Plundered  and  Burn¬ 
ed.  Tryon,  the  plunderer  of  Danbury  (which 
see),  w7as  employed  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  to 
agaiu  visit  New  England  Avith  the  torch.  On 
the  vessels  of  Sir  George  Collier,  soon  after  their 
return  from  the  King’s  Ferry  (which  see),  he 
sailed  on  the  night  of  July  4,  1779,  Avith  tAvo 
thousand  five  hundred  men  (many  of  them  Ger¬ 
man  mercenaries),  for  the  shores  of  Connecticut. 
They  plundered  New  Haven  on  the  5th,  laid 
East  Haven  in  ashes  on  the  6th,  destroyed 
Fairfield  in  the  same  Avay  on  the  8th,  and  plun¬ 
dered  and  burned  Norwalk  on  the  12th.  Not 
content  with  this  wantou  destruction  of  prop¬ 
erty,  the  invaders  insulted  and  cruelly  abused 
the  inhabitants.  The  Hessians  Avere  particular¬ 
ly  active  in  the  latter  capacity.  While  Nonvalk 
was  burning  Tryon  sat  in  a  rocking-chair  on  a 
hill  and  A'iewed  the  scene  with  apparent  pleas¬ 
ure.  After  devastating  these  pleasant  New 
England  villages,  Tryon  boasted  of  his  clem¬ 
ency  in  leaving  a  single  house  standing.  More 
villages  would  haAre  been  laid  waste  had  not  the 
marauder  been  recalled  by  alarming  events  on 
the  Hudson. 

Connecticut  Valley,  English  Colonists  in¬ 
vited  to  the.  Wah-qui-ma-cut,  a  sachem  seat¬ 
ed  in  the  Connecticut  Valley,  solicited  (1631)  the 
governors  of  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  to 
make  settlements  there.  The  object  of  the 
sachem  was  to  secure  protection  for  his  people 
against  the  warlike  Pequods.  Governor  Brad¬ 
ford  and  Edward  WinsloAv  visited  Governor 
Winthrop  and  proposed  to  him  and  his  council 
to  join  in  a  trade  to  the  Connecticut  Valley,  and 
to  make  a  plantation  there,  as  the  Dutch  were 
making  efforts  to  that  end.  It  was  declined, 
and  the  Plymouth  people  resoWed  to  undertake 


STATE  SEAL  OP  CONNECTICUT. 


CONNECTICUT  VALLEY 


302 


the  enterprise  at  their  own  risk.  (See  Connecti¬ 
cut,  Colony  of.)  In  October,  1G33,  the  materials 
for  a  house,  entirely  prepared,  were  put  ou  board 
a  vessel  and  sent  by  a  chosen  company  to  the 
Connecticut  River.  The  Dutch  had  built  a  light 
fort  just  below  the  site  of  Hartford,  and  when 
the  Plymouth  vessel  approached  the  command¬ 
er  of  the  fort  forbade  the  adventurers  to  pass. 
The  commander  of  the  enterprise  (William 
Holmes)  went  resolutely  forward,  and,  landing 
on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  set  up  the  house 
on  the  site  of  Windsor  and  palisaded  it.  This 
was  the  first  house  built  by  Europeans  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Connecticut.  (See  Connecticut  Val¬ 
ley,  First  Settlers  in.) 

Connecticut  Valley,  First  Settlers  in. 
The  Dutch  built  a  redoubt  ou  tbe  river  just  be¬ 
low  the  site  of  Hartford,  and  called  it  Fort  Good 
Hope.  There  they  prepared  to  plant  a  colony. 
The  Plymouth  settlers  bought  a  tract  of  laud 
above  the  Dutch  fort  from  the  Indians,  and  sent 
a  wooden  house,  in  pieces,  on  a  small  vessel  com¬ 
manded  by  Captain  William  Holmes,  to  be  set 
up  in  their  domain.  When  the  vessel  ap¬ 
proached  the  fort  the  Dutch  commander  or¬ 
dered  Holmes  to  heave  to  ;  and  as  he  “  sailed 
right  ou  ”  the  Hollander  threatened  to  open 
great  guns  upon  him.  Holmes  passed  by  un¬ 
harmed,  lauded  his  cargo  on  the  site  of  Wind¬ 
sor,  put  up  the  house,  and  took  formal  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  his  king. 
The  few  Englishmen  with  him  formed  the  whole 
colony;  and  so  the  first  European  settlement 
was  made  in  the  Connecticut  Valley.  Van  Twill- 
er,  at  Manhattan,  blustered,  and  sent  an  armed 
force  to  expel  the  intruders;  but  they  remained 
in  spite  of  the  Dutchman.  And  when  the  latter 
finally  withdrew,  there  was  an  influx  of  settlers 
from  Massachusetts.  In  the  autumn  of  1635  a 
company  of  men,  women,  and  children,  with 
oxen  and  cows,  traversed  the  broken  coun¬ 
try  through  tangled  morasses,  across  running 
streams,  and  over  rugged  and  lofty  hills,  more 
than  one  hundred  miles,  until  they  reached  the 
Valley  of  the  Connecticut,  then  white  with  snow. 
The  ice  in  the  river  prevented  a  vessel  laden 
with  supplies  for  them  ascending  the  stream. 
On  the  sites  of  Wethersfield  and  Hartford  they 
built  log  huts  and  a  little  church  edifice  in  the 
drifting  snow.  Some  of  them,  fearing  starva¬ 
tion,  made  their  way  to  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
and  thence  to  Boston  in  a  passing  vessel.  Those 
who  remained  suffered  dreadfully,  living  some 
of  the  time  upon  acorns.  Many  of  the  cattle 
perished  for  want  of  food.  In  1636  Rev.  Thom¬ 
as  Hooker,  a  zealous  dissenting  minister  who 
came  to  Boston  from  Holland  in  1633,  led  a  com¬ 
pany  of  one  hundred  men,  women,  and  children 
to  the  Connecticut  Valley.  They  wisely  made 
the  journey  in  summer,  driving  before  them  one 
hundred  and  sixty  head  of  cattle,  the  cows  past¬ 
uring  in  grassy  savannas  and  furnishing  much 
wholesome  food  for  the  company.  The  women 
and  children  were  conveyed  in  wagons  drawn 
by  oxen,  while  the  stalwart  men  cleared  the  way 
with  their  axes.  On  the  4th  of  July  the  com¬ 
pany  stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Connecticut, 
where,  under  the  shadow  of  trees,  they  sang 


CONQUEST  OF  JAMAICA 

hymns  of  praise.  Ou  the  following  Sabbath 
Mr.  Hooker  preached  and  administered  the  com¬ 
munion  in  the  little  church  built  the  previous 
winter.  There  were  now  (1636)  five  feeble  set¬ 
tlements  in  the  Connecticut  Valley. 

Connecticut  Witches.  Historians  aver  that 
the  Connecticut  Colony  never  had  a  trial  for 
witchcraft  within  its  borders.  There  seems  to 
be  documentary  evidence  to  the  contrary,  and 
there  is  in  existence  in  Fairfield  a  record  of  a 
trial  there  of  “  Mercy  Desborough,  wife  of  Thom¬ 
as  Desborough,”  charged  with  “  familiarity  with 
Satan,”  and,  in  a  preternatural  way,  “  having  af¬ 
flicted  and  done  harm  to  the  bodies  and  estates 
of  sundry  of  their  majesties’ subjects.”  This  trial 
occurred  in  September,  1692.  The  testimony 
against  her  was  so  absurd  and  inconclusive  that 
the  judges  did  not  deem  it  sufficient  to  convict 
her.  Her  person  was  searched  for  the  tradi¬ 
tionary  “  witchmarks,”  and  she  was  subjected 
to  the  infallible  test  of  binding  the  accused  per¬ 
son  hand  and  foot  and  throwing  him  or  her  into 
deep  water.  If  the  body  floated,  guilt  was  clear¬ 
ly  established  ;  if  it  sank,  innocence  was  as  clear¬ 
ly  proven.  Mrs.  Desborough  was  so  bound  and 
cast  into  the  water;  and  in  the  proceedings  of 
the  trial  the  following  affidavit  appears:  “Mr. 
John  Wakemau,  aged  thirty-two  years,  and 
Samuel  Squiers  make  oath  that  they  saw  Mer¬ 
cy  Desborough  put  into  the  water  and  that  she 
swam  like  a  cork.  This  was  done  in  court, 
Sept.  15,  1692.  Attest,  John  Allyn,  Secretary.” 
The  judges  were  still  unsatisfied,  and  adjourned 
the  court  to  Oct.  28,  when  the  case  was  given  to 
the  jury,  who  found  the  person  “  guilty,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  indictment,”  and  she  was  sentenced 
to  death.  Other  prisoners,  tried  on  a  similar  in¬ 
dictment,  were  acquitted.  Her  life  was  spared, 
a  numerously  signed  petition  for  a  commutation 
of  her  sentence  having  been  presented  to  the 
court. 

Conner,  David,  was  born  in  Harrisburg,  Penn., 
about  1792;  died  in  Philadelphia  March  20, 1856. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  January,  1809,  and  as 
acting-lieutenant  was  in  the  action  between  the 
Hornet  and  Peacock  (which  see).  He  was  made 
a  lieutenant  in  1813,  and  remaiued  on  the  Hornet. 
In  her  action  with  the  Penguin  Conner  was  dan¬ 
gerously  wounded,  and  for  his  brave  conduct 
was  presented  with  a  medal  by  Congress,  and  by 
the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  with  a  sword. 
He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander  in 
March,  1825,  and  to  captain  in  1835.  During 
the  war  with  Mexico  (1846-48)  he  commanded 
the  American  squadron  on  the  Mexican  coast, 
and  assisted  in  the  reduction  of  the  fortress  of 
San  Juan  de  Ulloa  in  the  spring  of  1847.  He 
captured  Tampico  in  November,  1846.  His  last 
service  was  in  command  of  the  Philadelphia 
Navy-yard. 

Conquest  of  Jamaica.  When  Cromwell  had 
made  peace  with  the  Dutch  (1654)  he  declared 
war  against  Spain,  and  sent  a  fleet  under  Ad¬ 
miral  Penn  and  an  army  under  General  Vena¬ 
bles  to  attack  the  Spanish  West  Indies.  Ed¬ 
ward  Winslow  went  with  the  fleet  as  one  of 
Cromwell’s  commissioners  to  superintend  the 


CONSCKIPTIONS 


303 


CONSOLIDATION 


conquered  countries.  By  volunteers  from  Bar- 
badoes  and  the  Leeward  Islands  the  army  was 
increased  to  ten  thousand.  Santo  Domingo  was 
first  attacked.  The  English  were  repulsed,  and 
then  proceeded  to  Jamaica,  which  they  easily 
took  possession  of,  for  it  was  inhabited  by  only 
a  few  of  the  enervated  descendants  of  old  Span¬ 
ish  colonists  and  some  negro  slaves.  Winslow 
died  at  sea  soou  after  the  repulse  at  Santo  Do¬ 
mingo,  and  Sedgwick,  of  Massachusetts,  was  put 
in  his  place.  He  framed  an  instrument  of  govern¬ 
ment  for  Jamaica,  having  a  supreme  executive 
council,  of  which  he  was  the  head.  Cromwell, 
anxious  to  retain  and  people  the  island  with 
subjects  of  Great  Britain,  ordered  the  enlistment 
in  Ireland  of  one  thousand  girls  and  young  men, 
and  sent  them  over.  “  Idle,  masterless  robbers 
and  vagabonds,  male  and  female,”  were  arrest¬ 
ed  and  sent  to  Jamaica;  and  to  have  a  due  ad¬ 
mixture  of  good  morals  and  religion  in  the  new 
colony,  Cromwell  sent  agents  to  New  England 
for  emigrants.  Many  at  New  Haven,  not  pros¬ 
pering  at  home,  were  disposed  to  go,  but,  the 
magistrates  opposing,  few  went.  So  was  first 
settled  by  the  English  the  flourishing  island  of 
Jamaica,  which  they  yet  retain. 

Conscriptions.  In  October,  1814,  the  Acting 
Secretary  of  War  (James  Monroe)  proposed  vig¬ 
orous  measures  for  increasing  the  army  and  giv¬ 
ing  it  material  strength.  Volunteering  had 
ceased,  and  he  proposed  to  raise,  by  conscription 
or  draft,  sufficient  to  fill  the  existing  ranks  of 
the  army  to  the  full  amount  of  62,448  men ;  also 
an  additional  regular  force  of  40,000  men,  to  be 
locally  employed  for  the  defence  of  the  frontiers 
and  sea-coast.  Bills  for  this  purpose  were  in¬ 
troduced  into  Congress  (Oct.  27,  1814);  and  this 
and  other  war  measures  were  more  favorably 
received  than  usual  because  of  the  waning  pros¬ 
pects  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  excepting  on 
terms  humiliating  to  the  United  States.  The 
proposition  to  raise  a  large  force  by  conscription 
brought  matters  to  a  crisis  in  New  England. 
Because  of  the  unpatriotic  course  of  the  Peace 
Faction  in  New  England,  the  President  iusisted 
upon  the  exclusive  control  of  all  military  move¬ 
ments  there,  while  states  in  other  portions  of 
the  Union  were  left  to  act,  in  the  matter  of  local 
defences,  wholly  at  the  discretion  of  the  local 
governors.  The  clamor  raised  against  the  meas¬ 
ure  of  conscription  became  more  and  more  in¬ 
tense ;  and  radical  and  indiscreet  men  of  the 
opposition  proposed  the  secession  of  the  New 
England  States  from  the  Union  as  a  cure  for  ex- 
isting  evils.  Thoughtful  men  pondered  the  sit  u¬ 
ation  of  affairs  with  great  anxiety,  and  the 
famous  gathering  of  representatives  of  the  New 
England  States  known  as  “The  Hartford  Con¬ 
vention”  was  the  result. 

Conservatives.  The  advocacy  of  an  exten¬ 
sive  specie  currency,  and  the  proposition  for  a 
Sub-Treasury  (which  see),  in  1837,  alienated 
many  of  the  Democratic  party,  and  they  formed 
a  powerful  faction  known  as  “Conservatives.” 
They  finally  joined  the  Whigs,  and,  in  1840,  as¬ 
sisted  them  materially  in  electing  General  Har¬ 
rison  President- 


Consignees  of  Tea  Cargoes.  Those  who  ac¬ 
cepted  the  office  of  consignees  of  the  tea  cargoes 
of  the  East  India  Company  were  held  in  equal 
disrepute  with  the  stamp-distributers  (which 
see).  They  were  requested  to  refrain  from  re¬ 
ceiving  the  proscribed  article.  The  request  of 
a  public  meeting  in  Philadelphia  (Oct.  2, 1773), 
that  Messrs.  Wharton  should  not  act,  was  com¬ 
plied  with,  and  their  answer  was  received  with 
shouts  of  applause.  Another  firm  refused,  and 
they  were  greeted  with  groans  and  hisses.  A 
public  meeting  in  Boston  (Nov.  5)  appointed  a 
committee  to  wait  upon  the  consignees  in  that 
town  and  request  them  to  resign.  These  con¬ 
signees  were  all  friends  of  Governor  Hutchin¬ 
son — two  of  them  were  his  sons  and  a  third  his 
nephew.  They  had  been  summoned  to  attend  a 
meeting  of  the  Sous  of  Liberty  (under  Liberty 
Tree)  and  resign  their  appointments.  They  con¬ 
temptuously  refused  to  comply ;  now,  in  the 
presence  of  the  town  committee,  they  so  equiv¬ 
ocated  that  the  meeting  voted  their  answer 
“  unsatisfactory  and  daringly  affroutive.”  An¬ 
other  committee  was  appointed  for  the  same 
purpose  at  a  meeting  on  the  18th,  when  the  con¬ 
signees  replied  :  “  It  is  out  of  our  power  to  com¬ 
ply  with  the  request  of  the  town.”  The  meet¬ 
ing  broke  up  with  ominous  silence.  The  con¬ 
signees  became  alarmed,  and  asked  leave  to  re¬ 
sign  their  appointments  iuto  the  hands  of  the 
governor  and  council.  The  prayer  was  refused, 
and  the  consignees  fled  to  the  protection  of  the 
castle.  At  a  meetiug  held  first  in  Faneuil  Hall 
and  then  in  the  South  Meeting-house  (Nov.  29), 
a  letter  was  received  from  the  consignees,  offer¬ 
ing  to  store  the  tea  until  they  could  write  to 
England  and  receive  instructions.  The  offer 
was  rejected  with  disdain.  The  sheriff  then 
read  a  proclamation  from  the  governor,  ordering 
the  meeting  to  disperse.  It  was  received  with 
hisses.  Then  the  meeting  ordered  that  two  tea 
vessels  hourly  expected  at  Boston  should  be 
moored  at  Griffin’s  Wharf,  where  the  cargoes 
were  afterwards  destroyed.  (See  Boston  Tea  Par¬ 
ti/.)  At  the  demand  of  a  popular  meeting  in  New 
York  (Nov.  25)  the  appointed  consignees  there 
declined  to  act,  whereupon  Governor  Tryon  is¬ 
sued  an  order  for  the  cargo  of  any  tea-ship  that 
might  arrive  to  be  deposited  in  the  barracks. 

Consolidation  of  Connecticut  and  New 
Haven.  In  1662  Governor  Winthrop  procured 
a  charter  for  the  Connecticut  colony.  (See 
Winthrop,  John,  II.)  It  differed  from  other  char¬ 
ters  in  vesting  jurisdiction  in  a  corporation  of 
resident  freemen  instead  of  an  English  corpora¬ 
tion  or  single  proprietor  with  or  without  a  local 
assembly.  The  charter  included  the  New  Haven 
colony.  (See  New  Haven.)  That  colony  refused 
to  accede  to  the  proposed  union,  chiefly  because 
Connecticut  preferred  a  property  qualification 
required  of  freemen  instead  of  the  spiritual  one 
of  church  membership,  and  the  known  inclina¬ 
tion  of  the  Connecticut  people  towards  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  “  half-way  covenant  ” — that  is,  a  com¬ 
promise  between  the  rigid  discipline,  dogmas, 
and  exclusiveness  of  the  early  Church  in  New 
England  and  the  more  liberal  views  which  the 
grown-up  children  of  those  old  Puritans  had 


CONSPIRACY  AGAINST  WASHINGTON  304  CONSPIRACY  AGAINST  WASHINGTON 


adopted,  and  which  had  been  authorized  hy  a 
synod  held  in  1659.  By  degrees  these  and  other 
objections  were  removed,  and  in  May,  1665,  tbe 
consolidation  of  the  colonies  of  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven  was  accomplished.  This  was  an  im¬ 
portant  event.  In  October  a  Court  of  Assistants 
for  the  new  colony  was  established.  It  was  to 
consist  of  at  least  seven  assistants ;  to  have  origi¬ 
nal  cognizance  of  all  crimes  relating  to  life,  liber¬ 
ty,  or  banishment ;  and  in  all  other  cases  to  have 
appellate  jurisdiction.  (See  Court  of  Assistants.) 
At  that  time  Connecticut  and  New  Haven  con¬ 
sisted  of  nineteen  towns.  Only  one  town,  in  the 
New  Haven  jurisdiction  (Branford),  persisted  in 
opposing  the  union.  Mr.  Pierson,  the  minister 
of  Branford,  and  almost  his  whole  church  and 
congregation,  were  so  dissatisfied  with  it  that 
they  removed  to  Newark,  N.  J. 

Conspiracy  against  Washington.  In  the 
summer  of  1777  Washington  began  to  feel  the 
malign  influence  of  the  intrigues  of  Gates 
against  him,  such  as  Schuyler  had  endured. 
The  same  faction  in  Congress  which  favored 
Gates’s  pretensions  in  the  case  of  Schuyler  (see 
Schuyler  and  Gates )  also  favored  his  ambitious 
schemes  for  his  elevation  to  the  position  of  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  American  armies.  After 
Gates  had  superseded  Schuyler  (August,  1777), 
that  faction  induced  the  Congress  to  lavish  all 
their  favors  upon  the  former,  the  favorite  of  the 
New  England  delegation,  and  to  treat  Washing¬ 
ton  with  positive  neglect.  They  did  not  scruple 
to  slight  his  advice  and  to  neglect  his  wants. 
With  unpatriotic  querulousness  some  of  the 
friends  of  Gates  in  Congress  wrote  and  spoke 
disparagingly  of  Washington  as  a  commander 
while  he  was  on  his  march  to  meet  Howe  (Au¬ 
gust,  1777).  John  Adams,  warped  by  his  par¬ 
tiality  for  Gates,  wrote,  with  a  singular  indiffer¬ 
ence  to  facts,  concerning  the  relative  strength 
of  the  two  armies:  “I  wish  the  Continental 
army  would  prove  that  anything  can  be  done. 
I  am  weary  with  so  much  insipidity.  I  am  sick 
of  Fabian  systems.  My  toast  is,  ‘A  short  aud 
violent  war.”’  After  the  defeat  of  Wayne  (see 
Paoli  Tavern)  that  followed  the  disaster  at  the 
Brandywine,  the  friends  of  Gates  in  Congress  re¬ 
newed  their  censures  of  Washington,  and  John 
Adams  exclaimed,  “  O  Heaven,  grant  us  one 
great  soul !  One  leading  mind  would  extricate 
the  best  cause  from  that  ruin  which  seems  to 
await  it.”  And  after  the  repulse  of  the  British 
before  forts  Mercer  and  Mifflin  (October,  1777), 
Adams  exclaimed :  “  Thank  God,  the  glory  is 
not  immediately  due  to  the  commander-in-chief, 
or  idolatry  aud  adulation  would  have  been  so 
excessive  as  to  endanger  our  liberties.”  After 
the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  the  proud  Gates  in¬ 
sulted  Washington  by  sending  his  report  im¬ 
mediately  to  Congress  instead  of  to  the  com¬ 
mander-in-chief,  and  was  not  rebuked  ;  and  he 
imitated  the  treasonable  conduct  of  Lee  by  dis¬ 
obeying  the  orders  of  Washington  to  send  troops 
(not  needed  there)  from  the  Northern  Depart¬ 
ment  to  assist  in  capturing  Howe  and  his  army 
or  expelling  them  from  Philadelphia.  The  pow¬ 
erful  Gates  faction  in  Congress  sustained  him 
in  this  disobedience,  aud  caused  legislation  by 


that  body  which  was  calculated  to  dishonor  the 
commander-in-chief  and  restrain  his  military 
operations.  They  forbade  him  to  detach  more 
than  two  thousand  five  hundred  men  from  the 
Northern  army  without  first  consulting  Gates 
and  Governor  Clinton,  and  so  making  him  sub¬ 
servient  to  his  inferiors.  The  Adamses  and  Ger¬ 
ry,  of  Massachusetts,  aud  Marchant,  of  Rhode 
Island,  actually  voted  for  a  resolution  forhid- 
diug  Washington  to  detach  any  troops  from  the 
Northern  Department  without  the  consent  of 
Gates  and  Clinton.  Emboldened  by  the  evi¬ 
dent  strength  of  his  faction  in  Congress,  Gates 
pursued  his  intrigues  with  more  vigor,  and  his 
partisans  there  assured  him  that  he  would  soon 
be  virtual  commauder-in-chief,  when,  late  in  No¬ 
vember,  1777,  he  was  made  president  of  a  new 
Board  of  War,  which  was  vested  with  large  pow¬ 
ers,  and  by  delegated  authority  assumed  to  con¬ 
trol  military  affairs  which  properly  belonged  to 
the  commander-in-chief.  Gates  found  a  fitting 
instrument  in  carrying  forward  the  conspiracy 
iu  General  Conway,  who,  it  was  rumored,  was 
about  to  be  appointed  a  major-general  in  the 
Continental  army,  to  which  appointment  Wash¬ 
ington  made  the  most  serious  opposition,  be¬ 
cause  of  Conway’s  unfitness ;  also  because  it  was 
likely  to  drive  from  the  service  some  of  the  best 
generals.  Conway  heard  of  this  opposition.  His 
malice  was  aroused,  and  his  tongue  aud  pen 
were  made  so  conspicuously  active  that  he  was 
considered  the  head  aud  front  of  the  conspira¬ 
cy,  which  is  known  in  history  as  “Conway’s 
Cabal.”  He  wrote  anonymous  letters  to  mem¬ 
bers  of  Congress  and  to  chief  magistrates  of 
states,  filled  with  complaints,  vile  insinuations, 
and  false  statements  concerning  the  character 
of  Washington,  in  which  the  late  disasters  to 
the  American  arms  were  charged  to  the  inca¬ 
pacity  and  timid  policy  of  the  commander-iu- 
chief.  He  also  wrote  forged  letters  as  if  from 
the  pen  of  Washington.  He  did  his  best  to  sow 
the  seeds  of  discontent  among  the  officers  of  the 
army,  aud  caused  some  of  them  to  write  flatter¬ 
ing  letters  to  Gates,  and  so  fed  his  hopes  of  hav¬ 
ing  the  chief  command.  Members  of  Congress 
joined  in  this  letter-writing  in  disparagement 
of  the  chief.  A  delegate  from  Massachusetts 
(Mr.  Lovell)  iu  a  letter  to  Gates  said,  after 
threatening  Washington  with  “  the  mighty  tor¬ 
rent  of  public  clamor  and  vengeance:”  “How 
different  your  conduct  and  your  fortune!  this 
army  will  be  totally  lost  unless  you  come  down 
and  collect  the  virtuous  band  who  wish  to  fight 
under  your  banner.”  Aud  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush, 
of  Philadelphia,  iu  an  anonymous  letter  to  Pat¬ 
rick  Henry,  after  declaring  that  the  army  at 
Valley  Forge  had  no  general  at  its  head,  said : 
“A  Gates,  a  Lee,  or  a  Couway  would  iu  a  few 
weeks  render  them  an  irresistible  body  of  men. 
Some  of  the  contents  of  this  letter  ought  to  be 
made  public,  in  order  to  awaken,  enlighten,  and 
alarm  our  country.”  Henry  treated  the  anony¬ 
mous  letter  with  contemptuous  silence,  and  sent 
it  to  Washington.  Rush’s  handwriting  be¬ 
trayed  him.  Conway  had  written  to  Gates  con¬ 
cerning  Washington  :  “  Heaven  has  been  deter¬ 
mined  to  save  your  country,  or  a  weak  general 


CONSPIRACY  AGAINST  WASHINGTON  305 


CONSPIRACY  IN  THE  WEST 


and  bad  counsellors  would  have  ruined  it.” 
When  these  words  reached  Washington,  he  let 
Conway  know  the  fact.  A  personal  interview 
ensued,  during  which  Conway  justified  his  words 
and  offered  no  apology.  He  boasted  of  his  defi¬ 
ance  of  the  commander-in-chief,  and  was  com¬ 
mended  by  Gates,  Mifflin,  and  others.  The 
Gates  faction  in  Congress  procured  Conway’s 
appointment  as  inspector-general  of  the  army, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  made  him 
independent  of  the  chief.  The  conspirators 
hoped  these  indignities  would  cause  Washing¬ 
ton  to  resign,  when  his  place  might  be  filled  by 
Gates.  Then  the  conspiracy  assumed  another 
phase.  Without  the  knowledge  of  Washington 
the  Board  of  War  devised  a  winter  campaign 
against  Canada,  and  gave  the  command  to  La¬ 
fayette.  It  was  a  trick  of  Gates  to  detach  the 
marquis  from  Washington.  It  failed.  Lafay¬ 
ette  was  summoned  to  York  to  receive  his  com¬ 
mission  from  Congress.  There  he  met  Gates, 
Mifflin,  and  others,  members  of  the  Board  of 
War,  at  table.  Wine  circulated  freely,  and  toasts 
abounded.  At  length,  the  marquis,  thinking  it 
time  to  show  his  colors,  said:  “Gentlemen,  I 
perceive  one  toast  has  been  omitted,  which  I 
will  now  propose.”  They  filled  their  glasses, 
when  he  gave,  “  The  commander-in-chief  of  the 
American  armies.”  The  coldness  with  which 
that  toast  was  received  confirmed  Lafayette’s 
worst  opinion  respecting  the  men  around  him, 
and  he  was  disgusted.  The  conspirators,  find¬ 
ing  they  could  not  use  the  marquis,  abandoned 
the  expedition.  So,  also,  was  the  conspiracy 
abandoned  soon  afterwards.  Some  of  Gates’s 
New  England  friends  became  tired  of  him.  Con¬ 
way,  found  out,  was  despised,  and  left  the  army. 
He  quarrelled  with  General  Cadwallader  and 
fought  a  duel  with  him.  Conway  was  wound¬ 
ed,  and,  expecting  to  die,  wrote  an  apologetic 
letter  to  Washington,  deploring  the  injury  he 
had  attempted  to  do  him.  He  recovered  and 
returned  to  France. 

Conspiracy  against  Washington,  How  De¬ 
feated.  When  the  conspiracy  to  deprive  Wash¬ 
ington  of  the  chief  command  of  the  army  was 
fully  ripe,  a  day  was  secretly  chosen  when  a, 
committee  of  Congress  should  be  appointed 
to  arrest  Washington  at  Valley  Forge.  At 
that  time  there  was  a  majority  of  the  friends 
of  the  conspirators  in  Congress  (then  sitting  at 
York,  Penn.),  because  of  the  absence  of  the  New 
York  delegation.  Only  Francis  Lewis  and  Colo¬ 
nel  William  Duer  were  at  York.  The  latter  was 
very  ill.  Lewis,  having  been  informed  of  the  de¬ 
signs  of  the  conspirators,  sent  a  message  to 
Duer.  The  latter  asked  his  physician  whether 
he  could  be  removed  to  the  court-house,  where 
Congress  was  in  session.  “Yes,”  said  the  doc¬ 
tor,  “but  at  the  risk  of  your  life.”  “Do  you 
mean  that  I  would  expire  before  reaching  the 
place?”  asked  Duer.  “No,”  said  the  physician, 
“but  I  would  not  answer  for  your  life  twenty- 
four  hours  afterwards.”  “Very  well,”  responded  . 
Duer,  “  prepare  a  litter.”  It  was  done,  and  Duer  [ 
was  carried  to  the  floor  of  Congress.  The  ar- 
rival  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  of  the  New  York  del¬ 
egation,  at  the  same  time,  satisfied  the  conspira- 
I.— 20 


tors  that  they  would  be  defeated,  and  they  gave 
up  the  hazardous  undertaking. 

Conspiracy  in  the  West.  As  the  time  for  the 
choice  of  Mr.  Lincoln’s  successor  to  the  Presiden¬ 
cy  of  the  United  States  in  1864  was  approach¬ 
ing,  the  members  of  a  secret  league  existing 
west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  appeared  more 
and  more  active.  The  following  outliue  of  the 
conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  republic  is 
drawn  from  well-authenticated  facts :  There 
was  a  secret  military  organization,  composed  at 
the  time  (August,  1864)  of  the  Democratic  con¬ 
vention,  of  about  five  hundred  thousand  men, 
with  a  coramander-in-chief,  a  general,  and  sub¬ 
ordinate  officers,  all  bound  to  a  blind  obedience 
to  the  orders  of  their  superiors,  and  pledged 
“to  take  up  arms  against  any  government  fouud 
waging  war  against  a  people  endeavoring  to  es¬ 
tablish  a  government  of  their  own  choice”  —  in 
other  words,  to  assist  the  insurgeuts  then  in 
arms  against  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  There  was  to  be  a  general  uprising  of 
the  members  of  this  league  in  Missouri,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky,  in  co-operation 
with  a  Confederate  force  under  Price,  who  was 
to  invade  Missouri.  (See  Missouri,  Last  Invasion 
of.)  Price  (though  rather  late)  performed  his 
part,  but  the  timid  leaguers  failed  to  keep  their 
promises.  The  plot,  it  is  said,  originated  with 
the  Confederate  authorities  at  Richmond,  and 
was  chiefly  directed  by  Jacob  Thompson  (ex-Sec- 
retary  of  the  Interior),  in  Canada,  with  the  im¬ 
portant  aid  of  Vallandigham  (which  see).  Price 
was  the  “  Grand  Commander”  of  the  Missouriau 
and  Southern  members  of  the  league,  and  Val- 
laudigham  the  “Grand  Commander”  of  the 
Northern  members.  The  first  blow — the  sig¬ 
nal  for  the  uprising — was  to  have  been  struck 
at  the  time  of  the  meeting  of  the  Democratic 
convention  at  Chicago  (Aug.  21),  when  eight 
thousand  Confederate  prisoners  confined  at 
Camp  Douglas,  near  that  city,  were  to  be  lib¬ 
erated  and  armed  by  the  Confederate  refugees 
in  Canada  there  assembled,  and  five  thousand 
sympathizers  with  the  Confederate  cause  then 
residing  in  Chicago.  Then  the  Confederate  pris¬ 
oners  at  Indianapolis  were  to  be  released  and 
armed,  and  the  hosts  of  Knights  of  the  Golden 
Circle  (which  see)  —  the  secret  conspirators — 
were  to  gather  at  appointed  rendezvous  to  the 
number  of  full  one  hundred  thousand  men. 
This  force,  springing  out  of  the  earth,  as  it 
were,  in  the  rear  of  Generals  Grant  and  Sher¬ 
man,  would,  it  was  believed,  compel  the  rais¬ 
ing  of  the  sieges  of  Richmond  and  Atlanta,  and 
secure  peace  on  the  basis  of  the  independence 
of  the  “Confederate  States.”  Vallandigham 
was  to  go  boldly  from  exile  in  Canada  to  Chi¬ 
cago  to  act  as  circumstances  might  require. 
When  the  convention  met  he  was  there.  The 
Confederate  refugees  in  Canada  were  also  there, 
with  a  vast  number  of  sympathizers,  who  were 
publicly  harangued  from  balconies  of  hotels 
and  other  places  in  the  most  incendiary  and 
revolutionary  language,  not  only  by  professional 
politicians,  but  by  clergymen.  The  conspiracy 
was  foiled  by  the  vigilance  and  activity  of  Colo¬ 
nel  B.  J.  Sweet,  a  young  officer  who  was  in  coin- 


CONSPIRACY  OF  TECUMTHA 


306  CONSTERNATION  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


maud  at  Chicago.  He  became  acquainted  with 
the  secrets  of  the  conspirators.  Of  this  they 
were  timely  informed,  and  they  postponed  the 
contemplated  uprising  by  a  release  of  the  Con¬ 
federate  prisoners  at  Camp  Douglas  until  the 
night  of  the  presidential  election.  At  that  time 
a  large  number  of  Confederate  officers  in  dis¬ 
guise  were  iu  Chicago.  Their  plans  were  all 
matured  when  young  Colonel  Sweet  interposed 
by  the  arrest  of  about  one  hundred  of  these  and 
Illinois  conspirators.  Hundreds  of  their  fire¬ 
arms  were  also  seized. 

Conspiracy  of  Tecumtha.  Iu  1810  Tecum- 
tha  (written  also  Tecuiuseh)  and  his  brother, 
the  Prophet  (which  see),  endeavored  to  confed¬ 
erate  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  Northwest  for  the 
extermination  of  the  white  settlers  uorth  of  the 
Ohio.  The  cunning  Tecumtha  made  use  of  the 
popularity  of  his  brother  as  a  prophet,  or  med¬ 
icine  man,  whose  influence  had  been  very  great 
over  large  portions  of  the  Delawares,  Shawuo- 
ese,  Wyandots,  Miamis,  Ottawas,  Pottawatomies, 
Kickapoos,  Wiuuebagoes,  and  Chippewas.  It 
was  among  the  more  remote  tribes  that  a  great¬ 
er  part  of  these  converts  were  obtained.  In  the 
summer  of  1808  the  Prophet  removed  his  village 
to  Tippecanoe  Creek  (a  northern  branch  of  the 
Upper  Wabash),  among  the  Delawares  and  Mia¬ 
mis.  There  through  1809  the  Prophet  attracted 
large  numbers  of  Indians,  when  military  exer¬ 
cises  were  interspersed  with  religions  mummer¬ 
ies  and  warlike  sports.  These  military  exer¬ 
cises,  and  an  alleged  secret  intercourse  of  the 
brothers  with  the  British  traders  and  agents, 
had  drawn  upon  the  Prophet  and  his  brother 
the  suspicions  of  Harrison,  the  Governor  of  the 
Indian  Territory  and  Superintendent  of  Indian 
Affairs.  With  consummate  duplicity,  the  Proph¬ 
et,  visiting  Harrison  at  Vincennes,  allayed  his 
suspicions  by  assuming  to  be  a  warm  friend  of 
peace,  his  sole  object  being  to  reform  the  In¬ 
dians  and  to  put  a  stop  to  their  use  of  whiskey. 
Not  long  afterwards,  a  treaty  made  with  several 
tribes  by  Harrison  was  denounced  by  Tecumtha, 
and  serious  threats  were  made  by  him.  Harri¬ 
son  invited  the  brothers  to  an  interview  at  Vin¬ 
cennes  (August,  1810),  when  the  latter  appeared 
with  many  followers  and  showed  so  much  hos¬ 
tility  that  the  governor  ordered  him  and  his 
people  to  quit  the  neighborhood.  (See  Harrison 
and  Tecumtha.)  In  the  summer  of  1811  Tecum¬ 
tha  journeyed  to  the  land  of  the  Creeks,  Choc¬ 
taws,  and  Chickasaws  to  engage  them  to  joiu 
in  his  conspiracy,  but  failed ;  and  a  battle  that 
occurred  ou  the  Tippecanoe  in  November  fol¬ 
lowing  left  Tecumtha  and  his  brother  without 
hope  of  confederating  the  tribes  for  their  mur¬ 
derous  purpose.  (See  Tippecanoe,  Battle  of  the.) 

Constellation  and  La  Vengeance.  Early 
on  the  morning  of  Feb.  1,  1800,  Commodore 
Truxtun,  cruising  off  Guadaloupe  in  the  frig¬ 
ate  Constellation,  gave  chase  to  a  sail  that  ap¬ 
peared  to  the  southward,  but  it  was  about  fif¬ 
teen  hours  before  he  came  within  hailing  dis¬ 
tance  of  the  vessel.  It  proved  to  be  the  large 
French  frigate  La  Vengeance,  which  opened  a 
battle  by  firing  on  the  Constellation  at  eight 


o’clock  in  the  evening.  A  desperate  engage¬ 
ment  at  pistol-shot  distance  ensued,  which  last¬ 
ed  until  one  o’clock  in  the  morning  (Feb.  2),  the 
combatants  all  the  while  running  free,  side  by 
side,  and  pouring  broadsides  into  each  other. 
Suddenly  La  Vengeance  ceased  firing  and  disap¬ 
peared  iu  the  gloom.  Truxtun  supposed  she 
had  gone  to  the  bottom.  He  found  his  own 
ship  greatly  crippled.  Nearly  all  her  shrouds 
had  been  cut  away.  A  squall  came  on  and  the 
shattered  main-mast  fell  into  the  sea,  carrying 
with  it  a  midshipman  and  several  topmen  who 
were  aloft.  La  Vengeance  (which  carried  54  guns 
and  400  men)  was  not  lost,  but  had  fled,  iu  a 
crippled  condition,  to  Curasao,  where  she  arrived 
ou  the  6th.  Captain  Pitot,  her  commander,  said 
he  twice  struck  his  flag  during  the  engagement, 
which  Truxtun  did  not  observe.  Truxtun  bore 
away  to  Jamaica,  and  it  was  some  time  before 
he  learned  the  name  of  his  antagonist.  This 
victory  gave  Truxtun  great  renown  at  home 
and  abroad.  Congress  thanked  him  (March  29) 
and  voted  him  a  gold  medal.  La  Vengeance 
would  have  been  a  rich  prize.  She  had  on 
board  the  governor  of  Guadaloupe  and  his  fam¬ 
ily,  and  two  French  generals,  a  full  cargo  of 
sugar  and  coffee,  and  a  large  amount  of  specie. 
She  lost,  in  killed  aud  wounded,  162.  The  Con¬ 
stellation  lost,  iu  killed  and  wounded,  39. 

Constellation  and  L’Insurgente.  At  noon 
on  Feb.  9,  1799,  while  the  United  States  frig¬ 
ate  Constellation,  Commodore  Truxtun,  was  cruis¬ 
ing  off  the  Island  of  Nevis,  W.  I.,  the  French 
frigate  L’ Insurgente  appeared  to  the  southward. 
Truxtun  gave  chase,  aud  at  a  little  past  three 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon  brought  ou  an  engage¬ 
ment.  It  lasted  an  hour  and  a  quarter,  when 
L’Insurgente  surrendered.  Captaiu  Barreault 
did  not  yield  until  his  fine  ship  was  dreadfully 
shattered  and  he  had  lost  70  men  killed  and 
wounded.  The  Constellation  had  only  three  men 
wounded.  This  victory  produced  great- exul¬ 
tation  iu  the  United  States,  and  the  little  navy 
was  declared  to  be  equal  in  prowess  to  any  iu 
the  world.  The  Constellation  carried  32  guns  and 
300  men ;  L’  Insurgente  carried  40  guns  and  409 
men.  Truxtun  was  everywhere  eulogized.  The 
merchants  of  Lloyd’s  Coffee-house,  London,  sent 
him  a  service  of  plate  worth  over  three  thou¬ 
sand  dollars,  on  which  a  representation  of  the 
action  was  engraved;  aud  a  song  called  “Trtix- 
tun’s  Victory”  was  everywhere  sung,  beginning 
with  the  words : 

“  Come  all  ye  Yankee  sailors,  with  swords  and  pikes  advance, 
’Tis  time  to  try  your  courage  and  humble  haughty  France. 

The  sons  of  France  our  seas  invade, 

Destroy  our  commerce  and  our  trade  : 

’Tis  time  the  reckoning  should  be  paid 
To  brave  Yankee  boys.” 

Consternation  in  New  England.  Rumors 
spread  over  New  England  in  1697  that  a  French 
armament  from  Europe  and  a  land  force  from 
Canada  were  about  to  fall  upon  the  English 
colonies.  Such  an  expedition  had  actually  been 
ordered  from  France;  and  it  was  placed  under 
the  command  of  the  Marquis  of  Nesmond,  an 
officer  of  great  reputation.  He  was  furnished 
with  ten  men-of-war,  a  galiot,  and  two  frigates; 


CONSTITUENT  CONVENTION 


307  CONSTITUTION  AND  GUERRIERE 


and  was  instructed  to  first  secure  the  posses¬ 
sions  in  the  extreme  east,  then  to  join  fifteen 
hundred  men  to  he  furnished  by  Count  Fronte- 
nac,  and  proceed  with  his  fleet  to  Boston  har¬ 
bor.  After  capturing  Boston  and  ravaging  New 
England,  he  was  to  proceed  to  New  York,  re¬ 
duce  the  city,  and  thence  send  back  the  troops 
to  Canada  by  land,  that  they  might  ravage  the 
New  York  colony.  Nesmond  started  so  late 
that  he  did  not  reach  Newfoundland  until  July 
24,  when  a  council  of  war  decided  not  to  pro¬ 
ceed  to  Boston.  All  New  England  was  alarm¬ 
ed,  and  preparations  were  made  on  the  seaboard 
to  defend  the  country.  The  Peace  of  Ryswick 
(which  see)  was  proclaimed  at  Boston  Dec.  10, 
and  the  English  colonies  had  repose  from  war 
for  a  while. 

Constituent  Convention,  Proposed.  The  dif¬ 
ficulty  of  raising  money  for  the  current  expenses 
of  the  United  States  government  in  1782  alarmed 
its  friends.  Robert  Morris’s  scheme  for  taxation 
had  failed  to  meet  support.  (See  Morris’s  Fund¬ 
ing  Scheme .)  A  part  of  his  plan  was  to  collect 
the  taxes  due  the  general  government  by  its 
own  officers ;  and  by  a  vote  of  Congress  he  was 
authorized  to  appoint  receivers  of  taxes  at  dif¬ 
ferent  points.  Alexander  Hamilton  was  ap¬ 
pointed  receiver  at  New  York,  and  was  instruct¬ 
ed  by  Morris  to  forward  the  views  of  Congress 
respecting  an  amendment  of  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  so  as  to  give  more  power  to  the 
general  government  in  the  matter  of  taxation. 
Hamilton  had  perceived  the  facility  with  which 
the  Eastern  States  had  met  in  convention,  and 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  constituent  conven¬ 
tion.  He  repaired  to  Poughkeepsie,  on  the  Hud¬ 
son,  where  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New 
York  was  in  session  (July,  1782),  and  explained 
to  them  his  views  on  the  only  methods  by  which 
the  United  States  could  obtain  a  national  con¬ 
stitution.  His  father-in-law  (General  Schuyler) 
seconded  his  views.  He  was  a  State  Senator ; 
and  on  July  19  that  gentleman  invited  the  Sen¬ 
ate  to  consider  the  state  of  the  nation.  On  his 
motion  it  was  agreed  that  the  general  govern¬ 
ment  ought  to  have  power  to  provide  revenue 
for  itself;  and  it  was  resolved  “that  the  fore¬ 
going  important  end  can  never  be  attained  by 
partial  deliberations  of  the  states  separately ; 
but  that  it  is  essential  to  the  common  welfare 
that  there  should  be,  as  soon  as  possible,  a  con¬ 
ference  of  the  whole  on  the  subject ;  and  that  it 
would  be  advisable,  for  this  purpose,  to  propose 
to  Congress  to  recommend,  and  to  each  state  to 
adopt,  the  manner  of  assembling  a  general  con¬ 
vention  of  the  states,  specially  authorized  to  re¬ 
vise  and  amend  the  confederation,  reserving  a 
right  to  the  respective  legislatures  to  ratify 
their  determinations.”  The  resolution  proposed 
by  Schuyler  was  carried  unanimously  in  both 
branches  of  the  Legislature ;  and  Hamilton,  who 
drafted  them,  was  elected,  almost  without  oppo¬ 
sition,  one  of  the  delegates  to  the  Congress  from 
New  York.  Robert  Morris  was  rejoiced  by  these 
auspicious  events,  and,  when  he  welcomed  young 
Hamilton  (then  only  twenty-five  years  of  age) 
to  the  national  Legislature,  said,  “A  firm,  wise, 
manly  system  of  federal  government  is  what  I 


once  wished,  what  I  now  hope,  what  I  dare  not 
expect,  but  what  I  will  not  despair  of.”  Ham¬ 
ilton,  of  New  York,  was  the  first  to  recommend 
a  general  convention  to  form  a  national  consti¬ 
tution  ;  and  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  through  Senator  Schuyler,  was  the  first  to 
take  official  action  in  favor  of  the  measure. 

Constitution  and  Guerriere,  The.  The  Con¬ 
stitution,  44  guns,  Captain  Isaac  Hull,  sailed  from 
Boston  Aug.  2,  1812,  and  cruised  eastward  in 
search  of  British  vessels.  Hull  was  anxious 
to  find  the  Guerriere,  38  guns,  Captain  James 
Richard  Dacres,  who  had  boastfully  enjoined 
the  Americans  to  remember  that  she  was  not 
the  Little  Belt.  (See  President  and  Little  Belt,  The.) 
The  British  newspapers,  sneering  at  the  Ameri¬ 
can  navy,  had  spoken  of  the  Constitution  as  “  a 
bundle  of  pine  boards  sailing  under  a  bit  of 
striped  bunting.”  They  had  also  declared  that 
“  a  few  broadsides  from  England’s  wooden  walls 
would  drive  the  paltry  striped  bunting  from  the 
ocean.”  Hull  was  eager  to  pluck  out  the  sting 
of  these  insults.  He  sailed  as  far  as  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  and  then  cruised  eastward  of  Nova  Sco¬ 
tia,  where  he  captured  a  number  of  British  mer¬ 
chant  vessels  on  their  way  to  the  St.  Lawrence. 
On  the  afternoon  of  Aug.  19  he  fell  in  with  the 
Guerriere,  in  latitude  41°  40',  longitude  55°  48'. 
Some  firing  began  at  long  range.  Perceiving  a 
willingness  on  the  part  of  his  antagonist  to  have 
a  fair  yard-arm  to  yard-arm  fight,  Hull  pressed 
sail  to  get  his  vessel  alongside  the  Guerriere.  He 
was  fat,  wearing  very  tight  white  breeches,  and 
walked  the  deck  watching  the  movements  of 
the  enemy  with  keen  interest;  and  when  the 
Guerriere  began  to  pour  shot  into  the  Constitution, 
Lieutenant  Morris,  Hull’s  second  in  command, 
asked,  “  Shall  I  open  fire  ?”  Hull  quietly  re¬ 
plied,  “Not  yet.”  The  question  was  repeated 
when  the  shots  began  to  tell  on  the  Constitution, 
and  Hull  again  answered,  “  Not  yet.”  When 
the  vessels  were  very  near  each  other,  Hull,  filled 
with  intense  excitement,  bent  himself  twice  to 
the  deck  and  shouted,  “  Now,  boys,  pour  it  into 
them !”  The  command  was  instantly  obeyed. 
When  the  smoke  of  the  broadside  cleared  away 
it  was  discovered  that  the  commander,  in  his 
energetic  movements,  had  split  his  breeches 
from  waistband  to  knee ;  but  he  did  not  stop  to 
change  them  during  the  action.  The  guns  of 
the  Constitution  were  double-shotted  with  round 
and  grape,  and  their  execution  was  terrible. 
The  vessels  were  within  pistol-shot  of  each 
other.  Fifteen  minutes  after  the  contest  be¬ 
gan  the  mizzeu-mast  of  the  Guerriere  was  shot 
away,  her  main-yard  was  in  slings,  and  her  hull, 
spars,  sails,  and  rigging  were  torn  in  pieces.  By 
a  skilful  movement,  the  Constitution  now  fell  foul 
of  her  foe,  her  bowsprit  running  into  the  lar¬ 
board  quarter  of  her  antagonist.  The  cabin  of 
the  Constitution  was  set  on  fire  by  the  explosion 
of  the  forward  guns  of  the  Guerriere,  but  the 
flames  were  soon  extinguished.  Both  parties 
attempted  to  board,  while  the  roar  of  the  great 
guns  was  terrific.  The  sea  was  rolling  heavily, 
and  would  not  allow  a  safe  passage  from  one 
vessel  to  the  other.  At  length  the  Constitution 
became  disentangled  and  shot  ahead  ot  the  Guer - 


CONSTITUTION  AND  GUERRIERE  308 


CONSTITUTION  AND  JAVA 


Here,  when  the  main-mast  of  the  latter,  shatter¬ 
ed  into  weakness,  fell  into  the  sea.  The  Guer¬ 
riere,  shivered  aud  shorn,  rolled  like  a  log  in  the 
trough  of  the  sea,  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the 
billows.  Hull  sent  his  compliments  to  Captain 
Dacres,  and  inquired  whether  he  had  struck  his 
tlag.  Dacres,  who  was  a  “jolly  tar,”  looking  up 
and  down  and  at  the  stumps  of  his  masts,  cool¬ 
ly  and  dryly  replied,  “  Well,  I  don’t  know  ;  our 
mizzen-mast  is  gone ;  our  main-mast  is  gone  ; 
upon  the  whole,  you  may  say  we  have  struck  our 
flag.”  Too  much  bruised  to  be  saved,  the  Guer- 
ribre  was  set  on  fire  and  blown  up  after  her 
people  were  removed.  So  ended  the  career  of 
the  vessel  that  “  was  not  the  Little  Belt .”  This 
exploit  of  Hull  made  him  the  theme  of  many 
toasts,  songs,  and  sonnets.  One  rhymester  wrote 
concerning  the  capture  of  the  Guerriere: 

“  Isaac  did  so  maul  and  rake  her, 

That  the  decks  of  Captain  Dacre 
Were  in  such  a  woful  pickle, 

As  if  Death,  with  scythe  and  sickle, 

With  his  sling,  or  with  his  shaft, 

Had  cut  his  harvest  fore  and  aft. 

Thus,  in  thirty  minutes,  ended 
Mischiefs  that  could  not  be  mended; 

Masts  and  yards  and  ship  descended 
All  to  Davy  Jones’s  locker — 

Such  a  ship,  in  such  a  pucker.” 

Hull  had  seven  men  killed  and  seven  wounded  , 
Dacres  lost  seventy  men  killed  and  wounded. 
The  news  of  this  victory  was  received  with  joy 
throughout  the  country.  The  people  of  Boston 
gave  Hull  and  his  officers  a  banquet,  at  which 
six  hundred  citizens  sat  down.  The  authorities 
of  New  York  gave  him  the  freedom  of  the  city 
in  a  gold  box.  Congress  thanked  him  and 
awarded  him  a  gold  medal,  and  appropriated 


that  it  has  been  taken  by  a  new  enemy  —  an 
enemy  unaccustomed  to  such  triumphs,  and  likely 
to  be  rendered  insolent  and  confident  by  them.” 
This  triumph  made  the  Americans  very  confi¬ 
dent,  if  not  insolent. 

Constitution  and  Java,  The.  After  his 
decisive  victory  over  the  Guei-riere ,  Captain 
Hull  generously  retired  from  the  command  of 
the  Constitution  to  allow  others  to  wiu  honors 
with  her.  Captain  William  Baiubridge  was  ap¬ 
pointed  his  immediate  successor,  and  was  placed 
in  command  of  a  small  squadron— the  Consti¬ 
tution,  44  guns;  Essex,  32;  and  Hornet,  18.  Bain- 
bridge  sailed  from  Boston  late  iu  October,  1812, 
with  the  Constitution  and  Hornet.  The  Essex 
was  ordered  to  follow  to  designated  ports,  and 
if  the  flag-ship  was  not  found  at  any  of  them, 
to  go  on  an  independent  cruise.  After  touching 
at  these  ports,  Bainbridge  was  off  Bahia  or  San 
Salvador,  Brazil,  where  the  Hornet  blockaded 
an  English  sloop  -  of- wrar,  and  the  Constitution 
continued  dow  n  the  coast.  On  Dec.  29  she  fell 
in  with  the  British  frigate  Java,  38  guns,  Cap¬ 
tain  Henry  Lambert,  one  of  the  finest  vessels  in 
the  royal  navy.  They  were  then  about  thirty 
miles  from  the  shore,  southeast  of  San  Salvador. 
About  two  o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  after  run¬ 
ning  upon  the  same  tack  with  the  Constitution, 
the  Java  bore  down  upon  the  latter  with  the 
intention  of  raking  her.  This  calamity  was 
avoided,  and  very  soon  a  most  furious  battle  at 
short  range  was  begun.  When  it  had  raged 
about  half  an  hour  the  wheel  of  the  Constitution 
was  shot  away,  and  her  antagonist,  being  the 
better  sailer,  had  the  advantage  of  her  for  a 
time.  Baiubridge  managed  his  crippled  ship 


HULL'S 


fifty  thousand  dollars  to  be  distributed  as  prize- 
money  among  the  officers  and  crew  of  the  Con¬ 
stitution.  The  British  public  were  amazed  by 
the  event.  Their  faith  iu  the  impregnability 
of  the  “  wooden  walls  of  Old  England  ”  was 
shaken.  Its  bearing  on  the  future  of  the  war 
was  incalculable.  The  London  Times  regarded 
it  as  a  serious  blow  to  the  British  supremacy 
of  the  seas.  “It  is  not  merely  that  an  English 
frigate  has  been  taken,”  said  that  journal,  “  but 


with  so  much  skill  that  she  was  first  in  coming 
to  the  w  ind  on  the  next  tack,  and  gave  her  an¬ 
tagonist  a  terrible  raking  fire.  Both  now  ran 
free,  with  the  wind  on  their  quarter,  and  at  three 
o’clock  the  Java  attempted  to  close  by  running 
down  the  Constitution's  quarter.  She  missed 
her  aim,  and  lost  her  jib-boom  and  the  head  of 
her  bowsprit  by  shots  from  the  Constitution.  In 
a  few  moments  the  latter  poured  a  heavy  rak¬ 
ing  broadside  into  the  stem  of  the  Java.  An- 


CONSTITUTION  AND  JAVA 


309  CONSTITUTION,  CRUISE  OF  THE 


other  followed,  when  the  fore-mast  of  the  Java 
went  by  the  hoard,  crushing  in  the  forecastle 
and  main-deck  in  its  passage.  At  that  moment 
the  Constitution  shot  ahead,  keeping  away  to 
avoid  being  raked,  and  finally,  after  manoeu¬ 
vring  nearly  an  hour,  she  forereached  her  an¬ 
tagonist,  wore,  passed  her,  and  luffed  up  under 
her  quarter.  Then  the  two  vessels  lay  broad¬ 
side  to  broadside,  engaged  in  deadly  conflict 
yard-arm  to  yard-arm.  Very  soon  the  Java's 
mizzen-mast  was  shot  away,  leaving  nothing 
but  the  main-mast,  the  yards  of  which  had  been 
carried  away.  The  fire  of  the  Java  now  ceased, 
and  Bainbridge  was  under  the  impression  that 
she  had  struck  her  colors.  He  had  fought  about 
two  hours,  and  occupied  an  hour  in  repairing 
damages,  when  he  saw  an  ensign  fluttering  over 
the  Java.  Bainbridge  was  preparing  to  reuew 
the  conflict,  when  the  Java's  colors  were  hauled 
down  and  she  was  surrendered.  She  was  bear¬ 
ing  as  passenger  to  the  East  Indies  Lieutenant- 
general  Hyslop  (just  appointed  governor  -  gen¬ 
eral  of  Bombay)  and  his  staff,  and  more  than 
one  hundred  English  officers  and  men  destined 
for  service  in  the  East  Indies.  The  Java  was  a 
wreck,  and  the  Constitution  was  very  much  cut 
in  her  sails.  The  commander  of  the  Java  was 
mortally  w'ounded.  Her  officers  and  crew  num¬ 
bered  about  446  persons.  Some  of  the  above- 
named  passengers  assisted  iu  the  contest.  How 
many  of  the  British  were  lost  was  never  reveal¬ 
ed.  It  was  believed  their  loss  was  near  100 
'  killed  and  200  wounded.  The  Constitution  lost 
9  killed  and  25  wounded.  Bainbridge  was  also 
wounded.  After  every  living  being  had  been 
transferred  from  the  Java  to  the  Constitution,  the 
former  was  fired  and  blown  up  (Dec.  31, 1812). 
The  prisoners  were  paroled  at  San  Salvador. 
The  news  of  the  victory  created  great  joy  in  the 
United  States.  Bainbridge  received  honors  of 
the  most  conspicuous  kind — a  banquet  at  Bos¬ 
ton  (March  2, 1813) ;  thanks  of  legislatures ;  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  New  York,  in  a  gold  box, 
by  its  authorities ;  the  same  by  the  authorities 
of  the  city  of  Albany;  an  elegant  service  of  sit¬ 


ing  naval  engagement  of  the  first  six  months  of 
the  war.  From  this  time  the  Constitution  was 
ranked  among  the  seamen  as  a  “  lucky  ship,” 
and  she  was  called  “  Old  Ironsides.” 

Constitution,  Cruise  of  the  (1814).  When 
Bainbridge  relinquished  the  commaud  of  the 
Constitution,  44  guns,  in  1813,  she  was  thorough¬ 
ly  repaired  and  placed  in  charge  of  Captain 
Charles  Stewart.  She  left  Boston  harbor,  for 
a  cruise,  on  Dec.  30, 1813,  and  for  seventeen  days 
did  not  see  a  sail.  At  the  beginning  of  Febru¬ 
ary,  1814,  she  was  on  the  coast  of  Surinam,  and, 
on  the  14th,  captured  the  British  war-schooner 
Picton,  16  guns,  together  with  a  letter-of-marque 
which  was  under  her  convoy.  On  her  way 
homeward,  she  chased  the  British  frigate  La 
Pique,  36  guns,  off  Porto  Rico,  but  she  escaped 
under  cover  of  the  night.  Early  on  Sunday 
moruing,  April  3,  when  off  Cape  Anne,  she  fell 
in  with  two  heavy  British  frigates  (the  Junon 
and  La  Nymphe ) ;  and  she  was  compelled  to 
seek  safety  in  the  harbor  of  Marblehead.  She 
was  in  great  peril  there  from  her  pursuers. 
These  were  kept  at  bay  by  a  quickly  gathered 
force  of  militia,  infantry,  and  artillery,  and  she 
wras  soon  afterwards  safely  anchored  in  Salem 
harbor.  Thence  she  went  to  Boston,  where  she 
remained  until  the  close  of  the  year.  At  the 
end  of  December  (1814)  the  Constitution,  still 
under  the  commaud  of  Stewart,  put  to  sea. 
Crossiug  the  Atlantic,  she  put  into  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  and  then  cruised  off  the  harbor  of  Lis¬ 
bon.  Stewrart  sailed  southwards  towards  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  and,  on  Feb.  20, 1815,  he  discovered 
two  strange  sails,  which,  towards  evening,  flung 
out  the  British  flag.  Then  Stewart  displayed 
the  American  flag.  By  skilful  management  he 
obtained  an  advantageous  position,  wheu  he  be¬ 
gan  an  action  with  both  of  them ;  and,  after  a 
severe  fight  of  about  fifteen  minutes  in  the 
moonlight,  both  vessels  became  silent,  and,  as 
the  cloud  of  smoke  cleared  away,  Stewart  per¬ 
ceived  that  the  leading  ship  of  his  assailants 
was  under  the  lee-beam  of  his  own  vessel,  while 
the  sternmost  was  luffing  up  as  with  the  iuien- 


NEW  YOKE  GOLD  BOX.  ALBANY  GOLD  BOX. 


ver-plate  by  the  citizens  of  Philadelphia  ;  and 
the  thanks  of  Congress,  with  a  gold  medal  for 
himself  and  silver  ones  for  his  officers,  besides 
fifty  thousand  dollars  in  money  to  Bainbridge 
ami  his  companions-in-arms  as  compensation 
for  their  loss  of  prize-money.  The  conflict  be¬ 
tween  the  Constitution  and  the  Java  was  the  clos- 


tion  of  tacking  and  crossing  the  stem  of  the 
Constitution.  The  latter  delivered  a  broadside 
into  the  ship  abreast  of  her,  and  then,  by  skil¬ 
ful  management  of  the  sails,  backed  swiftly 
astern,  compelling  the  foe  to  till  again  to  avoid 
being  raked.  For  some  time  both  vessels  ma¬ 
noeuvred  admirably,  pouring  heavy  shot  into 


CONSTITUTION,  CRUISE  OF  THE  310  CONSTITUTION,  RETREAT  OF  THE 


each  other  whenever  opportunity  offered,  when, 
at  a  quarter  before  seven  o’clock,  the  British 
ship  struck  her  flag.  She  was  the  frigate  Cy¬ 
ane,  36  guns,  Captain  Falcoln,  manned  by  a  crew 
of  one  hundred  and  eighty  men.  Stewart  now 
sought  her  consort,  which  had  been  forced  out 
of  tbe  fight  by  the  crippled  condition  of  her 
running-gear.  She  was  ignorant  of  the  fate  of 
the  Cyane.  About  an  hour  after  the  latter  had 
surrendered,  she  met  the  Constitution  searching 
for  her.  Each  delivered  a  broadside,  and,  for  a 
while,  there  was  a  brisk  running  tight,  the  Con¬ 
stitution  chasing,  and  her  bow  guns  sending  shot 
that  ripped  up  the  planks  of  her  antagonist. 
The  latter  wras  soon  compelled  to  surrender, 
and  proved  to  be  the  Levant,  18  guns,  Captain 
Douglass.  The  Constitution  was  then  equipped 
with  52  guns,  and  her  complement  of  men  and 
boys  was  about  four  hundred  and  seventy.  The 
loss  of  the  Constitution  in  this  action  was  three 
killed  and  twelve  wounded;  of  the  two  capt¬ 
ured  vessels,  seventy -seven.  The  Constitution 
was  so  little  damaged  that  three  hours  after 
the  action  she  was  again  ready  for  conflict. 
That  battle  on  a  moonlit  sea  lasted  only  forty- 


tution,  the  Newcastle  firing  her  chase  guns  with¬ 
out  effect.  Meanwhile  tbe  Levant  fell  far  in  the 
rear.  Stewart  signalled  her  to  tack,  wThicli  she 
did,  when  the  three  vessels  gave  up  the  chase 
of  the  Constitution,  and  pursued  the  Levant  into 
Porto  Praya  harbor — a  Portuguese  port.  Re¬ 
gardless  of  neutrality,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
prisoners,  whom  Stewart  had  paroled  there, 
seized  a  battery,  and  opened  upon  the  Levant, 
which,  receiving  the  fire  of  her  pursuers  at  the 
same  time,  was  compelled  to  surrender.  Stew- 
art  crossed  the  Atlantic,  landed  many  of  his 
prisoners  in  Brazil,  and  at  Porto  Rico  heard  of 
the  proclamation  of  peace.  Then  he  returned 
home,  taking  with  him  the  news  of  the  capture 
of  the  Cyane  and  Levant.  The  Constitution — 
“  Old  Ironsides”  as  she  was  called — was  hailed 
with  delight,  and  Stewart  received  public  hon¬ 
ors.  The  Common  Council  of  New  York  gave 
him  the  freedom  of  the  city  in  a  gold  box,  and 
a  public  dinner  to  him  and  his  officers.  Tbe 
Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  voted  him  a  gold- 
hilted  sword ;  and  Congress  voted  him  and  his 
men  the  thanks  of  the  nation  and  directed  a 
medal  of  gold,  commemorative  of  the  capture 


STEWART^  MEDAL. 


five  minutes.  Placing  Lieutenant  Ballard  in 
command  of  the  Levant,  and  Lieutenant  Hoff¬ 
man  of  the  Cyane,  Stewart  proceeded  with  his 
prizes  to  one  of  tbe  Cape  de  Yerd  Islands, 
where  he  arrived  on  March  10, 1815.  The  next 
day  tbe  Constitution  and  her  prizes  were  in  im¬ 
minent  peril  by  the  appearance  of  English  ves¬ 
sels  of  war  coming  portward  in  a  thick  fog. 
He  knew  they  would  have  no  respect  for  the 
neutrality  of  the  port  (Porto  Praya),  and  so  he 
cut  the  cables  of  the  Constitution,  and,  with  his 
prizes,  put  to  sea.  They  were  chased  by  tbe 
strangers,  which  were  the  British  frigate  Lean- 
der,  50  guns,  Sir  George  Collier ;  Newcastle,  50 
guns,  Lord  George  Stuart ;  and  Acasta,  40  guns, 
Captain  Kerr.  They  pressed  bard  upon  the  fu¬ 
gitives.  Tbe  Cyane  was  falling  asteru,  and  must 
soon  have  been  oyertakeu.  Stewart  ordered  her 
commander  to  tack.  He  obeyed,  and  she  es¬ 
caped  in  the  fog,  reaching  New  York  in  April. 
The  three  ships  continued  to  chase  the  Consii- 


of  the  Cyane  and  Levant,  to  be  presented  to  him. 
The  Constitution  was  always  fortunate.  Her 
crews  were  principally  New  England  men ;  and, 
from  the  time  of  the  Tripolitan  War  (which 
see)  until  she  left  off  cruising  and  became  a 
school-ship,  she  was  always  regarded  as  a 
“  lucky  vessel.”  Stewart  was  known  in  his 
later  days  as  “  Old  Ironsides.” 

Constitution,  Famous  Retreat  of  the. 
The  frigate  Constitution,  44  guns,  Captain  Isaac 
Hull,  had  just  returned  from  foreign  service 
when  war  was  declared.  She  sailed  from  An¬ 
napolis  (July  12, 1812)  on  a  cruise  to  the  north¬ 
ward.  On  the  171  h  she  fell  in  with  a  small 
squadron  under  Captain  Broke,  when  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  naval  retreats  and  pur¬ 
suits  ever  recorded  occurred.  The  Constitution 
could  not  cope  with  the  whole  squadron,  and 
her  safety  depended  on  successful  flight.  There 
was  almost  a  dead  calm,  and  she  floated  almost 
independent  of  her  helm.  Her  boats  were 


CONSTITUTION,  NATIONAL  311  CONSTITUTION,  NATIONAL 


launched,  and  manned  by  strong  seamen  with 
sweeps.  A  long  18-pouuder  was  rigged  as  a 
stern-chaser,  and  another  of  the  same  calibre 
was  pointed  off  the  forecastle.  Out  of  her  cab¬ 
in  windows,  which  by  sawing  were  made  large 
enough,  two  24-pounders  were  run,  and  all  the 
light  canvas  that  would  draw  was  set.  A  gen¬ 
tle  breeze  sprang  up,  and  she  was  just  getting 
under  headway,  when  a  shot  at  long  range  was 
tired  from  the  Shannon,  Broke’s  flag-ship,  but 
without  effect.  Calm  and  breeze  succeeded 
each  other,  and  kedging  and  sails  kept  the  Con¬ 
stitution  moving  in  a  manner  that  puzzled  her 
pursuers.  At  length  the  British  discovered  the 
secret,  and  instantly  the  Shannon  was  urged  on¬ 
ward  by  the  same  means,  and  slowly  gained  on 
the  Constitution.  The  Guerriere,  38  guns,  Cap¬ 
tain  Dacres,  another  of  the  squadron,  had  now 
joined  in  the  chase.  All  day  and  all  night  the 
pursuit  continued;  and  at  dawn  of  the  second 
day  of  the  chase  the  whole  British  squadron 
were  in  sight,  bent  on  capturing  the  plucky 
American  frigate.  There  were  now  five  vessels 
in  chase,  clouded  with  canvas.  Expert  sea¬ 
manship  kept  the  space  between  the  Constitu¬ 
tion  and  her  pursuers  so  wide  that  not  a  gun 
was  fired.  She  was  four  miles  ahead  of  the 
Belvidere,  the  nearest  vessel  of  the  squadron. 
At  sunset  (July  19)  a  squall  struck  the  Consti¬ 
tution  with  great  fury,  but  she  was  prepared  for 
it.  Wind,  lightning,  and  rain  made  a  terrible 
commotion  on  the  sea  for  a  short  time,  but  the 
gallant  ship  outrode  the  tempest,  and  at  twi¬ 
light  she  was  flying  before  her  pursuers  at  the 
rate  of  eleven  knots  an  hour.  At  midnight  the 
British  fired  two  guns,  and  the  next  morning 
gave  up  the  chase,  which  had  lasted  sixty-four 
hours.  The  newspapers  were  filled  with  the 
praises  of  Hull  and  his  good  ship,  and  doggerel 
verse  in  songs  and  sonnets,  like  the  following, 
abounded : 

“  ’Neath  Hull’s  command,  with  a  taught  band, 

And  naught  beside  to  back  her, 

Upon  a  day,  as  log-books  say, 

A  fleet  bore  down  to  thwack  her. 

“A  fleet,  you  know,  is  odds  or  so 
Against  a  single  ship,  sirs, 

So  ’cross  the  tide  her  legs  she  tried, 

And  gave  the  rogues  the  slip,  sirs.” 

Constitution,  National,  Amendments  to 
the.  At  the  first  session  of  Congress  under 
the  National  Constitution  —  begun  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  March  4, 1789 — many  amendments 
to  that  Constitution  were  offered  for  considera¬ 
tion.  Ten  of  these  Congress  proposed  to  the 
legislatures  of  the  several  states.  They  were 
ratified  by  the  requisite  number  at  the  middle 
of  December,  1791.  Another,  the  Xlth,  was  pro¬ 
posed  March  5,  1794,  and  was  ratified  in  1798. 
Another,  the  Xllth,  was  proposed  Dec.  12,  1803, 
and  was  ratified  in  1804.  These,  with  the  other 
ten,  became  a  part  of  the  National  Constitution. 
Another  article  was  proposed  by  Congress  May  1, 
1810,  but  was  never  ratified.  (See  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  art.  II.,  §  9,  clarise  3.)  It  was  to  prohibit 
citizens  of  the  United  States  accepting  or  re¬ 
taining  any  title  of  nobility  or  honor,  present, 
pension,  or  emolument  from  any  “  person,  king, 
or  foreign  power,”  without  the  consent  of  Con- 1 


gress,  under  the  penalty  of  disfranchisement. 
Another  amendment,  the  XHIth,  was  adopted 
by  Congress  Jan.  31,  1865,  and  its  ratification 
announced  Dec.  18.  It  provides  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery.  A  XIV th  amendment  was  adopted 
by  Congress  June  13,  1866,  and  its  ratification 
proclaimed  July  20,  1868.  It  guarantees  civil 
rights  to  freedmeu  ;  enforces  the  payment  of 
the  National  debt,  and  prohibits  the  payment  of 
the  Confederate  public  debt.  A  XVth  amend¬ 
ment  was  adopted  and  proclaimed  March  30, 
1870,  which  guaranteed  the  right  of  suffrage  to 
all  citizens  without  distinction  of  race  or  color. 

Constitution,  National,  Ratification  of 
the.  The  convention  that  framed  the  Nation¬ 
al  Constitution  was  divided  by  many  conflict¬ 
ing  opinions.  So  with  the  people,  after  it  was 
adopted  in  convention  and  presented  to  them 
for  consideration.  It  was  violently  opposed  by 
extreme  “  state-supremacy  men.”  Of  those  who 
signed  the  document  in  convention  probably 
not  one  approved  of  every  part.  Hamilton, 
one  of  the  most  earnest  advocates  of  the  pa¬ 
per,  when  urging  all  to  sign  it,  said,  “No  man’s 
ideas  are  more  remote  from  the  plan  than  my 
own  ;  but  is  it  possible  to  deliberate  between 
anarchy  and  confusion  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
chance  of  good  on  the  other  ?”  And  when  it 
was  submitted  to  the  people,  Hamilton,  Madi¬ 
son,  and  Jay  wrote  a  series  of  powerful  papers 
in  favor  of  the  Constitution,  which,  in  collect¬ 
ed  form,  make  a  volume  called  The  Federalist. 
These  appeared  in  a  New  York  newspaper. 
The  first  number  was  written  by  Hamilton  on 
board  an  Albany  sloop  on  her  passage  down  the 
Hudson  River.  There  was  an  injunction  of  se¬ 
crecy  upon  the  proceedings  of  the  convention  ; 
so  the  public  did  not  know  the  drift  of  the  de¬ 
bates.  But  there  was  much  of  the  same  kind 
of  discussion  aud  argument  in  public  halls  and 
in  the  newspaper  press.  Tbe  friends  of  the  Con¬ 
stitution,  who  now  began  to  be  called  “  Feder¬ 
alists,”  were  doubtful  of  the  final  result.  Con¬ 
ventions  in  the  various  states  were  called  to 
consider  it.  When  these  assembled  there  was 
intense  excitement  in  the  public  mind  every¬ 
where.  The  convention  in  Delaware  was  the 
first  to  ratify  it,  by  unanimous  vote,  Dec.  7, 1787  ; 
that  of  Pennsylvania,  46  to  23,  Dec.  12;  that  of 
New  Jersey,  unanimously,  Dec.  18.  The  Georgia 
convention  also  ratified  it,  by  unanimous  vote, 
Jan.  2, 1788 ;  that  of  Connecticut,  128  to  40,  Jan. 
9 ;  of  Massachusetts,  187  to  168,  Feb.  6 ;  of  Mary¬ 
land,  63  to  12,  April  28  ;  of  South  Carolina,  149  to 
73,  May  23 ;  of  New  Hampshire,  57  to  46,  June  21. 
The  consent  of  the  people  of  nine  states  was 
necessary  to  make  the  new  constitution  the  su¬ 
preme  law  of  the  land.  This  was  accomplished 
by  tbe  vote  of  New  Hampshire,  which  spread 
joy  among  the  Federalists.  Virginia  followed 
four  days  after  New  Hampshire — 89  to  79,  July 
25 ;  New  York,  30  to  28,  July  26 ;  and  North  Car¬ 
olina,  Nov.  21.  Rhode  Island  stood  out  until 
May  29, 1790,  when  the  national  government  had 
been  in  operation  under  the  new  Constitution 
more  than  a  year.  (See  National  Constitution.) 

Constitution,  National,  Eecokds  of  the 


CONSTITUTION.  THE  FRIGATE  3T2  CONTINENTAL  ARMY 


Convention  that  framed  tiie.  The  injunc¬ 
tion  of  secrecy  as  to  the  proceedings  of  the  con¬ 
vention  was  never  removed.  The  journal,  at 
the  final  adjournment,  was  intrusted  to  the  cus¬ 
tody  of  Washington,  who  afterwards  deposited 
it  in  the  Department  of  State.  It  was  first 
printed  by  order  of  Congress  in  1818.  Mr.  Yates, 
one  of  the  members  from  New  York,  took  short 
notes  of  the  earlier  proceedings  before  he  left 
the  convention  in  disgust.  These  were  pub¬ 
lished  after  his  death  in  1821.  Madison’s  more 
perfect  notes  were  published  in  three  volumes 
in  1840.  Luther  Martin,  one  of  the  delegates 
from  Maryland  (who  was  absent  at  the  time  of 
the  signing  of  the  instrument),  gave  a  “  repre¬ 
sentation”  of  the  convention  to  the  Legislature 
of  Maryland. 

Constitution,  The  Frigate,  saved  by  a 
Poem.  The  famous  frigate  Constitution,  called 
“Ironsides,”  is  yet  (1880)  afloat.  Many  years 
ago  the  Navy  Department  concluded  to  break 
her  up  and  sell  her  timbers,  as  she  was  thought 


THE  CONSTITUTION  IN  1876. 


to  be  a  decided  “invalid.”  The  order  had  gone 
forth,  when  the  execution  of  it  was  arrested  by 
the  opposition  of  public  sentiment  created  and 
called  forth  largely  by  the  following  poetic  pro¬ 
test  by  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  : 

“Ay,  tear  her  tattered  ensign  down  ! 

Long  has  it  waved  on  high. 

And  many  an  eye  has  danced  to  see 
That  banner  in  the  sky. 

Beneath  it  rang  the  battle-shout, 

And  burst  the  cannon’s  roar  ; 

The  meteor  of  the  ocean  air 
Shall  sweep  the  clouds  no  more. 

“Her  deck  once  red  with  heroes’  blood, 

Where  knelt  the  vanquished  foe. 

When  winds  were  hissing  o’er  the  flood 
And  waves  were  white  below, 

No  more  shall  feel  the  victor’s  tread, 

Or  know  the  conquered  knee  : 

The  harpies  of  the  shore  shall  pluck 
The  Eagle  of  the  Sea ! 

“0  !  better  that  her  shattered  hulk 
Should  sink  beneath  the  wave  ; 

Her  thunders  shook  the  mighty  deep, 

And  there  should  be  her  grave. 

Nail  to  the  mast  her  holy  flag, 

Set  every  threadbare  sail. 

And  give  her  to  the  God  of  Storms, 

The  lightning,  and  the  gale!” 

“Old  Ironsides”  was  saved  and  created  into  a 
scliool-sbip. 


“  Constitutionalists  ”  and  “  Friends  of  the 
People.”  In  1805  the  conservative  portion  of 
the  Democratic  party  iu  Pennsylvania,  who  were 
moderate  iu  their  views  and  gave  a  firm  support 
to  the  National  Constitution,  took  the  name  of 
“  Constitutionalists,”  and  organized  what  they 
called  the  “Constitutional  Society.”  The  other 
section  of  the  party  constituted  themselves  into 
rival  clubs,  called  the  “  Friends  of  the  People.” 
The  strife  between  them  was  bitter,  and  their 
denunciations  of  the  leaders  of  each  were  great¬ 
ly  enjoyed  by  the  Federalists. 

Consular  Convention  with  France.  A  con¬ 
vention  of  this  kind,  framed  in  accordance  with 
a  plan  agreed  to  by  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1782,  was  signed  in  Paris  by  Franklin  iu  1784. 
It  gave  to  the  consuls  of  the  two  nations  com¬ 
plete  jurisdiction  over  the  merchants  and  mari¬ 
ners  of  the  nation  they  represented,  and  could 
not  fail  to  produce  serious  collisions  in  its  exer¬ 
cise.  The  Continental  Congress  therefore  in¬ 
structed  Jefferson  to  ask  for  a  modification,  and 
especially  for  the  insertion  of  a  limitation  of 
time.  Long  negotiations  ensued.  This  modi¬ 
fication  and  others  were  secured  in  the  summer 
of  1789,  and,  being  signed  anew,  the  convention 
was  submitted  to  the  Senate  for  ratification. 
Mr.  Jay,  then  holding  the  position  (from  the  old 
Congress)  of  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs,  was 
called  upon  for  a  report  upon  the  subject.  He 
said  it  was  still  objectionable;  but  the  United 
States  could  not  honorably  decline  ratifying  it, 
and  it  was  done. 

Consuls,  Authority  of.  Early  in  the  first 
session  of  the  Second  Congress-  the  subject  of 
consuls  at  foreign  ports,  their  authority,  fees, 
etc.,  was  brought  up  in  Congress  for  the  first 
time.  A  bill  was  reported  Nov.  14, 1791,  and  be¬ 
came  a  law  April  10, 1792.  It  was  made  their 
duty  to  receive  and  authenticate  all  protests 
and  declarations  made  before  them  by  Ameri¬ 
can  citizens,  or  by  foreigners  in  relation  of 
American  citizens ;  copies  of  which,  under  their 
seals,  were  to  have  the  same  validity  as  the 
originals.  They  were  to  take  possession  of  the 
property  of  citizens  dying  within  their  consul¬ 
ate  having  no  partner  or  representative,  and  to 
act,  in  every  particular,  as  a  legal  representa¬ 
tive  of  the  deceased  in  trust  for  heirs.  Iu  case 
of  the  stranding  of  a  vessel  within  their  consul¬ 
ate,  they  were  to  take  measures,  at  the  expense 
of  the  owner,  for  saving  the  vessel  and  cargo. 
They  were  to  provide  for  and  send  home,  at 
the  government  expense,  American  seamen  left 
abroad.  No  salaries  were  allowed  the  consuls, 
except  where  they  acted  as  diplomatic  agents, 
as  in  the  Barbary  States ;  but  they  were  en¬ 
titled  to  certain  fees,  which  were  sometimes 
abundant  and  sometimes  very  meagre  compen¬ 
sation.  With  some  modifications  as  to  com¬ 
pensation,  the  same  consular  system  now  pre¬ 
vails. 

Continental  Army,  Condition  of  the.  At 
the  beginning  of  1781,  when  the  revolt  of  the 
Pennsylvania  line  occurred,  the  condition  of  the 
army  was  most  wretched.  A  committee  of  Con¬ 
gress  reported  that  it  had  been  “  unpaid  for  five 


CONTINENTAL  ARMY 


313 


CONTINENTAL  ARMY 


months  ;  that  it  seldom  had  more  than  six  days’ 
provisions  in  advance,  and  was  on  several  occa¬ 
sions,  for  sundry  successive  days,  without  meat ; 
that  the  medical  department  had  neither  sugar, 
coffee,  tea,  chocolate,  wine,  nor  spirituous  liquors 
of  any  kind  ;  and  that  every  department  of  the 
army  was  without  money,  and  had  not  even  the 
shadow  of  credit  left.”  The  clothing  of  the  sol¬ 
diers  was  in  tatters,  and  distress  of  mind  and 
body  prevailed  everywhere  in  the  service.  No 
wonder  that  some  of  the  soldiers,  who  believed 
that  their  term  of  service  had  expired,  muti¬ 
nied,  and  marched  towards  Philadelphia  to  de¬ 
mand  redress  from  the  Cougress.  (See  Revolt  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Line.) 

Continental  Army,  Formation  of  the.  On 
the  morning  after  the  affair  at  Lexington  and 
Concord  (April  20, 1775)  the  Massachusetts  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Safety  sent  a  circular  letter  to  all  the 
towns  in  the  province,  saying:  “We  conjure 
you,  by  all  that  is  dear,  by  all  that  is  sacred  ;  we 
beg  and  entreat  you,  as  you  will  answer  it  to 
your  country,  to  your  consciences,  and,  above 
all,  to  God  himself,  that  you  will  hasten  and  ar¬ 
range,  by  all  possible  means,  the  enlistment  of 
men  to  form  the  army,  and  send  them  forward 
to  headquarters  at  Cambridge  with  that  expe¬ 
dition  which  the  vast  importance  and  instant 
urgency  of  the  affair  demands.”  This  call  was 
answered  by  many  people  before  it  reached 
them.  It  arose  spontaneously  out  of  the  depths 
of  their  own  patriotic  hearts.  The  field,  the 
workshop,  the  counter,  the  desk,  and  even  the 
pulpit,  yielded  their  tenants,  who  hurried  to¬ 
wards  Boston.  Many  did  not  wait  to  change 
their  clothes.  They  took  with  them  neither 
money  nor  food,  intent  only  upon  haviug  their 
firelocks  in  order.  The  women  on  the  way 
opened  wide  their  doors  and  hearts  for  the  re¬ 
freshment  and  encouragement  of  the  patriotic 
volunteers,  and  very  soon  all  New  England  was 
represented  at  Cambridge  in  a  motley  host  of 
full  twenty  thousand  men.  On  the  afternoon 
of  the  20th  (April)  General  Artemas  Ward  as¬ 
sumed  the  chief  command  of  the  gathering  vol¬ 
unteers.  The  Provincial  Congress  labored  night 
and  day  to  provide  for  their  organization  and 
support.  The  second  Continental  Congress  con¬ 
vened  at  Philadelphia  ( May  10 ),  and  on  the 
7th  of  June,  in  a  resolution  for  a  general  fast, 
had  spoken  for  the  first  time  of  “  the  twelve 
united  colonies.”  To  make  the  bond  stronger, 
they  then,  at  the  suggestion  of  John  Adams, 
adopted  the  army  at  Cambridge  as  a  Continen¬ 
tal  army,  and  proceeded  (June  15,  1775)  to  ap¬ 
point  George  Washington  the  commander- in- 
cliief  of  it.  They  chose  for  his  assistants  Ar¬ 
temas  Ward,  Charles  Lee,  Philip  Schuyler,  and 
Israel  Putnam,  major-generals  ;  and  Seth  Pome¬ 
roy,  Richard  Montgomery,  David  Wooster,  Will¬ 
iam  Heath,  Joseph  Spencer,  John  Thomas,  John 
Sullivan,  and  Nathaniel  Greene,  brigadier-gener¬ 
als.  Horatio  Gates  was  appointed  adjutant-gen¬ 
eral.  The  pay  of  a  major-general  was  fixed  at 
$166  a  month;  of  a  brigadier-general,  $125;  of 
the  adjutant-general,  $125;  commissary-general 
of  stores  and  provisions,  $H0 ;  quartermaster- 
general,  $80  ;  deputy  quartermaster-general,  $40 ; 


paymaster  -  general,  $100  ;  deputy  paymaster- 
general,  $50 ;  chief-engineer,  $60 ;  assistant  engi¬ 
neer,  $20 ;  aide-de-camp,  $33 ;  secretary  to  the 
general,  $66;  secretary  to  a  major-general,  $33  ; 
commissary  of  musters,  $40.  Washington  re¬ 
fused  to  receive  any  pay  for  his  service,  and  re¬ 
quired  that  only  his  expenses  should  be  reim¬ 
bursed.  (See  Washington’s  Acceptance  of  the  Chief 
Command.)  The  pay  of  all  subalterns,  commis¬ 
sioned  and  warrant,  was  afterwards  determined. 

Continental  Army,  First  Organization  of 
the  (1775).  Washington  took  command  of  the 
Continental  army  at  Cambridge  in  July,  1775. 
The  general  officers  had  already  been  appointed 
by  Congress.  Washington  found  an  undisci¬ 
plined  force,  and  immediately  took  measures  to 
bring  order  out  of  confusion.  Cougress  had  pro¬ 
vided  for  one  adjutant-general,  one  quartermas¬ 
ter-general  and  a  deputy,  one  commissary-gen¬ 
eral,  one  paymaster-general  and  a  deputy,  one 
chief-engineer  and  two  assistants,  of  the  grand 
army,  and  an  engineer  and  two  assistants  for  the 
army  in  a  separate  department ;  three  aides-de- 
camp,  a  secretary  to  the  general  and  to  the  ma¬ 
jor-generals,  and  a  commissary  of  musters.  Jo¬ 
seph  Trumbull,  son  of  the  governor  of  Connecti¬ 
cut,  was  appointed  commissary-general ;  Thomas 
Midi  in,  quartermaster-general ;  and  Joseph  Reed, 
of  Philadelphia,  was  chosen  by  Washington  to 
the  important  post  of  secretary  to  the  commaud- 
er-iu-chief. 

Continental  Army,  Second  Organization 
of  the  (1778).  During  the  encampment  at  Val¬ 
ley  Forge  a  committee  of  Congress  spent  some 
time  with  Washington  in  arranging  a  plan  for 
the  reorganization  of  the  army.  By  it  each  bat¬ 
talion  of  foot,  officers  included,  was  to  consist  of 
five  hundred  and  eighty-two  men,  arranged  in 
nine  companies;  the  battalion  of  horse  and  ar¬ 
tillery  to  be  one  third  smaller.  This  would  have 
given  the  army  sixty  thousand  men  ;  but,  in  re¬ 
ality,  it  never  counted  more  than  half  that  num¬ 
ber.  General  Greene  was  appointed  quarter¬ 
master-general;  Jeremiah  Wadsworth,  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  commissary-general  ;  Colonel  Scammel, 
of  New  Hampshire,  adjutant-general ;  and  Baron 
de  Steuben,  a  Prussian  officer,  inspector-general. 
To  allay  discontents  in  the  army  because  of  the 
great  arrearages  of  the  soldiers’  pay,  auditors 
were  appointed  to  adjust  all  accounts ;  and  each 
soldier  who  should  serve  until  the  end  of  the 
war  was  promised  a  gratuity  of  $80.  The  offi¬ 
cers  were  promised  half-pay  for  seven  years  from 
the  conclusion  of  peace. 

Continental  Army,  Third  Organization  of 
the.  In  the  spring  of  1779,  on  the  report  of  a 
committee  of  Congress,  that  body  proceeded  to 
a  new  organization  of  the  army.  Four  regiments 
of  cavalry  and  artillery,  hitherto  independent 
establishments  raised  at  large,  were  now  credit¬ 
ed  towards  the  quota  of  the  states  in  which  they 
had  been  enlisted.  The  state  quotas  were  re¬ 
duced  to  eighty  battalions:  Massachusetts  to 
furnish  fifteen  ;  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  elev¬ 
en  each  ;  Connecticut  and  Maryland,  eight  each ; 
the  two  Carolinas,  six  each ;  New  York,  five ; 
New  Hampshire  and  New  Jersey,  three  each; 


CONTINENTAL  ARMY 


314 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS 


Rhode  Island,  two;  and  Delaware  and  Georgia, 
one  each.  Congress  allowed  $200  bounty  for 
each  recruit,  and  the  states  made  large  addi¬ 
tional  offers ;  but  the  real  amount  was  small,  for 
at  that  time  the  Continental  paper  money  had 
greatly  depreciated.  It  was  found  necessary  to 
replenish  the  regiments  by  drafts  from  the  mili¬ 
tia.  The  whole  force  of  the  American  army,  ex¬ 
clusive  of  a  few  troops  in  the  Southern  depart¬ 
ment,  consisted,  late  in  the  spring  of  1779,  of 
only  about  eighty-six  thousand  effective  men. 
At  that  time  the  British  had  eleven  thousand  at 
New  York  and  four  or  live  thousand  at  Newport, 
besides  a  considerable  force  in  the  South. 

Continental  Army,  Fourth  Organization 
of  the  (1780).  A  committee  of  Congress,  of 
which  General  Schuyler  was  chairman,  were 
long  in  camp,  maturing,  with  Washington,  a 
plan  for  another  reorganization  of  the  army. 
Congress  agreed  to  the  plan.  The  remains  of 
sixteen  additional  battalions  were  to  be  dis¬ 
banded,  and  the  men  distributed  to  the  state 
lines.  The  army  was  to  consist  of  fifty  regi¬ 
ments  of  foot,  including  Hazeu’s,  four  regiments 
of  artillery,  and  one  of  artificers,  with  two  par¬ 
tisan  corps  under  Annard  and  Lee.  There  were 
to  be  four  other  legionary  corps,  two  thirds  horse 
and  one  third  foot.  All  new  enlistments  were  to 
be  “  for  the  war.”  The  officers  thrown  out  by 
this  new  arrangement  were  to  be  entitled  to 
half-pay  for  life.  The  same  was  promised  to  all 
officers  who  should  serve  to  the  end  of  the  war. 
The  army,  as  so  arranged,  would  eonsist  of  thir¬ 
ty-six  thousand  men:  never  half  that  number 
were  in  the  field. 

Continental  Army,  Mutinous  Spirit  in.  At 
the  beginning  of  1781,  the  sufferings  of  the  Con¬ 
tinental  soldiers  for  want  of  food  and  clothing 
was  almost  unbearable,  and  there  were  signs  of 
a  prevailing  mutinous  spirit.  (See  Revolt  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Line.)  Washington  well  knew  their 
intense  suffering  and  equally  intense  patriotism, 
and  deeply  commisserated  their  condition.  He 
knew  they  could  be  trusted  to  the  last  moment, 
and  deprecated  the  conduct  of  those  who  suspect¬ 
ed  a  mutinous  spirit  in  the  whole  army,  and  man¬ 
ifested  their  distrust.  When  General  Heath, 
with  his  suspicions  alert,  employed  spies  to  watch 
for  and  report  mutinous  expressions,  Washington 
wrote  to  him  :  “To  seem  to  draw  into  question 
the  fidelity  and  firmness  of  the  soldiers,  or  even 
to  express  a  doubt  of  their  obedience,  may  occa¬ 
sion  such  a  relaxation  of  discipline  as  would  not 
otherwise  exist.” 

Continental  Army,  Reorganization  of  the. 
In  October,  1775,  a  committee  of  Congress  visited 
the  camp  at  Cambridge,  and,  in  consultation 
with  Washington  and  committees  of  the  New 
England  colonies,  agreed  upon  a  plan  for  the  re¬ 
organization  of  the  besieging  army.  It  was  to 
consist  of  twenty-six  regiments,  besides  riflemen 
and  artillery.  Massachusetts  was  to  furnish  six¬ 
teen  ;  Connecticut,  five  ;  New  Hampshire,  three ; 
and  Rhode  Island,  two  —  in  all  about  twenty 
thousand  men ;  the  officers  to  be  selected  out  of 
those  already  in  the  service.  It  was  easier  to 
plan  an  army  than  to  create  one. 


Continental  Army,  The,  on  July  4,  1776. 
According  to  a  return  submitted  to  Congress, 
the  Continental  army,  on  the  day  when  the  Dec¬ 
laration  of  Independence  was  adopted,  consisted 
of  seven  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty-four 
men  present  fit  for  duty,  including  one  regi¬ 
ment  of  artillery.  Their  arms  were  in  a  wretch¬ 
ed  condition.  Of  nearly  fourteen  hundred  mus¬ 
kets,  the  firelocks  were  bad;  more  than  eight 
hundred  had  none  at  all ;  and  three  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  twenty -seven — more  than 
half  the  whole  number  of  infantry — had  no  bay¬ 
onets.  Of  the  militia  who  had  been  called  for, 
only  eight  hundred  had  joined  the  camp.  With 
this  force  Washington  was  expected  to  defend 
an  extended  line  of  territory  against  an  army 
of  about  thirty  thousand  men. 


Continental  Army,  Troops  furnished  for 

THE,  BY  EACH  STATE. 


New  Hampshire. .. .  12,497 

Massachusetts .  67,907 

Rhode  Island .  5,908 

Connecticut .  31,939 

New  York .  17,781 

New  Jersey .  10,726 

Pennsylvania .  25,678 


Delaware .  2.386 

Maryland .  13,912 

Virginia .  26,678 

North  Carolina .  7,263 

South  Carolina .  6,417 

Georgia .  2,679 

Total .  231,771 


Not  one  of  this  band  of  patriots  is  now  (1883) 
living  on  the  earth.  (See  Continental  Soldiers ,  Last 
Survivors  of  the.) 


Continental  Bills  of  Exchange.  On  Oct.  3, 
1776,  the  Continental  Congress  resolved  to  bor¬ 
row  $5,000,000  for  the  use  of  the  United  States, 
at  the  annual  interest  of  four  per  cent-.,  and  di¬ 
rected  certificates  to  be  issued  accordingly  by 
the  manager  of  a  loan  office  which  was  estab¬ 
lished  at  the  same  time.  When  foreign  loans  were 
made,  drafts  or  bills  of  exchange  were  used  for  the 
payment  of  interest.  On  the  opposite  page  is  a 
fac-simile  of  one  of  these  drafts,  slightly  reduced 
in  size.  It  is  drawn  on  the  commissioner  of 
Congress,  then  in  Paris,  signed  by  Francis  Hop- 
kiuson  (a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen¬ 
dence),  the  Treasurer  of  Loans,  and  counter¬ 
signed  by  Nathaniel  Appleton,  commissioner  of 
the  Continental  Loan  Office  in  Massachusetts. 


Continental  Congress,  Appointment  of  Del¬ 
egates  to  the.  The  Assembly  of  Rhode  Island 
appointed  delegates  June  15;  the  Connecticut 
Assembly  had  authorized  such  action  on  the  3d, 
and  the  Committee  of  Correspondence  chose 
them  on  the  13th.  The  New  Hampshire  Legis¬ 
lature  had,  after  some  difficulty  with  the  govern¬ 
or,  appointed  a  Committee  of  Correspondence, 
and  that  committee  met  at  Portsmouth  to  ap¬ 
point  delegates  on  June  5,  but  being  dispersed 
by  the  governor  and  sheriff,  a  convention  at 
Exeter  appointed  them.  Similar  conventions 
were  held  in  Maryland  and  New  Jersey  (July 
21,  23,  25).  In  New  York  a  city  committee  of 
fifty-one,  in  connection  with  a  committee  of  me¬ 
chanics,  nominated  delegates.  A  poll  was  opened, 
at  which  the  mayor  and  aldermen  presided,  when 
delegates  were  chosen  (July  28),  and  were  adopt¬ 
ed  by  some  of  the  interior  districts.  The  coun¬ 
ties  of  Orange,  Kings,  and  Suffolk  sent  separate 
deputies.  Governor  Penn,  of  Pennsylvania,  re¬ 
fused  to  call  an  Assembly,  when  the  inhabitants 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS 


315 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS 


CONTI  NENTAL  DRAFT. 


of  Philadelphia  met  in  town  meeting  (July  18), 
and  appointed  a  committee  for  the  city  and 
county.  On  their  invitation  a  “Committee  of 
the  Province,”  composed  of  delegates  chosen  in 
the  several  counties,  met  at  Philadelphia  (July 
6),  and  requested  the  Assembly  (which  had  just 


been  convened  for  another 
purpose)  to  appoint  dele¬ 
gates  to  the  Congress.  It 
was  speedily  done.  The  As¬ 
sembly  of  Delaware  did  the 
same  (Aug.  1) ;  and  on  the 
same  day  the  Virginia  Con¬ 
vention  chose  delegates 
from  that  colony.  A  like 
convention  held  in  North 
Carolina  (Aug.  25)  took 
similar  action  ;  and  at  a 
public  meeting  of  men  from 
all  parts  of  South  Carolina, 
held  at  Charleston  (July  6), 
delegates  were  chosen,  and 
the  act  was  ratified  by  the 
Assembly.  The  influence  of 
Governor  Wright  prevented 
the  selection  of  delegates 
from  Georgia. 

Continental  Congress, 
End  of  the  (1789).  The  Con¬ 
gress  was  barely  kept  alive, 
for  several  mouths  before  it 
expired,  by  the  occasional' 
attendance  of  one  or  two 
members.  Among  the  last 
entries  in  its  journals  by 
Charles  Thomson,  its  per¬ 
manent  secretary,  was  one 
under  date  of  “  Tuesday, 
Oct.  21,  1788,”  as  follows : 
“  From  the  day  above  men¬ 
tioned  to  the  1st.  of  Novem¬ 
ber  there  attended  occasion¬ 
ally,  from  New  Hampshire, 
et  cetera,  many  persons  from 
different  states.  From  Nov. 
3  to  Jan.  1,  1789,  only  six 
persons  attended  altogether. 
On  that  day  Reed,  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  and  Barnwell,  of 
South  Carolina,  were  pres¬ 
ent  ;  and  after  that  only  one 
delegate  was  present  (each 
time  a  different  one)  on  nine 
different  days.”  The  very 
last  record  was :  “  Monday, 
March  2.  Mr.  Philip  Peil, 
from  New  York.”  The  his¬ 
tory  of  that  Congress  has 
no  parallel.  At  first  it  was 
a  spontaneous  gathering 
of  representative  patriots 
from  the  different  Euglish- 
Americau  colonies  to  con¬ 
sult  upon  the  public  good. 
They  boldly  snatched  the 
sceptre  of  political  rule  from 
their  oppressors,  and,  as¬ 
suming  imperial  functions, 
created  armies,  issued  bills  of  credit,  declared 
the  provinces  to  bo  independent  states,  made 
treaties  with  foreign  nations,  founded  an  em¬ 
pire,  and  compelled  their  king  to  acknowledge 
the  states  which  they  represented  to  be  inde¬ 
pendent  of  the  British  crown.  The  brilliant 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS  IN  1779  316 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS 


achievements  of  that  Congress  astonished  the 
world.  Its  career  was  as  short  as  it  was  brill¬ 
iant,  and  its  decadence  began  long  before  the 
war  for  independence  had  closed.  Its  mighty 
efforts  had  exhausted  its  strength.  It  was 
smitten  with  poverty,  and  made  almost  pow¬ 
erless  by  a  loss  of  its  credit.  Overwhelmed  with 
debt ;  a  pensioner  on  the  bounty  of  France ; 
unable  to  fulfil  treaties  it  had  made ;  insulted 
by  mutineers;  bearded,  eucroached  upon,  and 
scorned  by  the  state  authorities,  the  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress  sunk  fast  into  decrepitude  and  con¬ 
tempt.  With  ungrateful  pride,  the  recipients  of 
its  benefits  seem  not  to  have  felt  a  pang  of  sor¬ 
row  or  uttered  a  w’ord  of  regret  when  the  once 
mighty  aud  beneficent  Continental  Congress  ex¬ 
pired. 

Continental  Congress  in  1779.  The  moral 
as  well  as  the  numerical  strength  of  the  Con¬ 
gress  was  at  a  low  mark  in  1779,  and  the  gen¬ 
eral  distrust  of  its  ability  to  meet  its  engage¬ 
ments  caused  a  very  rapid  depreciation  of  its 
paper-money.  Many  of  the  ablest  members  had 
left  that  body,  and  were  devoting  their  energies 
to  the  affairs  of  their  respective  states.  The 
number  in  attendance  seldom  amounted  to  thir¬ 
ty,  and  was  often  less  than  twenty-five.  The 
commander-in-chief  passed  five  weeks  at  Phila¬ 
delphia  in  the  winter  of  1778-79  in  consultation 
with  the  members  of  Congress.  They  were  weeks 
of  anxiety  for  him.  His  letters  at  that  period 
evince  his  serious  alarm  at  the  state  of  affairs. 
In  a  letter  to  Colonel  Harrison  (Dec.  30, 1778) 
he  implored  him  to  endeavor  to  rescue  his  coun¬ 
try  by  sending  the  best  aud  ablest  men  to  Con¬ 
gress.  He  depicted  the  sad  falling  off  m  morals 
of  men  in  high  places  and  in  general  society. 
“  This  is  not  an  exaggerated  account,”  he  said. 
“  That  it  is  an  alarming  one,  I  do  not  deny ;  and 
I  confess  to  you  that  I  feel  more  real  distress  on 
account  of  the  present  appearance  of  things  than 
I  have  done  at  any  one  time  since  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  dispute.  .  .  .  Providence  has  here¬ 
tofore  taken  us  up,  when  all  other  means  and 
hope  seemed  to  be  departing  from  us.  In  this  I 
will  confide.” 

Continental  Congress,  Presidents  of  the. 


Name.  |  Where  from. 

When  Elected. 

Peyton  Randolph . 

Henry  Middleton . 

Peyton  Randolph . 

John  Hancock . 

Henry  Laurens . 

John  Jay . 

Virginia  . 

South  Carolina.... 

Virginia  . 

Massachusetts . 

South  Carolina. . . . 
New  York . 

Sept.  5,  1771. 
Oct.  2,  1774. 
May  10, 1775. 
May  24,  1775. 
Nov.  1,  1777. 
Dec.  10, 1778. 
Sept.  28,  1779. 
July  10, 1781. 
Nov.  5, 1781. 
Nov.  4, 1782. 
Nov.  3,  1783. 
Nov.  30,  1784. 
June  6, 1786. 
Feb.  2, 1787. 
Jan.  22, 1788. 

Samuel  Huntington.... 

Thomas  McKean . 

John  Hanson . 

Elias  Boudinot . 

Thomas  Mifflin . 

Richard  Henry  Lee... 

Nathan  Gorham . 

Arthur  St.Clair . 

Cyrus  Griffln . 

Connecticut . 

Delaware . 

Maryland . 

New  Jersey . 

Pennsylvania . 

Virginia  . 

Massachusetts . 

Pennsylvania . 

Virginia . 

Continental  Congress,  Proposition  for  a. 
The  Boston  Port  Bill  (which  see)  aroused  and 
united  the  colonies,  and  there  seemed  to  be  an 
almost  universal  desire  for  a  general  Congress 
to  consult  upon  public  affairs.  Measures  were 
taken  in  that  direction  as  follow's  :  At  a  town 
meeting  at  Providence,  May  17, 1774 ;  a  commit¬ 


tee  of  a  town  meeting  at  Philadelphia,  May  21 ; 
a  town  meeting  in  New  York  city,  May  23 ;  the 
House  of  Burgesses  of  Virginia,  May  27  ;  a  coun¬ 
ty  meeting  in  Baltimore  County,  Md.,  May  31 ;  a 
town  meeting  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  June  6 ;  a  coun¬ 
ty  meeting  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  June  11;  the  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  Assembly  and  a  town  meeting  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  June  17 ;  a  county  meeting  at  New  Castle, 
Del.,  June  29 ;  the  Committee  of  Correspondence 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  J uly  6 ;  a  general  provincial 
meeting  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  July  6,  7,  and  8;  a 
district  meeting  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  July  21. 
Within  the  space  of  sixty-four  days  twelve  of 
the  thirteen  colonies  spoke  out  in  favor  of  a  gen¬ 
eral  Congress,  Georgia  alone  remaining  silent. 
The  resolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Assembly 
declared  that  “  a  meeting  of  committees  from 
the  several  colonies  on  the  continent  is  highly 
expedient  and  necessary  to  consult  upon  the 
present  state  of  the  country,  aud  the  miseries  to 
which  we  are  and  must  be  reduced  by  the  oper¬ 
ation  of  certain  acts  of  Parliament ;  and  to  de¬ 
liberate  and  determine  on  wise  and  proper  meas¬ 
ures  to  be  recommended  to  all  the  other  colonies 
for  the  recovery  and  re-establishment  of  our  just 
rights  and  liberties,  civil  aud  religious,  and  the 
restoration  of  union  and  harmony  between  Great 
Britain  and  America,  which  is  most  ardently  de¬ 
sired  by  all  good  men.”  The  committee  of  New 
York  having  requested  the  patriots  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts  to  name  a  day  aud  place  for  the  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  Congress,  the  1st  of  September  was 
appointed  the  time  and  Philadelphia  the  place 
designated. 

Continental  Congress  ( 1777 ),  Flight  of 
the.  After  the  battle  of  the  Brandywine  ( which 
see),  the  necessity  for  abandoning  Philadelphia 
was  perceived.  The  Congress,  which  had  re¬ 
turned  to  Philadelphia  at  the  beginning  of 
March  (1777),  from  their  exile  in  Baltimore,  now 
resolved  (Sept.  14)  to  adjourn  to  Lancaster.  Af¬ 
ter  the  ordinary  adjournment  on  Thursday,  Sept. 
18,  the  president  received  a  letter  from  Colonel 
Hamilton,  of  Washington’s  staff,  which  intimat¬ 
ed  the  necessity  of  removing  the  Congress  im¬ 
mediately  from  Philadelphia.  The  members  left 
at  once,  and  reassembled  at  Lancaster.  The  pub¬ 
lic  papers  had  already  been  removed  to  Lancas¬ 
ter  under  the  charge  of  Abraham  Clark,  one  of 
the  members,  in  wagous  guarded  by  troops.  Re¬ 
garding  Lancaster  as  too  much  exposed,  the 
Congress  adjourned  to  York,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Susquehanna  River,  on  the  27tli,  where 
they  met  on  Tuesday,  Sept.  30,  and  continued 
the  sessions  there  until  after  Philadelphia  was 
evacuated  by  the  British,  June  18,  1778. 

Continental  Congress,  Sessions  of  the, 
were  commenced  at  the  following  times  and 
places  :  Sept.  5,  1774,  Philadelphia  ;  May  10, 
1775,  ditto;  Dec.  20,  1776,  Baltimore;  March  4, 
1777,  Philadelphia;  Sept,  27,  1777,  Lancaster, 
Penn. ;  Sept.  30, 1777,  York,  Penn. ;  July  2, 1778, 
Philadelphia;  June  30,  1783,  Princeton,  N.  J. ; 
Nov.  26, 1783,  Annapolis,  Md. ;  Nov.  1, 1784,  Tren¬ 
ton,  N.  J. ;  Jan.  11,  1785,  New  York.  This  con¬ 
tinued  to  be  the  place  of  meeting  from  that 
time  until  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS  317 

the  United  States  in  1788.  From  1781  to  1788 
Congress  met  annually  on  the  first  Monday  in 
November,  which  time  was  fixed  by  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  (which  see). 

Continental  Congress,  Settlement  of  the 
Accounts  of  the.  The  extent  and  intensity 
of  the  struggle  of  the  Continental  Congress  dur¬ 
ing  the  fifteen  years  of  its  existence  to  maintain 
its  financial  credit  and  carry  on  the  war  may 
never  be  known.  Enough  is  known  to  prove 
that  it  involved  great  personal  sacrifices,  much 
financial  ability,  unwearied  patriotism,  and 
abounding  faith  in  the  cause  and  its  ultimate 
triumph.  As  that  Congress  approached  its  de¬ 
mise,  it  addressed  itself  to  a  final  settlement  of 
its  fiscal  accounts.  Since  the  adoption  of  the 
peace  establishment,  commencing  with  1784,  the 
liabilities  incurred  by  the  general  government, 
including  two  instalments  of  the  French  debt, 
amounted  to  a  little  more  than  $6,000,000,  over 
one  half  of  which  had  been  met.  Only  $1,800,000 
of  the  balance  had  been  paid  in  by  the  states; 
the  remainder  had  been  obtained  by  three  Dutch 
loans,  amounting  in  the  whole  to  $1,600,000,  a 
fragment  of  which  remained  unexpended.  The 
arrearage  of  nearly  $8,000,000  consisted  of  inter¬ 
est  on  the  French  debt,  and  two  instalments  of 
over-dues.  This  indebtedness  was  passed  over 
to  the  new  government.  The  accounts  of  the 
quartermaster,  commissary,  clothing,  marine,  and 
hospital  departments  were  either  settled  or  about 
to  be  settled.  The  accounts  of  many  of  the  loan 
offices  were  unsettled.  There  seems  to  have  been 
much  laxity  in  their  management.  The  papers 
of  the  first  Virginia  loan  office  were  lost.  In 
South  Carolina  aud  Georgia,  the  loan  office  pro¬ 
ceeds  had  been  appropriated  to  state  uses,  and 
from  only  five  states  had  returns  been  made. 
Out  of  more  than  $2,000,000  advanced  to  the  Se¬ 
cret  Committee  for  Foreign  Affairs  (which  see), 
prior  to  August,  1777,  a  considerable  part  re¬ 
mained  unaccounted  for.  The  expenditure  of 
full  one  third  of  the  money  borrowed  abroad  re¬ 
mained  unexplained. 

Continental  Congress,  The,  before  the 
Confederation,  was  a  fluctuating  body,  it  be¬ 
ing  a  rare  occurrence,  after  the  first  three  or 
four  years,  that  all  the  states  were  simultane¬ 
ously  represented.  The  number  of  members 
present  did  not  generally  exceed  thirty,  and 
these  had  to  do  a  vast  amount  of  business,  much 
of  it  of  an  executive  character,  performed  by 
committees.  Unlike  the  Congress  of  our  day, 
the  time  of  the  Congress  was  not  wasted  by  long 
speeches,  and  the  debates  generally  took  the 
form  of  animated  conversations.  The  members 
were  paid  by  the  states  they  represented.  The 
president  of  the  Congress  was  provided  with  a 
house  at  the  public  charge;  so  also  were  the 
expenses  of  his  household  paid.  He  was  regard¬ 
ed  as  the  representative  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Union,  and  on  that  idea  the  ceremonial  of 
his  household  was  regulated.  From  the  first 
Continental  Congress  (1774)  until  the  ratifica¬ 
tion  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation  (March  1, 
1781)  the  presidential  chair  had  been  filled  by 
Peyton  Randolph,  John  Hancock,  Henry  Lau¬ 
rens,  and  Samuel  Huntington. 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS,  FIRST 

Continental  Congress,  The  First,  assembled 
in  Carpenters’  Hall,  Philadelphia,  on  the  5th  of 
September,  1774,  when  eleven  of  the  English- 
American  colouies  were  represented  by  forty- 
four  delegates — namely,  two  from  New  Hamp¬ 
shire,  four  from  Massachusetts,  two  from  Rhode 
Island,  three  from  Connecticut,  five  from  New 
York,  five  from  New  Jersey,  six  from  Pennsylva- 


CARPENTERS’  HALL. 


ma,  three  from  Delaware,  three  from  Maryland, 
six  from  Virginia,  and  five  from  South  Carolina. 
Three  deputies  from  North  Carolina  appeared  on 
the  14th.  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Congress,  and  Charles 
Thomson,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  appointed  sec¬ 
retary.  Other  delegates  appeared  afterwards, 
making  the  whole  number  fifty-four.  Each  col¬ 
ony  had  appointed  representatives  without  any 
rule  as  to  number,  and  the  grave  question  at 
once  presented  itself,  How  shall  we  vote  ?  It 
was  decided  to  vote  by  colonies,  each  colony  to 
have  one  vote,  for  as  yet  there  were  no  means 
for  determining  the  relative  population  of  each 
colony.  Patrick  Henry,  in  a  speech  at  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  business  of  the  Congress,  struck  the 
key-note  of  union  by  saying,  “  British  oppression 
has  effaced  the  boundaries  of  the  several  colo¬ 
nies  ;  the  distinction  between  Virginians,  Penn¬ 
sylvanians,  and  New-Englanders  is  no  more.  / 
am  not  a  Virginian,  but  an  American.”  This  was 
the  text  of  every  speech  afterwards.  It  was 
voted  that  the  session  of  the  Congress  should 
be  opened  every  morning  with  prayer,  and  the 
Rev.  Jacob  Duclffi,  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  was  employed  as  chaplain.  There  was 
much  difference  of  opinion  concerning  the  duties 
and  powers  of  the  Congress,  Henry  contending 
that  an  entirely  new  government  must  be  found¬ 
ed  ;  Jay,  that  they  had  not  assembled  to  form  a 
new  government,  but  as  a  continental  commit¬ 
tee  of  conference,  to  try  to  correct  abuses  in  the 
old.  The  members  were  unanimous  in  their  re¬ 
solves  to  support  Massachusetts  in  resistance 
to  the  unconstitutional  change  in  her  charter. 
They  appointed  a  committee  to  state  the  rights 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS,  FIRST 

of  the  colonists  in  general,  the  several  instances 
in  which  those  rights  had  been  violated  or  in¬ 
fringed,  and  to  suggest  means  for  their  restora¬ 
tion.  Other  committees  for  various  duties  were 
appointed,  and  at  about  the  middle  of  Septem¬ 
ber  the  Congress  was  a  theatre  of  warm  debates, 
which  took  a  wide  range.  On  the  20fch  of  Sep¬ 
tember  they  adopted  a  request  for  the  colonies  to 
abstain  from  commercial  intercourse  with  Great 
Britain.  (See  American  Association .)  They  tried 
to  avoid  the  appearance  of  revolution  while  mak¬ 
ing  bold  propositions.  Some  were  radical,  some 
conservative,  and  some  very  timid.  The  tyranny 
of  Gage  in  Boston  produced  much  irritation  in  the 
Congress;  and  on  the  8th  of  October,  after  a  short 
but  spicy  debate,  it  passed  the  most  important  res¬ 
olution  of  the  session,  in  response  to  the  Suffolk 
resolutions  (which  see),  as  follows:  “That  this 


Congress  approve  the  opposition  of  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  Massachusetts  Bay  to  the  execution  of 
the  late  acts  of  Parliament ;  and  if  the  same  shall 
be  attempted  to  be  carried  into  execution  by 
force,  in  such  case  all  Americans  ought  to  sup¬ 
port  them  in  their  opposition.”  Thus  the  united 
colonies  cast  down  the  gauntlet  of  defiance.  On 
the  14th  the  Congress  adopted  a  Declaration  of 
Colonial  Bights.  This  was  followed  on  the  20th 
by  the  adoption  of  The  American  Association,  or 
general  non-importation  league.  An  Address  to 
the  People  of  Great  Britain,  written  by  Johu  Jay, 
and  a  memorial  To  the  Inhabitants  of  the  Several 
British- American  Colonies,  from  the  pen  of  Rich¬ 
ard  Henry  Lee,  were  adopted  on  the  21st.  On 
the  26th — the  last  day  of  the  session — a  Petition 
to  the  King  and  an  Address  to  the  Iiihabitants  of  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  or  Canada,  both  drawn  by 
John  Dickinson,  were  agreed  to.  A.  vote  of 
thanks  to  the  friends  of  the  colonists  in  Parlia¬ 
ment  was  sent  to  the  colonial  agents,  with  the 
petition  to  the  king.  Having  already  recom¬ 
mended  the  holding  of  another  Continental  Con¬ 
gress  at  Philadelphia  on  the  10th  of  May,  1775, 
this  Congress  adjourned  in  the  afternoon  of  Oct. 
26, 1774;  and  the  next  day  the  members  started 
for  home,  impressed  with  the  belief  that  war 
was  inevitable.  The  actual  sessions  of  the  Con¬ 
gress  occupied  only  thirty-one  days.  Their  pro¬ 
ceedings  produced  a  profound  sensation  in  both 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS,  SECOND 

hemispheres.  The  state  papers  they  put  forth 
commanded  the  admiration  of  the  leading  states¬ 
men  of  Europe.  The  king  and  his  ministers  were 
highly  offended  ;  and  early  in  January  Lord 
Dartmouth  issued  a  circular  letter  to  all  the 
royal  governors  in  America  signifying  his  maj¬ 
esty’s  pleasure  that  they  should  prevent  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  deputies  to  another  Continental 
Congress  within  their  respective  governments, 
and  exhort,  all  persons  to  desist  from  such  pro¬ 
ceedings.  Tbe  members  of  the  first  Continental 
Congress  were  cautious  concerning  the  assump¬ 
tion  of  direct  political  authority.  They  had  met 
as  a  Continental  committee  of  conference.  Even 
the  American  Association  (which  see),  the  near¬ 
est  approach  to  it,  was  opposed  by  Galloway  of 
Pennsylvania,  Duane  of  New  York,  and  all  the 
South  Carolina  delegation  but  two. 

Continental  Con¬ 
gress,  The  Second,  met 
in  Philadelphia  May  10, 
1775.  Peyton  Randolph 
was  chosen  president  ; 
Charles  Thomson,  secre¬ 
tary ;  Audrew  McNeare, 
door-keeper,  and  Will¬ 
iam  Shed,  messenger.  To 
this  Congress  all  eyes 
were  anxiously  turned. 
Randolph  was  soon  call¬ 
ed  to  Virginia  to  attend 
a  session  of  the  Assem¬ 
bly  as  speaker,  when  his 
seat  was  temporarily 
filled  by  Thomas  Jeffer¬ 
son,  and  his  place  as 
president  by  John  Han¬ 
cock.  On  the  25th  of 
May  Georgia  was  represented  in  the  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress  for  the  first  time,  Lyman  Hall  hav¬ 
ing  been  elected  special  representative  from  the 
parish  of  St.  Johns  and  admitted  to  a  seat,  but 
without  a  vote.  In  Committee  of  the  Whole  the 
Congress  considered  the  state  of  the  colonies. 
A  full  account  of  recent  events  in  Massachu¬ 
setts  was  laid  before  them;  also  a  letter  from 
the  Congress  of  that  province,  asking  advice  as 
to  the  form  of  government  to  be  adopted  there, 
and  requesting  the  Continental  Congress  to  as¬ 
sume  control  of  the  army  at  Cambridge.  (See 
Continental  Army,  Formation  of  the.)  This  second 
Congress  was  regarded  by  the  colonists  as  no 
longer  a  committee  of  conference,  but  a  provi¬ 
sional  government.  The  first  Congress  claimed 
no  political  power,  though  their  signatures  to 
the  American  Association  implied  as  much.  The 
present  Congress,  strengthened  by  the  public 
voice  of  the  colonists,  entered  at  once  upon  the 
exercise  of  comprehensive  authority,  in  which 
the  functions  of  supreme  executive,  legislative, 
and  sometimes  judicial  powers  were  united. 
These  powers  had  no  fixed  limits  of  action  nor 
formal  sanction,  except  the  ready  obedience  of  a 
large  majority  in  all  the  colonies.  The  Commit¬ 
tee  of  the  Whole  reported  and  the  Congress  re¬ 
solved  (May  26)  that  war  had  been  commenced 
by  Great  Britain.  The  case  had  been  formulated 
in  Massachusetts  in  an  epigram,  as  follows : 


313 


BOOM  IN  WHICH  CONGRESS  MET  IN  CARPENTERS’  HALL. 


CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS,  SECOND  319 


CONTINENTAL  LOTTERY 


“  THE  QUARKEL  WITH  AMERICA  FAIRLY  STATED. 

Rudely  forced  to  drink  tea,  Massachusetts  in  anger 
Spills  the  tea  oh  John  Bull— John  falls  on  to  bang  her; 
Massachusetts,  enraged,  calls  her  neighbors  to  aid, 

And  gives  Master  John  a  severe  bastinade. 

Now,  good  men  of  the  law,  pray  who  is  in  fault, 

The  one  who  began  or  resents  the  assault?” 

The  Cougress  denied  any  intention  of  casting 
off  their  allegiance,  and  expressed  an  anxious  de¬ 
sire  for  peace ;  at  the  same  time  voted  that  the 
colonies  ought  to  be  put  in  a  position  of  defence 
against  any  attempt  to  force  them  to  submit  to 
Parliamentary  schemes  of  taxation.  Another  pe¬ 
tition  to  the  king  was  adopted ;  and  it  was  re¬ 
solved  that  no  provisions  ought  to  be  furnished 
by  the  colonists  to  the  British  army  or  navy ; 
that  no  bills  of  exchange  drawn  by  British  offi¬ 
cers  ought  to  be  negotiated,  and  that  no  colo¬ 
nial  ships  ought  to  be  employed  in  the  transpor¬ 
tation  of  British  troops.  Committees  were  ap¬ 
pointed  to  prepare  an  address  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  also  to  the  Assem¬ 
bly  of  Jamaica,  and  an  appeal  to  the  “  op¬ 
pressed  inhabitants  of  Canada.”  They  also  is¬ 
sued  a  proclamation  (June  9)  for  a  day  (July 
20)  of  general  solemn  fasting  and  prayer.  They 
resolved  that  no  obedience  was  due  to  the  late 
act  of  Parliament  for  subverting  the  charter  of 
Massachusetts,  and  advised  the  Congress  of  that 
province  to  organize  a  government  in  as  near 
conformity  to  the  charter  as  circumstances  would 
admit.  The  Congress  adopted  the  army  at  Cam¬ 
bridge  as  a  Continental  one  ;  appointed  a  com- 
mander-in-chief  (June  15),  with  four  major-gen¬ 
erals  and  eight  brigadiers;  arranged  the  rank 
and  pay  of  officers,  and  perfected  a  preliminary 
organization  of  the  army.  They  worked  indus¬ 
triously  in  perfecting  a  national  civil  organiza¬ 
tion  and  for  support  of  the  military  force,  au¬ 
thorizing  the  issue  of  bills  of  credit  to  the 
amount  of  $2,000,000,  at  the  same  time  taking 
pains  not  to  give  mortal  offence  to  the  British 
government.  But  the  inefficiency  of  the  execu¬ 
tive  powers  of  Congress  was  continually  ap¬ 
parent.  The  sagacious  Franklin,  seeing  the  fu- 


Albany  twenty-one  years  before.  (See  Albany, 
Fourth  Colonial  Convention  at.)  It  was  a  virtual 
declaration  of  independence,  but  it  was  not  act¬ 
ed  upon  at  that  time.  (See  Articles  of  Confeder¬ 
ation.)  The  Congress  also  established  a  postal 
system  (July  26, 1775)  and  appointed  Dr.  Frank¬ 
lin  postmaster-general.  It  also  established  a 
general  hospital,  with  Dr.  Benjamin  Church  as 
chief  director.  The  army  before  Boston  and  an 
expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Canada  engaged 
much  of  the  attention  of  the  Congress  for  the 
rest  of  the  year. 

Continental  Congress,  Weakness  of  the, 
at  first.  The  first  Continental  Cougress  that 
met  in  Philadelphia  in  September,  1774,  was 
only  a  Committee  of  Conference  from  twelve  col¬ 
onies,  and  not  invested  with  any  legislative  or 
executive  authority.  So  with  the  second  Con¬ 
gress  that  assembled  in  the  same  city  in  May, 
1775.  It  had  no  civil  or  military  power  to  legal¬ 
ly  execute  its  commands,  nor  the  power  to  ap¬ 
point  one.  “Nor  was  one  soldier  enlisted,” 
says  Bancroft,  “  nor  one  officer  commissioned  in 
its  name.  They  had  no  treasury ;  and  neither  au¬ 
thority  to  levy  a  tax  or  borrow  money.  Their 
members  had  been  elected,  in  part  at  least,  by 
tumultuary  assemblies  or  bodies  which  had  no 
recognized  legal  existence;  they  were  intrust¬ 
ed  with  no  powers  but  those  of  counsel;  most 
of  them  were  held  back  by  explicit  or  implied  in¬ 
structions  ;  and  they  represented  nothing  more 
solid  than  the  unformed  opinion  of  an  unform¬ 
ed  people.  Yet  they  were  encountered  by  the 
king’s  refusal  to  act  as  a  mediator,  the  decision 
of  Parliament  to  enforce  its  authority,  and  the 
actual  outbreak  of  civil  war.  The  waters  had 
risen,  the  old  roads  were  obliterated,  and  they 
must  strike  out  a  new  path  for  themselves  and 
for  the  continent.  The  exigency  demanded  the 
instant  formation  of  one  great  commonwealth 
and  the  declaration  of  independence.  ‘They 
are  in  rebellion,’  said  Edmund  Burke,  ‘  and  have 
done  so  much  as  to  necessitate  them  to  do  a 
great  deal  more.’  ” 


.e 

CLASS  the 


HIS  TICKET  entitles  the  Bearer  to  receive  % 
^  T  |  fuch  Prize  as  maybe  drawn  againft  its  Num-  S 
ber,  according  to  a  Rejolution  of  CONGRESS, 
paffed  at  Philadelphia,  November  18, 


N. 


cXc 


LOTTERY  TICKET. 


tility  of  attempting  to  carry  on  the  inevitable 
war  with  such  a  feeble  instrument,  submitted  a 
basis  of  a  form  of  confederation,  similar  in  some 
respects  to  the  one  he  proposed  in  convention  at 


Continental  Lottery,  The.  On  Nov.  1, 1776, 
the  Congress  by  resolution  authorized  the  rais¬ 
ing  of  a  sum  of  money  by  lottery  for  “  defraying 
the  expenses  of  the  next  campaign.”  A  com- 


CONTINENTAL  NAVY 


320 


CONTINENTAL  PAPER-MONEY 


mittee  appointed  to  arrange  apian  for  the  same 
reported  a  scheme  on  the  18th,  which  con¬ 
templated  the  issue  of  one  hundred  thousand 
tickets,  each  divided  into  four  billets,  and  to  be 
drawn  in  four  classes.  The  total  sum  to  be 
raised  was  $5,000,000,  in  the  form  of  a  loan  at 
four  per  cent.  The  drawer  of  more  than  a  mini¬ 
mum  prize  in  each  class — $20  in  the  first,  $30 
in  the  second,  $40  in  the  third,  and  $50  in  the 
fourth — was  to  receive  either  a  treasury  note, 
payable  in  five  years,  or  the  pre-emption  of 
such  billets  in  the  next  succeeding  class.  Seven 
managers  were  appointed,  who  were  authorized 
to  employ  agents  in  the  several  states  to  sell 
the  tickets.  The  first  drawing  was  appointed 
March  1,  1777,  but  purchasers  of  tickets  had 
been  so  few  that  it  was  postponed  from  time  to 
time.  Various  impediments  appeared,  and  the 
plan  that  promised  so  much  proved  a  failure. 
Many  purchasers  of  tickets  were  losers;  and 
this,  like  other  financial  schemes  of  that  period, 
was  productive  of  much  hard  feeling  towards 
the  Congress. 

Continental  Navy,  The,  at  the  Close  of 
the  Revolution.  The  navy  was  almost  an¬ 
nihilated  at  the  close  of  the  war.  Of  the  thir¬ 
teen  frigates  ordered  to  be  built  by  Congress  in 
1775,  two  had  been  destroyed  on  the  Hudson 
River  and  three  on  the  Delaware,  without  get¬ 
ting  to  sea.  The  remaining  eight,  together  with 
most  of  the  purchased  vessels,  had  been  capt¬ 
ured  by  the  British,  some  at  Charleston,  some 
at  Penobscot,  and  others  on  the  high  seas.  The 
only  American  ship  of  the  line  ordered  by  Con¬ 
gress  and  finished  (the  Alliance )  was  presented 
in  1782  to  the  King  of  France,  to  supply  the  place 
of  a  similar  vessel  lost  in  Boston  harbor  by  an 
accident.  (See  Navy  of  the  United  States.) 


The  second  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia  May 
10,  1775,  and  on  that  day,  in  secret  session,  the 
measure  was  agreed  upon,  but  the  resolution 
was  not  formed  and  adopted  until  June  22,  the 
day  on  which  news  of  the  battle  on  Breed’s  Hill 
was  received  by  the  Congress.  Then  it  was  re¬ 
solved  “  that  a  sum  not  exceeding  two  millions 
of  Spanish  milled  dollars  be  emitted  by  the  Con¬ 
gress  in  bills  of  credit  for  the  defence  of  Ameri¬ 
ca,”  and  that  “  the  twelve  confederated  colonies 
[Georgia  was  not  then  represented]  be  pledged 
for  the  redemption  of  the  bills  of  credit  now  di¬ 
rected  to  be  emitted.”  Each  colony  was  re¬ 
quired  to  pay  its  proportion,  in  four  annual  pay¬ 
ments,  the  first  by  the  last  of  November,  1779, 
and  the  fourth  by  the  last  of  November,  1782. 
A  committee  appointed  for  the  occasion  report- 
,  ed  the  following  day  the  annexed  resolution  : 

“  Resolved,  That  the  number  and  denomina¬ 
tions  of  the  bills  be  as  follows  : 


49,000  bills  of  8  dollars  each . $392,000 

49,000  bills  of  7  dollars  each .  343,000 

49,000  bills  of  6  dollars  each .  294,000 

49,000  bills  of  5  dollars  each .  245,000 

49.000  bills  of  4  dollars  each .  196,000 

49,000  bills  of  3  dollars  each .  147,000 

49,000  bills  of  2  dollars  each .  98,000 

49,000  bills  of  1  dollar  each .  49,000 

11,800  bills  of  20  dollars  each .  236,000 

Total,  403,800  j;-/,  ooo,  000 

“  Resolved,  That  the  form  of  the  bill  be  as  fol¬ 
lows  : 

CONTINENTAL  CURRENCY. 

„Vo _  _ Dollars. 

This  Bill  entitles  the  Bearer  to  receive _ Spanish  mill¬ 


ed  Dollars,  or  the  value  thereof  in  Gold  or  Silver,  according  to 
the  resolutions  of  the  CONGRESS,  held  at  Philadelphia  the 
10 th  o/May,  A.D.  1775.  ” 

A  committee  was  appointed  to  procure  the 
j  plates  and  superintend  the  printing  of  the  bills. 


FAC-SIMILE  OF  THE  CONTINENTAL  BILLS. 


Continental  Paper-money.  The  issue  of 
paper-money  or  bills  of  credit,  not  only  by  the 
several  colonies, hut  by  the  Continental  Congress, 
became  a  necessity  when  the  war  began  in  1775. 


The  plates  were  engraved  by  Paul  Revere,  of 
Boston.  The  paper  was  so  thick  that  the  Brit¬ 
ish  called  it  “  the  pasteboard  currency  of  the 
rebels.”  The  size  of  the  bills  averaged  about 


CONTINENTAL  PAPER-MONEY 


321 


CONTINENTAL  SOLDIERS 


three  and  a  half  by  two  and  three  quarter 
inches,  having  a  border  composed  partly  of  rep¬ 
etitions  of  the  words  “  Continental  Curren- 
cl”  On  the  face  of  each  bill  was  a  device  (a 
separate  one  for  each  denomination)  significant 
in  design  and  legend ;  for  example,  within  a 
circle  a  design  representing  a  hand  planting  a 
tree,  and  the  legend  “  Posteritate  ” — for  pos¬ 
terity.  The  lesson  to  be  conveyed  was,  that 
the  struggle  in  which  the  colonists  were  en¬ 
gaged,  in  the  planting  of  a  new  and  free  nation, 
would  be  for  the  benefit  of  posterity.  Twenty- 
eight  gentlemen  were  appointed  to  sign  these 


bills.  New  issues  were  made  at  various  times 
until  the  close  of  1779,  when  the  aggregate 
amount  was  $242,000,000.  Then  the  bills  had 
so  much  depreciated  that  $100  in  specie  would 
purchase  $2600  in  paper  currency.  (See  Depre¬ 
ciation  of  Continental  Paper-money. )  Laws,  penal¬ 
ties,  entreaties,  could  not  sustain  its  credit.  If 
had  performed  a  great  work  in  enabling  the 
colonists,  without  taxes  the  first  three  years  of 
the  war,  to  fight  and  baffle  one  of  the  most  pow¬ 
erful  nations  of  Europe.  And  the  total  loss  to 
the  people,  by  depreciation  and  failure  of  re¬ 
demption,  of  $200,000,000,  operated  as  a  tax,  for 
that  depreciation  was  gradual.  Continental 
bills  of  credit  are  now  very  rare  —  only  in  the  . 
collections  of  antiquaries.  Counterfeits  of  the 
bills  were  sent  out  of  New  York  by  the  British 
by  the  cartload,  and  put  into  circulation.  The 
following  appeared  in  Rivington’s  Gazette: 

“  Advertisement.—  Persons  going  into  other  colonies  may 
bo  supplied  with  any  number  of  counterfeit  Congress  notes 
for  the  price  of  the  paper  per  ream.  They  are  so  neatly  and  | 
exactly  executed  that  there  is  no  risk  in  getting  them  oil',  it 
being  almost  impossible  to  discover  that  they  are  not  gen¬ 
uine.  This  has  been  proven  by  hills  to  a  very  large  amount 
which  have  already  been  successfully  circulated.  Inquire  of 
Q.  E.  D. ,  at  the  Coffee-house,  from  11  A. M.  to  1  P. M.,  during 
the  present  month.” 

Continental  Paper-money,  Efforts  to  Sus¬ 
tain  the.  Early  in  January,  1777,  the  begin- 
I.— 21 


ning  of  the  depreciation  of  the  Continental  bills 
of  credit  caused  a  convention  of  the  representa¬ 
tives  of  the  New  England  States,  held  at  Provi¬ 
dence,  R.  I.,  to  consult  about  the  defence  of 
that  state,  then  invaded.  They  agreed  upon  a 
scheme  for  regulating  by  law  the  prices  of  la¬ 
bor,  produce,  manufactured  articles,  and  im¬ 
ported  goods.  It  was  strenuously  opposed  by 
the  merchants,  but  it  was  presently  enacted 
into  a  law  by  the  New  England  States.  The 
Congress  resolved  that  these  bills  “ought  to 
pass  current  in  all  payments,  trade,  and  deal¬ 
ings,  and  be  deemed  eqnal  in  value  to  the  same 
nominal  sum  in  Spanish 
dollars.”  It  was  resolved 
t  hat  all  persons  refusing  to 
take  them  ought  to  be 
considered  “  enemies  of  t  he 
United  States,”  on  whom 
“  forfeitures  and  other 
penalties”  ought  to  be  in¬ 
dicted  by  the  local  authori¬ 
ties.  The  states  were  called 
upon  to  make  the  bills  a 
legal  tender,  and  t  hey  were 
advised  to  avoid  the  fur¬ 
ther  issue  of  local  bills  of 
credit.  The  Congress  ap¬ 
proved  (Feb.  15,  1777)  the 
action  of  the  New  England 
convention  concerning  the 
regulation  of  prices,  and 
soon  afterwards  a  conven¬ 
tion  for  the  Middle  States, 
in  which  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Maryland,  and  Vir¬ 
ginia  were  represented, 
met  at  York,  Penn.,  and 
agreed  upon  a  scale  of  prices.  This  impracti¬ 
cable  scheme  was  soon  abandoned. 

Continental  Soldiers,  Last  Survivors  of 
the.  Lemuel  Cook,  of  New  York,  and  William 
Hutchings,  of  Maine,  who  both  died  iu  May, 


LEMUEL  COOK. 


1866,  were  the  last  survivors  of  the  Continental 
soldiers.  Lemuel  Cook  was  born  at,  Plymouth, 
Litclffleld  Co.,  Conn.,  in  1764;  died  at  Clar 


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COUNTERFEIT  CONTINENTAL  BILL. 


CONTINENTAL  TREASURERS 


322 


eudon,  Orleans  Co.,  N.  Y.,  May  20,  1866,  at  tbe 
age  of  one  hundred  and  two  years.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  military  service  of  his  country  in  the 
spring  of  1781,  and  was  with  the  allied  armies 
in  the  campaign  against  Cornwallis  in  Virginia, 
lie  was  then  about  seventeen  years  of  age,  and 
was  one  of  the  regulars.  He  enlisted  in  the 
Second  Light  Dragoons,  Colonel  Sheldon,  but 
was  mustered  into  Captain  Staunton’s  company 
of  infantry,  and  continued  in  that  company  until 
June,  1783.  At  the  termination  of  tbe  war  that 
year  he  was  discharged,  at  Danbury,  Conn., 
which  discharge,  signed  by  Washington,  he  re¬ 
tained  until  his  death.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  married  Hannah  Curtis,  at  Cheshire,  Conn., 
by  whom  he  had  eleven  children— seven  sons 
and  four  daughters.  He  married  a  second  wife 
when  he  was  seventy  years  old.  In  his  earlier 
married  years  he  lived  in  the  almost  wilderness 
region  of  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  afterwards  returned 
to  Connecticut,  where  most  of  his  children  w'ere 
born.  With  his  young  family  he  moved  into 
Central  Newr  York,  and  had  lived  at  Clarendon 
for  about  thirty  years  previous  to  his  death.  He 
was  a  farmer  all  his  life,  and  his  pension  was  his 
chief  means  of  support  the  latter  part  of  it.  His 
pension  was  for  many  years  .$100  a  year.  It  was 
increased  in  1863  to  $200,  and  tbe  last  year  of  li is 
life  it  was  $300.  (See  Hutchings,  William.) 

Continental  Treasurers.  On  the  29th  of  July, 
1775,  the  Congress,  having  issued  bills  of  credit 
to  the  amount  of  $2,000,000,  appointed  Michael 
Hillegas  and  George  Clymer,  of  Philadelphia, 
joiut  treasurers  of  the  United  Colonies.  They 
were  required  to  give  bonds,  with  sureties,  for 
the  faithful  performance  of  their  duties,  in  the 
sum  of  $100,000,  to  the  president  and  other  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Continental  Congress  named,  in 
trust  for  the  colonies.  They  recommended  the 
Provincial  Assemblies  to  each  choose  a  treasurer 
for  their  respective  colonies. 

“Contrabands.”  On  the  day  after  his  ar¬ 
rival  at  Portress  Monroe,  General  Butler  sent 
out  Colonel  Phelps,  of  the  Vermont  troops,  to 
reconnoitre  the  vicinity  of  Hampton.  The  cit¬ 
izens  had  just  fired  the  bridge.  The  flames 
were  extinguished  by  the  troops,  who  crossed 
the  stream,  drove  armed  insurgents  out  of 
Hampton,  and  found  the  inhabitants  in  sullen 
mood  ;  but  the  negroes  were  jubilant,  regarding 
the  Union  troops  as  their  expected  deliverers. 
In  the  confusion  caused  by  this  dash  into  Hamp¬ 
ton,  three  negroes,  held  as  slaves  by  Colonel 
Mallory,  of  that  village,  escaped  into  the  Union 
lines,  and  declared  that  many  of  their  race,  who 
were  employed  in  building  fortifications  for  the 
insurgents,  desired  to  follow.  They  were  taken 
before  General  Butler.  He  needed  laborers  in 
field-works  which  he  was  about  to  construct. 
Regarding  these  slaves,  according  to  the  laws  of 
Virginia,  as  much  the  property  of  Colonel  Mal¬ 
lory  as  his  horses  or  his  pistols,  and  as  properly 
seizable  as  they,  as  aids  in  warfare,  and  which 
might  be  used  against  the  National  troops, 
“  These  men  are  contraband  of  war,”  said  But¬ 
ler  ;  “  set  them  at  w'ork.”  This  order  was  scarce¬ 
ly'  announced,  before  Major  Carey,  as  agent  of 


CONTRERAS,  BATTLE  OF 


Colonel  Mallory,  and  “in  charge  of  his  proper¬ 
ty,”  appeared,  wishing  to  know  what  the  general 
intended  to  do  with  the  runaways.  “  I  shall  de¬ 
tain  them  as  contraband  of  war,”  said  the  gen¬ 
eral  ;  and  they  were  held  as  such.  Other  slaves 
speedily  came  in.  General  Butler  wrote  to  the 
Secretary  of  War,  telling  him  what  he  had  done, 
on  the  assumption  that  they  were  the  property 
of  an  enemy  of  the  Republic  used  in  warfare,  and 
asking  instructions.  His  course  was  approved  by 
his  government ;  and  thenceforward  all  fugitive 
slaves  were  considered  “  contraband  of  war,” 
and  treated  as  such.  That  masterly  stroke  of 
policy  was  one  of  the  most  effective  aimed  at 
the  heart  of  the  insurrection ;  and  throughout 
the  war  the  fugitive  slave  was  known  as  the 
“  contraband.”  So  emancipation  began. 


Contrast,  A.  During  the  siege  of  Boston  by 
Washington  and  the  Continental  army,  in  the 
summer  of  1775,  the  British  officers  were  annoy¬ 
ed  by  the  distribution  of  handbills  in  their 
camp,  sent  in  by  American  sentinels,  calculated 
to  seduce  the  soldiers.  After  the  battle  on  Bun¬ 
ker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill,  the  principal  encampment  of 
the  Americans  was  on  Prospect  Hill ;  that  of  the 
British,  out  of  Boston,  on  Bunker’s  Hill.  One 
of  the  handbills  alluded  to  contained  the  fol¬ 
lowing  contrast : 


Prospect  Hill. 

1.  Seven  dollars  a  month. 

2.  Fresh  provisions  in  plenty. 

3.  Health. 

4.  Freedom,  ease,  affluence, 

and  a  good  farm. 


Bunker's  Hill. 

1.  Threepence  a  day. 

2.  Rotten  salt  pork. 

3.  The  scurvy. 

4.  Slavery,  beggary,  and 

want. 


Contreras,  Battle  of.  General  Scott  re¬ 
sumed  his  march  from  Puebla  (which  see)  for 
the  city  of  Mexico  Aug.  7,  1847.  The  road  lay 
mostly  along  the  line  of  the  march  of  Cortez, 
more  than  three  hundred  years  before.  From 
the  lofty  summits  of  the  mountains  the  Ameri¬ 
can  army  could  look  down  into  the  magnificent 
Valley  of  Mexico  and  see  the  capital  in  the  dis¬ 
tance.  Down  into  that  valley  the  army  cau¬ 
tiously  moved,  for  resistance  was  expected  at 
the  mountain  passes.  General  Twiggs,  with  his 
division,  led  the  way;  and  on  Aug.  11  encamp¬ 
ed  at  St.  Augustine,  with  the  strong  fortress  of 
San  Antonio  before  him.  Close  upon  his  right 
were  the  heights  of  Cliurubusco,  crowned  with 
fortifications  finished  and  unfinished,  and  man¬ 
ned  by  several  thousand  Mexicans;  and  not  far 
off  was  the  strongly  fortified  camp  of  Contreras, 
on  a  rugged  height,  containing  between  6000 
and  7000  men  under  General  Valencia.  In  the 
rear  of  it  was  Santa  Ana  with  12,000  men  as  a 
reserve.  In  the  afternoon  of  Aug.  19,  Generals 
Twiggs  and  Pillow,  assisted  by  Generals  Persifer 
F.  Smith  and  Cadwallader,  attacked  the  camp 
of  Contreras,  and  a  sharp  conflict  ensued,  with 
almost  continual  skirmishing  around.  This  in¬ 
decisive  conflict  continued  about  six  hours.  At 
the  inoment  when  some  Mexican  cavalry  were 
preparing  for  a  charge,  General  Scott  arrived  at 
the  sceue  of  conflict,  and  ordered  up  General 
Shields  with  reinforcements.  The  Mexicans 
everywhere  fought  bravely  and  desperately. 
When  night  fell,  the  wearied  Americans  lay 
down  and  slept  in  the  ravines  and  among  the 


CONTROVERSY 


323 


CONVENTION  TROOPS 


rocks  on  the  verge  of  the  battle-field,  expecting 
to  renew  the  contest  in  the  morning.  Generals 
Scott  and  Worth  started  early  the  next  morning 
(Aug.  20)  from  St.  Augustine  for  Contreras,  and 
were  met  on  the  way  by  a  courier  with  the  good 
news  that  the  enemy’s  camp  was  captured.  The 
battle  had  been  begun  at  sunrise  by  Smith’s  divis¬ 
ion.  While  Generals  Shields  and  Pierce  had  kept 
Santa  Ana’s  reserve  at  bay,  Smith’s  troops  had 
marched  towards  the  works  in  the  darkness  and 
gained  a  position,  unobserved,  behind  the  crest 
( of  a  hill  near  the  Mexican  works.  Springing  up 
.  suddenly  from  their  hiding-place,  they  delivered 
deadly  volleys  in  quick  succession  ;  dashed  pell- 
mell  into  the  intrenchments ;  captured  the  bat¬ 
teries  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet ;  drove  out  the 
army  of  Valencia;  and  pursued  its  flying  rem¬ 
nants  towards  the  city  of  Mexico.  The  contest, 
which  had  lasted  only  seventeen  minutes,  was 
fought  by  4500  Americans,  against 7000  Mexicans. 
The  trophies  of  victory  were  80  officers  and  3000 
Mexican  troops  made  prisoners,  and  33  pieces  of 
artillery.  (See  Mexico,  War  with.) 

Controversy  between  the  Governor  and 
Assembly  of  Pennsylvania.  In  January,  1757, 
the  Assembly  of  Pennsylvania  passed  a  bill  grant¬ 
ing  for  his  majesty’s  service  £100,000,  by  a  tax 
on  all  the  estates,  real  and  personal,  “taxable,” 
within  the  province.  The  governor  (Denny) 
refused  to  sanction  it,  because  it  would  heavily 
tax  the  proprietaries  of  the  province.  He  asked 
them  to  frame  a  bill  providing  supplies  for  the 
public  service,  such  as  he  could,  “consistent  with 
his  honor  and  his  engagements  to  the  proprie¬ 
taries,”  subscribe.  The  Assembly  remonstrated, 
saying  they  had  framed  the  bill  consistent  with 
their  rights  as  an  “English  representative  body,” 
and,  in  the  name  of  their  sovereign,  “and  in  be¬ 
half  of  the  distressed  people  whom  they  repre¬ 
sented”  unanimously  demanded  of  the  govern¬ 
or  that  he  would  give  his  assent  to  the  bill  they 
had  passed.  As  it  was  a  money  bill,  they  de¬ 
manded  that  it  should  not  be  altered  or  amend¬ 
ed,  “  any  instructions  whatsoever  from  the  pro¬ 
prietaries  notwithstanding,”  as  he  would  “an¬ 
swer  to  the  crown  for  all  the  consequences  of  his 
refusal  at  his  peril.”  The  governor  persisted  in 
his  refusal,  grounded  upon  parliamentary  usage 
in  England,  and  the  supposed  hardship  of  tax¬ 
ing  the  unimproved  land  of  the  proprietaries. 
As  the  governor  would  not  sign  a  bill  that  did 
not  exempt  the  estates  of  the  proprietaries  from 
taxation,  the  Assembly  sent  Benjamin  Franklin, 
as  the  agent  of  the  province,  to  petition  the 
king  for  redress.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
protracted  disputes  between  the  representatives 
of  the  people  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  agents 
of  the  proprietaries.  (See  Proprietary  Innova¬ 
tions  in  Pennsylvania.) 

Convention  between  France  and  Spain. 

On  the  evening  of  April  12,  1779,  the  represent¬ 
atives  of  France  and  Spain  signed  a  conven¬ 
tion  for  an  invasion  of  England,  in  which  the 
Americans  were  considered  and  concerned.  By 
its  terms  France  bound  herself  to  undertake  the 
invasion  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ;  and  if  the 
British  could  be  driven  from  Newfoundland,  the 


fisheries  were  to  be  shared  with  Spain.  Fi  ance 
promised  to  use  every  effort  to  recover  for  Spain 
Minorca,  Pensacola,  and  Mobile,  the  Bay  of  Hon¬ 
duras,  and  the  coast  of  Campeachy  ;  and  the  two 
courts  agreed  not  to  grant  peace  nor  truce,  nor 
suspension  of  hostilities,  until  Gibraltar  should 
be  restored  to  Spain.  Spain  was  left  free  to 
exact  from  the  United  States,  as  the  price  of 
her  friendship,  a  renunciation  of  every  part  of 
the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Lakes, 
of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  and  of  all 
the  territory  between  that  river  and  the  Alle¬ 
ghany  Mountains.  This  modification  of  the 
Treaty  of  France  with  the  United  States  gave 
the  latter  the  right  to  make  peace  whenever 
Great  Britain  should  recognize  their  indepen¬ 
dence.  So  these  two  Bourbon  dynasties  plotted 
to  exclude  the  Americans  from  a  region  essential 
to  them  as  members  of  an  independent  republic. 
But  a  new  power  appeared  in  the  West  to  frus¬ 
trate  their  designs,  which  was  prefigured  by  an 
expedition  under  a  hardy  sou  of  Virginia.  (See 
Clarke,  George  Rogers.) 

Convention  in  Massachusetts  (1768).  When 
it  was  known  that  British  troops  had  been  or¬ 
dered  to  Boston,  a  town  meeting  was  held  and 
a  request  sent  to  Governor  Bernard  to  convene 
the  Provincial  Assembly.  He  refused,  and  a 
convention  of  delegates  from  all  the  towns  in 
the  province  was  provided  for.  Delegates  from 
more  than  one  hundred  towns  met  (Sept.  22)  at 
Boston,  ostensibly  “in  consequence  of  prevail¬ 
ing  apprehensions  of  a  war  with  France.”  This 
was  a  mere  pretext.  They  ordered  all  persons 
not  already  in  possession  of  fire-arms  to  procure 
them  at  once ;  and  they  appointed  a  day  of  fast¬ 
ing  and  prayer  to  be  observed  by  all  congre¬ 
gational  societies.  The  convention  petitioned 
the  governor  to  summon  a  general  court.  He 
refused  to  receive  the  petition,  and  denounced 
the  convention  as  treasonable.  They  proceeded 
cautiously.  All  pretensions  to  political  author¬ 
ity  were  expressly  disclaimed.  They  prepared 
and  adopted  a  petition  to  the  king,  and  a  letter 
to  De  Berdt,  agent  for  the  provinces  in  Eng¬ 
land,  charging  him  to  defend  the  colony  against 
accusations  of  sedition  or  a  rebellious  spirit. 
Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  system  of  con¬ 
ventions  which,  in  a  few  years,  assumed  the 
whole  political  authority  of  the  colonies.  The 
convention  adjourned  after  a  four  days’ session, 
and  the  day  after  the  adjournment  troops  from 
Halifax  arrived. 

Convention  Troops.  (See  Surrender  of  Bur¬ 
goyne.)  The  vanquished  troops  made  prisoners 
to  the  Americans  by  a  convention  for  the  sur¬ 
render  of  them,  made  by  Gates  and  Burgoyne, 
were  marched  through  New  England  to  Cam¬ 
bridge,  near  Boston,  to  be  embarked  for  Europe. 
The  Congress  had  ratified  the  agreement  of 
Gates  that  they  should  depart,  on  giving  their 
parole  not  to  servo  again  in  arms  against  the 
Americans.  Circumstances  soon  occurred  that 
convinced  Washington  that  Burgoyne  and  his 
troops  intended  to  violate  the  agreement  at  the 
first  opportunity,  and  it  was  resolved  by  the 
Congress  not  to  allow  them  to  leave  the  conn- 


CONVENTION  TROOPS 


324 


CONWAY 


try  until  the  British  government  should  ratify 
the  terras  of  t lie  capitulation.  Here  was  a  di¬ 
lemma.  That  government  would  not  recognize 
the  authority  of  the  Congress  as  a  lawful  body; 
so  the  troops  were  allowed  to  remain  in  idleness 
in  America  four  or  five  years.  Burgoyne,  alone, 
was  allowed  to  go  home  on  his  parole.  The 
British  ministry  charged  the  Congress  with  ab¬ 
solute  perfidy;  the  latter  retorted,  and  justified 
their  acts  by  charging  the  ministry  with  medi¬ 
tated  perfidy.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  finding 
an  adequate  supply  of  food  for  the  captive  troops 
in  New  England,  the  Congress  finally  determined 
to  send  them  to  Virginia.  Commissioners  sent 
over,  in  the  spring  of  1778,  to  tender  a  scheme  of 
reconciliation,  offered  a  ratification  of  the  con¬ 
vention,  signed  by  themselves ;  but  Congress 
would  recognize  no  authority  inferior  to  the 
British  ministry  for  such  an  act.  Finally,  in 
pursuance  of  a  resolution  of  Congress  (Oct.  15, 
1778),  the  whole  body  of  the  captives  (4000  in 
number),  English  and  German,  after  the  officers 
had  signed  a  parole  of  honor  respecting  their 


either  by  exchange  or  desertion.  Many  of  the 
Germans  remained  in  America. 

Convention  with  Great  Britain  (1818).  The 
commission  under  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  (which 
see)  to  determine  the  ownership  of  the  islands 
in  Passamaquoddy  Bay  had  agreed  to  confirm 
the  possession  of  them  as  it  existed  before  the 
war;  the  running  of  the  boundary-line  through 
the  St.Lawreuce  and  the  Lakes  had  been  nearly 
completed;  but  the  commission  on  the  north¬ 
east  boundary  had  not  yet  been  able  to  arrive 
at  any  conclusion,  when  a  new  convention  de¬ 
cided  (Oct. ‘20,  1818)  that  the  forty-ninth  degree 
of  north  latitude  should  be  the  boundary  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  the  British  posses¬ 
sions  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  territory  west  of  these  moun¬ 
tains  (now  Oregon)  was  to  remain  in  the  joint 
occupation  of  both  parties  for  ten  years ;  in  other 
words,  the  British  Fur  Company,  which  alone 
had  any  establishments  in  that  remote  region, 
was  not  to  be  disturbed  for  that  period.  The 
commercial  convention  of  1815  (see  Treaty  of 


VIEW  OF  THE  ENCAMPMENT  OF  THE  CONVENTION 

conduct  on  the  way,  took  up  their  line  of  march, 
early  in  November,  for  Charlottesville,  in  Vir¬ 
ginia,  under  the  command  of  Major-general  Phil¬ 
lips.  Colonel  Theodoric  Bland  was  appointed 
by  Washington  to  superintend  the  march.  It 
was  a  dreary  winter’s  journey  of  seven  hun¬ 
dred  miles  through  New  England,  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Vir¬ 
ginia.  The  routes  of  the  two  nationalities 
were  sometimes  distant  from  each  other,  and 
sometimes  the  same,  until  they  reached  Valley 
Forge,  when  they  went  in  the  same  line  until 
they  had  crossed  the  Potomac  River.  They  re¬ 
mained  in  Virginia  until  October,  1780,  when  the 
danger  that  the  captives  might  rise  upon  and 
overpower  their  guard  caused  the  British  to  be 
removed  to  Fort  Frederick,  in  Maryland,  and 
the  Germans  to  Winchester,  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  Deaths,  desertion,  and  partial  exchanges 
ha  l  then  reduced  their  number  to  about  2100. 
Afterwards  they  were  removed  to  Lancaster,  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  some  to  East  Windsor,  Conn. 
In  the  course  of  1782  they  were  all  dispersed, 


roops.  (From  a  picture  in  Anburey’s  Travels.) 

Peace )  was  to  continue  in  force  for  the  same 
period.  The  loud  complaints  of  the  fishing  in¬ 
terest  in  New  England,  on  account  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  construction  of  the  effects  of  the  late  war 
upon  the  treaty  of  1783,  were  considered.  Con¬ 
cessions  were  made.  Those  rights  were  restored 
so  far  as  related  to  the  north  and  east  coasts  of 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  the  coast  of  Labrador, 
and  the  Magdalene  Islands ;  but  off  the  coasts  of 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  and  on  the  western  and  southern  por¬ 
tions  of  the  Gulf  of  St.Lawreuce,  American  ves¬ 
sels  were  not  to  fish  within  three  miles  of  the 
shore.  As  the  two  governments  could  not  agree 
upon  the  interpretation  of  the  article  of  the 
Treaty  of  Ghent  concerning  slaves  carried  away, 
under  which  a  large  amount  was  claimed  in  the 
way  of  indemnity,  it  was  referred  to  a  third 
power — Russia. 

Conway,  Thomas  (Count  de),  was  born  in 
Ireland,  Feb.  27, 1733 ;  died  about  1800.  He  was 
taken  to  France  when  he  was  six  years  old,  was 
educated  there,  attained  the  military  rank  of 


CONWAY’S  CABAL 


325 


COOPER 


colonel,  came  to  America  in  1777,  and  entered 
the  Continental  army  as  brigadier-general.  He 
was  engaged  in  the  conspiracy  with  Gates  and 
others  to  supplant  Washington  as  commander- 
in-chief,  and,  when  discovered,  he  left  the  ser¬ 
vice  and  returned  to  France.  (See  Comvay’s  Ca¬ 
bal.)  In  1784  Conway  was  made  a  field-marshal, 
and  appointed  governor  of  all  the  French  set¬ 
tlements  in  the  East  Indies.  When  the  French 
Revolution  broke  out  he  was  compelled  to  fiee 
from  France. 

Conway’s  Cabal.  (See  Conspiracy  against 
Washington.) 

Cook,  Lemuel,  See  Continental  Soldiers,  Last 
Survivors  of  the,  and  William  Hutchings.) 

Cooke,  Philip  ST.GEORGKjivas  born  in  Berke¬ 
ley  County,  Va.,  in  1803,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1827.  He  served  in  the  war  against 
Mexico,  and  late  in  1861  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  had  seen  much  ser¬ 
vice  in  wars  with  the  Indians,  commanded  in 
Kansas  during  the  troubles  there,  and  took  part 
in  the  Utah  expedition  in  1858.  He  commanded 
all  the  regular  cavalry  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto¬ 
mac,  and  was  distinguished  in  the  campaign  on 
the  Peninsula  in  1862. 

Cool  Arbor,  Battle  of.  The  Army  of  the 
Potomac  and  a  large  part  of  the  Army  of  the 
James' formed  a  junction  near  Cool  Arbor  on  a 
part  of  the  old  battle-ground  of  McClellan  and 
Lee  the  year  before.  General  W.  F.  Smith  and 
sixteen  thousand  men  of  the  Army  of  the  James 
had  been  taken  in  transports  from  Bermuda 
Hundred  around  to  the  White  House,  whence 
they  had  marched  towards  the  Chickaliominy. 
Sheridan  had  seized  the  point  at  Cool  Arbor, 
and  the  Nationals  took  a  position  extending 
from  beyond  the  Hanover  Road  to  Elder  Swamp 
Creek,  not  far  from  the  Cbickahominy.  Burn¬ 
side’s  corps  composed  the  right  of  the  line, 
Warren’s  and  Wright’s  the  centre,  and  Han¬ 
cock’s  the  left.  The  Confederate  line,  reinforced 
by  troops  under  Breckinridge,  occupied  a  line 
in  front  of  the  Nationals — Ewell’s  corps  on  the 
left,  Longstreet’s  in  the  centre,  and  A.  P.  Hill’s 
on  the  right.  On  the  morning  of  June  1,  1862, 
Hoke’s  division  attempted  to  retake  Cool  Arbor. 
It  was  repulsed,  but  was  reinforced  by  McLaws’s 
division.  Wright’s  Sixth  corps  came  up  in  time 
to  meet  this  new  danger;  aud  Smith’s  troops, 
from  the  Army  of  the  Janies,  after  a  march  of 
twenty-five  miles,  came  up  and  took  post  on  the 
ri»ht  of  the  Sixth,  then  in  front  of  Cool  Arbor, 
on  the  road  leading  to  Gaines’s  Mills  (which  see). 
Between  the  two  armies  was  a  broad,  open,  un¬ 
dulating  field  and  a  thin  line  of  woods.  Over 
this  field  the  Nationals  advanced  to  the  attack 
at  four  o’clock  P.M.  The  veterans  of  Smith 
soon  captured  the  first  line  of  rifle-pits  and  six 
hundred  men.  Their  attack  on  the  second  line 
was  a  failure,  and  with  darkness  the  struggle 
ceased,  the  Nationals  having  lost  two  thousand 
men.  They  held  the  ground,  and  bivouacked 
on  the  battle-field.  During  the  night  the  Con¬ 
federates  made  desperate  but  unsuccessful  ef¬ 
forts  to  retake  the  rifle-pits.  General  Grant 


had  ordered  a  redisposition  of  his  army,  mak¬ 
ing  Hancock  form  the  right,  to  the  right  of 
Wright’s  corps.  Burnside  was  withdrawn  en¬ 
tirely  from  the  front  aud  placed  on  the  right 
and  rear  of  Warren,  who  connected  with  Smith. 
Having  made  these  dispositions  on  the  2d,  it 
was  determined  to  force  the  passage  of  the 
Chickaliominy  the  next  morning,  and  compel 
Lee  to  seek  safety  in  the  fortifications  around 
Richmond.  The  Nationals  moved  at  four  o’clock 
on  the  morning  of  the  3d.  Wilson’s  cavalrywas 
on  the  right  flank,  and  Sheridan’s  held  the  lower 
crossings  of  the  river,  and  covered  the  roads  to 
the  White  House.  Orders  had  been  given  for  a 
general  assault  along  the  whole  line.  At  half¬ 
past  four,  or  a  little  later,  the  signal  for  the  ad¬ 
vance  was  given,  and  then  opened  one  of  the 
most  sanguinary  battles  of  the  war.  It  was  be¬ 
gun  on  the  right  by  the  divisions  of  Barlow  and 
Gibbon,  of  Hancock’s  corps,  supported  by  Ilir- 
ney’s.  Barlow  drove  the  Confederates  from  a 
strong  position  in  front  of  their  works,  and  capt¬ 
ured  several  hundred  men  and  three  guns,  when 
the  Confederates  rallied  and  retook  the  position. 
General  Gibbon,  who  charged  at  the  same  time, 
was  checked  by  a  marsh  of  the  Chickaliominy 
which  partly  separated  and  weakened  his  com¬ 
mand,  and  part  of  them  gained  the  Confederate 
works,  but  could  not  hold  them.  There  was  a 
severe  struggle,  and  in  the  assaults  Hancock 
lost  three  thousand  men.  The  other  divisions 
of  the  army  vTere  hotly  engaged  at  the  same 
time.  The  battle  was  “  sharp,  quick,  and  de¬ 
cisive.”  The  Nationals  were  repulsed  at  nearly 
every  point  with  great  slaughter.  It  was  esti¬ 
mated  that  within  the  space  of  twenty  minutes 
after  the  struggle  began  ten  thousand  Union 
soldiers  lay  dead  or  wounded  on  the  field,  while 
the  Confederates,  sheltered  by  their  works,  had 
not  lost  more  than  one  thousand.  And  so,  at 
one  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  of  June  3, 1864,  t  lie 
battle  of  Cool  Arbor  ended.  It  was  one  of  the 
most  sanguinary  struggles  of  the  great  Civil 
War.  The  Nationals  had  a  fearful  loss  of  life, 
but  firmly  held  their  position,  with  all  their 
munitions  of  war.  Their  loss  in  this  engage- 
ment,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Cool  Ar¬ 
bor,  was  reported  at  13,153,  of  Whom  1705  were 
killed  and  2406  were  missing.  Immediately  after 
the  battle  Sheridan  was  sent  to  destroy  the  rail¬ 
ways  in  Lee’s  rear,  and  so  make  Washington 
more  secure.  This  task  he  effectually  perform¬ 
ed,  fighting  much  of  the  time.  Grant  now  re¬ 
solved  to  transfer  his  army  to  the  south  side  of 
the  James  River. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  novelist,  was  born 
at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Sept.  15, 1789 ;  died  at  Coop- 
erstown,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  14,  1851.  He  studied  at 
Yale  College,  but  did  not,  graduate.  He  was  six 
years  in  the  naval  service,  and  in  1811  he  mar¬ 
ried  Miss  De  Lancey,  of  Westchester  County, 
N.  Y.  Choosing  literature  as  a  profession,  he 
took  the  path  of  romance,  and  wrote  and  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  course  of  his  life  thirty-two  vol¬ 
umes  of  fiction,  the  most  famous  of  which  were 
his  Leather -stocking  Tales.  He  wrote  a  History 
of  the  United  States  Nary,  in  two  volumes;  Lives 
of  American  Naval  Officers;  Battle  of  Lake  Erie; 


COPLEY 


COOPER  326 


Meanings  in  Europe;  Sketches  of  Switzerland ;  and 
a  comedy. 


JAMES  FEXTMORE  COOPER. 


Cooper,  Miles,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  England 
in  1735;  died  in  Edinburgh,  May  1,  1785.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford  University  in  1761,  and 
came  to  America  the  next  year,  sent  by  Arch¬ 
bishop  Seeker  as  an  assistant  to  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,  President  of  King’s  (now  Columbia) 
College.  He  succeeded  Johnson  as  president  in 
1763.  He  w  as  an  active  Tory  when  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  broke  out,  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  au¬ 
thors,  if  not  the  author,  of  a  tract  entitled,  A 
Friendly  Address  to  all  Reasonable  Americans.  Al¬ 
exander  Hamilton  was  then  a  pupil  in  the  col¬ 
lege,  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  he  answered 
the  pamphlet  with  great  ability.  Cooper  be¬ 
came  very  obnoxious  to  the  Whigs,  and  a  public 
letter,  signed  “Three  Millions,”  warned  him  and 
his  friends  that  their  lives  were  in  danger.  On 
the  night  of  May  10  a  mob,  led  by  “  Sons  of  Lib¬ 
erty”  (which  see),  after  destroying  or  carrying 
away  guns  on  the  Battery,  proceeded  to  drive 
him  from  the  college.  He  succeeded  in  escaping 
to  a  British  vessel,  and  sailed  to  England.  He 
commemorated  this  stirring  eveut  by  a  poem 
printed  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  iu  1776. 

Cooper,  Peter,  was  born  in  New  York  city, 
Feb.  12,  1791.  His  life  has  been  one  of  remark¬ 
able  activity  and  enterprise.  First,  after  leav¬ 
ing  his  father,  wTho  was  a  hatter,  he  engaged 
in  learning  coach-making,  then  cabinet-mak¬ 
ing,  then  in  the  grocery  business,  and  finally, 
about  1828,  he  was  in  the  manufacture  of  glue 
and  isinglass.  In  1830  he  engaged  quite  exten¬ 
sively  in  iron-works  at  Canton,  near  Baltimore, 
and  there  he  manufactured  the  first  locomotive 
engine  ever  made  in  America,  which  worked 
successfully  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad. 
Then  he  erected  a  rolling-mill  and  iron-mill  in 
rhe  city  of  New  York,  in  which  he  first  success¬ 
fully  used  anthracite  coal  in  puddling  iron.  In 
1845  he  removed  the  machinery  to  Trenton,  N.  J., 
‘  wdiere  he  erected  the  largest  rolling-mill  then  in 
the  United  States  for  manufacturing  railroad 
iron.  There  were  rolled  the  first  wrougbt-iron 
beams  for  fire-proof  buildings.  He  became  an 
alderman  in  the  city  of  New  York  about  1840. 
Prospering  greatly  in  business,  fully  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago  Mr.  Cooper  conceived  the  idea 


of  establishing  in  New  York  a  free  institute, 
something  after  the  Polytechnic  Institute  in 
Paris.  He  erected  a  building,  and  endowed  art- 
schools  and  other  means  for  fitting  young  men 
and  young  women  of  the  working-classes  for 
business,  at  a  cost  of  between  $600,000  and 
$700,000,  and  presented  the  “  Cooper  Institute  ” 
to  the  city  in  1858.  Iu  the  spring  of  1854  he 
w  as  one  of  five  gentlemen  w  ho  met  in  the  house 
of  Cyrus  W.  Field  and  formed  the  “New  York, 
Newfoundland,  and  London  Telegraph  Compa¬ 
ny”  (see  Atlantic  Telegraph),  and  the  first  cable 
w  as  laid  partly  under  Mr.  Cooper’s  supervision. 
He  did  everything  in  his  powrer  to  aid  the  Union 
cause  in  the  late  Civil  War.  An  outspoken  ad¬ 
vocate  of  paper  currency  to  he  issued  by  the  na¬ 
tional  government,  he  was  urged  to  become  a 
candidate  for  the  Presidency  by  friends  of  that 
financial  system.  He  refused  at  first,  but  final¬ 
ly  consented,  though  without  any  idea  of  being 
elected.  In  the  campaign  that  followed  he  ex¬ 
pended  more  than  $25,000  in  aid  of  the  cause. 
Mr.  Cooper  died  April  4,  1883. 


PETER  COOPER. 


Copley,  John  Singleton,  artist,  was  born  in 
Boston,  July  3,  1737;  died  in  London,  Sept.  9, 
1813.  He  was  a  self-taught  artist.  He  had  be¬ 
come  an  eminent  portrait-painter,  when  in  1774 
he  went  to  Rome,  and  late  in  1775  went  from 
there  to  London,  with  the  intention  of  settling 
in  that  city,  where  he  was  joined  by  his  wife 
and  children  from  bis  native  country.  There  he 
devoted  himself  to  portrait-painting,  was  intro¬ 
duced  to  West,  and  his  name  became  so  famous 
as  an  historical  painter  that  the  honorable  addi¬ 
tion  of  R.A.  w  as  given  to  it  in  1783.  His  “  Death 
of  the  Earl  of  Chatham  ”  was  his  first  historical 
painting  of  much  pretension,  and  gave  him  great 
fame  iu  England.  It  was  followed  by  others 
w  hich  increased  his  reputation  ;  and  he  left  un¬ 
finished  a  picture  on  the  subject  of  Nelson’s 
death  at  Trafalgar.  His  last  painting  was  a 
portrait  of  his  son,  Lord  Lyndhurst.  His  wife 
was  daughter  of  Richard  Clarke,  a  loyalist  of 
Boston,  and  one  of  the  consignees  of  the  tea  that 
was  destroyed  there ;  and  the  willingness  of  his 
family  to  leave  America  on  account  of  political 
changes»doubtless  formed  a  powerful  cause  why 


CORCORAN 


327 


COPPER-MINES 

Copley  determined  to  make  England  liis  perma¬ 
nent  home. 

Copper  -  Mines.  There  are  evidences  that 
copper- mines  were  worked  in  our  country  by 
the  Mound-builders  (which  see).  The  first  cop¬ 
per-mines  worked  iu  the  United  States  were 
chiefly  in  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut.  From 
1709  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  a  mine 
at  Simsbury,  Coun.,  yielded  much  ore,  when,  for 
about  sixty  years,  the  mine  was  a  state  prison. 
The  Lake  Superior  copper-mines  (the  most  con¬ 
siderable  iu  our  country)  were  first  worked,  in 
modern  times,  in  1845,  when  traces  of  ancient 
mining  were  found  near  the  Outonagon  River. 
In  making  excavatious,  a  mass  of  copper,  sup¬ 
ported  upou  blocks  of  wood,  with  charred  wood 
under  it,  was  found  twenty  feet  below  the  sur¬ 
face.  When  taken  out,  in  1848,  it  weighed  eight 
tons.  The  Jesuit  missionaries  had  noticed  cop¬ 
per  ore  in  that  region  so  early  as  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  Indians  rever¬ 
enced  as  sacred  large  pieces  of  the  ore.  One 
mine  (the  Calumet  and  Hecla)  yielded  iu  1872 
the  enormous  amount  of  eight  thousand  tons  of 
pure  copper,  or  almost  one  tenth  of  the  entire 
product  of  the  globe  at  that  time. 

Copperheads.  A  nickname  given  to  a  polit¬ 
ical  faction  in  the  free-labor  states  during  the 
American  Civil  War,  Which  was  generally  con¬ 
sidered  to  be  in  secret  sympathy  with  the  ene¬ 
mies  of  the  Republic,  and  gave  them  aid  and  com¬ 
fort  by  trying  to  thwart  the  measures  of  the 
national  government.  The  name  is  derived  from 
a  poisonous  serpent  called  Copperhead,  whose 
bite  is  as  deadly  as  that  of  the  rattlesnake,  but, 
unlike  the  latter,  gives  no  warning  of  its  intend¬ 
ed  attack,  and  is  therefore  typical  of  a  concealed 
foe. 

Copyright  Law,  The.  On  April  5,  1789,  Dr. 
David  Ramsay,  of  South  Carolina,  sent  a  peti¬ 
tion  to  Congress,  setting  forth  that  he  was  the 
author  of  two  books — a  History  of  South  Caroli¬ 
na  and  a  History  of  the  American  Revolution — and 
praying  that  body  to  pass  a  law  giving  him  and 
his  legal  successors  the  exclusive  right  to  vend 
and  dispose  of  those  works  in  the  United  States 
for  a  term  of  years.  A  general  bill  to  that  ef¬ 
fect  was  passed  in  1790;  and  afterwards  other 
bills  were  passed,  incorporating  with  the  copy¬ 
right  bill  another  for  securing  patents  for  me¬ 
chanical  inventions.  The  term  of  a  copyright 
was  then  fixed  at  fourteen  years  for  books  al¬ 
ready  published,  and  the  same  term  for  unpub¬ 
lished  books,  with  the  privilege  of  a  renewal  for 
fourteen  years  longer.  In  1831  a  general  copy7 
right  law  was  passed,  granting  copyright  for 
twenty-eight  years,  and  providing  for  a  renewal 
for  fourteen  years.  In  1856  a  law  was  passed 
giving  to  the  authors  of  dramatic  compositions 
the  exclusive  right  of  publicly  representing 
them,  or  causing  them  to  be  represented.  In 
1870  all  copyright  statutes  were  repealed  by  a 
general  copyright  law  yet  (1880)  in  force,  which 
permits  any  citizen  or  resident  of  the  United 
States  who  shall  be  the  “author,  inventor,  de¬ 
signer,  or  proprietor  of  any  book,  map,  chart, 
dramatic  or  musical  composition,  engraving,  cut, 


print,  or  photograph  or  negative  thereof,  or  a 
painting,  drawing,  chromo,  statue  or  statuary, 
and  of  models  and  designs  intended  to  be  per¬ 
fected  as  works  of  the  tine  arts,  to  secure  a  copy¬ 
right  thereof  for  twenty-eight  years,  with  the 
privilege  of  a  renewal  for  himself,  his  widow,  or 
children,  for  fourteen  years  more.”  Copyright 
certificates  are  issued  solely  by  the  Librarian  of 
Congress.  A  copy  of  the  title  of  a  book,  or  de¬ 
scription  of  a  picture,  must  be  deposited  with 
him  before  the  publication  thereof;  and  two 
copies  of  a  book  or  picture  (the  latter  by  photo¬ 
graph)  must  be  sent  to  such  librarian  within 
ten  days  after  publication.  A  copy  of  every 
new  edition  must  be  sent  to  the  librarian.  A 
failure  to  comply  with  these  conditions  is  pun¬ 
ishable  by  a  fine  of  $25. 

Coquetting  with  the  British.  In  July,  1780, 
the  mysterious  movements  of  Governor  Chitten¬ 
den,  Ethan  and  Ira  Allen,  and  other  leaders  in 
Vermont,  excited  grave  suspicions  of  their  loy¬ 
alty,  because  of  their  secret  correspondence  with 
the  British.  In  June  the  Congress  had  appoint¬ 
ed  a  committee  to  visit  Vermont,  and  had  de¬ 
clared  their  disapprobation  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  people  of  that  state  in  setting  up  an  inde¬ 
pendent  government  before  a  decision  of  Con¬ 
gress  should  be  made  concerning  their  right  to 
separate.  The  governor  of  New  York  suspected 
a  combination  against  his  state,  and  intimated, 
in  a  letter  to  a  member  of  Congress,  that  New 
York  might  be  compelled  to  use  all  her  resources 
for  the  defence  of  that  state.  He  also  called  the 
attention  of  Washington  to  the  subject ;  and  he 
especially  condemned  the  conduct  of  Ethan  Al¬ 
ien,  whose  motives  he  suspected.  General  Schuy¬ 
ler,  who  had  been  ordered  by  Washington  to  ar- 
rest  Alleu,  wrote  to  Governor  Clinton  at  the 
close  of  October,  saying,  “The  conduct  of  some 
of  the  people  to  the  eastward  is  alarmingly  mys¬ 
terious.  A  flag,  under  pretext  of  settliug  a  car¬ 
tel  with  Vermont,  has  been  on  the  Grants.  Al¬ 
len  has  disbanded  his  militia,  and  the  enemy, 
in  number  upwards  of  sixteen  hundred,  are  rap¬ 
idly  advancing  towards  us.  .  .  .  Entreat  General 
Washington  for  more  Continental  troops ;  and 
let  me  beg  of  your  excellency  to  hasten  up 
here.”  There  was  general  alarm  concerning 
the  perplexing  movements  of  the  Vermonters, 
which,  in  the  light  of  subsequent  history,  was 
only  a  piece  of  coquetry  for  their  benefit.  The 
shrewd  diplomats  of  Vermont  were  working  for 
a  twofold  object :  namely,  to  keep  back  the 
British  from  a  threatened  invasion  by  a  show 
of  friendly  feeling,  and  to  so  alarm  the  Congress 
as  to  induce  them  to  admit  Vermont  as  a  state 
of  the  Union.  (See  Vermont,  a  Sovereign  State.) 

Corcoran,  Michael,  was  born  in  Sligo,  Ire¬ 
land,  Sept.  21,  1827  ;  died  near  Fairfax  Court¬ 
house  Dec.  22,  1863.  He  came  to  America  in 
1849,  and  first  came  into  notice  as  colonel  of  the 
Sixty -ninth  New  York  Regiment,  when  the  Pres¬ 
ident  called  for  troops,  in  1861.  He  hastened 
with  his  regiment  to  Washington,  and  was  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  gallantry  in  the  battle  of  Bull’s 
Run,  where  lie  was  wounded  and  made  prisoner, 
suffering  confinement  in  Richmond,  Charleston, 


CORDOVA 


328 


Columbia,  and  Salisbury,  while  kept  for  execu¬ 
tion,  in  case  the  national  government  put  to 
death  the  crews  of  Confederate  privateers  as 
pirates.  (See  Savannah.)  He  was  exchanged,  and 
made  brigadier-general  in  1862.  He  raised  an 
“Irish  Legion,”  served  in  Lower  Virginia  and 
Upper  North  Carolina,  and  checked  the  advance 
of  the  Confederates  on  Norfolk.  He  died  of  inju¬ 
ries  received  from  a  fall  from  his  horse. 

Cordova,  Francis  Fernandez,  discoverer  of 
Yucatan,  a  part  of  Mexico,  in  1517.  He  sailed 
from  Havana,  Cuba,  accompanied  by  one  hun¬ 
dred  men.  In  a  battle  with  the  natives,  forty- 
seven  of  his  men  were  killed,  and  he  was  wound¬ 
ed  iu  twelve  places.  Hastening  back  to  Cuba, 
he  soon  afterwards  died  of  his  wounds. 

Corees,  a  small  tribe  of  Algonquins  on  the 
coast  of  upper  North  Carolina.  These  aud  the 
Cheraws  aud  other  smaller  tribes  occupied  lands 
ouce  owned  by  the  powerful  Hatteras  tribe. 
They  were  allies  of  the  Tuscaroras  iu  an  at¬ 
tack  upon  the  English  in  1711,  and  were  de¬ 
feated  ;  and  they  have  since  disappeared  from 
the  face  of  the  earth,  aud  their  dialect  has  been 
forgotten. 

Corinth,  Battle  of  (1862).  At  Ripley, Miss.,  the 
troops  of  Price  and  Van  Dom  were  concentra  ted, 
forty  thousand  strong,  after  the  battle  at  Iuka 
(which  see),  and  at  the  close  of  September  they 
moved  on  Corinth.  They  bivouacked  within  ten 
miles  of  Corinth  on  the  night  of  Oct.  2.  On 
the  morning  of  the  3d  Rosecrans  was  prepared 
to  meet  an  attack.  Hamilton’s  division  form¬ 
ed  his  right,  Davies’  his  centre,  and  McKean’s 
his  left,  ou  the  front  of  Corinth.  A  brigade,  un¬ 
der  Colonel  Oliver,  with  a  section  of  artillery, 
was  theu  formed,  while  the  cavalry  watched 
every  approach.  Early  in  the  morning  (Oct.  3, 
1862)  the  Coufederate  advance,  under  Colonel 
Lovell,  encountered  Oliver.  The  latter  being 
hard  pressed,  General  McArthur  was  sent  to  his 
support,  but  both  were  pushed  back.  To  these 
both  McKean  and  Da  vies  sent  help.  Very  soon 
afterwards  the  Confederates  made  a  desperate 
charge,  drove  the  Nationals,  and  captured  two 
guns.  The  Confederates  had  resolved  to  capt¬ 
ure  Corinth,  with  its  immense  stores.  They 
now  pressed  heavily  on  the  National  centre. 
Davies  was  pushed  back,  when  Stanley  sent 
Colonel  Mower  with  a  brigade  to  his  assist¬ 
ance;  and  Hamilton  was  pressing  through  a 
thick  mire  on  Lovell’s  left,  when  darkness  fell, 
and  the  struggle  ceased.  The  Confederates 
enveloped  Rosecrans’s  front,  and  rested  on 
their  arms.  Van  Dorn  believed  he  would  have 
possession  of  Corinth  before  sunrise.  He  had 
sent  a  shout  of  triumph  to  Richmond  by  tele¬ 
graph.  The  battle  was  resumed  before  the 
dawn.  Both  parties  had  x>repared  for  it.  The 
National  batteries  around  Corinth  were  well- 
manned,  and  a  new  one,  mounting  five  guns, 
had  been  constructed  during  the  night.  After 
a  considerable  cannonading,  the  Confederates, 
in  heavy  force,  came  out  at  a  little  past  nine 
o’clock,  advanced  rapidly,  and  fell  violent¬ 
ly,  in  wedge-form,  upon  Davies,  intending  to 
break  his  line  and  rush  into  Corinth.  The  strug¬ 


CORINTH,  EVACUATION  OF 

gle  was  very  severe.  Grape  and  canister  shot 
made  fearful  laues  through  the  Confederate 
ranks,  yet  they  pressed  on.  Davies’  forces 
gave  way,  but  soon  rallied.  The  Confederates 
captured  Fort  Powell  on  Davies’  right,  and  full 
twenty  men  penetrated  Corinth  to  the  head¬ 
quarters  of  Rosecraus,  on  the  public  square, 
which  they  captured.  But  the  victorious  Con¬ 
federate  columu  was  soon  pushed  back,  and  Fort 
Powell  was  retaken  by  the  Fifty-sixth  Illinois. 
At  the  same  time  Hamilton’s  guns  were  making 
fearful  havoc  in  the  Confederate  ranks.  The 
latter  soon  fled  to  the  woods.  Meanwhile  Lov¬ 
ell  had  fallen  upon  Fort  Robinett  and  the  adja¬ 
cent  lines,  and  a  terrible  battle  ensued.  The  fort 
was  stormed  by  a  strong  Confederate  force,  led 
by  Colonel  Rogers,  of  Texas.  Within  lay  prone 
Colonel  Fuller’s  Ohio  brigade,  who,  aroused,  de¬ 
livered  such  a  murderous  fire  that  the  assail¬ 
ants  recoiled.  In  a  moment  they  rallied,  and 
again  charged.  The  Eleventh  Missouri  and 
Twenty -seventh  Ohio  poured  a  terrific  storm 
of  bullets  upon  them,  and  at  the  command 
“  Charge!”  the  Nationals  swarmed  over  the  par¬ 
apet,  and  sent  the  assailants  flying  in  confusion 
to  the  forest.  By  noon  the  battle  at  Corinth 
was  ended,  and  the  whole  Confederate  force 
was  retreating  southward,  vigorously  pursued 
(  See  Hatchee,  Battle  of  the.)  The  National  loss  in 
the  battle  at  Corinth  and  in  the  pursuit  was 
2363,  of  whom  315  were  killed.  Of  the  Con¬ 
federate  loss  there  is  no  positive  record.  One 
of  their  historians  (Pollard)  admits  a  loss  of 
4500,  and  Rosecrans  estimated  it  at  9363,  of 
whom  1423  were  killed  and  2248  made  prison¬ 
ers.  The  Confederates  had  38,000  men  iu  the 
battle  ;  the  Nationals  less  than  20,000. 

Corinth,  Evacuation  of.  General  Halleck  ar¬ 
rived  on  the  battle-ground  of  Shiloh  (which  see) 
from  his  headquarters  at  St.  Louis  on  April  12, 
1862,  aud,  being  Grant’s,  superior  in'  rank,  took 
command  of  the  National  troops.  Grant  was  pre¬ 
paring  to  pursue  and  strike  Beauregard  while 
his  shattered  army  was  weak ;  but  Halleck  re¬ 
strained  Grant,  and  twenty  days  after  the  vic¬ 
tory  he  began  a  march  against  Beauregard  at 
Corinth.  On  May  3d  his  advance,  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Sherman,  was  within  six  or  seven  miles  of 
Beauregard’s  lines.  His  forces  had  been  reor¬ 
ganized,  with  the  title  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the 
Tennessee,  and  Grant  was  made  his  second  in 
command.  His  whole  force,  approaching  Cor¬ 
inth  with  great  caution,  numbered,  with  the  ac¬ 
cession  of  Buell’s  army,  about  one  hundred  and 
eight  thousand  men.  Beauregard  had  been  rein¬ 
forced,  by  Van  Dorn  and  Price,  with  Missouri 
and  Arkausas  troops,  and  by  the  command  of 
General  Mansfield  Lovell,  who  had  come  up  from 
New  Orleans.  For  twenty-seveu  days  the  Na¬ 
tional  troops  were  busy  piling  up  fortifications 
in  the  approaches  to  Corinth,  interrupted  by  fre¬ 
quent  sorties  from  that  town.  Then  the  Confed¬ 
erates  were  driven  from  their  advanced  works 
(May  29),  and  Halleck  prepared  for  a  sanguinary 
conflict  the  next  day.  Although  much  strength¬ 
ened,  Beauregard  was  unwilling  to  risk  a  battle 
with  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  All 
the  night  of  May  29  the  National  sentinels  had 


CORN  A  LEGAL  TENDER 


329  CORNER-STONE  OF  THE  CONFEDERACY 


heard,  unreported,  the  incessant  roar  of  moving 
railway-cars  at  Corinth;  and  at  daybreak,  just 
as  Halleck  sent  out  skirmishers  to  “  feel  the  en¬ 
emy,”  the  earth  was  shaken  with  a  series  of  ex¬ 
plosions,  and  dense  columns  of  smoke  arose  above 
the  town.  There  was  no  enemy  to  “  feel;”  Beau¬ 
regard  had  evacuated  Corinth  during  the  night, 
burned  and  blown  up  whatever  of  stores  he  could 
not  carry  away,  and  fled  in  haste  to  Tupelo, 
many  miles  southward  from  Corinth,  where  he 
left  General  Bragg  in  command  of  the  Confed¬ 
erate  forces  (now  called  the  Army  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi),  and  repaired  to  Mineral  Springs,  in  Al¬ 
abama, for  the  restoration  of  his  impaired  health. 
Halleck  took  possession  of  Corinth,  and  was  soon 
afterwards  called  to  Washington,  to  perform  the 
duties  of  general-in-chief  of  all  the  armies  of  the 
Republic.  He  left  General  Thomas  in  command 
at  Corinth,  and  General  Grant,  of  his  old  army, 
with  enlarged  powers. 

Corn  a  Legal  Tender.  On  Oct.  13, 1631,  In¬ 
dian  corn  was  made,  by  act  of  the  Court  of  As¬ 
sistants  (which  see),  a  legal  tender  in  payment 
of  all  debts  in  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
at  the  usual  rates  for  which  it  was  sold,  unless 
money  or  beaver  was  expressly  named  in  the 
contract.  At  that  time  corn  was  worth  $2.20 
a  “strike”  (four  bushels),  and  beaver  $1.32  a 
pound.  A  milch  cow  was  then  valued  at  from 
$125  to  $150. 

Cornbury,  Lord  ( Edward  Hyde  ),  misgov¬ 
erned  New  York  and  New  Jersey  a  lew  years, 
and  died  in  London,  April  1,  1723.  He  came  to 
the  province  as  governor  in  1702,  when  he  was 
Sir  Edward  Hyde,  grandson  of  the  first  Earl  of 
Clarendon,  and  nephew,  by  marriage,  of  James 
II.  He  was  one  of  the  officers  of  that  monarch’s 
household,  and  was  the  first  to  desert  him  and 
go  over  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  became 
William  III.  of  England.  Grateful  for  this  act, 
William  made  him  governor  of  the  united  prov¬ 
inces  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  He  was 
cordially  and  generously  received.  The  Assem¬ 
bly,  which  was  largely  “  Leislerian”  in  its  polit¬ 
ical  composition  (see  Bellomont),  and  claimed 
Hyde  as  a  friend,  voted  him  a  double  salary,  a 
disbursement  of  the  expenses  of  his  voyage,  and 
a  reversion  of  seven  years.  A  public  dinner  was 
given  him,  and  the  freedom  of  the  city  in  a  gold 
box.  His  suite,  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison,  and 
all  citizens  unable  to  purchase  their  freedom, 
were  made  freemen,  with  rights  of  suffrage, 
trade,  and  of  holding  office.  This  generous  re¬ 
ception  was  illy  requited.  In  debt  when  he 
came,  and  rapacious  and  bigoted,  he  plundered 
the  public  treasury,  involved  himself  in  private 
debts,  and  opposed  every  effort  on  the  part  of 
tlie  representatives  of  the  people  for  the  security 
of  their  rights  and  the  growth  of  free  institu¬ 
tions.  When  the  yellow  fever  appeared  in  New 
York,  in  1703,  he  retired  to  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  and 
the  best  house  in  the  place  happening  to  belong 
to  the  Presbyterian  minister,  he  requested  to 
have  it  vacated  for  his  accommodation.  In¬ 
stead  of  returning  it  to  the  owner,  he  made  it 
over  to  the  Episcopal  party.  His  conduct  as 
ruler  of  New  Jersey  was  equally  reprehensible, 


where  there  were  three  religious  factions — Qua¬ 
kers,  Episcopalians,  and  Presbyterians  and  Con- 
gregationalists — to  either  of  which  the  governor 
seemed  willing  to  sell  himself.  The  Assembly 
adopted  a  pungent  address,  which  was  read  to 
Cornbury  by  the  speaker,  in  which  he  was  di¬ 
rectly  accused,  among  other  things,  of  being  an 
extortioner  and  “the  merchandise  of  faction.” 
Finally,  such  representations  went  from  both 
provinces  to  the  Board  of  Trade  that  Queen 
Amffi  removed  him  (1708),  though  he  was  her 
cousin.  Then  his  creditors  threw  him  into  pris¬ 
on,  from  which  he  was  released  by  accession  to 
the  peerage  on  the  death  of  his  father,  when  he 
returned  to  England  and  became  Earl  of  Claren¬ 
don.  His  official  course  here  was  distinguished 
for  intolerance,  licentiousness,  dishonesty,  and 
misrule. 

Cornell,  Ezra,  founder  of  the  Cornell  Uni¬ 
versity,  gave  for  the  establishment  of  that  insti¬ 
tution  $500,000.  He  subsequently  gave  more 
than  two  hundred  acres  of  laud,  with  buildings, 
as  a  site  for  the  university  and  as  a  farm  for 
the  use  of  the  institution.  He  also  gave,  be¬ 
sides,  various  donations  to  the  amount  of  nearly 
$120,000.  (See  Cornell  University.)  Mr.  Cornell 
died  at  Ithaca,  Dec.  9, 1874. 

Cornell  University  is  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  The 
buildings  are  on  an  eminence  outside  of  the 
town,  and  nearly  400  feet  above  Cayuga  Lake. 
It  is  an  organic  part  of  the  educational  system 
of  the  state,  and  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
regents ;  and,  having  accepted  the  bounty  of 
Congress  for  the  encouragement  of  agriculture, 
it  is  bound  to  teach  such  branches  as  are  related 
to  agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts,  includ¬ 
ing  other  scientific  studies  and  military  tactics. 
The  faculty  is  composed  of  resident  and  non¬ 
resident  professors,  the  latter  chosen  from  among 
scholars  of  eminence  in  particular  departments 
of  learning.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  col¬ 
legiate  course,  there  are  special  instructions 
given  in  the  following  studies  :  1.  Agriculture; 
2.  Architecture;  3.  Chemistry  and  Physics;  4. 
Civil  Engineering;  5.  History  and  Political  Sci¬ 
ence;  6.  Ancient  and  Asiatic  Languages;  7.  North¬ 
ern  European  Languages;  8.  Southern  European 
Languages;  9. Mathematics;  10. Mechanical  Arts; 
11.  Military  Science  and  Tactics;  12.  Natural 
History;  13.  Philosophy  and  Letters.  The  Uni¬ 
versity  has  a  large  and  rapidly  increasing  li¬ 
brary. 

Corner-stone  of  the  Confederacy.  Alex¬ 
ander  H.  Stephens,  who  was  made  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  (February, 
1861),  assumed  the  character  of  expounder  of 
the  structure  and  principles  of  the  new  govern¬ 
ment.  In  a  speech  at  Savannah,  March  21,  1861, 
he  declared  that  the  immediate  cause  of  the  war 
was  African  slavery ;  that  the  fat  hers  of  t  he  Re¬ 
public  erroneously  believed  it  to  be  wrong  in 
principle  and  practice;  that  the  “  new  govern¬ 
ment”  was  founded  upon  exactly  the  opposite 
idea,  and  that  its  foundations  were  laid,  its  cor¬ 
ner-stone  rested,  upon  the  great  truth  that  the 
neyro  is  not  equal  to  the  white  man.  “It  is  upon 
this  truth,”  said  Stephens,  “  the  actual  fabric  of 


CORNPLANTER 


330 


CORNWALLIS 


onr  government  is  planted.  I  cannot  permit 
myself  to  doubt  the  ultimate  success  of  a  full 
recognition  of  this  principle  throughout  the  civ¬ 
ilized  world.” 

Cornplanter,  The,  an  eminent  Seneca  chief, 
was  born  at  Conewango,  on  the  Genesee  Riv¬ 
er;  died  at  the  Seneca  Reservation,  Penn.,  Feb. 
17, 1836,  aged  about  one  hundred  years.  He  was 
a  half-breed,  the  son  of  an  Indian  trader  named 
John  O’Bail.  He  led  Indian  allies  with  the 
French  against  the  English  ;  was  in  the  sharp 
battle  of  Monongahela  in  1755  ;  and,  joining  the 
British  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  led  de¬ 
stroyers  of  the  settlements  in  New  York  and 
northern  Pennsylvania.  An  inveterate  foe  of 
the  Americans  during  the  war,  he  was  their  firm 
friend  afterwards.  He  was  an  earnest  promoter 
of  temperance  among  his  people.  In  his  later 
years  he  cultivated  a  farm  on  the  Alleghany 
River. 

Cornwall  County.  Andros,  governor  of  New 
York  in  1674,  succeeded  iu  establishing  Dutch 
rule  over  the  country  between  the  Penobscot 
and  the  Kennebec.  He  built  a  fort  there,  and 
a  few  Dutch  settlers  established  themselves 
on  the  coast.  He  named  the  district  Corn¬ 
wall  County,  as  a  part  of  the  domain  of  New 
York. 

Cornwallis  abandons  the  South.  After  the 
battle  at  Guilford  (which  see),  in  which  Corn¬ 
wallis’s  army  was  terribly  shattered,  he  hasten¬ 
ed  for  the  borders  of  the  sea.  At  Wilmington, 
N.  C.,  he  was  met  by  a  party  from  Charleston, 
sent  by  his  orders.  He  dared  not  attempt  to 
move  back  into  South  Carolina,  for  the  patriots 
there  were  fully  aroused,  and  Greene  was  keenly 
watching  his  movements  in  North  Carolina.  So 
he  resolved  to  abandon  the  Caroliuas  and  pene¬ 
trate  into  Virginia,  at  the  same  time  writing  to 
Germaine,  who  had  given  him  his  entire  confi¬ 
dence,  “I  cannot  help  expressing  my  wish  that 
the  Chesapeake  may  become  the  seat  of  war, 
even,  if  necessary,  at  the  expense  of  abandoning 
New  York.”  Without  waiting  for  an  answer, 
he  left  Wilmington  for  Virginia,  late  in  April, 
with  1435  men.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Chesa¬ 
peake  the  army  of  Cornwallis  became  prisouers 
of  war.  (See  Surrender  of  Cornwallis.) 

Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.  A  few  days  after 
he  reached  Williamsburg,  Cornwallis  received 
an  order  from  Sir  Henry  Clinton  to  send  three 
thousand  of  his  troops  to  New  York,  then  men¬ 
aced  by  the  allied  (Americans  and  French)  ar¬ 
mies.  (See  Allied  Armies  on  the  Hudson .)  Clin¬ 
ton  also  directed  the  earl  to  take  a  defensive 
position  in  Virginia.  Satisfied  that  after  he 
should  send  away  so  large  a  part  of  his  army 
he  could  not  cope  with  Lafayette  and  his  asso¬ 
ciates,  Cornwallis  determined  to  cross  the  James 
River  and  make  his  way  to  Portsmouth.  This 
movement  was  hastened  by  the  boldness  of  the 
republican  troops,  who  were  pressing  close  upon 
him,  showing  much  strength  and  great  activity. 
On  July  6  a  detachment  sent  out  by  Wayne  to 
capture  a  British  field-piece  boldly  resisted  a 
large  portion  of  Cornwallis’s  army,  as  the  for¬ 
mer  fell  back  to  Lafayette’s  main  army  near  the 


Greene  Spring  Plantation  (see  Berkeley,  William), 
where  a  sharp  skirmish  occurred,  in  which  the 
marquis  had  a  horse  shot  under  him  and  each 
party  lost  about  one  hundred  men.  Cornwallis 
then  hastened  across  the  James  (July  9)  and 
marched  to  Portsmouth.  Disliking  that  situa¬ 
tion,  the  earl  proceeded  to  Yorktown,  on  the 
York  River,  and  on  a  high  and  healthful  plain 
he  established  a  fortified  camp.  At  Gloucester 
Point,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  he  cast 
up  strong  military  works. 

Cornwallis,  Charles,  earl  and  marquis,  was 
born  Dec.  31,  1738 ;  died  at  Ghazipoor,  India, 
Oct.  5,  1805.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Cambridge,  and  entered  the  army  as  captain 
when  twenty  years  of  age.  Iu  the  House  of 


Charles  Cornwallis.  (From  an  English  Print.) 


Lords  he  opposed  the  measures  that  caused  the 
war  with  the  Americans;  yet  he  accepted  the 
commission  of  major-general  and  the  command 
of  an  expedition  against  the  Caroliuas  under 
Sir  Peter  Parker  in  1776.  He  commanded  the 
reserves  of  the  British  in  the  battle  on  Long 
Island  (which  see)  in  August;  was  outgener- 
alled  by  Washington  at  Princeton  (which  see) ; 
was  with  Howe  on  the  Brandywine  and  iu  the 
capture  of  Philadelphia,  when  he  returned  to 
England,  but  soon  came  back  ;  was  at  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  Charleston  (which  see)  iu  May,  1780;  was 
commander  of  the  British  troops  in  the  Caroli- 
nas  that  year ;  defeated  Gates  near  Camden  in 
August;  fought  Greene  at  Guilford  Court-hopse 
early  in  1781 ;  invaded  Virginia,  and  finally  took 
post  at  and  fortified  Yorktown,  on  the  York  Riv¬ 
er,  and  there  surrendered  his  army  to  the  Amer¬ 
ican  and  French  forces  iu  October,  1781.  (See 
Surrender  of  Cornwallis.)  He  was  appointed 
governor- general  and  commander  -  in  -  chief  in 
India  in  1786 ;  and  was  victorious  in  war  there 
in  1791-92,  compelling  Tippoo  Saib  to  cede,  as 
the  price  of  peace,  half  his  dominions  to  the 
British  crown.  He  returned  to  England  in 


CORNWALLIS  DECEIVED 


331 


CORNWALLIS  IN  NEW  JERSEY 


1793 ;  was  created  a  marquis  ;  and  appointed 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1798.  He  nego¬ 
tiated  the  Treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802,  and  was 
governor-general  of  India  in  1805. 

Cornwallis  Deceived.  The  success  of  Corn¬ 
wallis  in  awing  the  inhabitants  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina  into  passive  obedience  gained  him  hosts  of 
admirers  and  flatterers.  Secretary  Germaine  was 
delighted  with  his  prowess,  and  Governor  Mar¬ 
tin,  of  North  Carolina,  flattered  him  with  prom¬ 
ises  that  his  presence  there  would  produce  ab¬ 
ject  submission  everywhere  in  the  state.  He 
accepted  the  suggestions  of  Martin  and  Tarle- 
ton  that  severity,  so  freely  used  in  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  was  the  true  method  to  be  employed.  He 
therefore,  when  he  was  about  to  march  into 
North  Carolina  to  crush  out  republicanism 
there,  issued  orders  that  every  militia-man  who 
had  borne  arms  with  the  British,  even  under 
compulsion,  and  had  afterwards  joiued  the 
Americans,  should  be  instantly  hanged.  He 
set  up  a  gallows  at  Camden  for  the  indiscrimi¬ 
nate  execution  of  those  among  his  prisoners 
who  had  formerly  given  their  parole,  even  if  it 
had  been  faithfully  kept  until  it  was  cancelled 
by  the  proclamation  of  Clinton.  Under  these 
and  other  cruel  orders  the  destruction  of  life 
and  property  became  fearful.  With  the  mis¬ 
taken  idea  that  this  was  the  best  method  to  put 
down  the  rebellion,  and  with  the  assurance  that 
loyalty  was  the  rule  among  the  people  of  North 
Carolina,  Cornwallis  penetrated  that  state,  but 
to  soon  discover  that  he  had  been  egregionsly 
deceived.  His  ruthless  administration  and  bad 
faith  towards  the  paroled  prisoners  at  Charles¬ 
ton  (see  Gadsden,  Christopher )  were  approved  by 
Germaine  in  hearty  terms. 

Cornwallis,  Effect  of  the  Surrender  of, 
in  Engeand.  News  of  the  surrender,  which 
reached  England,  by  way  of  France,  Nov.  25, 
1781,  gave  a  stunning  blow  to  the  British  min¬ 
istry  and  the  Tory  party  in  Great  Britain.  It 
was  clearly  perceived  that  final  disseverance  of 
the  colonies  from  the  mother  country  was  inev¬ 
itable  ;  that  war  could  no  longer  serve  a  useful 
purpose;  and  that  humanity  and  sound  policy 
counselled  peace.  The  king  and  his  ministers 
were  astounded.  “Lord  North  received  the  in¬ 
telligence,”  said  Lord  George  Germaine,  “  as  he 
would  have  taken  a  cannon-ball  in  his  breast  : 
for  he  opened  his  arms,  exclaiming  wildly  as  he 
paced  up  and  down  the  apartment  a  few  min¬ 
utes,  ‘O  God!  it  is  all  over.’”  In  deepest  con¬ 
sternation,  he  repeated  these  words  many  times. 
The  stubborn  king  was  amazed  and  struck  dumb 
for  a  few  minutes  ;  then,  recovering  his  equa¬ 
nimity,  he  wrote,  in  view  of  a  proposition  in  the 
Parliament  to  give  up  the  contest  and  allow 
the  independence  of  the  colonies,  “  No  difficul¬ 
ties  can  get  me  to  consent  to  the  getting  of 
peace  at  the  expense  of  a  separation  from  Amer¬ 
ica.”  The  city  of  London  petitioned  the  king 
to  “put  an  end  to  the  unnatural  and  unfortu¬ 
nate  war;”  and  in  Parliament  a  great  change 
in  se'htiment  was  immediately  visible.  Late  in 
February,  General  Conway  moved  an  address  to 
the  king  in  favor  of  peace.  A  warm  debate  en¬ 


sued.  Lord  North  defended  the  royal  policy, 
because  it  maintained  British  rights  and  was 
just.  “  Good  God  !”  exclaimed  Burke,  “  are  we 
yet  to  be  told  of  the  rights  for  which  we  went 
to  war?  O  excellent  rights!  0  valuable  rights! 
Valuable  you  should  be,  for  we  have  paid  dear 
in  parting  with  you.  O  valuable  rights!  that 
have  cost  Britain  thirteen  provinces,  four  isl¬ 
ands,  one  hundred  thousand  men,  and  more 
than  £70,000,000  ($350,000,000)  of  money.”  At 
the  beginning  of  March  Conway’s  proposition 
was  adopted.  Lord  North,  who,  under  the  in¬ 
spiration  of  the  king,  had  misled  the  nation  for 
twelve  years,  was  relieved  from  office,  and  he 
and  his  fellow  -  ministers  were  succeeded  by 
friends  of  peace.  The  king  stormed,  but  was 
compelled  to  yield.  Parliament  resolved  to 
end  the  war,  and  the  king  acquiesced  with  re¬ 
luctance.  Early  in  May  (1782)  Sir  Guy  Carle- 
ton  arrived  in  New  York,  bearing  propositions 
to  Congress  for  reconciliation,  and  Richard  Os¬ 
wald,  a  London  merchant,  was  sent  to  Paris  as 
a  diplomatic  agent  to  confer  with  Franklin  on 
the  subject  of  a  treaty  of  peace. 

Cornwallis,  First  Military  Movement  of, 
in  America.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  waited  long 
on  the  Cape  Fear  River  for  the  arrival  of  Sir 
Peter  Parker’s  fleet  with  Cornwallis  and  a  rein¬ 
forcement  of  troops.  They  came  early  in  May 
(1776),  and  soon  prepared  to  make  an  attack  on 
Charleston.  Clinton  received,  by  the  fleet,  in¬ 
structions  from  his  king  to  issue  a  proclama¬ 
tion  of  pardon  to  “all  but  principal  instigators 
and  abettors  of  the  rebellion,  to  dissolve  the 
provincial  congresses  and  committees  of  safety, 
to  restore  the  administration  of  justice,  and  to 
arrest  the  persons  and  destroy  the  property  of 
all  who  should  refuse  to  give  satisfactory  tests 
of  their  obedience.”  He  was  expressly  ordered 
to  “seize  the  persons  and  destroy  the  property 
of  persistent  rebels  whenever  it  could  be  done 
with  effect.”  When  the  British  forces  were 
about  to  leave  the  North  Carolina  coast,  Clinton 
sent  Lord  Cornwallis,  at  the  instigation  of  Gov¬ 
ernor  Martin,  to  burn  the  house  of  Hooper,  a 
delegate  in  the  Continental  Congress,  and  to 
burn  and  ravage  the  plantation  of  General 
Robert  Howe.  Cornwallis  landed  in  Bruns¬ 
wick  County  with  about  nine  hundred  men, 
and  proceeded  to  his  assigned  work.  In  this 
ignoble  expedition  — his  first  in  America — he 
lost  two  men  killed  and  one  taken  prisoner. 
Clinton,  in  a  proclamation  (May  5),  invited  the 
people  to  “  appease  the  vengeance  of  an  incensed 
nation”  by  submission,  and  offered  pardon  to 
all,  excepting  General  Howe  and  Cornelius  Har¬ 
nett. 

Cornwallis  in  New  Jersey.  Howe  sent 
Cornwallis  (November,  1777)  with  a  strong  body 
of  troops,  by  way  of  Chester,  to  Billingsport  to 
clear  the  New  Jersey  banks  of  the  Delaware. 
Washington  immediately  sent  General  Greene 
with  a  division  across  the  river  to  oppose  the 
movement.  Cornwallis  was  reinforced  by  five 
British  battalions  from  New  York,  while  ex¬ 
pected  reinforcements  from  the  northern  army 
were  still  delayed  through  the  bad  conduct 


CORNWALLIS  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA  332  CORNWALLIS.  SURRENDER  OF 


of  General  Gates.  The  consequence  was  the 
forced  abandonment  of  Fort  Mercer,  at  Red 
Bank  (which  see)  and  the  levelling  of  its  ram¬ 
parts  by  the  British  troops.  The  leaders  of 
both  armies  recrossed  the  Delaware,  Cornwallis 
to  Philadelphia  and  Greene  to  the  camp  of 
Washington. 

Cornwallis  in  South  Carolina.  Lord  Corn¬ 
wallis  was  left  in  chief  command  of  about  four 
thousand  troops  when,  in  the  summer  of  1780, 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  departed  for  New  York.  The 
earl,  for  the  purpose  of  rooting  out  all  signs  of 
rebellion,  sought,  by  cruel  acts,  to  completely 
subdue  the  people  through  fear.  He  issued 
proclamations  and  instructions  which  encour¬ 
aged  hostility  towards  every  patriot;  and  under 
these  instructions  his  agents  and  the  Tories  com¬ 
mitted  many  crimes.  Tarletou  and  his  legion 
spread  terror  in  many  districts.  A  quartermas¬ 
ter  of  his  command  entered  the  house  of  Samuel 
Wylev,  near  Camden,  and  cut  him  in  pieces  with 
his  sword,  because  he  had  served  as  a  volunteer 
iu  defence  of  Charleston.  -  Because  the  Presby¬ 
terians  generally  supported  the  American  cause, 
they  were  specially  singled  out  for  persecution. 
Huck,  a  captain  of  the  British  militia,  burned 
the  library  and  dwelling  of  a  Presbyterian  cler¬ 
gyman  in  the  upper  part  of  South  Carolina ;  and 
also  burned  every  Bible  iu  which  the  Scottish 
translation  of  the  Psalms  was  found.  Prisoners 
who  had  been  paroled  at  Charleston  were  sub¬ 
jects  of  perpetual  persecution  under  the  im¬ 
mediate  observation  of  Cornwallis,  unless  they 
would  exchange  their  paroles  for  oaths  of  alle¬ 
giance.  An  active  officer  was  deputed  to  visit 
every  district  in  the  state,  and  procure,  on  the 
spot,  lists  of  its  militia.  Any  Carolinian  there¬ 
after  taken  in  arms  might  be  sentenced  to 
death  for  desertion  and  “  bearing  arms  against 
his  country.”  Cornwallis  never  regarded  a  de¬ 
serter,  or  any  whom  a  court-martial  sentenced 
to  death,  as  an  object  of  mercy.  His  lieutenant, 
Lord  Rawdon,  was  particularly  hard  on  desert¬ 
ers  from  his  Irish  regiment.  “  I  will  give  the 
inhabitants,”  he  proclaimed,  “ten  guineas  for 
the  head  of  any  deserter  belonging  to  the  vol¬ 
unteers  of  Ireland,  and  five  guineas  only  if  they 
bring  him  iu  alive.”  To  punish  Sumter,  wt1io 
had  commanded  a  Continental  regiment,  a  Brit¬ 
ish  detachment  turned  his  wife  out  of  doors  and 
burned  his  dwelling-house.  These  proceedings, 
and  others  equally  atrocious,  wrere  approved  by 
Cornwallis,  who  tried  to  crush  out  every  vestige 
of  independence  in  the  state  by  requiring  every 
able-bodied  man  to  join  the  British  army  and 
take  an  active  part  in  the  re-establishment  of 
royal  rule.  All  who  refused  were  treated  as 
“  rebels.”  Then,  under  instructions  from  Min¬ 
ister  Germaine,  he  determined  to  establish  a 
system  of  terrorism  that-  should  wTipe  out  every 
semblance  of  revolt  in  that  state.  He  put  mil¬ 
itary  despotism  iu  the  place  of  civil  law.  He 
ordered  all  militia-men  who  had  served  in  loy¬ 
alist  corps  and  were  afterwards  found  iu  arms 
against  the  king  to  be  hanged  without  mercy; 
and  in  this  way  many  perished.  He  gave  Tory 
leaders  full  license  to  execute  these  orders,  and 
iustautly  murders  aud  plunderings  and  the 


scourge  of  the  torch  everywhere  prevailed! 
Property  was  wantonly  destroyed  by  fire  and 
violence ;  the  chastity  of  women  was  set  at 
naught ;  and  Whigs,  both  meu  and  women,  cul¬ 
tivated  and  tenderly  reared,  were  treated  by 
the  ravenous  Tory  wolves  as  legitimate  prey  to 
their  worst  passions.  These  measures  created 
revolt  and  a  thirst  for  vengeance,  and  when 
the  partisan  leaders  appeared  they  instantly 
found  hundreds  of  followers.  Cornwallis  soon 
found  South  Carolina  too  hot  for  him,  and  he 
was  driven  through  North  Carolina  into  Vir¬ 
ginia. 

Cornwallis  Leaves  the  Carolinas.  After 
the  battle  at  Guilford  Court-house  (which  see), 
Cornwallis  marched  towards  the  seaboard,  sat¬ 
isfied  that  he  could  no  longer  hold  the  Caroli¬ 
nas.  He  arrived  at  Wilmington  April  7,  1781, 
then  garrisoned  by  a  small  force  under  Major 
Craig,  where  he  remained  long  enough  to  rest 
and  recruit  his  shattered  army.  Apprised  of 
Greene’s  march  ou  Camden,  and  hoping  to  draw 
him  away  from  Lord  Rawdon,  the  earl  marched 
into  Virginia  and  joined  the  forces  of  Phillips 
and  Arnold  at  Petersburg.  So  ended  British 
rule  in  the  Carolinas  forever.  He  left  Wil¬ 
mington  April  25,  crossed  the  Roanoke  at  Hali¬ 
fax,  and  reached  Petersburg  May  20.  Four  days 
afterwards  he  entered  upon  his  destructive  ca¬ 
reer  in  that  State.  (See  Invasion  of  Virginia.) 

Cornwallis,  Surrender  of,  at  Yorktown. 
Finding  escape  impossible,  and  further  resist¬ 
ance  futile,  Cornwallis  sent  a  flag  to  Washing¬ 
ton,  with  a  request  that  hostilities  should  be 
suspended  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  that  com¬ 
missioners  should  be  appointed  on  both  sides  to 
meet  at  Mrs.  Moore’s  house,  ou  the  right  of  the 


MRS.  MOORE’S  HOUSE. 


American  lines,  to  arrange  terms  for  the  surren¬ 
der  of  the  post  and  the  British  array.  Commis¬ 
sioners  were  accordingly  appointed,  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  being  Colonel  John  Laurens  and  Viscount 
de  Noailles  (a  kinsman  of  Lafayette),  and  the 
British  Lieutenant -colonel  Dundas  and  Major 
Ross.  The  terms  agreed  upon  were  honorable 
to  both  parties,  and  were  signed  on  the  19th  of 
October,  1781.  They  provided  for  the  surrender 
of  Cornwallis  as  a  prisoner  of  war,  with  all  his 
troops,  and  all  public  property  as  spoils  of  vie- 


tory.  All  slaves  and  plunder  found  in  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  British  might  be  reclaimed  by  their 
owners ;  otherwise  private  property  was  to  be 
respected.  The  loyalists  were  abandoned  to 
the  mercy  or  resentment  of  their  countrymen. 


Such  were  the  general  terms ;  but  Cornwallis 
was  allowed  to  send  away  persons  most  obnox¬ 
ious  to  the  Whigs  in  the  vessel  that  carried 
despatches  to  Clinton.  Late  in  the  afternoon, 
Oct.  19,  the  surrender  of  the  British  troops  took 


CORNWALLIS’S  COMPLAINTS 


334 


CORTEREAL 


place.  Washington  and  Rochambeau  were  at 
the  head  of  their  respective  troops,  on  horse¬ 
back.  The  field  of  surrender  was  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  British  lines.  A  vast  multitude 
of  people,  equal  in  numbers  to  the  troops  to  be 
humiliated,  was  present  at  the  impressive  cer¬ 
emony.  Cornwallis,  it  was  said,  feigned  sick¬ 
ness,  and  did  not  appear,  but  sent  his  sword  by 
General  O’Hara  to  act  as  his  representative. 
That  officer  led  the  vanquished  troops  out  of 
their  intrenchments,  with  their  colors  cased, 
and  marched  them  between  the  two  columns 
of  the  allied  forces.  When  he  arrived  at  their 
head  he  approached  Washington  to  hand  him 
the  earl’s  sword,  when  the  commander-in-chief 
directed  him  to  General  Lincoln  as  his  repre¬ 
sentative.  It  was  a  proud  moment  for  Lincoln, 
who,  the  previous  year,  had  been  compelled  to 
make  a  humiliating  surrender  to  the  royal  troops 
at  Charleston.  He  led  the  vanquished  army  to 
the  place  chosen  for  the  surrender  of  their  arms, 
and  then  received  from  O’Hara  the  sword  of 
Cornwallis,  which  was  politely  returned  to  him 
to  be  restored  to  the  earl.  The  surrender  of 
the  colors  of  the  vanquished  army,  twenty-eight 
in  number,  now  took  place.  Twenty-eight  Brit¬ 
ish  captains,  each  bearing  a  flag  in  a  case,  were 
drawn  up  in  line.  Opposite  to  them,  at  a  dis¬ 
tance  of  six  paces,  twenty-eight  American  ser¬ 
geants  were  placed  in  line  to  receive  the  colors. 
The  interesting  ceremony  was  conducted  by  an 
ensign  (Robert  Wilson),  then  only  eighteen  years 
of  age.  The  troops  then  laid  down  their  arms. 
The  whole  number  surrendered  was  about  7000. 
To  these  must  be  added  2000  sailors,  1800  ne¬ 
groes,  and  1500  Tories,  making  the  total  number 
of  prisoners  12,000.  The  British  lost,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing,  during  the  siege  550  men. 
The  Americans  lost  about  300.  The  spoils  were 
nearly  8000  muskets,  75  brass  and  160  iron  can¬ 
nons,  and  a  large  quantity  of  munitions  of  war 
and  military  stores.  The  French  furnished  for 
gaining  this  victory  37  ships  of  the  line  and  7000 
men.  The  Americans  furnished  9000  troops,  of 
which  number  5500  were  regulars.  On  the  day 
after  the  surrender  Washington,  in  general  or¬ 
ders,  expressed  full  approbation  of  the  conduct 
of  the  allied  armies ;  and,  that  every  soldier 
might  participate  in  the  general  joy  and  thanks¬ 
giving,  he  ordered  every  one  under  arrest  or  in 
confinement  to  be  set  at  liberty ;  and,  as  the  fol¬ 
lowing  day  would  be  the  Sabbath,  he  closed  his 
orders  by  directing  divine  service  to  be  per¬ 
formed  in  the  several  brigades  on  the  morrow. 

Cornwallis’s  Complaints  Answered.  When 
Greene  was  at  Charlotte,  on  his  way  to  take  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Southern  army,  he  received  from 
Cornwallis  a  complaint  of  cruelty  on  the  part  of 
the  Americans  in  hanging  ten  Tories  on  a  tree 
after  the  battle  of  King’s  Mountain  (which  see), 
and  accompanied  the  complaint  with  a  threat  of 
retaliation.  Greene  answered  the  earl  by  send¬ 
ing  him  a  list  of  about  fifty  patriots  who  had 
been  hanged  by  Cornwallis  himself  and  by  oth¬ 
ers  high  in  the  British  service,  and  called  on 
mankind  to  sit  in  judgment  on  the  savage  order 
of  the  earl  to  Balfour  after  the  action  near  Cam¬ 
den,  on  Lord  Rawdon’s  proclamation,  and  on  the 


murderous  raids  of  Tarleton.  He  showed  that 
no  Americau  officer  in  his  department  ever  imi¬ 
tated  the  cruelties  systematically  practised  by 
the  British.  Sumter  and  Marion  always  spared 
prisoners,  although  they  found  the  worst  of 
enemies  among  them  in  the  persons  of  Tories. 
Those  hanged  at  King’s  Mountain  were  among 
the  worst  murderers  in  that  region. 

Coronado,  Francis  Vasquez  de,  set  out  in 
1540,  by  command  of  Mendoza,  Viceroy  of  Mex¬ 
ico,  from  Culiacan,  on  the  southeast  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  with  350  Spaniards  and  800 
Indians,  to  explore  the  country  northward.  He 
followed  the  coast  nearly  to  the  head  of  the  gulf, 
and  then  penetrated  to  the  Gila,  in  the  present 
Arizona  Territory.  Following  that  stream  to  its 
head-waters,  they  crossed  the  great  hills  east¬ 
ward,  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  del 
Norte,  w'hicli  he  followed  to  their  sources.  Then 
crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains,  he  traversed  the 
great  desert  northeastwardly  to  the  present 
states  of  Colorado  or  Kansas,  under  latitude  40° 
north.  In  all  that  vast  region  he  found  little 
to  tempt  or  rewTard  a  conquest — rugged  moun¬ 
tains  and  plains  and  a  few  Indian  villages  in  some 
of  the  valleys.  At  the  same  time  Francisco  Alar- 
5011  was  sent  to  trace  the  Pacific  coast  in  search 
of  an  imagined  gulf  or  strait  (“  Strait  of  Ameri¬ 
ca  ”)  leading  to  the  Atlantic.  He  penetrated  to 
latitude  36°  north,  in  the  present  California.  The 
failure  of  this  expedition  caused  another,  under 
Rodriguez  de  Cabrillo.  (See  Cabrillo.) 

Coronation  of  Powhatan.  In  1608  Captain 
Newport  came  to  Virginia  with  presents  for  the 
Emperor  Powhatan.  Among  these  was  a  basin, 
a  ewer,  some  clothes,  and  a  crown  for  the  dusky 
monarch,  with  orders  for  him  to  be  crowned. 
Captain  Smith  was  then  president  of  the  col¬ 
ony,  and  he,  as  special  ambassador  of  the  King 
of  England,  summoned  the  emperor  to  James¬ 
town  to  undergo  the  ceremony  of  coronation. 
Pow'hatan,  wTith  dignity,  refused  to  go,  saying 
“I  also  am  a  king;  and  if  the  King  of  England 
has  sent  me  gifts,  they  should  be  brought  to  me; 
I  shall  not  go  to  receive  them.”  Newport  wreut 
to  Powhatan  with  the  gifts.  They  were  accept¬ 
ed  ;  but  no  persuasions  could  induce  the  barbari¬ 
an  monarch  to  kneel  to  receive  the  crown.  Only 
by  twro  Englishmen  bearing  down  heavily  upon 
his  shoulders  could  he  be  brought  to  a  position 
that  might  be  considered  as  kneeling;  and  so 
he  had  the  crown  placed  upon  his  head.  The 
act.  finished,  a  pistol  was  fired,  and  was  followed 
by  a  volley  from  the  boats  in  the  York  River. 
Powhatan  was  startled  by  a  fear  of  treachery, 
but  when  assured  that  all  was  right,  he  accept¬ 
ed  this  acknowledgment  of  his  royal  state,  and 
gave  a  slight  present  to  be  conveyed  to  his  broth¬ 
er  the  King  of  England. 

Cortereal,  Gasper,  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
was  born  in  Lisbon,  and  died  in  1501.  He  was 
in  the  service  of  the  King  of  Portugal  when,  in 
1500,  he  left  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus  with  tw  o 
ships  well  equipped  at  his  own  cost  and  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  make  discoveries  in  the  Northwest. 
Cortereal  was  a  gentleman  of  enterprising  and 
determined  character,  who  had  been  reared  in 


CORTEZ  AND  NARVAEZ 


335  COST  OF  WARS  WITH  THE  INDIANS 


the  household  of  the  Portuguese  monarch  and 
had  an  ardent  thirst  for  glory.  He  first  touched, 
it  is  believed,  the  northern  shores  of  Newfound¬ 
land,  discovered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and 
sailed  along  the  coast  of  the  American  continent 
to  latitude  60°,  and  named  the  neighboring  coast 
Labrador.  Cabot  had  visited  that  coast  two 
years  before  (see  Cabot)  but  did  not  land ;  Cor- 
tereal  landed  in  several  places,  and  gave  pure¬ 
ly  Portuguese  names  to  localities.  The  natives 
appearing  to  him  rugged  and  strong  and  capital 
material  for  slaves,  he  seized  fifty  of  them,  and, 
carrying  them  to  Portugal,  made  a  profitable 
sale  of  his  captives.  The  profits  of  this  voyage 
excited  the  cupidity  of  Cortereal  and  his  king 
(Emanuel  the  Great),  and  they  prepared  to  carry 
on  au  active  slave-trade  with  Labrador.  Cor¬ 
tereal  weirt  on  a  second  voyage  in  1501,  but  was 
supposed  to  have  been  lost  at  sea ;  and  his  broth¬ 
er  Michael,  who  went  in  search  of  him,  was  never 
heard  of  afterwards.  An  expedition  sent  by  the 
king  in  1503  found  no  trace  of  him.  The  com¬ 
mander  of  one  of  the  vessels  seized  fifty-seven 
natives  as  slaves,  but  most  of  them  were  lost  in 
the  ships.  The  king  declared  that  Cortereal 
was  the  first  discoverer  of  the  American  conti¬ 
nent,  and  he  caused  a  map  to  be  published  in 
1508,  in  which  the  coast  of  Labrador  is  called 
Terra  Cortereal  is,  or  Cortereal’s  Land. 

Cortez  and  Narvaez.  Velasquez,  Governor 
of  Cuba,  sent  Pampliila  de  Narvaez  against  Cor¬ 
tez,  in  Mexico,  who  was  acting  independently  of 
his  superior.  Narvaez,  with  a  fleet  and  army,  at¬ 
tempted  to  take  Vera  Cruz,  but  failed.  Leaving 
a  part  of  his  forces,  under  Alvarado,  in  Mexico, 
Cortez  marched  against  Narvaez,  attacked  and 
defeated  him,  and  compelled  his  men  to  serve 
under  the  banner  of  the  conqueror  of  Mexico. 

Cortez,  Hernando,  was  born  at  Medellin, 
Estremadura,  Spain,  in  1485,  of  a  good  family ; 
died  near  Seville,  Dec.  2, 1547.  He  studied  law 
two  years  in  Salamanca,  and  in  1504  sailed  from 
San  Lucar  for  Santo  Domingo  in  a  merchant  ves¬ 
sel.  The  governor  received  him  kindly,  and  he 
was  soon  employed,  under  Diego  Velasquez,  in 
quelling  a  revolt.  In  1511  Diego  Columbus  (see 
Columbus),  governor  of  Santo  Domingo,  sent  Ve¬ 
lasquez  to  conquer  and  colonize  Cuba.  Cortez 
accompanied  him.  Santiago  was  founded,  and 
Cortez  was  made  alcalde,  or  mayor.  He  married 
a  Spanish  lady  and  employed  the  natives  in 
mining  gold,  treating  them  most  cruelly.  Velas¬ 
quez  placed  him  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  to 
conquer  and  colonize  Mexico,  portions  of  which 
Cordova  and  Grijalva  had  just  discovered.  Be¬ 
fore  he  sailed  Velasquez  countermanded  the  or¬ 
der,  but  the  ambitious  Cortez,  disobedient, sailed 
for  Mexico,  in  1519,  with  ten  vessels,  bearing  550 
Spaniards,  over  200  Indians,  a  few  negroes  and 
horses,  and  some  brass  cannons.  He  landed  at 
Tobasco,  where  he  fought  the  natives  and  heard 
of  Montezuma,  emperor  of  a  vast  domain,  pos¬ 
sessor  of  great  treasures,  and  living  in  a  city 
called  Mexico.  After  founding  Vera  Cruz,  Cor¬ 
tez  set  out  for  Montezuma’s  capital.  Fighting 
his  way,  he  made  the  conquered  natives  own 
their  vassalage  to  Spain  and  become  his  follow¬ 


ers,  and  in  November,  1519,  he  entered  the  city 
of  Mexico  with  a  handful  of  Spaniards  who  had 
survived  the  battles,  aud  six  thousand  native 
followers.  Montezuma  received  him  kindly. 
Cortez  took  a  strong  position  in  the  city  and 
put  on  the  airs  of  a  conqueror  instead  of  a  guest. 
Some  of  the  irritated  Mexicans  attacked  the  in¬ 
vaders,  when  Cortez,  making  that  a  pretext, 
seized  the  monarch  in  his  palace,  conveyed  him 
to  the  headquarters  of  the  troops,  and  threat¬ 
ened  him  with  instant  death  if  he  did  not  quiet¬ 
ly  submit.  Placing  the  emperor  in  irons,  Cortez 
caused  seventeen  of  the  men  who  had  made  the 
attack  to  be  burned  to  death  iu  front  of  the 
palace.  Then  Montezuma  was  compelled  to  ac¬ 
knowledge  himself  and  his  subjects  vassals  of 
Charles  V.,  and  Cortez  forced  the  fallen  mom 
arch  to  give  him  gold  to  the  value  of  $10,000. 
Suddenly  startled  by  the  news  that  Narvaez 
(see  Narvaez ),  whom  Velasquez  had  sent  to  dis¬ 
place  him,  had  landed  on  the  shores  of  Mexico 
with  900  men,  80  horses,  and  a  dozen  cannons, 
Cortez,  leaving  200  men  in  Mexico,  hasteued  to 
confront  his  rival  with  a  few  followers.  In  a 
battle  Narvaez  was  defeated.  The  vanquished 
troops  joined  the  standard  of  Cortez,  who  hast¬ 
eued  back  to  Mexico.  The  people  had  revolted 
against  the  Spaniards.  The  captive  Montezu¬ 
ma  tried  to  pacify  them,  but,  endeavoring  to  ad¬ 
dress  them,  he  was  assailed  by  a  mob  aud  mor¬ 
tally  wounded.  The  Spaniards  were  driven  out 
of  the  city  ;  their  rear-guard  was  cut  in  pieces, 
and  they  were  terribly  harassed  in  a  flight  for 
six  days  before  the  exasperated  Mexicans.  On 
the  plain  of  Otompan  a  sharp  battle  was  fought 
( J uly  7, 1520),  and  Cortez  was  victor.  Marching  to 
Tlascala,  he  collected  reinforcements  of  natives, 
marched  upon  Mexico,  and  captured  the  city 
after  a  gallant  defence  of  seventy-seven  days, 
Aug.  13, 1521.  His  exploits  wiped  out  the  stain 
of  his  disobedience,  and  he  was  made  civil  and 
military  ruler  of  Mexico,  and  a  marquis,  with  a 
handsome  revenue.  The  natives,  however,  were 
terribly  embittered  by  his  cruelties  aud  his  zeal 
in  destroying  their  idols,  for  he  resolved  to  force 
the  pagans  to  become  Christians.  Cortez  went 
to  Spain,  where  he  was  cordially  received  by 
the  monarch.  Returning  to  Mexico,  he  ex¬ 
plored  the  country  northward  and  discovered 
the  Gulf  aud  Peninsula  of  California.  (See 
California.) 

Corwin,  Thomas,  wras  born  in  Bourbon  Co., 
Ky.,  July  29,  1794;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
Dec.  18,  1855.  He  was  reared  to  manhood  on  a 
farm,  attending  a  common-school  in  winter.  Ho 
began  the  study  of  law  in  1815  ;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  iu  1818;  became  a  member  of  the 
Ohio  Legislature  in  1822,  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1830.  He  remained  in  the  House 
until  elected  Governor  of’Ohio  in  1840.  In  1845 
he  was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator,  and  was  called  to 
the  cabinet  of  President  Fillmore  in  1850,  as 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  He  was  again  e  lected 
to  Congress  in  1859.  In  1861,  President  Lincoln 
sent  him  as  minister  to  Mexico.  Mr.  Corwin 
was  an  eloquent,  witty,  and  effective  speaker. 

Cost  of  Wars  with  the  Indians.  It  was 


COTTON  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  336 


COUCH 


estimated  in  1876  that  the  potentially  hostile 
tribes  numbered  about  sixty -four  thousand 
souls,  widely  scattered  over  a  vast  territory, 
making  war  with  them  extremely  costly  in  men 
and  money.  War  with  the  Cheyennes  in  1864 
caused  about  eight  thousand  troops  to  be  taken 
from  the  armies  engaged  in  suppressing  the 
great  insurrection  to  fight  the  Indians.  The 
result  of  the  year’s  campaign  was  the  killing  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  of  the  barbarians,  at  a  cost  of 
about  $1,000,000  apiece,  while  hundreds  of  sol¬ 
diers  lost  their  lives  and  many  border  settlers 
were  butchered.  This  and  subsequent  wars  with 
the  Indians  have  cost  our  government  over  $100,- 
000,000.  Methods  to  civilize  them,  founded  on 
justice  and  right,  would  have  been  far  less  costly. 

Cotton  in  the  United  States.  Mention  is 
made  of  cotton  “planted  as  an  experiment”  in 
the  region  of  the  Caroliuas  so  early  as  1621,  and 
its  limited  growth  there  is  noted  in  1666.  In 
1736  it  w  as  cultivated  in  gardens  as  far  north  as 
latitude  36°,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland. 
Forty  years  later  it  was  cultivated  ou  Cape  May, 
N.  J. ;  but  it  was  almost  unknown,  except  as  a 
garden  plant,  until  after  the  old  war  for  in¬ 
dependence.  At  the  beginning  of  that  conflict 
General  Delagall  had  thirty  acres  under  culti¬ 
vation  near  Savannah,  Ga.  In  1748  seven  bags 
of  cotton-wool  were  exported'to  England  from 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  valued  at  £3  11s.  5 d.  a  bag. 
There  were  two  or  three  other  small  shipments 
afterwards,  before  the  war.  At  Liverpool  eight 
bags  shipped  from  the  United  States  in  1784  were 
seized,  ou  the  ground  that  so  much  cotton  could 
not  be  produced  in  the  United  States.  In  1786 
the  first  Sea  Island  cotton  was  raised,  off  the 
coast  of  Georgia,  and  its  exportation  began  in 
1788  by  Alexander  Bissell,  of  St.  Simon’s  Island. 
rThe  seeds  were  obtained  from  the  Bahama  Isl¬ 
ands.  The  first  successful  crop  of  this  variety 
was  raised  by  William  Elliott  on  Hilton  Head 
Island,  in  1790.  It  has  always  commanded  a 
higher  price  on  account  of  its  being  more 
staple  than  any  other  variety.  In  1791  the 
cotton  crop  in  the  United  States  was  2,000,000 
pounds.  The  invention  and  introduction  of 
Whitney’s  cotton-gin  (which  see)  caused  a  sud¬ 
den  and  enormous  increase  in  the  production  of 
cotton.  In  1801  the  cotton  crop  in  the  United 
States  was  48,000,000  pounds,  of  which  20,000,- 
000  pounds  were  exported.  The  increase  iu  its 
production  was  greatly  accelerated,  and  the  prod¬ 
uct  of  the  year  ending  in  June,  1860,  on  a  sur¬ 
face  of  little  less  than  11,000  square  miles,  was 
over  5,387,000  bales,  or  over  2,500,000,000  pounds. 
The  value  of  the  cotton  crop  in  1791  was  about 
$30,000  ;  of  that  of  1859-60 — the  largest  crop  ever 
gathered — over  $220,000,000.  The  annual  pro¬ 
duction  of  cotton  iu  the  United  States  was  less 
after  1860.  The  Civil  War  interfered  with  it;! 
but  in  1876  it  was  nearly  4,000,000  bales,  or 
about  1,800,000,000  pounds.  (The  bales  vary 
much  iu  weight  iu  different  years.)  The  cotton- 
plant  holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  our  social, 
commercial,  and  political  history. 

Cotton,  John,  was  one  of  the  first  ministers 
in  Boston,  and  was  born  at  Derby,  Eng.,  Dec.  4, 


1585;  died  in  Boston,  Dec.  23, 1652.  About  the 
year  1612  he  became  minister  of  St.  Botolpli’s 
Church,  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  where  he  remain¬ 
ed,  a  noted  preacher  and  controversialist  for  twen¬ 
ty  years,  constantly  leaning  towards  Puritanism 
(which  see).  For  his  non-conformity  he  was  cited 
to  appear  before  Archbishop  Laud,  when  he  fled 
to  America,  arriving  at  Boston  in  September, 
1633.  He  was  soon  afterwards  ordained  a  col¬ 
league  with  Mr.  Wilson  in  the  Boston  Church. 
His  ministry  there  for  nineteen  years  was  so  in¬ 
fluential  that  he  has  been  called  “  The  Patriarch 
of  New  England.”  He  was  a  firm  opponent  of 
Roger  Williams,  and  defended  the  authority  of 
ministers  and  magistrates.  He  and  Davenport 
were  invited  to  assist  iu  the  assembly  of  divines 
at  Westminster  (which  see),  but  were  dissuaded 
from  going  by  Hooker. 

Cotton  Loan.  The  government  of  the  “  Con¬ 
federate  States  of  America”  issued  bonds  for 
money  loaned,  with  pledges  of  cotton  as  securi¬ 
ty.  Alexander  H.  Stephens  assumed  the  office 
of  expounding  the  principles,  intentions,  and  ef¬ 
fects  of  this  Cotton  Loan.  The  object  was,  he 
said,  to  avoid  taxing  the  people.  “  If  we  do  not 
raise  money  by  loans,”  he  said,  iu  a  speech  to  a 
convention  of  cotton-growers  at  Augusta,  Ga., 
July  11,  1861,  “if  the  people  do  not  contribute, 
I  tell  you  we  intend  to  have  the  money,  and 
taxation  will  be  resorted  to  if  nothing  else  will 
raise  it.  Every  life  and  dollar  in  the  country 
will  be  demanded  rather  than  you  and  every 
one  of  us  shall  be  overrun  by  the  enemy.  On 
that  you  may  count.”  Tho  planters  well  knew 
what  his  demand  implied ;  to  refuse  to  subscribe 
to  the  loan  would  be  held  to  be  constructive 
treason  to  the  Confederacy.  Late  iu  July  the 
Confederate  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  reported 
that  $50,000,000  had  been  subscribed  to  the  Cot¬ 
ton  Loan.  The  bonds  bore  eight  per  cent,  inter¬ 
est,  payable  semi-annually.  Stephens  declared 
that  they  would  be  the  best  government  bonds 
in  the  world,  and  would  “doubtless  command 
fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  premium !”  Yet  he 
frankly  told  them,  what  came  to  pass,  that  if 
the  great  insurrection  should  fail,  “  these  bonds 
will  not  be  worth  a  dollar.”  Cotton  Loan  bonds, 
with  cotton  as  a  basis  of  security,  were  sold  in 
Europe  (mostly  iu  Englaud)  to  the  amount  of 
$15,000,000. 

Couch,  Darius  Nash,  was  born  in  Putnam 
County,  N.  Y.,  July  23,1822;  graduated  at  West 
Point,  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  aided 
in  suppressing  the  last  outbreak  of  the  Semi- 
noles,  and  resigned  in  1855.  Iu  January,  1861, 
while  residing  at  Taunton,  Mass.,  he  was  com¬ 
missioned  colonel  of  a  Massachusetts  regiment, 
and  made  a  major-general  of  volunteers  in  Au¬ 
gust.  He  commanded  a  division  in  General 
Keyes’s  corps  in  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven 
Pines  (which  see).  Pie  also  distinguished  him¬ 
self  at  Williamsburg  and  at  Malvern  Hills,  and 
on  July  4, 1862,  was  promoted  to  major-general. 
Soon  after  his  good  service  at  Antietam  he  was 
put  iu  command  of  Sumner’s  corps,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  battles  under  Burnside  and 
Hooker;  also  under  Thomas,  in  the  defeat  of 


COUNCIL  OF  PLYMOUTH 


337 


COURTING  THE  INMANS 


Hood  at  Nashville  (which  see),  and  in  North 
Carolina  early  in  1885. 

Council  of  Plymouth,  The.  After  the  depart¬ 
ure  of  the  “  Pilgrims”  for  America,  a  new  patent 
was  granted  (Nov.  3, 1620)  to  the  North  Virginia 
Company,  the  Duke  of  Lennox,  the  Marquis¬ 
es  of  Buckingham  and  Hamilton,  the  Earls  of 
Arundel  and  Warwick,  Sir  Ferdinaudo  Gorges, 
with  thirty-four  associates,  and  their  successors, 
styling  them  “  The  Council  established  at  Plym¬ 
outh,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  for  the  planting, 
ruling,  ordering,  and  governing  of  New  England, 
in  America.”  The  domain  embraced  in  the  terms 
of  this  patent  was  between  the  parallels  of  40° 
and  48°  north  latitude,  and  “  in  length  by  all 
the  breadth  aforesaid  throughout  the  mainland 
from  sea  to  sea.”  That  domain  was  given  to  the 
company  as  absolute  property,  and  they  were 
empowered  to  exclude  all  from  trading  within 
the  boundaries  of  their  jurisdiction,  and  from 
fishing  in  the  neighboring  seas.  This  patent 
was  the  only  civil  basis  of  all  the  subsequent 
patents,  which  divided  this  country  into  speci¬ 
fied  domains. 

Council  of  the  Indies,  The.  A  body  of  men 
appointed  by  the  Spanish  monarch,  who,  after 
the  discovery  of  America,  and  during  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  Spain’s  immense  colonial  empire,  gov¬ 
erned  colonial  affairs. 

Countervailing  Measures  (1861).  In  retali¬ 
ation  for  an  order  issued  by  Chase,  the  United 
States  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (May  2,  1861), 
directing  all  officers  in  the  revenue  service  on 
the  northern  and  northwestern  waters  of  the 
United  States  to  seize  and  detain  all  arms,  mu¬ 
nitions  of  war,  provisions,  and  other  supplies  on 
the  way  towards  states  in  which  insurrection 
existed — in  other  words,  establishing  blockades 
of  the  Mississippi  and  the  railways  leading  south 
from  Kentucky — the  Confederates  forbade  the 
exportation  of  raw  cotton  or  cotton  yarn,  except¬ 
ing  through  seaports  of  the  Confederate  States, 
under  heavy  penalties.  They  expected  thus  to 
strike  a  withering  blow  at  manufactures  in  the 
free-labor  states.  By  order  of  John  H.  Reagan, 
the  Confederate  Postmaster-general,  and  as  an 
offset  to  the  order  of  the  National  Postmaster- 
general  for  the  arrest  of  the  United  States  postal 
service,  in  states  where  insurrection  existed,  af¬ 
ter  May  31,  the  postmasters  in  those  states  were 
ordered  to  retain  in  their  possession,  after  June 
1,  “  for  the  benefit  of  the  Confederate  States,  all 
mail-bags,  locks  and  keys,  marking  and  other 
stamps,”  and  “  all  property  connected  with  the 
postal  service.” 

Counties.  The  several  United  States  are  di¬ 
vided  into  political  districts,  which  are  called 
counties.  Several  hundred  years  ago  there  were 
large  districts  of  country  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent  governed  by  earls,  who  were,  however, 
subject  to  the  crown.  These  districts  were  called 
counties,  and  the  name  is  still  retained  even  in 
the  United  States,  and  indicates  certain  judicial 
and  other  jurisdiction.  The  Saxon  equivalent 
for  county  was  shire,  which  simply  means  divis¬ 
ion,  and  was  not  applied  to  such  counties  as 
were  originally  distinct  sovereignties,  such  as 
I.— 22 


Kent,  Norfolk,  etc.  Thus  we  have  Lancashire 
and  Yorkshire.  NewNetherlaud  (New  York)  was 
constituted  a  county  of  Holland,  having  all  the 
individual  privileges  appertaining  to  an  earl¬ 
dom,  or  separate  government.  On  its  seal  ap¬ 
pears  as  a  crest  to  the  arms  a  kind  of  cap  called 
a  coronet,  which  is  the  armorial  distinction  of  a 
count  or  earl. 

County  Courts  first  established  in  America. 

The  extent  of  settlements  had  become  so  great 
in  Virginia  in  1622  that  it  was  inconvenient  to 
bring  all  legal  causes  to  the  capital  at  James¬ 
town,  and  inferior  courts  were  appointed  in  con¬ 
venient  places  to  relieve  the  governor  and  coun¬ 
cil  (who  constituted  the  superior  judiciary)  of  a 
heavy  burden  of  business,  and  to  render  justice 
more  accessible  and  less  expensive. 

County  Courts  in  Connecticut.  In  May,  1666, 
the  General  Assembly  of  Connecticut  divided 
the  colony  into  four  counties — namely,  Hartford, 
New  Haven,  New  London,  and  Fairfield,  and  es¬ 
tablished  a  county  court  in  each. 

Courcelles,  M.  D.,  appointed  governor  of  Can¬ 
ada,  arrived  in  1665  with  a  regiment  of  soldiers 
and  many  families,  with  horses  (the  first  ever 
seen  in  Canada),  cattle,  and  sheep.  To  prevent 
the  irruptions  of  the  Five  Nations  by  way  of 
Lake  Champlain,  he  built  three  forts  between 
that  lake  and  the  mouth  of  the  Richelieu,  or 
Sorel,  its  outlet. 

Court  of  Assistants,  The.  This  was  com¬ 
posed  of  a  prescribed  number  of  persons,  by 
whom  monthly  courts  were  held,  and  who,  with 
the  governor  and  deputy-governor,  managed  the 
affairs  of  the  government,  at  least  those  of  ex¬ 
ecutive  routiue.  The  assistants  were  magis¬ 
trates,  and  were  elected  annually. 

Court  of  Chancery,  The  First,  in  New 
York.  Under  the  authority  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  and  Plantations  (which  see),  the  Earl  of 
Bellomont,  governor  of  New  York,  set  up  a  court 
of  chancery  in  that  province  in  1698,  himself 
acting  as  judge. 

Courting  the  Indians.  The  British,  as  hos¬ 
tilities  threatened  early  in  1775,  endeavored  to 
secure  the  co-operation  of  the  Indians  against 
the  American  colonists.  Canadian  emissaries 
were  sent  among  the  northwestern  tribes  around 
the  upper  lakes  and  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  Guy 
Johnson,  Indian  agent  in  New  York,  carefully 
proceeded  to  remove  American  missionaries  from 
the  Six  Nations.  The  colonists  took  immediate 
countervailing  measures.  The  good  Eleazar 
Wheelock  (see  Dartmouth  College)  sent,  as  the 
first  envoy  from  New  England,  the  ardent  young 
preacher  James  Doan,  who  was  a  master  of  the 
language  of  the  Iroquois,  to  “itinerate  as  a  mis¬ 
sionary  among  the  tribes  in  Canada,  and  bright¬ 
en  the  chain  of  friendship.”  The  Provincial 
Congress  of  Massachusetts  sent  the  thoughtful 
and  pious  Kirkland  to  the  Mohawks.  Ho  had 
lived  among  them  as  a  missionary,  and  was 
much  esteemed  by  them.  He  was  instructed  to 
persuade  them  to  either  join  the  Americans  or 
remain  neutral.  The  same  Congress  voted  a 
blanket  and  a  ribbon  to  each  of  the  Indians  liv- 


COVENHOVEN 


33  8 


lug  at  Stockbridge,  and  these  promised  to  inter¬ 
cede  with  the  Six  Nations. 

Covenhoven,  Robert,  a  soldier  and  pioneer 
in  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  Monmouth  Coun¬ 
ty,  N.  J.,  Dec.  17, 1755 ;  died  at  Northumberland, 
Penn.,  Oct.  29,  1846.  His  ancestors  were  from 
Holland,  and  among  the  earlier  settlers  in  New 
Jersey.  About  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
they  moved  to  the  region  near  the  west  branch 
of  the  Susquehanna  River.  He  joined  the  Con¬ 
tinental  army  under  Washington  in  1776,  par¬ 
ticipated  in  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Prince¬ 
ton,  and  then  returned  to  northern  Pennsylvania, 
where  he  was  employed  in  the  defence  of  the 
frontier  against  the  Indians.  An  incident  of  his 
life  furnishes  a  glimpse  of  the  state  of  society 
at  that  time.  In  February,  1778,  Covenhoven 
was  married  to  Mercy  Kelsey  in  New  Jersey. 
While  the  nuptial  ceremony  was  in  progress, 
it  was  interrupted  by  the  sudden  arrival  of  a 
troop  of  Hessian  soldiers.  The  groom  escaped 
through  a  window,  but,  returning  at  night,  he 
carried  away  his  bride  to  his  Pennsylvania  home. 
From  that  time  until  the  close  of  the  war  he 
participated  as  watcher,  guide,  and  soldier  in 
opposing  the  forays  of  the  barbarians ;  and  was 
in  the  desperate  engagement  of  Wyalusing.  He 
ranks  in  tradition  among  the  genuine  heroes  of 
America.  In  1796-97  he  superintended  the  con¬ 
struction  of  a  wagon-road  through  the  wilder¬ 
ness  from  the  mouth  of  Lycoming  Creek  to 
Painted  Post,  Steuben  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Covington,  Leonard,  was  born  at  Acquas- 
co,  Prince  George’s  Co.,  Md.,  Oct.  30, 1768 ;  died 
at  French  Mills,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  14,  1813.  He  was 
commissioned  lieutenant  of  dragoons  March  14, 
1792;  joined  the  army  under  General  Wayne, 
and  behaved  so  gallantly  in  the  war  with  the 
Indians  in  1794  that  his  general  made  honorable 
mention  of  his  services.  He  was  promoted  to 
captain,  aud  soon  afterwards  retired  from  the 
military  service.  After  occupying  a  seat  in  the 
Legislature  of  Maryland,  he  Avas  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1805  to  1807.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry, 
and  was  made  a  brigadier  in  1813,  aud  ordered 
to  the  northern  frontier.  In  the  battle  at  Clirys- 
ler’s  Field  (Nov.  11, 1813)  he  was  mortally  wound¬ 
ed,  aud  died  three  days  afterwards. 

Cow-boys.  During  the  Revolution  a  band 
of  marauders,  consisting  mostly  of  Tory  refu¬ 
gees  who  adhered  to  the  British  interests,  in¬ 
fested  the  neutral  ground  in  Westchester  Coun¬ 
ty,  N.  Y.,  between  the  Americau  and  British 
lines,  and  because  they  stole  many  cattle  were 
called  Cow-boys.  They  generally  plundered  the 
Whigs,  or  adherents  of  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress;  but,  like  their  opponents  the  Skinners, 
they  were  not  always  scrupulous  in  the  choice 
of  their  victims.  (See  Skinners.') 

“  Cow  Chace,  The.”  In  the  summer  of  1780 
Washington  sent  General  Wayne,  with  a  consid¬ 
erable  force,  to  storm  a  British  block-house  at 
Bull’s  Ferry,  on  the  Hudson,  near  Fort  Lee,  and 
to  drive  into  the  American  camp  a  large  number 
of  cattle  on  Bergen  Neck  exposed  to  British  for¬ 
agers,  who  might  go  out  from  Pawlus’s  Hook 


COW  CHACE,  THE 

(now  Jersey  City).  Wayne  was  repulsed  at  the 
block-house,  with  a  loss  of  sixty-four  men,  but 
returned  to  camp  with  a  large  number  of  cattle 
driven  by  his  dragoons.  This  event  inspired 
Major  Andre,  Sir  Henry  Clinton’s  adjutant-gen¬ 
eral,  to  write  a  satirical  poem,  which  he  called 
“  The  Cow  Chace,”  in  which  Wayne  aud  his  fel¬ 
low-"  rebels”  were  severely  ridiculed.  It  was 
written  in  the  style  of  the  English  ballad  of 
Clievy  Chace,  in  three  cantos.  The  following  is 
a  copy  of  the  poem,  writh  a  fac-simile  of  its  title 
from  Andrd’s  autograph ;  also  of  the  concluding 
verse  of  the  original : 


To  drive  the  kine  one  summer’s  morn, 

The  tanner  took  his  way, 

The  calf  shall  rue  that  is  unborn 
The  jumbling  of  that  day. 

And  Wayne  descending  steers  shall  know, 
And  tauntingly  deride. 

And  call  to  mind,  in  ev’ry  low, 

The  tanning  of  his  hide. 

Yet  Bergen  cows  still  ruminate 
Unconscious  in  the  stall, 

What  mighty  means  were  used  to  get, 

And  lose  them  after  all. 

For  many  heroes  bold  and  brave 
From  New  Bridge  and  Tapaan. 

And  those  that  drink  Passa'c’s  wave, 

And  those  that  eat  soupaan. 

And  sons  of  distant  Delaware, 

And  still  remoter  Shannon, 

And  Major  Lee  with  horses  rare, 

And  Proctor  with  his  cannon! 

All  wondrous  proud  in  arms  they  came — 
What  hero  could  refuse, 

To  tread  the  rugged  path  to  fame, 

Who  had  a  pair  of  shoes? 

At  six  the  host,  with  sweating  buff, 

Arrived  at  Freedom’s  Pole, 

When  Wayne,  who  thought  he’d  time  enough, 
Thus  speechified  the  whole: 

“  0  ye  whom  glory  doth  unite, 

Who  Freedom’s  cause  espouse. 

Whether  the  wing  that’s  doom’d  to  fight, 

Or  that  to  drive  the  cows ; 

Ere  yet  you  tempt  your  further  way, 

Or  into  action  come, 

Hear,  soldiers,  what  I  have  to  say, 

And  take  a  pint  of  rum. 

Intemp’rate  valor  then  will  string 
Each  nervous  arm  the  better, 

So  all  the  land  shall  10 !  sing, 

And  read  the  gen’ral’s  letter. 


COW  CHACE,  THE 


339  COW  CHACE,  THE 


Know  that  some  paltry  refugees, 

Whom  I’ve  a  mind  to  fight, 

Are  playing  h — 1  among  the  trees 
That  grow  on  yonder  height. 

Their  fort  and  block-house  we  will  level, 
And  deal  a  horrid  slaughter; 

We’ll  drive  the  scoundrels  to  the  dev.l, 

And  ravish  wife  and  daughter. 

I  under  cover  of  th’  attack, 

While  you  are  all  at  blows, 

From  English  Neighb’rhood  and  Tinack 
Will  drive  away  the  cows. 

For  well  you  know  the  latter  is 
The  serious  operation. 

And  fighting  with  the  refugees 
Is  only  demonstration.” 

His  daring  words  from  all  the  crowd 
Such  great  applause  did  gain, 

That  every  man  declared  aloud 
For  serious  work  with  Wayne. 

Then  from  the  cask  of  rum  once  more 
They  took  a  heady  gill, 

When  one  and  all  they  loudly  swore 
They’d  fight  upon  the  hill. 

But  here — the  Muse  has  not  a  strain 
Befitting  such  great  deeds. 

Hurra,  they  cried,  hurra  for  Wayne! 

And,  shouting,  did  their  needs. 

Cant;o  II. 

Near  his  meridian  pomp,  the  sun 
Had  journeyed  from  the  horizon, 

When  fierce  the  dusky  tribe  moved  on, 

Of  heroes  drunk  as  poison. 

The  sounds  confused  of  boasting  oaths 
Re-echoed  through  the  wood, 

Some  vow’d  to  sleep  in  dead  men’s  clothes, 
And  some  to  swim  in  blood. 

At  Irvine’s  nod,  ’twas  fine  to  see 
The  left  prepared  to  fight, 

The  while  the  drovers,  Wayne  and  Lee, 
Drew  off  upon  the  right. 

Which  Irvine  ’twas  Fame  don’t  relate, 

Nor  can  the  Muse  assist  her. 

Whether  ’twas  he  that  cocks  a  hat, 

Or  he  that  gives  a  glister. 

For  greatly  one  was  signalized 
That  fought  at  Chestnut  Hill, 

And  Canada  immortalized 
The  vender  of  the  pill. 

Yet  the  attendance  upon  Proctor 
They  both  might  have  to  boast  of, 

For  there  was  business  for  the  doctor, 

And  hats  to  be  disposed  of. 

Let  none  uncandidly  infer 
That  Stirling  wanted  spunk; 

The  self-made  peer  had  sure  been  there, 

But  that  the  peer  was  drunk. 

But  turn  we  to  the  Hudson’s  banks, 

Where  stood  the  modest  train. 

With  purpose  firm,  though  slender  ranks, 
Nor  cared  a  pin  for  Wayne. 

For  then  the  unrelenting  hand 
Of  rebel  fury  drove, 

And  tore  from  ev’ry  gen’al  band 
Of  friendship  and  of  love. 

And  some  within  a  dungeon’s  gloom, 

By  mock  tribunals  laid. 

Had  waited  long  a  cruel  doom, 

Impending  o’er  their  heads. 

Here  one  bewails  a  brother’s  fate, 

There  one  a  s’ re  demands, 

Cut  off.  alasl  before  their  date, 

By  ignominious  hands. 

And  silvered  grandsires  hero  appeared 
In  deep  distress  serene. 

Of  reverend  manners  that  declared 
The  better  days  they’d  seen. 

Oh !  cursed  rebellion,  these  are  thine, 

Th  ne  are  these  tales  of  woe; 

Shall  at  thy  dire  insatiate  shrtno 
Blood  never  cease  to  flow? 


And  now  the  foe  began  to  lead 
His  forces  to  th’  attack ; 

Balls  whistling  unto  balls  succeed. 

And  make  the  block-house  crack. 

No  shot  could  pass,  if  you  will  take 
The  gen’ral's  word  for  true; 

But  ’tis  a  d — ble  mistake, 

For  ev’ry  shot  went  through. 

The  firmer  as  the  rebels  pressed, 

The  loyal  heroes  stand  ; 

Virtue  had  nerved  each  honest  breast, 

And  Industry  each  hand. 

In*  valor’s  frenzy.  Hamilton 
Rode  like  a  soldier  big, 

And  secretary  Harrison, 

With  pen  stuck  in  his  wig. 

But,  lest  chieftain  Washington 
Should  mourn  them  in  the  mumps. t 
The  fate  of  Withrington  to  shun. 

They  fought  behind  the  stumps. 

But  ah  1  Thaddeus  Posset,  why 
Should  thy  poor  soul  elope? 

And  why  should  Titus  Hooper  die, 

Ah  I  die— without  a  rope? 

Apostate  Murphy,  thou  to  whom 
Fair  Shela  ne’er  was  cruel ; 

In  death  shall  hear  her  mourn  thy  doom, 

Och!  would  ye  die,  my  jewel? 

Thee,  Nathan  Pumpkin,  I  lament, 

Of  melancholy  fate, 

The  gray  goose,  stolen  as  he  went, 

In  his  heart’s  blood  was  wet. 

Now  as  the  fight  was  further  fought 
And  balls  began  to  thicken, 

The  fray  assumed,  the  geu’rais  thought, 

The  color  of  a  licking. 

Yet  und’smayed  the  chiefs  command, 

And,  to  redeem  the  day. 

Cry,  ‘-Soldiers,  charge!”  they  hear,  they  stand, 
They  turn  and  run  away. 

Canto  III. 

Not  all  delights  the  bloody  spear, 

Or  horrid  din  of  battle. 

There  are,  I’m  sure,  who’d  like  to  hear 
A  word  about  the  rattle. 

The  chief  whom  we  beheld  of  late. 

Near  Sehralenberg  haranguing. 

At  Yan  Van  Poop's  unconscious  sat 
Of  Irviue’s  hearty  banging. 

While  valiant  Lee.  with  courage  wild, 

Most  bravely  did  oppose 
The  tears  of  women  and  of  child, 

Who  begged  he’d  leave  the  cows. 

But  Wayne,  of  sympathizing  heart, 

Required  a  relief, 

Not  all  the  blessings  could  impart, 

Of  battle  or  of  beef. 

For  now  a  prey  to  female  charms, 

His  soul  took  more  delight  in 
A  lovely  Hamadryad’st  arms 
Than  cow  driving  or  fighting. 

A  nymph,  the  refugees  had  drove 
Far  from  her  native  tree. 

Just  happen’d  to  be  on  the  move, 

When  up  came  Wayne  and  Lee. 

She  in  mad  Anthony’s  fierce  eye 
The  hero  saw  portrayed, 

And,  all  in  tears,  she  took  him  by 
—  the  bridle  of  his  jade. 

Hear,  said  tho  nymph,  O  great  commander, 

No  human  lamentations, 

Tho  trees  you  see  them  cutting  yonder 
Are  all  my  near  relations. 

And  I,  forlorn,  implore  thine  aid 
To  free  the  sacred  grove: 

So  shall  thy  prowess  be  repaid 
With  an  immortal’s  love. 


*  See  Lee’s  trial. 

t  A  disorder  prevalent  in  tho  rebel  linos, 
t  A  deity  of  the  woods. 


COW  CHACE,  THE 


340  COWPENS,  BATTLE  OF  THE 


Now  some,  to  prove  she  was  a  goddess! 

Said  this  enchanting  fair, 

Had  late  retired  from  the  Bodies  * 

In  all  the  pomp  of  war. 

That  drums  and  merry  fifes  had  played 
To  honor  her  retreat, 

And  Cunningham  himself  conveyed 
The  lady  through  the  street. 

Great  Wayne,  by  soft  compassion  swayed, 
To  no  inquiry  stoops, 

But  takes  the  fair,  afflicted  maid 
Right  into  Yan  Van  Poop's. 

So  Roman  Antony,  they  say, 

Disgraced  th’  imperial  banner, 

And  for  a  gypsy  lost  a  day, 

Like  Anthony  the  tanner. 

The  Hamadryad  had  hut  half 
Received  redress  from  Wayne, 

When  drums  and  colors,  cow  and  calf, 
Came  down  the  road  amain. 

All  in  a  cloud  of  dust  were  seen, 

The  sheep,  the  horse,  the  goat, 

The  gentle  heifer,  ass  obscene, 

The  yearling  and  the  .shoat. 

And  pack-horses  with  fowls  came  by, 
Befeathered  on  each  side, 

Like  Pegasus,  the  horse  that  I 
And  other  poets  ride. 

Sublime  upon  the  stirrups  rose 
The  mighty  Lee  behind, 

And  drove  the  terror-smitten  cows, 

Like  chaff  before  the  wind. 

But  sudden  see  the  woods  above 
Pour  down  another  corps, 

All  helter-skelter  in  a  drove, 

Like  that  I  sung  before. 

Irvine  and  terror  in  the  van 
Came  flying  ail  abroad. 

And  cannon,  colors,  horse,  and  man 
Ran  tumbling  to  the  road. 

Still  as  he  fled,  ’twas  Irvine’s  cry, 

And  his  example  too, 

‘‘Run  on,  my  merry  men  all— for  why?” 
The  shot  will  not  go  through.! 


As  when  two  kennels  in  the  street, 

Swell  d  with  a  recent  rain, 

In  gushing  streams  together  meet, 

And  seek  the  neighboring  dra.n, 

So  meet  these  dung-born  tribes  in  one, 

As  swift  in  their  career, 

And  so  to  New  Bridge  they  ran  on — 

But  all  the  cows  got  clear. 

Poor  Parson  Caldwell,  all  in  wonder, 

Saw  the  returning  train. 

And  mourned  to  Wayne  the  lack  of  plunder, 
For  them  to  steal  again. 

For  ’twas  his  right  to  seize  the  spoil,  and 
To  share  with  each  commander, 

As  he  had  done  at  Staten  Island 
With  frost  bit  Alexander. 

In  his  dismay,  the  frantic  priest 
Began  to  grow  prophetic. 

You  had  swore,  to  see  his  lab’ring  breast, 
He’d  taken  an  emetic. 

“1  view  a  future  day,”  said  ho, 

“  Brighter  than  this  day  dark  is, 

And  you  shall  see  what  you  shall  see, 

Ha!  ha!  one  pretty  marquis; 

And  he  shall  come  to  Paulus’  Hook, 

And  great  achievements  think  on, 

And  make  a  bow  and  take  a  look, 

Like  Satan  over  Lincoln. 

And  all  the  land  around  shall  glory 
To  see  the  Frenchman  caper, 

And  pretty  Susan  tell  the  story 
In  the  next  Chatham  paper.” 

This  solemn  prophecy,  of  course, 

Gave  all  much  consolation. 

Except  to  Wayne,  who  lost  his  horse 
Upon  the  great  occasion. 

His  horse  that  carried  all  his  prog, 

His  military  speeches, 

His  corn  stalk  whiskey  for  his  grog — 

Blue  stockings  and  brown  breeches. 

And  now  I’ve  clos’d  my  epic  strain, 

I  tremble  as  I  show  it, 

Lest  this  same  warrio-drover,  Wayne, 

Should  ever  catch  the  poet. 


The  last  canto  was  published  on  the  day  when 
Andrd  was  captured  at  Tarrytown.  At  the  end 
of  the  autograph  copy  was  written  the  following 
stanza,  in  a  neat  hand  : 

“When  the  epic  strain  was  sung, 

The  poet  by  the  neck  was  hung ; 

And  to  his  cost  he  finds  too  late. 

The  dung-born  tribe  decides  his  fate.” 

Wayne  was  in  command  of  the  troops  from  whom 
the  guard  was  drawn  that  attended  Andre’s  ex¬ 
ecution. 

*  A  cant  appellation  given  among  the  soldiery  to  the  corps 
that  has  the  honor  to  guard  his  majesty’s  person. 
t  Five  refugees  (’tis  true)  were  found 
Stiff  on  the  block  house  floor, 

But  then  ’tis  thought  the  shot  went  round, 

And  in  at  the  back-door. 


Cowpens,  Battle  of  ttie.  From  his  camp, 
eastward  of  the  Pedee,  Greene  sent  Morgan,  with 
the  Maryland  regiment  and  Washington’s  dra¬ 
goons  of  Lee’s  corps,  across  the  Broad  River,  to 
operate  on  the  British  left  and  rear.  Observing 
this,  Cornwallis  left  his  camp  at  Winnsborough, 
and  pushed  northward  between  the  Broad  River 
and  the  Catawba,  for  the  purpose  of  interposing 
his  force  between  Greene  and  Morgan.  Against 
the  latter  he  had  detached  Tarleton  with  about 
one  thousand  light  troops.  Aware  of  Tarleton’s 
approach,  Morgan  retired  behind  the  Pacolet,  in¬ 
tending  to  defend  the  ford  ;  but  Tarleton  crossed 
six  miles  above,  when  Morgan  made  a  precipitate 
retreat.  If  he  could  cross  the  Broad  River,  he 


COWPENS 


341  CRADLE  OF  AMERICAN  LIBERTY 


■would  be  safe.  Ou  his  right  was  a  hilly  dis¬ 
trict,  which  might  afford  him  protection  ;  but, 
rather  than  be  overtaken  in  his  tlight,  he  pre¬ 
pared  to  fight  on  the  ground  of  his  own  selec¬ 
tion.  He  chose  for  that  purpose  a  place  known 
as  “  The  Cowpeus,”  about  thirty  miles  west  of 
King’s  Mountain  (which  see).  He  arranged 
about  four  hiifldred  of  his  best  men  in  battle 
order  on  a  little  rising  ground.  There  were 
the  Maryland  light  infantry,  under  Lieutenant- 
colonel  John  Eager  Howard,  composing  the  cen¬ 
tre,  and  Virginia  riflemen  forming  the  wings. 
Lieutenant-colonel  William  Washington,  with 
eighty  dragoons,  were  placed  out  of  sight,  as  a 
reserve,  and  about  four  hundred  Carolinians  and 
Georgians,  under  Colonel  Andrew  Pickens,  were 
iu  the  advance,  to  defend  the  approaches  to  the 
camp.  North  Carolina  and  Georgia  sharp-shoot¬ 
ers  acted  as  skirmishers  on  each  bank.  At  eight 
o’clock  on  a  winter’s  morning  (Jan.  17,  1781), 
Tarleton,  with  eleven  hundred  troops,  foot  and 
horse,  with  two  pieces  of  cannon,  rushed  upon 
the  Republicans  with  loud  shouts.  A  furious 
battle  ensued.  In  a  skilful  movement,  iu  the 
form  of  a  feigned  retreat,  Morgan  turned  so  sud¬ 
denly  upon  his  pursuers,  who  believed  the  vic¬ 
tory  was  secured  to  them,  that  they  wavered. 
Seeing  this,  Howard  charged  the  British  lines 
with  bayonets,  broke  their  ranks,  and  sent  them 
bying  iu  confusion.  At  that  moment  Washing¬ 
ton’s  cavalry  broke  from  their  concealment,  and 
made  a  successful  charge  upon  Tarleton’s  horse¬ 
men.  The  British  were  completely  routed,  and 
were  pursued  about  twenty  miles.  The  Ameri¬ 
cans  lost  seventy -two  killed  and  wounded. 
The  British  lost  over  three  hundred  killed  and 
wounded,  and  near  five  hundred  made  prison¬ 
ers.  The  spoils  were  two  cannons,  eight  hun¬ 
dred  muskets,  horses,  and  two  standards.  The 
cannons  had  been  taken  from  the  British  at 
Saratoga,  and  retaken  from  Gates  at  Camden. 
The  Congress  gave  Morgan  the  thanks  of  the 
nation  and  a  gold  medal,  and  to  Howard  and 
Washington  each  a  silver  medal. 


GOLD  MEDAL 


Cowpens,  The.  This  name  was  derived  from 
the  circumstance  that,  some  years  before  the 
Revolution,  before  that  section  was  settled, 
some  persons  in  Camden  ( then  called  Pine 


Tree)  employed  two  men  to  go  up  to  the  Thick- 
etty  Mountain,  and  in  the  grassy  intervals 
among  the  hills  raise  cattle.  As  a  compensa¬ 
tion,  they  were  allowed  the  entire  use  of  the 
cows  during  the  summer,  for  making  butter 
and  cheese,  and  the  steers  in  tillage.  In  the 
fall  large  numbers  of  the  fatted  cattle  would  be 
driven  down  to  Camden  to  be  slaughtered  for 
beef  on  account  of  the  owners.  This  region, 
on  account  of  its  grass  and  fine  springs,  was 
peculiarly  favorable  for  the  rearing  and  use  of 
cows,  and  consequently  was  called  “  The  Cow 
Pens.” 

Cox,  Jacob  Dolson,  was  born  in  Montreal, 
Canada,  Oct.  27,  1828.  His  mother  was  a  lin¬ 
eal  descendant  of  Elder  William  Brewster,  of 
the  Mayflower.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1852,  and  practised  his  profession  iu  Warren, 
Ohio,  until  elected  state  senator,  in  1859.  He 
was  created  brigadier-general  of  state  militia, 
and  commanded  a  camp  of  instruction,  in  April, 
1861,  and  in  May  was  made  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers,  doing  good  service  in  western 
Virginia.  In  August,  1862,  he  was  assigned  to 
the  Army  of  Virginia,  under  General  Pope,  and 
in  the  fall  was  ordered  to  the  district  of  the 
Kanawha.  After  the  death  of  Reno,  at  South 
Mountain  (which  see),  he  commanded  the  Ninth 
Corps.  He  was  in  command  of  the  district  of 
Oliio  in  1863;  served  in  the  Atlanta  campaign  iu 
1864;  and  was  promoted  to  major-general  in  De¬ 
cember  of  that  year.  He  joined  Sherman’s  army 
early  in  1865,  was  governor  of  Ohio  in  1866-68, 
and  was  called  to  the  cabinet  of  President  Grant, 
as  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  in  March,  1869. 

Cradle  of  American  Liberty.  This  name 
was  given  to  Faueuil  Hall,  in  Boston,  because 
it  was  the  usual  meeting-place  of  the  patriots 
during  the  long  contest  with  royal  power,  be¬ 
fore  the  kindling  of  the  old  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence.  It  was  erected  in  1742,  at  the  sole  ex¬ 
pense  of  Peter  Faneuil,  of  Boston,  who  generous¬ 
ly  gave  it  to  the  town.  The  lower  story  was 


ED  TO  MORGAN. 


used  for  a  market,  and  in  the  upper  story  was 
an  elegant  and  spacious  hall,  with  convenient 
rooms  for  the  public  use.  It  was  burned  in  1761, 
when  the  town  immediately  rebuilt  it.  The  en- 


CRADOCK 


342 


CRANEY  ISLAND 


graving  shows  it  as  it  was  during  the  Revolu¬ 
tion.  The  hall  is  about  eighty  feet  square,  and 
contains  some  fine  paintings  of  distinguished 
men.  The  original  vane,  in  the  form  of  a  grass¬ 
hopper,  copied  from  that  of  the  Royal  Exchange 
of  London,  still  does  duty  there.  In  1805  an¬ 
other  story  was  added  to  the  original  building.. 


fanecil  hall.  (From  an  English  print  of  the  time.) 


The  name  of  Cradle  of  Liberty  was  also  given 
to  the  “Apollo  Room,”  a  large  apartment  in  the 
Raleigh  Tavern  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  where  the 
members  of  the  House  of  Burgesses  met  after 
its  dissolution  by  Governor  Lord  Dunmore  in 
1774.  There  they  adopted  non-importation  res¬ 
olutions,  appointed  a  fast-day,  and  chose  dele¬ 
gates  to  the  First  Continental  Congress,  wrliich 
assembled  at  Philadelphia  in  September. 


THE  ArOLLO  ROOM. 

Cradock,  Matthew,  an  opulent  London  mer¬ 
chant,  was  the  first  governor  of  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  Company,  who  founded  the  Massachusetts 
Bay  Colony.  He  never  came  to  America,  but 
was  a  munificent  supporter  of  the  colony  during 
its  early  struggles.  He  was  a  member  of  the 


celebrated  Long  Parliament  (which  see),  and 
died  May  27, 1641. 

Craig,  Sir  James  Henry,  was  born  at  Gib¬ 
raltar,  1749 ;  died  Jan.  12, 1812.  He  entered  the 
British  army  as  ensign  in  1763,  was  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Boyd  at  Gibraltar  in  1770,  and  came 
to  America  in  1774.  He  remained  in  service 

here  from  the 
battle  of  Bun¬ 
ker’s  Hill  until 
the  evacuation 
of  Charleston,  in 
1781,  where  he 
held  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  -  colo¬ 
nel.  He  was  made 
a  major-general 
in  1794,  lieuten¬ 
ant-general  in 
1801,  and  gov¬ 
ernor-general 
and  commander- 
in-chief  of  Cana¬ 
da  in  1807.  To¬ 
tally  unfit  for 
civil  rule,  he  was 
a  petty  oppressor 
as  governor ;  his 
administration 
was  short,  and  he 
returned  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  1811. 

Craik,  James, 
M.D.,  was  born  in 
Scotland  in  1731; 
died  in  Fairfax 
County, Ya.,  Feb. 
6,  1S14.  Educated  for  a  physician,  he  came  to 
America  in  early  life,  and  practised  his  profession 
in  Fairfax  County.  He  was  the  intimate  friend 
and  family  physician  of  Washington.  He  was 
with  him  in  his  expedition  against  the  French 
in  1754,  and  in  Braddock’s  campaign  in  1755.  In 
1775  he  was  placed  in  the  medical  department 
of  the  Continental  Army,  and  rose  to  the  first 
rank-  He  unearthed  many  of  the  secrets  of  the 
Conway  Cabal  (which  see),  and  did  much 
to  defeat  the  conspiracy.  He  was  director 
of  the  army  hospital  at  Yorktown  in  the 
siege  of  that  place,  in  1781,  and  after  the 
Revolution  settled  near  MountVernnn,  where 
he  was  the  principal  attendant  of  Washing¬ 
ton  in  his  last  illness. 

Craney  Island,  Repulse  of  the  British 
at  (1813).  On  the  1st  of  June,  1813,  Admiral 
Sir  J.  Borlase  Warren  entered  the  Chesapeake 
with  a  considerable  reinforcement  for  the 
marauding  squadron  of  Sir  George  Cockburn, 
bearing  a  large  number  of  laud-troops  and 
marines.  There  were  twenty  ships  of  the  line 
and  frigates  and  several  smaller  British  war- 
vessels  within  the  capes  of  Virginia.  The  citi¬ 
zens  of  Baltimore,  Annapolis,  and  Norfolk  were 
equally  menaced.  Norfolk  was  the  first  point  of 
attack.  For  its  defence  on  the  waters  were  the 
frigate  Constellation ,  38  guns,  and  a  flotilla  of 
gunboats;  on  the  land  were  forts  Norfolk  and 


CRANEY  ISLAND 


343 


CRAVEN 


Nelson  (one  on  each  side  of  the  Elizabeth  River) 
and  forts  Tar  and  Barbour,  and  the  fortifica¬ 
tions  on  Craney  Island,  five  miles  below  the  city. 
Towards  midnight  of  June  19  Captain  Tarbell, 
by  order  of  Commodore  Cassiu,  commanding 
the  station,  went  down  the  Elizabeth  River 
with  fifteen  gunboats,  to  attempt  the  capture 
of  the  frigate  Junon,  38  guns,  Captain  Sanders, 
which  lay  about  three  miles  from  the  rest  of 
the  British  fleet.  Fifteen  sharp-shooters  from 
Craney  Island  were  added  to  the  crews  of  the 
boats.  At  half-past  three  in  the  morning  the 
flotilla  approached  the  Junon,  and,  under  cover 
of  the  darkness  and  a  thick  fog,  the  American 
vessels  approached  her  to  within  easy  range 
■without  being  discovered.  She  was  taken  by 
surprise.  After  a  conflict  of  half  an  hour,  and 
when  victory  seemed  within  the  grasp  of  the 
Americans,  a  wind  sprung  up  from  the  northeast, 
and  two  vessels  lying  becalmed  below  came  to 
the  Junon's  assistance,  and  by  a  severe  cannon¬ 
ade  repulsed  them.  In  this  affair  the  Americans 
lost  one  man  killed  and  two  slightly  wounded. 
This  attack  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  The 
firing  had  been  distinctly  heard  by  the  fleet, 
and  with  the  next  tide,  on  a  warm  Sunday 
morning  in  June,  fourteen  of  the  British  vessels 
entered  Hampton  Roads,  and  took  position  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Nansemoud  River.  They  bore 
land-troops,  under  General  Sir  Sidney  Beckwith. 
The  whole  British  force,  including  the  sailors, 
was  about  five  thousand  men.  Governor  Bar- 
hour  of  Virginia  had  assembled  several  thou¬ 
sand  militia,  in  anticipation  of  invasion.  Cra¬ 
ney  Island,  then  in  shape  like  a  painter’s  pal¬ 
let,  was  separated  from  the  main  by  a  shallow 
strait,  fordable  at  low  tide,  and  contained  about 
thirty  acres  of  land.  On  the  side  commanding 
the  ship -channel  were  intrenchments  armed 
with  eighteen  and  twenty-four  pound  cannons. 


THE  BLOCK-HOUSE  ON  CRANEY  ISLAND,  1813. 


A  successful  defence  of  this  island  would  save 
Norfolk  and  the  navy-yard  there,  and  to  that 
end  efforts  were  made.  General  Robert  B. 
Taylor  was  the  commanding  officer  of  the  dis¬ 
trict.  The  whole  available  force  of  the  island, 
when  the  British  entered  Hampton  Roads,  were 
two  companies  of  artillery,  under  the  general 
command  of  Major  James  Faulkner;  Captain 


Robertson’s  company  of  riflemen;  and  four  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixteen  militia  infantry  of  the  line, 
commanded  by  Lieutenant-colonel  Henry  Beat¬ 
ty.  If  attacked  and  overpowered,  these  troops 
had  no  means  of  escape.  These  were  reinforced 
by  thirty  regulars  under  Captain  Richard  Pol¬ 
lard,  and  thirty  volunteers  under  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Johnson,  and  were  joined  by  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  seamen  under  Lieutenants  B. 
J.  Neale, W.B.  Shubrick,  and  J.  Sanders,  and  fifty 
marines  under  Lieutenant  Breckinridge.  The 
whole  force  on  Craney  Island  on  the  2d  of  June 
(1813)  numbered  seven  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
men.  At  midnight  the  camp  was  alarmed  by 
the  crack  of  a  sentinel’s  rifle.  It  was  a  false 
alarm;  but  before  it  was  fairly  daylight  a  trooper 
came  dashing  across  the  fordable  strait  with  the 
startling  information  that  the  British  were  land¬ 
ing  in  force  on  the  main,  only  about  two  miles 
distant.  The  drum  beat  the  long-roll,  and  Ma¬ 
jor  Faulkner  ordered  his  guns  to  be  transferred 
so  as  to  command  the  strait.  At  the  same  time, 
fifty  large  barges,  filled  with  fifteen  hundred 
sailors  and  marines,  were  seen  approaching  from 
the  British  ships.  They  were  led  by  Admiral 
Warren’s  beautiful  barge  Centipede  (so  called  be¬ 
cause  of  her  numerous  oars),  and  made  for  the 
narrow  strait  between  Craney  Island  and  the 
main.  Faulkner  had  his  artillery  in  position,  and 
when  the  invaders  were  within  proper  distance 
his  great  guns  were  opened  upon  them  with  terri¬ 
ble  effect.  The  British  were  repulsed,  and  hast¬ 
ened  back  to  their  ships.  Warren’s  barge,  which 
had  a  three-pound  swivel-gun  at  the  bow,  with 
four  others,  was  sunk  in  the  shallow  water, 
when  some  American  seamen,  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Lieutenant  Tattnall,  waded  out,  secured 
the  vessels,  and  dragged  them  ashore,  securing 
many  prisoners.  The  British  loss,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing,  was  one  hundred  and 
forty-four-;  the  Americans  lost  none.  The  in¬ 
vaders  now  abandoned  all  hope  of  seizing  Nor¬ 
folk,  the  Constellation,  and  the  navy-yard,  and 
never  attempted  it  afterwards. 

Craven,  Teunis  A.  M.,  was  born  in  Ports¬ 
mouth,  N.  H.,  and  entered  the  U.  S.  Navy  as  mid¬ 
shipman  in  February,  1829.  He  was  commis¬ 
sioned  lieutenant  in  1841,  and  was  made  com¬ 
mander  in  1861.  In  command  of  the  ironclad 
Tecuiuseh,  he  perished  when  she  was  blown  up 
by  a  torpedo  in  Mobile  Bay,  in  August,  1864. 
(See  Mobile  Bap.') 

Craven,  Thomas  T.,  was  born  in  the  District 
of  Columbia,  entered  the  United  States  Navy 
as  midshipman  in  1822,  and  was  made  captain 
June  7,  1861.  A  year  later  he  became  com¬ 
modore.  He  materially  assisted  in  the  reduc¬ 
tion  of  the  forts  on  the  Mississippi  below  New 
Orleans  (May,  1862)  and  the  destruction  of  the 
Confederate  flotilla  there.  He  had  been  lieu¬ 
tenant-commander  of  the  flag-ship  Vincennes  in 
Wilkes’s  exploring  expedition  in  1838-42  (see 
South  Sea  Exploring  Expedition ),  and  was  in¬ 
structor  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
at  Annapolis,  1861—55.  In  1866  (Oct.  10)  he  was 
made  a  rear-admiral,  and  was  in  command  of 
the  North  Pacilic  Squadron  in  1869. 


CRAWFORD 


344  CREDIT  SYSTEM  AND  ITS  COLLAPSE 


Crawford,  Samuel  Wylie,  was  born  in  Frank¬ 
lin  County,  Penn.,  Nov.  8, 1829,  and  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1847.  He  stud¬ 
ied  medicine,  and  in  1851  was  made  assistant- 
surgeon  in  the  United  States  Army.  He  was  in 


Texas  and  New  Mexico  on  duty,  and  in  1856 
went  to  Mexico,  where  he  pursued  scientific  re¬ 
searches.  Dr.  Crawford  was  surgeon  of  the  gar¬ 
rison  of  Fort  Sumter  during  its  siege  in  1861, 
and  performed  valuable  military  service  there. 
In  May  he  was  made  major  of  infantry  and 
inspector  -  general  in  eastern  Virginia.  With 
Banks,  he  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Shen¬ 
andoah  Valley  and  in  the  battle  of  Cedar  Moun¬ 
tain  as  brigadier-general.  At  the  battle  of  An- 
tietam  he  commanded  the  division  of  Mansfield 
after  that  general’s  death.  He  was  breveted 
colonel  in  the  United  States  Army  for  his  con¬ 
duct  at  Gettysburg.  Iu  Grant’s  campaign  (1864- 
65)  against  Richmond  General  Crawford  bore  a 
conspicuous  part  from  the  Wilderness  to  Appo¬ 
mattox  Court-house.  In  March,  1865,  he  was 
created  major-general  of  volunteers. 

Crawford,  Thomas,  sculptor,  was  born  in  New 
York,  March  22,  1814;  died  in  London,  Oct.  10, 
1857.  Manifesting  at  an  early  age  a  talent  and 
taste  for  art,  he  went  to  Italy  and  profited  by 
the  instruction  of  Thorwaldsen  at  Rome.  There 
he  established  a  studio,  soon  rose  to  eminence, 
and  had  abundant  employment.  His  works,  of 
superior  character,  are  quite  numerous.  Those 
widest  known  are  the  bronze  equestrian  statue 
of  Washington  for  the  monument  at  Richmond, 
ordered  by  the  State  of  Virginia;  the  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  the  Genius  of  America  that 
surmounts  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Washing¬ 
ton  ;  and  the  historical  designs  for  the  bronze 
doors  iu  the  new  Capitol.  Mr.  Crawford  was 
exceedingly  industrious,  and  worked  with  great 
facility.  During  his  life  of  forty-three  years,  or 
less  than  twenty-five  of  artistic  labor,  he  finish¬ 
ed  more  than  sixty  works,  some  of  them  colos¬ 
sal,  and  left  about  fifty  sketches  in  plaster,  be¬ 
sides  designs  of  various  kinds.  Two  of  the 
finest  of  his  works  in  marble  are  “The  Last  of 
his  Race”  (colossal),  and  “  The  Peri,”  both  in  the 
New  York  Historical  Society. 

Crawford,  William  IIa uiiis,  was  born  in  Nel¬ 


son  County,  Va.,  Feb.  24, 1772 ;  died  near  Elber- 
ton,  Ga.,  Sept.  18,  1834.  After  teaching  school 
several  years,  he  became  a  lawyer,  beginning 
the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Lexington,  Ga., 
in  1799.  He  compiled  the  first  digest  of  the 
laws  of  Georgia,  published  in  1802;  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  his  State  Legislature  from  1803  to  1807 ; 
was  United  States  Senator  from  1807  to  1813,  iu 
which  body  he  was  regarded  as  its  ablest  mem¬ 
ber.  In  1813  he  was  sent  as  United  States  Min¬ 
ister  to  France,  and  on  his  return  (1815)  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Secretary  of  War;  but  in  October,  1816, 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Treasury  Department, 
which  position  he  held  until  1825,  when  lie  was 
a  defeated  Democratic  candidate  for  the  Presi¬ 
dency,  having  been  nominated  the  previous  year 
by  a  Congressional  caucus.  He  had  four  other 
candidates  to  oppose — Adams, Calhoun,  Jackson, 
and  Clay.  At  about  that  time  his  health  failed, 
and  he  never  fully  recovered  it.  He  became  a 
circuit  judge  in  Georgia,  and  was  warmly  op¬ 
posed  to  “  nullification  ”  (which  see). 

Credit  System  and  its  Collapse  (1836-37). 
The  removal  of  the  deposits  of  the  public  money 
to  the  amount  of  $10,000,000  from  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States  (October,  1833),  when  its  line 
of  discounts,  or  loans,  was  over  $60,000,000,  pro¬ 
duced  a  terrible  panic.  But  when  these  funds 
were  distributed  over  the  country  by  deposits 
in  the  state  banks,  thereby  increasing  their 
power  to  lend  largely,  the  panic  ceased.  A 
course  of  credit  then  began  which  proved  ruin¬ 
ous.  The  deposit  banks  loaned  freely,  and  very 
soon  speculation  became  rife.  A  season  of  ap¬ 
parent  prosperity  was  enjoyed,  which  most  peo¬ 
ple  believed  to  be  real.  It  was  deceptive.  The 
credit  system  was  simply  enormously  expanded. 
Trade  was  brisk,  the  shipping  interest  was  pros¬ 
perous,  prices  ruled  high,  luxury  abounded,  and 
nobody  seemed  to  perceive  the  under-current  of 
disaster  that,  was  surely  wasting  the  foundations 
of  the  absurd  credit  system  and  the  real  pros¬ 
perity  of  the  nation.  It  collapsed  at  the  touch 
of  the  Ithuriel  spear  of  Necessity.  A  failure  of 
the  grain  crop  of  England  caused  a  large  de¬ 
mand  from  abroad  for  coin  to  pay  for  food  prod¬ 
ucts.  The  Bank  of  England,  seeing  exchanges 
running  higher  and  higher  against  that  coun¬ 
try,  contracted  its  loans,  and  admonished  houses 
who  were  giving  long  and  extensive  credits  to 
the  Americans,  by  the  use  of  money  borrowed 
from  the  bank,  to  curtail  that  hazardous  busi¬ 
ness.  At  about  the  same  time  the  famous  “  Spe¬ 
cie  Circular  ”  from  the  United  States  Treasury 
Department  was  issued  (July,  1836).  (See  Spe¬ 
cie  Circular.')  From  the  parlor  of  the  Bank  of 
England  and  from  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States  went  forth  the  unwelcome  fiat,  Pay  up! 
American  houses  in  London  failed  for  many 
millions  of  dollars ;  and  every  bank  in  the 
United  States  suspended  specie  payments  in 
1837,  but  resumed  in  1839.  It  was  then  that 
the  United  States  Bank,  rechartered  by  the 
Legislature  of  Pennsylvania,  fell  into  hopeless 
ruin  (see  United  States  Bank),  and  with  it  went 
down  a  very  large  number  of  the  state  banks 
of  the  country.  A  general  bankrupt  law,  pass¬ 
ed  in  1841,  relieved  of  debt  almost  forty  thou- 


CREEK  CONFEDERACY 


345 


CREEK  CONFEDERACY 


sand  persons,  whose  liabilities  amounted,  in  the 
aggregate,  to  about  $441,000,000. 

Creek  Confederacy.  The  domain  of  the 
Creek  Confederacy  extended  from  the  Atlantic 
westward  to  the  high  lands  which  separate  the 
waters  of  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbee  rivers, 
including  a  greater  portion  of  the  States  of  Ala¬ 
bama  and  Georgia  and  the  whole  of  Florida.  It 
was  with  the  people  of  this  confederacy  that 
Oglethorpe  held  his  first  interview  with  the  na¬ 
tives  on  the  site  of  Savannah.  They  called 
themselves  Muscogees,  but,  the  domain  abound¬ 
ing  in  creeks,  it  was  called  the  Creek  country 
by  the  Europeans.  Evidently  the  kindred  in 
origin  a.nd  language  of  the  Chickasaws  and 
Choctaws,  they  claimed  to  have  sprung  from 
the  earth,  emigrated  from  the  Northwest,  and 
reached  Florida,  when  they  fell  back  to  the 
more  fertile  regions  of  the  Ocmulgee,  Coosa, 
and  Tallapoosa  rivers.  Some  of  them  remain¬ 
ed  in  Florida,  and  these  are  the'Seminoles  of 
our  day.  De  Soto  penetrated  their  country  so 
early  as  1540,  and  twenty  years  later  De  Luna 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  tribe  of  the  Coosas. 
When  the  Carolinas  and  Louisiana  began  to  be 
settled  by  the  English,  Spaniards,  and  French, 
they  all  courted  the  Creek  nation.  The  Eng¬ 
lish  won  the  Lower  Creeks,  the  French  the  Up¬ 
per  Creeks,  while  the  Spaniards,  through  their 
presents,  gained  an  iufluence  over  a  portion  of 
them.  In  1710  some  of  these  ( the  Cowetas ) 
made  war  on  the  Carolinas,  and  were  petted  by 
the  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine ;  but  in  1718  they 
joined  the  French,  who  built  a  fort  at  Mobile. 
In  1732  eight  Creek  tribes  made  a  treaty  with 
Oglethorpe  at  Savannah ;  and  in  1739  he  made 
a  treaty  with  the  Cowetas,  and  they  joined  him 
in  his  expedition  against  St.  Augustine.  When 
the  French  power  in  North  America  was  over¬ 
thrown,  the  entire  Creek  nation  became  sub¬ 
ject  to  English  influence.  At  that  time  they 
had  fifty  towns,  and  numbered  nearly  six  thou¬ 
sand  warriors.  They  were  the  allies  of  the 
British  during  the  American  Revolution.  Many 
Tories  fled  to  the  Creek  towns  from  the  Caroli¬ 
nas  aud  Georgia  at  the  close  of  the  war,  and  ex¬ 
cited  the  barbarians  to  ravage  the  frontiers  of 
those  states.  A  peace  was  concluded  with  the 
Creeks  by  Washington  in  1790;  yet  some  of 
them  joined  the  Cherokees  in  incursions  into 
Tennessee  in  1792.  Another  treaty  was  made 
in  1796,  and  in  1802  they  began  to  cede  lands  to 
the  United  States.  But  when  the  War  of  1812 
broke  out  they  joined  their  old  friends,  the  Eng¬ 
lish  ;  and  by  an  awful  massacre  at  Fort  Mims, 
in  August,  1813,  they  aroused  the  Western  peo¬ 
ple  to  vengeance.  Troops  led  by  General  Jack- 
son  and  others  entered  the  Creek  country;  and 
in  1813  they  ravaged  the  finest  portion  of  it,  de¬ 
stroyed  the  towns,  slew  or  captured  two  thou¬ 
sand  of  the  Creek  warriors,  thoroughly  subdued 
them,  and,  in  fact,  destroyed  the  nation.  Their 
last  stand  against  the  United  States  troops  was 
made  at  Horseshoe  Bend  in  March,  1814.  Some 
of  them  had  already  settled  in  Louisiana,  and 
finally  in  Texas,  where  they  remained  until  1872, 
when  the  government  took  steps  to  reunite  the 
nation  in  the  Indian  Territory,  west  of  Arkan¬ 


sas.  They  had  ceded  all  their  lauds  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  With  those  who  had  removed 
there  was  trouble  at  times.  Some  favored  re¬ 
moval  west  of  the  Mississippi ;  others  opposed 
it.  In  1825  they  put  one  of  their  chiefs  (Will¬ 
iam  McIntosh)  to  death  for  signing  a  treaty  for 
the  cession  of  lauds.  In  1836  some  of  the  Creeks 
joined  their  kindred,  the  Seminoles,  in  Florida 
in  attacks  upon  the  white  people,  aud  others 
joined  the  United  States  troops  against  them. 
(See  Seminole  War.)  They  were  finally  nearly  all 
removed  beyond  the  Mississippi,  where  they  num¬ 
bered  about  twenty-five  thousand  souls  in  1876. 
Unsuccessful  attempts  to  Christianize  them  were 
made.  They  refused  missions  aud  schools  for  a 
long  time.  Their  nation  declined,  and  in  1857 
numbered  less  than  fifteen  thousand.  During 
the  Civil  War  the  tribe  was  divided  in  senti¬ 
ment,  six  thousand  of  them  joining  the  Confed¬ 
erates.  Their  alliance  with  the  Confederates 
was  disastrous  to  their  nation.  In  1866  they 
ceded  three  million  acres  of  their  domain  in  the 
Indian  Territory  to  the  United  States  for  thirty 
cents  an  acre.  They  are  among  the  most  peace¬ 
able  and  order -loving  of  the  banished  tribes. 
The  men  of  the  Creek  Confederacy  were  well- 
proportioned,  active,  and  graceful ;  the  women 
were  smaller,  exquisitely  formed,  and  some  of 
them  were  very  beautiful.  In  summer  both 
sexes  went  without  clothing,  excepting  a  dra¬ 
pery  of  Spanish  moss  that  was  fastened  at  the 
waist  and  fell  to  the  thighs.  The  principal 
people  painted  their  faces  and  bodies  in  fanciful 
colors,  and  fops  sometimes  appeared  in  beauti¬ 
ful  mantles  of  feathers  or  deer -skins,  and  on 
their  heads  were  lofty  plumes  of  the  eagle  and 
the  flamingo.  The  houses  of  the  chiefs  stood 
upon  mounds,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  great 
pavilion,  and  the  inside  of  their  winter  dwell¬ 
ings  was  daubed  with  clay.  Hunting,  fishing, 
and  cultivating  their  fertile  lands  were  their 
employments,  for  they  seldom  made  aggressive 
war.  They  were  skilful  artisans  in  making 
arms,  houses,  barges,  canoes,  and  various  orna¬ 
ments.  They  made  pottery  for  kitchen  service, 
and  some  of  it  was  very  ornamental.  Fortifica¬ 
tions  were  constructed  with  moats,  and  walled 
towns  and  grand  and  beautiful  temples  abound¬ 
ed.  They  made  mats  of  split  cane,  with  which 
they  covered  their  houses  and  upon  which  they 

sat.  These  resembled  the  rush  carpeting  of  the 
Moors.  In  their  temples,  dedicated  to  the  wor¬ 
ship  of  the  sun,  were  votive  offerings  of  pearls 
and  rich  furs.  They  regarded  the  sun  as  the 
superior  deity,  and  in  all  their  invocations  they 
appealed  to  it  as  to  God.  To  it  they  made  sac¬ 
rifices  of  grain  and  animals.  The  chief,  while 
he  was  alive,  was  held  in  the  greatest  vene¬ 
ration  as  priest  and  king.  As  a  symbol  of  de¬ 
votion  to  him  of  the  entire  strength  of  the  na¬ 
tion,  the  sacrifice  of  the  first-born  male  child 
was  required,  while  the  young  mother  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  witness  the  slaughter  of  her  child. 
Their  marriages  were  attended  with  great  dis¬ 
plays  of  ornaments  and  flowers,  and  at  the  set¬ 
ting  of  the  sun  the  bride  and  groom  and  their 
friends  prostrated  themselves  before  that  lumi¬ 
nary  and  implored  his  blessing.  Like  the  lro- 


CREEK  INDIANS  IN  NEW  YORK 


346 


quois,  the  civil  power  in  their  government  was 
widely  distributed;  and,  like  the  Iroquois,  the 
Creeks  were  au  exception,  in  their  approach  to 
civilization,  to  all  the  Indian  tribes  of  North 
America.  Such  were  the  Creek  (or  Muscogee) 
Indians  when  first  seen  by  Europeans. 

Creek  Indians  in  New  York.  The  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress  had  ordered  (1788)  renewed 
negotiations  with  the  southern  tribes  looking 
to  complete  pacification.  The  National  Con¬ 
gress  in  1789  made  au  appropriation  for  the 
purpose,  and  Washington  appointed  General 
Lincoln,  Colonel  Humphreys,  and  Cyrus  Griffin 
(late  President  of  Congress)  commissioners  to 
treat.  They  were  instructed  to  try  and  induce 
the  Indians  to  comply  with  three  treaties  al¬ 
ready  made  with  Georgia,  if  they  wfere  just,  and 
to  secure,  by  a  new  treaty,  the  tract  west  of  the 
Oconee  River,  whereon  settlers  were  already 
seated.  The  commissioners  met  Creek  repre¬ 
sentatives  at  Rock  Landing,  Sept.  20  ( 1789  ). 
They  were  led  by  McGillivray,  a  half-breed,  the 
head  chief  of  the  Creeks,  who  received  the  com¬ 
missioners  with  respect  and  friendship  such  as 
had  been  extended  to  the  British.  They  deter¬ 
mined  not  to  yield  to  the  claims  of  the  Geor¬ 
gians  ;  and  as  the  commissioners  did  not  pro¬ 
pose  to  restore  their  lands,  they  broke  off  the 
treaty  abruptly.  McGillivray  was  the  son  of  a 
Scotch  trader,  who  had  married  a  Creek  maiden. 
Washington  despatched  Colonel  Willett  on  a 
new  mission  to  the  Creeks.  He  succeeded  in 
persuading  McGillivray  to  proceed  to  New  York 
(then  the  seat  of  the  national  government)  with 
some  of  his  principal  chiefs  to  renew  negotia¬ 
tions.  Accompanied  by  twenty-eight  of  these 
braves,  McGillivray  was  received  with  much  cer¬ 
emony  at  Philadelphia  and  New  York.  He  ar¬ 
rived  at  the  latter  city  (June  23,  1790)  when 
Congress  was  in  session.  In  the  reception 
there  the  Tammany  Society,  or  Columbian  Or¬ 
der,  took  a  conspicuous  part.  That  society  had 
been  lately  established.  (See  Tammany.)  Ar¬ 
rayed  in  their  Indian  costume,  the  society  es¬ 
corted  the  Creek  chiefs  into  the  city,  and  after¬ 
wards  entertained  them  at  a  public  dinner. 
McGillivray,  as  the  sou  of  a  Scotchman,  was 
chosen  an  honorary  member  of  the  St.  Andrew’s 
Society.  Washington  appointed  the  Secretary 
of  War  (Knox),  on  the  part  of  the  United  States, 
to  negotiate  a  treaty.  It  was  done  satisfacto¬ 
rily  to  all  parties,  and  was  ratified  Aug.  13, 1790. 
The  treaty  was  signed  (Aug.  7)  by  Knox,  and  by 
McGillivray  and  twenty-three  of  his  chiefs  on 
behalf  of  the  Creek  nation.  After  some  simple 
ceremonies,  the  conference  was  concluded  by  a 
song  of  peace,  sung  by  the  whole  Indian  depu¬ 
tation. 

Creeks,  The,  sue  for  Peace.  After  the  bat¬ 
tle  at  the  Horseshoe  Bend  (see  Tohopeka)  Jack- 
son  pushed  on  to  the  “  Hickory  Ground,”  at  the 
continence  of  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa  rivers, 
and  there,  on  the  site  of  Fort  Toulouse  (built  by 
the  French  one  hundred  years  before),  he  raised 
the  national  standard  over  a  fortification  there 
erected  and  named  Fort  Jackson.  Thither  dep¬ 
utation  after  deputation  of  humiliated  Creek 


CRISIS,  THE 

chiefs  made  their  way  to  sue  for  peace  on  be¬ 
half  of  themselves  and  their  people.  “  Give 
proof  of  your  submission,”  said  Jackson,  “  by 
going  and  staying  above  Fort  Williams,  where 
you  will  be  treated  with,  and  the  demands  of 
my  government  will  be  made  known  to  you. 
But  you  must  first  bring  in  Weathersford,  the 
leader  at  Fort  Mims,  who,  on  no  account,  can  be 
forgiven.”  On  the  20th  of  April,  1814,  General 
Pinckney  arrived  at  Fort  Jackson,  when,  in¬ 
formed  of  the  general  submission  of  the  Creeks, 
and  considering  the  war  with  them  at  an  end, 
he  issued  au  order  (April  21)  for  the  West  Ten¬ 
nesseeans  to  march  home.  They  were  discharged 
at  Fayetteville,  Tenn.  Jackson  then  retired  to 
his  own  home  at  the  Hermitage. 

Creeks,  The,  treat  for  Removal.  A  treaty 
was  concluded  with  the  Creek  nation,  Feb.  12, 
1825,  for  their  removal  to  lands  w  est  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  River,  it  having  become  the  policy  of 
the  United  States  to  plant  all  of  the  barbarian 
tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi  on  reservations 
west  of  that  stream. 

Creeks,  Treaty  with  the.  A  trea  ty  of  peace 
and  friendship  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Creek  nation  was  concluded  at  Colerain, 
Ga.,  Jan.  29, 1796.  It  did  not  satisfy  the  Geor¬ 
gians,  as  no  new  cessions  of  land  were  obtained ; 
but  it  put  an  end  to  the  mutual  depredations 
which  had  prevailed  on  that  frontier  and  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  restoration  of  prisoners  and  prop¬ 
erty  captured  by  the  Indians.  It  settled  the 
mutual  boundaries  of  the  Creeks,  Chickasaws, 
and  Choctaws ;  and  in  consideration  of  an  ad¬ 
ditional  annuity  of  six  thousand  dollars  and  the 
providing  of  the  Creeks  with  two  blacksmiths, 
the  right  was  obtained  for  the  President  to  es¬ 
tablish  such  posts  and  trading-stations  within 
the  territory  as  he  might  deem  expedient. 

Crele,  Joseph,  the  oldest  man  who  ever  lived 
in  America,  was  born  in  Detroit  in  1725;  died 
at  Caledonia,  Wis.,  Jan.  27, 1866.  It  is  said  that 
the  date  of  his  birth  is  established  by  the  rec¬ 
ord  of  baptisms  in  the  French  Roman  Catholic 
Church  at  Detroit.  In  1755  he  married  his  first, 
wife,  and  was  twice  married  afterwards.  He 
bore  arms  against  Braddock  at  the  time  of  his 
defeat,  and  was  a  letter-carrier  on  the  frontier 
several  years  before  the  Revolution.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  lived  with  a  daughter  by 
his  third  wife,  born  when  he  was  sixty -nine 
years  of  age.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he 
would  sometimes  say,  despomlingly,  “  I  fear 
Death  has  forgotten  me.” 

Creole  State.  A  name  sometimes  given  to 
Louisiana,  in  which  a  large  portion  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  are  descendants  of  the  French  and 
Spanish  settlers. 

Crescent  City.  A  name  given  to  Newr  Or¬ 
leans.  Its  older  portion  was  built  around  a 
bend  of  the  Mississippi  of  crescent  form. 

“Crisis,  The.”  During  the  old  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence  a  series  of  political  pamphlets  writ¬ 
ten  by  Thomas  Paine,  an  English  emigrant,  w'as 
published  in  Philadelphia.  The  first  number, 
beginning  with  the  often-quoted  line,  “These 


CRITTENDEN  COMPROMISE 


347 


CRITTENDEN 


are  the  times  that  try  men’s  souls,”  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  December,  1776.  The  last  number  was 
published  at  the  attainment  of  peace,  April  19, 
1783.  So  useful  in  encouraging  the  Americans 
to  persevere  in  their  struggle  were  these  essays 
considered,  that,  early  in  1782,  when  Paine  had 
laid  aside  his  pen  for  several  months,  he  was 
induced  by  Robert  Morris  to  resume  it,  with  a 
promise  that  he  should  have  pecuniary  reward 
for  his  services.  The  series  and  the  title  were 
suggested  by  a  similar  series  published  in  Lon¬ 
don  (1775-76),  on  the  first  number  of  which  it 
was  announced  “to  be  continued  weekly  during 
the  present  bloody  civil  war  in  America.”  (See 
“  Common  Sense.”) 

Crittenden  Compromise,  The.  In  the  United 
States  Senate  in  December,  1860,  when  civil  war 
was  threatened,  the  venerable  John  J.  Critten¬ 
den,  then  seventy-five  years  of  age,  a  senator 
from  Kentucky,  offered  a  series  of  amendments  to 
the  National  Constitution,  and  joint  resolutions, 
for  the  protection  of  slavery,  to  satisfy  the  slave¬ 
holders  and  to  secure  peace,  which,  embodied, 
are  known  in  history  as  the  “  Crittenden  Com¬ 
promise.”  The  amendments  substantially  pro¬ 
posed:  1.  To  re-establish  the  line  fixed  in  the 
Missouri  Compromise  (which  see)  as  the  boun¬ 
dary-line  between  free  and  slave  territory  ;  that 
Congress  should  by  statute  law  protect  slave 
property  from  interference  by  all  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  territorial  governments  during 
their  continuance  as  such  ;  that  such  territories 
should  be  admitted  as  states  with  or  without 
slavery,  as  the  state  constitutions  should  deter¬ 
mine.  2.  That  Congress  should  not  abolish 
slavery  at  any  place  within  the  limits  of  any 
slave -labor  state,  or  wherein  slavery  might 
thereafter  be  established.  3.  That  Congress 
should  not  abolish  slavery  in  the  District  of  Co¬ 
lumbia  so  long  as  it  should  exist  in  the  adjoining 
states  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  without  the 
consent  of  the  inhabitants  thereof,  nor  without 
just  compensation  made  to  the  owners  of  slaves 
who  should  not  consent  to  the  abolishment; 
that  Congress  should  not  prevent  government 
officers  sojourning  in  the  district  on  business 
bringing  their  slaves  with  them,  and  taking 
them  with  them  when  they  should  depart.  4. 
That  Congress  should  have  no  power  to  prohibit 
or  hinder  the  transportation  of  slaves  from  one 
state  to  another,  or  into  territories  where  slavery 
should  be  allowed.  5.  That  the  National  Gov¬ 
ernment  should  pay  to  the  owner  of  a  fugitive 
slave,  who  might  be  rescued  from  the  officers  of 
the  law,  upon  attempting  to  take  him  back  to 
bondage,  the  full  value  of  such  “  property  ”  so 
lost;  and  that  the  amount  should  be  refunded 
by  the  county  in  which  the  rescue  might  occur, 
that  municipality  having  the  power  to  sue  for 
and  recover  the  amount  from  the  individual  act¬ 
ors  in  the  offence.  6.  That  no  future  amend¬ 
ments  to  the  Constitution  should  be  made  that 
might  have  an  effect  on  the  previous  amend¬ 
ments,  or  on  any  sections  of  the  Constitution  on 
the  subject  already  existing ;  nor  should  any 
amendment  be  made  that  should  give  to  the 
Congress  the  right  to  abolish  or  interfere  with 
slavery  in  any  of  the  states  where  it  existed  by 


law,  or  might  hereafter  be  allowed.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  these  amendments  Senator  Crittenden 
offered  four  joint  resolutions,  declaring  substan¬ 
tially  as  follows :  1.  That  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Act  was  constitutional  and  must  be  enforced, 
and  that  laws  ought  to  be  made  for  the  punish¬ 
ment  of  those  who  should  interfere  with  its  due 
execution.  2.  That  all  state  laws  (see  Pei’sonal 
Liberty  Laws )  which  impeded  the  execution  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Act  were  null  and  void  ;  that 
such  laws  had  been  mischievous  in  producing 
discord  and  commotion,  and  therefore  the  Con¬ 
gress  should  respectfully  and  earnestly  recom¬ 
mend  the  repeal  of  them,  or  by  legislation  make 
them  harmless.  3.  This  resolution  referred  to 
the  fees  of  commissioners  acting  under  the  Fu¬ 
gitive  Slave  Law,  and  the  modification  of  the 
section  which  required  all  citizeus,  when  called 
upon,  to  aid  the  owner  in  capturing  his  run¬ 
away  property.  4.  This  resolution  declared 
that  strong  measures  ought  to  be  adopted  for 
the  suppression  of  the  African  slave-trade.  On 
the  2d  of  March — two  days  before  the  close  of 
the  session — Mason,  of  Virginia,  the  author  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  called  up  the  Critten¬ 
den  propositions  and  resolutions,  when  Clarke’s 
resolutions  (which  see)  were  reconsidered  and 
rejected,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  direct 
vote  on  the  original  proposition.  After  a  long 
debate,  continued  into  the  “small  hours”  of 
Sunday  morning  (March  3, 1861),  the  Crittenden 
Compromise  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  twenty 
against  nineteen.  Had  the  Secessionists  re¬ 
tained  their  seats,  it  might  have  been  carried. 
A  resolution  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
was  then  adopted,  to  amend  the  Constitution  so 
as  to  prohibit  forever  any  amendment  of  that  in¬ 
strument  interfering  with  slavery  in  any  state. 

Crittenden,  George  B.,  was  born  in  Ken¬ 
tucky,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  iu  1832. 
He  resigned  the  next  year,  served  in  the  war 
against  Mexico  (1846-48)  under  General  Scott, 
joined  the  insurgents,  and  became  a  Confeder¬ 
ate  major-general,  and,  with  Zollicoffer,  was  de¬ 
feated  in  the  battle  at  Mill  Spring  (which  see) 
in  January,  1862.  He  was  a  son  of  Senator  J.  J. 
Crittenden. 

Crittenden,  John  Jordon,  was  born  in  Wood¬ 
ford  County,  Ky.,  Sept.  10, 1786;  died  at  Frank¬ 
fort,  Ivy.,  July  26,  1863.  He  was  aide-de-camp 
to  Governor  Shelby  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames 
(which  see);  became  a  lawyer;  entered  the  Ken¬ 
tucky  Legislature  in  1816,  and  was  speaker  sev¬ 
eral  years,  and  was  first  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Senate  iu  1817-19.  From  1835  to  1841 
he  was  again  in  the  Senate,  when  President 
Harrison  called  him  to  his  cabinet  as  attorney- 
general.  He  was  again  in  the  Senate  from  1842 
to  1848,  when  he  was  elected  governor  of  his 
state,  which  position  he  held  when  President 
Fillmore  appointed  him  attorney  -  general  in 
1850.  Mr.  Crittenden  was  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  trustworthy  of  the  members  of  the 
national  legislature,  and  was  regarded  as  the 
“patriarch  of  the  Senate.”  In  the  session  of 
1860-61  he  introduced  the  “Crittenden  Compro¬ 
mise  ”  (which  see).  His  term  in  the  Senate  ox- 


CEITTENDEN 


34S 


CEOMWELL 


piring  in  March,  1861,  he  entered  the  Lower 
House  as  a  representative  in  July  following,  in 
which  he  was  a  very  ardent  but  conservative 
Union  man,  hut  was  opposed  to  the  emancipa¬ 
tion  of  the  slaves. 


JOHN  JORDON  CRITTENDEN. 


Crittenden,  Thomas  Leonidas,  second  son  of 
Senator  J.  J.  Crittenden,  was  born  at  Eussell- 
\ille,  Ky.,  in  1819.  He  served  under  General 
Taylor  in  the  war  against  Mexico,  and  when  the 
latter  became  President  of  the  United  States  he 
sent  Crittenden  to  Liverpool  as  United  States 
Consul.  He  returned  in  1853,  and  iu  Septem¬ 
ber,  1861,  was  made  a  brigadier-general  and  as¬ 
signed  a  command  under  General  Buell.  For 
gallantly  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh  he  was  promot¬ 
ed  to  major-general  of  volunteers  and  assigned 
a  division  iu  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  He 
afterwards  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the 
Army  of  the  Ohio  under  General  Buell.  Then 
he  served  under  Eosecrans,  taking  part  iu  the 
battles  at  Stone  Eiver  and  Chickamauga.  His 
corps  was  among  the  routed  of  the  army  in  the 
last-named  battle.  He  commanded  a  division 
of  the  ninth  corps  in  the  campaign  against  Eich- 
mond  iu  1864.  In  March,  1865,  he  was  breveted 
major-general  United  States  army. 

Crockett,  David,  was  born  in  Greene  Coun¬ 
ty,  Tenn.,  Aug.  17,  1786;  died  at  San  Antonio, 
Bexar  Co.,  Texas,  March,  1836.  With  little  edu¬ 
cation,  he  became  a  noted  hunter  in  his  early 
life;  served  under  Jackson  in  the  Creek  War; 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1828  to  1834, 
and  removed  to  Texas  in  the  latter  year,  where 
he  became  zealously  engaged  in  the  war  for 
Texan  independence.  While  fighting  for  the 
defence  of  the  Alamo  he  was  captured  and  put 
to  death  by  order  of  Santa  Ana. 

Croghan,  George,  Indian  agent,  was  born  in 
Ireland ;  died  at  Passyunk,  Penn.,  in  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1782.  Educated  in  Dublin,  he  emigrated 
to  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1746  was  engaged  in 
trade  with  the  Indians.  Acquiring  their  lan¬ 
guage  and  friendship,  Pennsylvania  made  him 
Indian  agent.  Captain  in  Braddock’s  expedi¬ 
tion  in  1755,  he  showed  such  excellence  in  mili¬ 
tary  matters  that  in  1756  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  defence  of  the  western  frontier  of  Pennsyl¬ 


vania,  and  was  made  by  Sir  William  Johnson 
his  deputy,  who,  in  1763,  sent  him  to  Eugland 
to  confer  with  the  ministry  about  an  Indian 
boundary -line.  On  that  voyage  he  was  wrecked 
on  the  coast  of  France.  In  May,  1776,  Croghan 
founded  a  settlement  four  miles  above  Fort  Pitt 
(now  Pittsburgh).  He  was  active  in  securing 
the  attachment  of  the  Indians  to  the  British  in¬ 
terest  until  1776,  but  took  no  active  part  iu  the 
events  of  the  Eevolution. 

Croghan,  George,  was  born  near  Louisville, 
Ky.,  Nov.  15, 1791 ;  died  in  New  Orleans,  Jan.  8, 
1849.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Will¬ 
iam  and  Mary,  which  he  left  in  1810;  was  aide  to 
Colonel  Boyd  in  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe  (which 
see)  in  1811,  and  made  captain  of  infantry  in 
March,  1812.  In  March,  1813,  he  became  an  aide 
of  General  Harrison,  and  iu  August  of  the  same 
year  sustained  the  siege  of  Fort  Stephenson 
(which  see)  against  a  force  of  British  and  In¬ 
dians,  for  which  he  was  breveted  a  captain  and 
awarded  a  gold  medal  by  Congress.  He  was 
made  lieutenant-colonel  early  in  1814,  and  re¬ 
signed  in  1817.  Colonel  Croghan  was  postmaster 
at  New  Orleans  in  1824,  and  late  in  the  next  year 
was  appointed  inspector -general-  of  the  army, 
with  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  served  under  Tay¬ 
lor  in  Mexico  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  with 
that  power. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  Lord  Protector  of  Eng¬ 
land,  was  born  at  Huntingdon,  April  25,  1599; 
died  at  the  Palace  of  Whitehall,  Sept.  3,  1658. 
His  social  position  was  thus  described  by  him¬ 
self:  “I  was  by  birth  a  gentleman,  neither  liv¬ 
ing  in  any  considerable  height  nor  yet  in  ob¬ 
scurity.”  His  family  was  connected  with  the 
St.  Johns,  Hampdeus,  and  other  English  histor¬ 
ical  families.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  when  he 
was  five  years  of  age  he  had  a  fight  with  Prince 
Charles,  who,  as  king,  was  beheaded  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Cromwell  as  the  ruler  of  England. 
He  flogged  the  young  prince,  who  was  then  with 
his  family  visiting  Cromwell’s  uncle.  As  a  boy 
he  was  much  given  to  robbing  orchards  and  play¬ 
ing  unpleasant  pranks.  He  lived  a  wild  life  at 
Sidney-Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  whither  he 
was  sent  in  1616.  He  left  college  after  his  fa¬ 
ther’s  death  next  year,  and  in  1620  married  a 
daughter  of  Sir  James  Bourchier,  when  his  man¬ 
ner  of  life  changed,  and  he  became  an  earnest 
Christian  worker  for  good,  praying,  preaching, 
and  exhorting  among  the  Puritans.  He  be¬ 
came  a  member  of  Parliament  in  1628,  aud  al¬ 
ways  exercised  much  influence  in  that  body.  He 
was  a  radical  in  opposition  to  royalty  in  the  fa¬ 
mous  Long  Parliament.  When  the  Civil  War 
commenced  he  became  one  of  the  most  active  of 
the  men  in  the  field,  and  was  made  a  colonel  iu 
1643  under  the  Earl  of  Essex,  the  parliamentary 
lord-general.  He  raised  a  cavalry  regiment,  and 
excited  in  them  and  other  troops  which  he  af¬ 
terwards  led  the  religious  zeal  of  the  Puritans, 
and  directed  it  with  force  against  royalty.  That 
regiment  became  the  most  famous  in  the  revolu¬ 
tionary  army.  After  the  death  of  the  king  he 
resolved  to  become  sole  ruler  of  England.  He 
had  effected  the  prostration  of  the  monarchy, 


CKOMWELL,  THE  BUCCANEER  349  CROWN  OFFICERS.  SELECTION  OF 


not  from  ambitions,  but  from  patriotic  motives  ; 
but  in  bis  efforts  for  power  after  the  execution 
he  was  a  bold  operator.  When  the  Scotch  parti¬ 
sans  of  the  son  of  the  king  (afterwards  Charles 
II.)  invaded  England  and  penetrated  to  Worces¬ 
ter,  Cromwell,  with  thirty  thousand  English 
troops,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  them. 
Grateful  to  the  victor,  the  government  gave  him 
an  estate  worth  $20,000  a  year  and  assigned  him 
Hampton  Court  as  his  abode.  He  now  sought 
supreme  rule.  On  April  20, 1653,  he  boldly  drove 
the  remnant  of  the  Long  Parliament  which  ruled 
England,  out  of  the  House  of  Commons  by  mili¬ 
tary  force.  The  same  day  the  Council  of  State 
was  broken  up,  and  for  weeks  anarchy  prevailed 
in  England.  Cromwell  issued  a  summons  for  one 
hundred  and  fifty-six  persons  named  to  meet  at 
Westminster  as  a  Parliament.  They  met  (all 
but  two)  in  July.  This  was  the  famous  “  Bare- 
bones’  Parliament,”  so  called  after  one  of  its 
Puritan  members  named  Praise  God  Barebones. 
It  was  a  weak  body,  and  in  December,  1653, 
Cromwell  was  declared  Lord  Protector  of  Great 
Britain,  and  the  executive  and  legislative  pow¬ 
ers  were  vested  in  him  and  a  Parliament.  In 
his  administration  of  affairs  he  exerted  consid¬ 
erable  influence  in  the  English-American  colo¬ 
nies.  His  administration  was  a  stormy  one,  for 
plots  for  his  assassination  were  frequently  dis¬ 
covered,  and  he  was  constantly  harassed  by  the 
opposition  of  men  who  had  acted  with  him  but 
were  honest  Republicans,  which  he  was  not. 
With  shattered  body  and  distracted  mind,  he 
sank  into  the  grave  from  the  effects  of  a  tertian 
fever.  He  died  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle 
of  Worcester. 

Cromwell,  the  Buccaneer.  One  of  the  earli¬ 
est  of  the  famous  buccaneers  was  Captain  Crom¬ 
well,  who  had  been  a  common  sailor  in  New 
England.  In  1646  he  was  in  command  of  three 
fast-sailing  brigantines,  filled  with  armed  men, 
and  was  driven  into  the  harbor  of  New  Plym¬ 
outh  by  a  storm.  Cromwell,  under  the  author¬ 
ity  of  a  sort  of  second-hand  commission  from 
High -admiral  (Earl  of)  Warwick,  had  capt¬ 
ured  in  the  West  Indies  several  richly  laden  Span¬ 
ish  vessels.  These  freebooters  spent  money  free¬ 
ly  at  Plymouth.  Cromwell  and  his  men  soon  af¬ 
terwards  went  to  Boston,  where  he  lodged  with 
a  poor  man  who  had  helped  him  when  he  was 
poor,  and  gave  him  generous  compensation.  Win- 
throp,  who  had  lately  been  re-elected  governor, 
received  from  this  freebooter  an  elegant  sedan 
chair  captured  in  one  of  his  prizes,  designed  as 
a  gift  by  the  Viceroy  of  Mexico  to  his  sister. 

Crook,  George,  was  born  near  Day  ton,  Ohio, 
Sept.  8,  1828,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1852.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  promoted  to  captain. 
He  did  good  service  in  western  Virginia,  and  in 
September  was  made  brigadier-general  and  took 
command  of  the  Kanawha  District.  In  com¬ 
mand  of  a  division  of  cavalry  in  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland,  he  was  at  Chickamauga  (which  see) 
and  drove  Wheeler  across  the  Tennessee.  (See 
If  heeler’s  Raid.)  Breveted  major-general  (July, 
1864),  he  was  put  in  command  of  the  Army  of 
West  Virginia,  and  took  part  in  Sheridan’s  oper¬ 


ations  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  He  was  made 
major  general  of  volunteers  in  October,  and  late 
iu  February,  1865,  was  captured  by  guerillas, 
but  exchanged  the  next  month.  Besides  other 
brevets  he  was  breveted  brigadier-general  of  the 
regular  army  March  13, 1865. 

Cross  Keys.  When  Banks  was  expelled  from 
the  Shenandoah  Valley  (see  Winchester),  the  city 
of  Washington  was  in  real  danger,  and  it  could 
only  be  relieved  from  peril  by  the  retreat  or 
capture  of  the  Confederates.  For  this  purpose 
McDowell  sent  a  force  over  the  Blue  Ridge,  to 
intercept  them  if  they  should  retreat,  and  Fre¬ 
mont  pressed  on  from  the  west  towards  Stras- 
burg  with  the  same  object  in  view.  Perceiv¬ 
ing  the  threatened  danger,  Jackson  fled  up  the 
valley  with  his  whole  force,  hotly  pursued  by 
the  Nationals,  and  at  Cross  Keys,  beyond  Harri- 
souburg,  Fremont  overtook  Ewell,  when  a  sharp 
but  indecisive  battle  occurred.  Ewell  had  about 
five  thousand  men,  strongly  posted.  There  lie 
was  attacked  (on  Sunday  morning,  June  7,1862) 
by  Fr&nout  with  the  force  with  which  he  had 
moved  out  of  Harrisonburg.  General  Schenck 
led  the  right,  General  Milroy  the  centre,  and 
General  Stahl  the  left.  Between  the  extremes 
was  a  force  under  Colonel  Cluseret.  At  eleven 
o’clock  the  conflict  was  general  and  severe,  and 
continued  several  hours,  Milroy  and  Schenck  all 
the  while  gaining  ground,  the  former  with  heavy 
loss.  At  four  o’clock  the  whole  National  line 
was  ordered  to  fall  back  at  the  moment  when 
Milroy  had  pierced  Ewell’s  centre,  and  was  al¬ 
most  up  to  his  guns.  Milroy  obeyed  the  order, 
but  with  great  reluctance,  for  he  felt  sure  of 
victory.  The  Confederates  occupied  the  battle¬ 
field  that  night,  and  the  Nationals  rested  with¬ 
in  their  first  line  until  morning,  when  Ewell  was 
called  to  aid  Jackson  beyoud  the  Shenandoah 
River.  The  National  loss  in  the  battle  was  six 
hundred  aud  sixty-four,  of  which  two  thirds  fell 
in  Stahl’s  brigade. 

Crown  Officers  Clamor  for  Taxing  the  Col¬ 
onies.  After  the  Congress  at  Annapolis  (which 
see),  every  crown  officer  iu  the  colonies  urged 
upon  the  British  government  the  necessity  of 
devising  some  plan  for  deriving  a  revenue  from 
taxation  of  the  colonies.  Their  recommenda¬ 
tions  put  forth  the  idea  that  “  a  common  fund 
must  be  either  voluntarily  raised  or  assessed 
some  other  way.”  Even  the  moderate  Sharpe, 
of  Maryland,  recommended  that  the  governor 
and  council  of  each  colony  should  be  vested  with 
power,  independent  of  the  Assembly,  to  levy 
money  “after  any  manner  that  may  be  deemed 
most  ready  and  convenient.” 

Crown  Officers,  Selection  of.  On  the  28th 
of  March,  1774,  a  bill  passed  Parliament,  by  the 
overwhelming  majority  of  two  hundred  and 
thirty-nine  against  sixty-four,  which  was  tan¬ 
tamount  to  an  abrogation  of  the  Charter  of 
Massachusetts.  It  gave  to  the  crown  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  counsellors  and  judges  of  the  su¬ 
preme  court;  and  the  nomination  of  all  other 
officers,  military,  executive,  and  judicial,  was 
given  to  the  governor,  independent  of  any  ap¬ 
proval  by  the  Council.  To  the  sheriffs,  instead 


CROWN  POINT 


350  CROWN  POINT,  EXPEDITION  AGAINST 


of  the  selectmen  of  the  towns,  was  given  the  se¬ 
lection  of  jurors;  and  all  town-meetings,  except 
for  elections,  were  prohibited.  It  was  a  direct 
blow  at  the  liberties  of  the  people. 

Crown  Point,  in  Essex  County,  N.  Y.,  was 
quite  an  important  trading-station  between  the 
English  and  the  Indians  until  1731,  when  the 
French  took  possession  of  this  cape,  projecting 
into  Lake  Champlain  on  its  western  side,  and 
built  a  military  wTork  there,  which  they  called 
Fort  Frederick.  It  remained  in  possession  of 
the  French  until  1759,  when  the  approach  of  a 
large  English  force,  under  General  Amherst, 
caused  the  garrison  there  to  join  that  at  Ticou- 
deroga,  in  their  flight  down  the  lake  to  its  out¬ 
let.  (See  Ticonderoga,  Capture  of,  1759.)  Amherst 
remained  at  Crow  n  Point  long  enough  to  con¬ 
struct  a  sufficient  number  of  rude  boats  to  cou- 


CROWN  POINT. 

vey  bis  troops,  artillery,  and  baggage,  and  then 
started  to  drive  the  enemy  before  him  across  the 
St.  Lawrence.  The  delay  prevented  his  joining 
Wolfe  at  Quebec.  When  ready  to  move,  it  w  as 
mid-autumn  (October  11),  and  heavy  storms  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  return  to  Crown  Point,  after  going 
a  short  distance  down  the  lake.  There  he  placed 
his  troops  in  winter-quarters,  where  they  con¬ 
structed  a  fortress,  whose  picturesque  ruins,  after 
the  lapse  of  more  than  a  century,  still  attest  its 
original  strength.  The  whole  circuit,  measur¬ 
ing  along  the  ramparts,  was  a  trifle  less  than 
half  a  mile ;  and  it  was  surrounded  by  a  broad 
ditch,  cut  out  of  the  solid  limestone,  with  the 
fragments  taken  out  of  which  massive  stone 
barracks  were  constructed.  In  it  was  a  wrell, 
eight  feet  in  diameter  and  ninety  feet  deep, 
also  cut  out  of  the  limestone.  The  fortress  was 
never  entirely  finished,  although  the  British  gov¬ 
ernment  spent  nearly  $10,000,000  upon  it  and  its 
outworks.  Crown  Point  was  an  important  place 
during  the  old  war  for  independence. 

Crown  Point,  Campaign  against  (1756). 


The  conduct  of  the  second  campaign  against 
Crown  Point  was  intrusted  to  General  John 
Winslow'  (a  great-grandson  of  Edward  Winslow, 
governor  of  Plymouth),  who  led  the  expedi¬ 
tion  against  the  Acadiaus  in  1755.  (See  Acadi- 
ans,  Expulsion  of.)  The  Earl  of  Loudoun  w  as 
commander  •  in  -  chief  of  the  British  forces  in 
America,  and  General  James  Abercrombie  wras 
his  lieutenant.  General  Winslow  had  collected 
seven  thousand  men  at  Albany  before  Aber¬ 
crombie’s  arrival,  with  several  British  regiments, 
in  June.  Difficulties  immediately  occurred  re¬ 
specting  military  rank.  These,  unadjusted  when 
Loudoun  arrived,  were  made  worse  by  his  arro¬ 
gant  assumption  of  supreme  rank  for  the  royal 
officers,  and  the  troops  were  not  ready  to  move 
until  August.  Vigorous  measures  were  mean¬ 
while  taken  to  supply  and  reinforce  the  forts  at 

Oswego.  John  Brad- 
street,  appointed  com¬ 
missary-general,  em¬ 
ployed  for  this  purpose 
forty  companies  of  boat¬ 
men,  of  fifty  men  each. 
Before  this  could  be  ac¬ 
complished ,  the  French , 
under  Montcalm,  capt¬ 
ured  the  post  at  Os¬ 
wego,  which  event  so 
alarmed  the  inefficient 
Loudoun  that  he  aban¬ 
doned  all  otherplans  of 
t lie  campaign  for  the 
year.  A  regiment  of 
British  regulars,  under 
Colonel  Webb,  on  their 
march  to  reinforce  Os¬ 
wego,  on  hearing  of  the 
disaster,  fell  back  to 
Albany  with  terror 
and  precipitation ;  and 
other  troops,  moving 
towards  Ticonderoga, 
were  ordered  to  halt, 
and  devote  their  efforts 
towards  strengthening  forts  Edwrard  and  WTill- 
iam  Henry. 

Crown  Point,  Expedition  against  (1755). 
The  plan  of  the  campaign  for  1755  (see  French 
and  Indian  War)  contemplated  an  expedition 
against  the  French  at  Crown  Point,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  to  be  commanded  by  William  John¬ 
son.  He  accomplished  more  than  Braddock  or 
Shirley,  yet  failed  to  achieve  the  main  object 
of  the  expedition.  The  Assembly  of  New  York 
had  voted  £8000  towards  the  enlistment  in  Con¬ 
necticut  of  two  thousand  men  for  the  Niagara 
and  Crown  Point  expedition  ;  and  after  hearing 
of  Braddock’s  defeat,  they  raised  four  hundred 
men  of  their  own,  in  addition  to  eight  hundred 
which  they  had  already  in  the  field.  The  troops 
destined  for  the  northern  expedition,  about  six 
thousand  in  number,  were  drawn  from  New  Eng¬ 
land,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York.  They  were 
led  by  General  Phineas  Lyman,  of  Connecticut, 
to  the  head  of  boat  navigation  on  the  Hudson, 
where  they  built  Fort  Lyman,  afterwards  called 
Fort  Edward.  Thei’e  Johnson  joined  them  (Au- 


351 


CRUGER 


CROWN  POINT,  FRENCH  AT 


gust)  with  stores,  took  the  chief  command,  and 
advanced  to  Lake  George.  The  Baron  Dieskau 
had,  meanwhile,  ascended  Lake  Champlain  with 
two  thousand  men,  whom  he  brought  from  Mon¬ 
treal.  Landing  at  South  Bay,  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  Lake  Champlain,  Dieskau  marched 
against  Fort  Lyman,  but  suddenly  changed  his 
route,  and  led  his  troops  against  Johnson,  at  the 
head  of  Lake  George,  where  his  camp  was  pro¬ 
tected  on  two  sides  by  an  impassable  swamp. 
Informed  of  this  movement  of  the  French  and 
Indian  allies  (  Sept.  7  ),  Johnson  sent  forward 
(Sept.  8)  one  thousand  Massachusetts  troops, 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Ephraim  Will¬ 
iams,  and  two  hundred  Mohawk  Indians,  under 
King  Hendrick,  to  intercept  the  enemy.  The 
English  fell  into  an  ambuscade.  Williams  and 
Hendrick  were  both  killed,  and  their  followers 
fell  back  in  great  confusion  to  Johuson’s  camp, 
hotly  pursued.  The  latter  had  heard  of  the 
disaster  before  the  fugitives  appeared,  cast  up 
breastworks  of  logs  and  limbs,  and  placed  two 
cannons  upon  them,  and  was  prepared  to  receive 
the  pursuers  of  the  English.  Dieskau  and  his 
victorious  troops  came  rushing  on,  without  sus¬ 
picion  of  being  confronted  with  artillery.  They 
came,  a  motley  host,  with  swords,  pikes,  mus¬ 
kets,  and  tomahawks,  and  made  a  spirited  at¬ 
tack,  but  at  the  discharge  of  cannon  the  Indians 
fled  in  terror  to  the  forests.  So,  also,  did  the 
Canadian  militia.  Johnson  had  been  wounded 
early  in  the  fight,  and  it  was  carried  through 
victoriously  by  General  Lyman,  who,  hearing 
the  din  of  battle,  had  come  from  Fort  Lyman 
with  troops.  The  battle  continued  several 
hours,  when,  Dieskau  being  severely  wounded 
and  made  a  prisoner,  the  French  withdrew,  and 
hastened  to  Crown  Point.  Their  baggage  was 
captured  by  some  New  Hampshire  troops.  The 
French  loss  was  estimated  at  one  thousand  men  ; 
that  of  the  English  at  three  hundred.  Johnson 
did  not  follow  the  discomfited  enemy,  but  built 
a  strong  military  work  on  the  site  of  his  camp, 
which  lie  called  Fort  William  Henry.  He  also 
changed  the  name  of  Fort  Lyman  to  Fort  Ed¬ 
ward,  in  compliment  to  the  royal  family ;  and 
he  was  rewarded  for  the  success  achieved  by 
Lyman  with  a  baronetcy  and  $20,000  to  support 
the  new  title.  The  French  strengthened  their 
works  at  Crown  Point,  and  fortified  Ticonde- 
roga. 

Crown  Point,  French  at  (1731).  The  Ca¬ 
nadian  authorities  at  Montreal  sent  a  party  to 
occupy  Crown  Point,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Champlain,  within  one  hundred  miles  of  Albany. 
This  movement  startled  New  York  and  New  Eng¬ 
land.  The  Assembly  of  the  former  resolved  that 
“  this  encroachment,  if  not  prevented,  would 
prove  of  the  most  pernicious  consequence  to  this 
and  other  colonies.”  They  sent  notice  of  the  en¬ 
croachment  to  Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  and 
Massachusetts,  and  applied  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  Plantations  for  aid.  That  body  supported 
their  complaints,  but  Robert  Walpole  judiciously 
counselled  peace.  The  last  two  wars  of  Eng¬ 
land  with  France  had  laid  upon  England  the 
burden  of  a  national  debt  of  $250,000,000;  and, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  New  York  and 


New  England,  the  French  quietly  occupied  the 
shores  of  the  lake,  built  a  fort  at  Crown  Point, 
and  made  a  settlement  on  the  east  side  of  the 
water. 

Crozat  and  Louisiana.  The  first  settlement 
in  Louisiana  was  made  at  Biloxi  (now  in  Mis¬ 
sissippi)  in  1699.  Iu  1702  there  were  settlements 
begun  on  Dauphin  Island  and  at  Mobile,  now  in 
Alabama.  The  French  government,  wishing  to 
promote  more  rapid  settlements  in  that  region, 
granted  (1712)  the  whole  province,  with  a  mo¬ 
nopoly  of  trade,  to  Anthony  Crozat,  a  wealthy 
French  merchant,  who  expected  large  profits 
from  mines  and  trade  with  Mexico.  Crozat 
contracted  to  send  ships  from  France,  with 
goods  and  emigrants,  every  year;  and  he  was 
entitled  to  import  a  cargo  of  negro  slaves  annu¬ 
ally.  The  French  government  also  agreed  to 
pay  $10,000  a  year  for  the  civil  and  military 
establishments.  Crozat  established  a  trading- 
house  on  the  site  of  Montgomery,  on  the  Alaba¬ 
ma  River,  and  another  at  Natchitoches,  on  the 
Red  River.  Fort  Rosalie  was  built  on  the  site 
of  Natchez,  about  which  a  town  soon  grew  up, 
the  oldest  on  the  Lower  Mississippi.  Crozat 
made  ineffectual  attempts  to  open  a  trade  with 
Mexico,  and  the  intercourse  by  sea  was  prohib¬ 
ited  after  the  war.  After  five  years  of  large  out¬ 
lay  and  small  returns,  Crozat  resigned  his  pat¬ 
ent  (1717);  but  other  speculators  soou  filled  his 
place.  The  Mississippi  Company  (see  Law's  Bub¬ 
ble)  was  granted  the  monopoly  of  all  trade  with 
Louisiana  for  twenty-five  years.  They  attempt¬ 
ed  to  introduce  six  thousand  white  people  and 
half  as  many  negroes,  and  private  individuals 
to  whom  grants  of  land  had  been  made,  also  sent 
out  colonists.  Law,  having  twelve  square  miles 
of  laud  in  Arkansas,  undertook  to  settle  the  do¬ 
main  witli  1500  Germans.  The  Mississippi  Com¬ 
pany  resigned  Louisiana  to  the  crown  iu  1732. 

Cruger  and  Brown.  Colonel  Brown,  who 
was  in  command  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  had  been  de¬ 
feated  by  Colonel  Clarke,  who  captured  costly 
presents  designed  for  the  Cherokees,  which  the 
British  had  intrusted  to  the  active  loyalist 
commander.  With  a  corps  of  one  hundred  pro¬ 
vincials  and  one  thousand  Cherokees,  Brown 
maintained  a  position  on  Garden  Hill  against 
the  Americans  for  nearly  a  week,  when  he  was 
rescued  (September,  1780)  by  Colonel  Cruger, 
the  loyalist  commander  at  Fort  Ninety-six.  At 
Cruger’s  approach  the  Americans  retired,  and 
were  pursued.  Some  were  killed  and  scalped, 
and  some  were  made  prisoners.  Of  the  latter, 
Captain  Ashby  and  twelve  others  were  hanged 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  Brown  ;  thir¬ 
teen  were  delivered  to  the  Cherokees,  and  per¬ 
ished  by  tortures  or  the  tomahawk,  or  were 
thrown  into  fires.  By  Brown’s  orders  thirty 
of  the  prisoners  were  put  to  death.  Cruger, 
accompanied  by  Major  Patrick  Ferguson  (see 
King's  Mountain),  attempted  to  waylay  the  re¬ 
treating  party,  but  did  not  succeed.  (See  Au¬ 
gusta,  Siege  of.) 

Cruger,  Henry,  Jr.,  was  born  in  New  York 
city,  in  1739 ;  died  there,  April  24, 1827.  His  fa¬ 
ther  became  a  merchant  in  Bristol,  Eng.,  where 


CRUGER 


352 


CULLUM 


he  died  in  1780.  Henry  was  associated  with  him 
in  trade,  and  succeeded  him  as  Mayor  of  Bristol 
in  1781.  He  had  been  elected  to  Parliament  as 
the  colleague  of  Edmniul  Burke  in  1774,  aud  was 
re-elected  in  1784,  and  on  all  occasions  advo¬ 
cated  conciliatory  measures  towards  his  coun¬ 
trymen.  After  the  war  he  became  a  merchant 
in  New  York,  aud,  while  yet  a  member  of  the 
British  Parliament,  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Cruger,  John  Harris,  loyalist,  was  born  in 
New  York  city  in  1738;  died  in  London,  Jan.  3, 
1807.  He  was  brother  of  Henry  Cruger,  and 
succeeded  his  father  as  member  of  the  govern¬ 
or’s  council.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Colo¬ 
nel  Oliver  De  Lancey,  and  commanded  a  battal¬ 
ion  of  his  loyalist  corps.  He  served  under 
Cornwallis  in  South  Carolina,  and  wras  in  com¬ 
mand  of  Fort  Ninety-six  (which  see)  when  be¬ 
sieged  by  Greene  in  May,  1781,  and  was  praised 
for  his  successful  defence  of  the  post  until  re¬ 
lieved  by  Lord  Rawdon.  In  the  battle  of  Eutaw 
Spring,  in  September,  he  commanded  the  Brit¬ 
ish  centre.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  went  to 
England,  aud  his  property  was  confiscated. 

Cuba,  one  of  the  Spanish  West  India  Islands, 
and  the  largest  of  the  group.  Early  in  the  16tli 
century  it  was  a  conspicuous  point  of  departure 
for  discoverers,  explorers,  and  conquerors  of  the 
American  continent.  The  island  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  on  the  28th  of  October,  1492,  when, 
it  is  believed,  he  entered  a  bay  near  Nuevitas,  on 
the  north  coast.  He  gave  it  the  name  of  Juana, 
in  honor  of  Prince  Juan,  or  John,  sou  of  Isabella. 
Other  names  were  afterwards  given  to  it,  but 
that  of  the  natives — Cuba— is  retained.  It  was 
very  thickly  populated  by  a  docile  and  loving 
copper-colox-ed  race,  who  were  rightfully  called 
by  themselves  The  Good.  When,  in  the  winter 
ofl509-10,  Ojeda  was  sailing  from  Central  Amer¬ 
ica  to  Santo  Domingo  (see  Ojeda )  with  some  of 
his  followers,  liis  vessel  was  stranded  on  the 
southern  shores  of  Cuba.  He  and  his  crew  suf¬ 
fered  dreadfully  in  the  morasses,  and  more  than 
half  of  them  perished.  They  feared  the  natives, 
to  whose  protection  persecuted  ones  in  Santo 
Domingo  had  fled,  but  hunger  compelled  the 
Spaniards  to  seek  for  food  among  them.  These 
Buttering  Christians  were  treated  most  kindly  by 
the  pagans,  aud  through  their  good  offlces  Oje¬ 
da  was  enabled  to  reach  Jamaica,  then  settled 
by  his  countrymen.  He  had  built  a  chapel  in 
Cuba,  aud  over  its  altar-piece  he  placed  a  small 
Flemish  painting  of  the  Virgin,  and  taught  the 
natives  to  worship  her  as  the  “  Mother  of  God.” 
Then  Ojeda,  on  reaching  Santo  Domingo,  told  his 
countrymen  of  the  abundance  of  precious  metals 
iu  Cuba,  w  hen  Diego  Velasquez,  appointed  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Cuba  by  Diego  Columbus,  went  with 
three  hundred  men  and  made  an  easy  conquest 
of  it.  The  natives  had  kept  Ojeda’s  chapel  swept 
clean,  made  votive  offerings  to  the  Virgin,  com¬ 
posed  couplets  to  her,  and  sung  them  with  ac¬ 
companiments  of  instrumental  music  as  they 
danced  in  the  surrounding  groves,  and  tried  to 
convince  their  pious  conquerors  that  they  w'ere 
fellow-Cliristians,  but  in  vain.  The  couquerors 


made  slaves  of  them,  and  so  cruelly  worked  and 
treated  them,  men  ami  w'omen,  in  the  fields  and 
mines,  that  in  less  than  fifty  years  only  a  few 
natives  were  left,  and  their  places  were  par¬ 
tially  supplied  by  negro  slaves.  Cruelty  was 
the  rule  with  the  conquerors.  Velasquez  found 
there  a  rich  and  potent  cacique,  who  had  fled 
from  Hispaniola  to  avoid  slavery  or  death,  and 
he  condemned  the  fugitive  to  the  flames.  When 
he  was  fastened  to  the  stake,  a  Franciscan  friar, 
laboring  to  convert  him,  promised  him  imme¬ 
diate  admittance  to  the  joys  of  heaven  if  he 
would  embrace  the  Christian  faith,  and  threat¬ 
ened  him  with  eternal  torment  if  he  should  con¬ 
tinue  in  his  unbelief.  The  cacique  asked  wheth¬ 
er  there  were  any  Spaniards  in  that  region  of 
bliss,  and  being  answered  in  the  affirmative,  re¬ 
plied,  “  I  will  not  go  to  a  place  where  I  may 
meet  one*of  that  accursed  race.”  De  Soto  was 
made  captain-general  of  Cuba  in  1537,  and  from 
that  island  he  sailed  to  make  a  conquest  of  Flor¬ 
ida.  From  it  Cordova  also  sailed,  and  Grijalva, 
when  they  went  and  discovered  Mexico ;  and 
from  it  Velasquez  sent  Cortez  to  make  a  con¬ 
quest  of  the  empire  of  Montezuma.  Cuba  has 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Spaniards  ever 
since  the  conquest.  The  introduction  of  negroes 
for  slaves  was  gradual ;  and  towards  the  close 
of  the  16th  century  monastic  institutions  and 
a  delegate  of  the  Inquisition  were  introduced 
there.  Cuba  has  experienced  revolts,  but  no 
successful  revolution.  Since  the  beginning  of 
this  century  there  has  been  much  discontent  on 
the  island,  especially  among  the  Creole  popula¬ 
tion.  During  the  last  thirty  years  there  has 
been  manifested  a  strong  desire  among  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  to  annex 
Cuba  to  our  republic.  In  1848,  President  Polk 
authorized  the  American  minister  at  Madrid  to 
otter  $100,000,000  for  Cuba,  but  it  was  rejected. 
Soon  after  that,  fruitless  expeditions  from  our 
shores  to  create  a  revolution  there  in  favor  of 
Cuban  independence  have  occurred  ;  and  in  the 
summer  of  1854,  three  American  ministers  in  Eu¬ 
rope  held  a  conference  at  Ostend,  in  Belgium, 
and  issued  a  statement  (see  Ostend  Manifesto) 
that  Cuba  ought  to  belong  to  the  United  States, 
and  that,  in  case  the  slaves  of  Cuba  should  be 
emancipated,  the  United  States  ought  to  take 
Cuba  from  Spain  by  force;  and  John  Slidell,  of 
Louisiana,  offered  a  resolution  in  the  United 
States  Senate,  in  the  session  of  1858-59,  to  place 
$30,000,000  in  the  hands  of  President  Buchanan, 
with  a  view  to  the  acquisition  of  the  island.  A 
revolt  broke  out  in  1868,  which  wras  not  quelled 
until  early  in  1878,  at  which  time  nearly  100,000 
soldiers  bad  been  sent  from  Spain,  one  seventh 
of  whom  had  died  or  been  killed. 

Cullum,  George  Washington,  was  born  Feb. 
25,  1812,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833, 
entering  the  engineer  corps,  and  becoming  cap¬ 
tain  in  July,  1838.  He  was  made  major  in 
August,  1861,  lieutenant-colonel  in  March,  1863, 
and  colonel,  March,  1867,  which  rank  in  the 
United  States  Army  he  still  holds.  He  is  one  of 
the  most  accomplished  and  useful  officers  of  engi¬ 
neers  iu  the  United  States  Army,  as  the  milita¬ 
ry  works  he  has  superintended  the  construction 


CULPEPPER  AND  ARLINGTON 


353 


CURTIN 


of  attest.  From  1845  to  1848  be  was  instructor 
of  practical  engineering  in  the  West  Point  Mil¬ 
itary  Academy,  during  which  time  he  spent  two 
years  in  Europe.  He  served  as  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Scott  in  1861,  and  in  November  was 
made  brigadier  of  volunteers,  serving  on  the 
staff  of  General  Halleck  iu  1862,  and  accompa¬ 
nying  him  to  Washington.  He  was  an  efficient 
member  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commis¬ 
sion  (which  see),  superintendent  of  West  Point 
Academy  from  1864  to  1866,  and  iu  1865  was  bre¬ 
veted  major-general  in  the  United  States  Army. 
General  Cullum  has  published  several  books  on 
military  affairs,  and  a  Biographical  Register  of  the 
Officers  and  Graduates  of  Jfest  Point. 

Culpepper  and  Arlington.  In  1673  King 
Charles  gave  to  two  of  his  profligate  courtiers, 
Lord  Culpepper  and  the  Earl  of  Arlington,  “  all 
the  domain  of  laud  and  water  called  Virginia” 
for  thirty  years.  A  commission  was  given  to 
Culpepper  as  governor  for  life,  to  take  effect 
whenever  Berkeley  (which  see)  should  vacate 
the  office.  He  purchased  the  interest  of  Arling¬ 
ton  iu  the  royal  grant.  Preferring  to  engage  in 
the  profligate  enjoyments  of  London  and  a  court 
life,  he  did  not  go  to  Virginia  until  1680,  or  three 
years  after  Berkeley  had  left  the  province.  His 
profligacy  and  rapacity  there  disgusted  the  peo¬ 
ple,  and  discontent  ripened  into  open  insurrec¬ 
tion.  By  the  king’s  order,  the  governor  caused 
several  of  the  insurgents,  who  were  men  of  in¬ 
fluence,  to  be  hanged.  A  reign  of  terror,  mis¬ 
called  tranquillity,  followed.  At  length  the 
king  himself  became  incensed  against  Culpep¬ 
per,  revoked  his  grant  in  1684,  and  deprived 
him  of  office. 

Culpepper,  John,  was  surveyor-general  in  the 
Carolinas,  and  in  1678  headed  an  insurrection  in 
the  Albemarle  or  North  Colony  in  favor  of  pop¬ 
ular  liberty.  Led  by  him,  the  people  deposed 
the  officers  appointed  by  the  proprietaries,  seized 
the  public  funds,  appointed  new  officers,  and  or¬ 
ganized  a  new  government.  Sent  to  England 
to  effect  a  compromise,  Culpepper  was  indicted 
for  high-treason,  but  through  the  influence  of 
the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  he  was  acquitted.  He 
returned  to  the  Carolinas,  and  in  1680  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  city  of  Charleston. 

Culpepper,  Thomas  (Lord),  was  governor  of 
Virginia  from  1680  to  1683,  and  died  in  1719.  He 
was  one  of  the  parasites  of  Charles  II.,  to  whom 
the  territory  of  Virginia  was  granted.  From  co¬ 
grantees  in  1669,  lie  purchased  the  domain  be¬ 
tween  the  Potomac  and  Rappahannock  rivers. 
His  daughter,  Lady  Fairfax,  inherited  his  es¬ 
tate.  As  one  of  the  Commissioners  for  Ameri¬ 
can  Plantations  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  in 
1683,  iu  consequence  of  irregularities  iu  relation 
to  colonial  affairs. 

Cumberland,  Duke  of.  At  the  opening  of 
the  French  and  Indian  War  (which  see),  in  1754, 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  Army,  was  intrusted  with  the 
direction  and  conduct  of  American  affairs.  He 
was  fond  of  war,  and  cruel  and  sanguinary  in 
disposition.  He  was  thoroughly  brave,  and  am¬ 
bitious  of  military  renown.  A  thorough  disci- 
I.— 23 


plinarian,  he  never  forgave  neglect  iu  the  ser¬ 
vice.  The  duke  entered  heartily  into  the  war 
with  France,  but,  misunderstanding  the  char¬ 
acter  and  temper  of  the  American  colonists,  he 
made  many  blunders  in  his  management  of  co¬ 
lonial  affairs  at  that  crisis. 

Cumberland  Mountains,  Named  and  Pass¬ 
ed.  In  1747,  Dr.  Thomas  Walker,  of  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Virginia,  penetrated  the  mountainous  dis¬ 
tricts  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  that  prov¬ 
ince,  and  crossed  the  great  range  of  hills  that 
separates  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee  from  the 
head-waters  of  the  more  northerly  tributaries 
of  the  Ohio.  He  named  the  ridge  “  Cumberland 
Mountains,”  in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  Cumber¬ 
land,  who  had  lately  gained  a  victory  over  the 
“  Young  Pretender”  at  the  battle  of  Culloden. 
He  gave  the  same  name  to  one  of  the  rivers  that 
flowed  from  the  western  slopes  of  these  moun¬ 
tains.  The  more  northerly  one  he  called  Loui¬ 
sa,  but  it  retains  its  Indian  title,  Eain-tuck-ee' , 
giving  the  accent  on  the  middle  syllable,  Ken- 
tuck'y-  So  the  fertile  regions  of  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky  were  first  revealed  to  the  English. 

Cumberland  Road,  The.  (See  Internal  Im¬ 
provements .) 

Cunningham,  William,  a  brutal  provost- 
marshal  of  the  British  Army  iu  America,  in  the 
war  for  independence,  was  executed  iu  England 
for  forgery,  Aug.  10,  1791.  He  starved,  perse¬ 
cuted,  and  murdered  American  prisoners  in  the 
city  of  New  York.  Of  such  captives  under  his 
care,  nearly  two  thousand  were  starved  to  death 
(  whose  rations  he  sold ),  and  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  were  privately  hung,  without 
trial,  to  gratify  his  brutal  appetite. 

Cunningham’s  Raid.  During  the  winter 
of  1780-81,  William  Cunningham,  a  notorious 
Tory  leader,  under  orders  from  Colonel  Bal¬ 
four,  at  Charleston,  led  one  hundred  and  fifty 
white  men  and  negroes  into  the  interior  of  South 
Carolina,. to  “distress  the  inhabitants.”  On  his 
march  he  killed  every  person  he  met  whom  he 
suspected  of  being  friendly  to  the  United  States, 
and  burned  their  dwellings.  In  this  way  about 
fifty  persons  perished.  A  house  which  sheltered 
thirty-five  Americans,  commanded  by  Colonel 
Hayes,  was  fired  upon  because  the  inmates  re¬ 
fused  to  surrender  at  discretion.  At  length  the 
marauding  party  set  fire  to  the  house,  when  the 
garrison  capitulated.  An  agreement  was  made 
and  signed,  in  which  it  was  stipulated  that  the 
Americans  should  be  treated  as  prisoners  of  war 
until  exchanged.  No  sooner  had  they  given  up 
their  arms  than  Cunningham  hanged  Colonel 
Hayes  to  the  limb  of  a  tree.  In  like  manner 
his  second  in  command  was  treated;  and  with 
his  own  hand  Cunningham  slew  some  of  the 
other  prisoners,  and  requested  his  men  to  follow 
his  example.  These  facts  were  proven  before  a 
judicial  tribunal.  The  name  of  “  Bill  Cunning¬ 
ham”  became  a  cause  for  terror  over  large  dis¬ 
tricts  in  South  Carolina. 

Curtin,  Andrew  Gregg,  “  war-governor”  of 
Pennsylvania,  born  at  Bellefonte, Penn.,  April  28, 
1817,  was  au  active  lawyer  and  politician,  and 


CURTIS 


354 


CUSHING 


governor  of  his  native  state  when  the  Civil  War 
broke  out.  He  had  been  Secretary  of  State  from 
1855  to  1858,  and  Superintendent  of  Common 
Schools  in  1800.  He  was  re-elected  governor  in 


(which  see).  In  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  major-gen¬ 
eral  in  March,  1862.  Commanding  the  army  in 
Missouri,  he  gained  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge 


SAMUEL  RYA.V  CURTIS. 

(which  see).  After  the  war  he  was  appointed 
United  States  Commissioner  to  treat  with  In¬ 
dian  tribes — Sioux,  Cheyennes,  and  others. 

Cushing,  Caleb,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Salis¬ 
bury,  Mass.,  Jan.  17,  1800;  died  at  Newbnryport, 
Mass.,  Jan.  2, 1879.  Graduated  at  Harvard  Uni¬ 
versity  in  1817.  He  became  a  distinguished 
lawyer,  in  which  profession  he  began  practice 
at  Newburyport,  Mass.  Mr.  Cushing  served  in 
the  State  Legislature,  and  was  in  Congress  from 
1835  to  1843,  as  a  Whig  representative,  when, 
with  Mr.  Tyler,  he  became  an  active  member 
of  the  Democratic  party.  President  Tyler  sent 
him  as  Commissioner  to  China,  where,  in  1844, 


CALEB  CUSHING. 

he  negotiated  an  important  treaty.  He  advo¬ 
cated  the  policy  of  war  with  Mexico,  and  led  a 
regiment  to  the  field.  In  1853  President  Pierce 
called  Mr.  Cushing  to  his  cabinet  as  Attorney- 
general.  As  president  of  the  Democratic  con¬ 
vention  at  Charleston  (1860),  he  took  part  with 
the  Secessionists.  In  1866  he  was  one  of  three 
commissioners  appointed  to  codify  the  laws  of 
the  United  States. 


1863,  and  was  sent  by  President  Grant  as  min¬ 
ister  to  Russia  in  1869. 

Curtis,  George  William,  born  in  Providence, 
R.  I.,  Feb.  24,  1824.  Until  his  twenty  -  second 
year  he  was  engaged  in  acquiring  knowledge 
and  skill  for  the  literary  career  he  has  pursued. 
In  1846  he  went  abroad,  and,  after  spending  a 
year  in  Italy,  entered  the  University  of  Berlin, 
where  he  saw  the  revolutionary  movements  of 
1848.  He  spent  two  years  in  travelling  in  Eu¬ 
rope,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  returning  to  the  United 
States  in  1850,  in  which  year  he  published  Nile, 
Notes  of  a  Howadji.  He  joined  the  editorial  stall' 
of  the  New  York  Tribune,  and  was  one  of  the  orig¬ 
inal  editors  of  Putnam's  Monthly.  He  was  for 
many  years  an  eloquent  and  successful  lycemn 
lecturer,  and  is  still  (1880)  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  accomplished  orators  in  the  United 
States.  In  1867  he  became  editor  of  Harpei-'s 
Weekly,  and  still  holds  that  position.  In  his 
writings  and  speeches  he  has  been  an  effi¬ 
cient  supporter  of  the  Republican  party  since 
its  organization,  and  has  contributed  a  vast 
number  of  very  able  short  essays  through  Har¬ 
per's  Monthly,  in  the  department  of  “  The  Easy 
Chair.”  In  1871  President  Grant  appointed  Mr. 
Curtis  one  of  a  commission  to  draw  up  rules  for 
the  regulation  of  the  Civil  Service.  He  was 
one  of  the  members  of  the  Constitutional  Con¬ 
vention  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  1868,  in 
which  he  was  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Education.  Since  1864  he  has  been  one  of  the 
regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New 
York. 


Curtis,  Samuel  Ryan,  born  in  Ohio,  Feb.  3, 
1807;  died  at  Council  Bluffs,  In.,  Dec.  25,  1866. 
Graduated  at  West  Point  in  1831,  and  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  left  the  army  and  studied  law ; 
served  under  General  Taylor  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  and  was  General  Wool’s  assistant  ad¬ 
jutant-general  in  that  war.  He  was  for  a  while 
governor  of  Saltillo.  He  became  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1857,  retaining  that  position  until 
1861,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Peace  Congress 


ANDREW  GREGG  CURTIN. 


CUSHING 


355 


CUSTIS 


Cushing,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  was  horn  in  Bos¬ 
ton  March  24,  1725 ;  died  Feb.  28,  1788.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1744,  and  for  many 
years  represented  his  native  city  in  the  General 
Court,  of  which  body  he  became  speaker  in  1763, 
and  held  that  position  until  1774.  His  signa¬ 
ture  was  affixed,  during  all  that  time,  to  all 
public  documents  of  the  province,  which  made 
his  name  so  conspicuous  that,  in  his  pamphlet, 
Taxation  no  Tyranny,  Dr.  Johnson  said,  “  One  ob¬ 
ject  of  the  Americans  is  said  to  be,  to  adorn  the 
brows  of  Cushing  with  a  diadem.”  He  w  as  a 
member  of  the  first  and  second  Continental 
Congress;  was  commissary -general  in  1775; 
was  a  judge;  and  in  1779  was  elected  lieuten¬ 
ant-governor  of  Massachusetts,  which  office  he 
held  until  his  death. 

Cushing,  William  B.,  U.  S.  Navy,  was  horn 
in  Wisconsin,  Nov.  24,  1842 ;  died  in  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.,  Dec.  17,  1874.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1857,  resigned,  and  was  reappointed  in  1861. 
He  performed  exploits  remarkable  for  coolness 
and  courage  dining  the  war,  the  most  notable 
of  wThich  was  the  destruction  of  the  Confederate 
ram  Albemarle,  at  Plymouth,  N.  C.  (See  Albe¬ 
marle.)  For  this  he  received  a  vote  of  thanks 
from  Congress.  In  1868—69  he  commanded  (as 
lieutenant-commander)  the  steamer  Maumee,  in 
the  Asiatic  squadron. 

Cushing,  William,  LL.D.,  horn  at  Scituate, 
Mass.,  March  1,  1732 ;  died  there,  Sept.  13,  1810. 
Graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1751.  He 
studied  law,  became  eminent  in  his  profession, 
was  attorney-general  of  Massachusetts,  a  judge 
of  probate  in  1768,  judge  of  the  Superior  Court 
in  1772,  and  in  1777  succeeded  his  father  as 
chief- justice  of  that  court.  Under  the  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  Constitution  of  1788  he  was  made 
chief-justice  of  the  state  ;  and  in  1789  President 
Washington  appointed  him  a  justice  of  the  Su¬ 
preme  Court  of  the  United  States.  He  offered 
him  the  chief-justiceship  in  1796,  as  the  succes¬ 
sor  of  Jay,  hut  he  declined  it.  He  administered 
the  oath  of  office  to  Washington  in  his  second 
inauguration. 

Cushman,  Charlotte  Saunders,  an  eminent 
actress,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  23, 1816 ; 
died  there,  Feb.  18,  1876.  At  the  age  of  nine¬ 
teen  years  she  made  her  first  appearance  on  the 
stage,  at  the Tremont Theatre,  Boston,  as  a  singer, 
the  pecuniary  misfortunes  of  her  father  render¬ 
ing  it  necessary  for  her  to  assist  in  the  support 
of  the  family.  She  was  soon  engaged  to  sing  in 
English  opera  in  New  Orleans,  but  almost  im¬ 
mediately  after  her  arrival  there  her  voice  fail¬ 
ed.  She  then  became  an  actress,  making  her 
first  appearance,  as  Lady  Macbeth,  with  great 
success.  From  that  time  forward  her  profes¬ 
sional  life  was  a  constant  success,  her  last  ap¬ 
pearance  on  the  stage  being  in  1871.  For  some 
time  she  gave  choice  dramatic  readings.  In  so¬ 
cial  life  she  held  a  high  position,  for  her  char¬ 
acter  wras  marked  by  purity  and  dignity,  and 
she  honored  the  profession  which  she  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  embrace  by  the  force  of  circumstances. 

Cushman,  Robert,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 


Plymouth  Colony,  was  born  in  England  about 
the  year  1580,  and  died  in  1625.  He  joined  the 
Society  of  the  “Pilgrims”  in  Holland,  and  be¬ 
came  very  active.  He  and  John  Carver  were 
appointed  agents  to  make  arrangements  for  the 
emigration  of  the  church  to  America,  and  he  was 
one  of  the  number  who  sailed  in  the  Speedwell, 
and  were  compelled  to  return  on  account  of  her 
unseaworthiness.  Mr.  Cushman  remained  with 
those  who  did  not  go  in  the  Mayflower.  He 
went  to  New  Plymouth  in  the  autumn  of  1621, 
taking  with  him  thirty-five  other  persons,  and 
there  delivered  the  charter  to  the  colonists. 
He  preached  the  first  sermon  by  an  ordained 
minister  in  New  England  on  Dec.  12.  On.  the 
following  day  he  sailed  for  England.  The  ves¬ 
sel  and  cargo  were  captured  by  the  French,  and 
plundered  of  everything,  and  Cushman  was  de¬ 
tained  two  weeks  on  the  French  coast.  On  his 
return  to  London  he  published  his  sermon  in 
New'  England  On  the  Sin  and  Danger  of  Self-love, 
and  also  an  eloquent  vindication  of  the  colonial 
enterprise.  He  made  a  strong  appeal  for  mis¬ 
sions  to  be  sent  to  tbe  American  Indians.  Mr. 
Cushman  continued  the  agent  of  the  Plymouth 
Colony  in  London  until  his  death. 

Custer,  George  A.,  was  born  at  New  Rum- 
ley,  0.,  Dec.  5, 1839;  wras  killed  by  Indians  June 
25, 1876.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1861, 
and  was  an  active  and  daring  cavalry  officer 
during  the  Civil  War,  distinguishing  himself  on 
many  occasions.  He  never  lost  a  gun  nor  a 
color.  In  June,  1863,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  was  breveted  major- 
general  in  1884.  He  was  particularly  distin¬ 
guished  in  the  battles  immediately  preceding 
the  surrender  of  Lee  at  Appomattox  Court¬ 
house.  He  was  exceptionally  fortunate  in  his 
military  career  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
made  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Seventh  cavalry 
in  1866,  receiving  the  brevet  of  major-general 
in  the  United  States  Army  for  services  ending 
in  Lee’s  surrender.  He  afterwards  commanded 
expeditions  against  the  Indians  in  the  far  West. 
In  1879  a  statue  of  General  Custer  was  erected 
at  West  Point. 

Custer’s  Raid.  General  Custer,  with  fifteen 
hundred  cavalry,  crossed  the  Rapid  Anna  (Feb. 
27, 1864)  for  the  purpose  chiefly  of  diverting  the 
attention  of  the  Confederates  from  Kilpatrick’s 
raid  (which  see).  Custer  flanked  Lee’s  army  on 
tli©  west,  and  pushed  on  to  within  four  miles  of 
Charlottesville,  where  he  was  checked  by  a  su¬ 
perior  Confederate  force  with  a  battery.  Turn¬ 
ing  northward,  Custer  had  several  skirmishes, 
and  then  returned  to  camp,  followed  by  a  large 
number  of  refugees  from  slavery. 

Custis,  George  Washington  Parice,  adopt¬ 
ed  son  of  General  Washington,  was  born  April 
30,  1781;  died  at  Arlington  House,  opposite 
Georgetown,  D.  C.,  Oct.  10,  1857.  He  was  a 
grandson  of  Mrs.  Washington.  His  father  was 
John  Parke  Custis,  and  his  mother  was  Eleanor 
Calvert,  of  Maryland.  At  the  siege  of  Yorktown 
(1781)  his  father  was  aide-de-camp  to  Washing¬ 
ton  ;  was  seized  with  camp-fever;  retired  to 
Elthaui,  and  there  died  before  Washington  (who 


CUSTOM-HOUSE 


356  DAGGETT 


hastened  thither  immediately  after  the  surren¬ 
der)  could  reach  his  bedside.  Washington  af¬ 
terwards  adopted  his  two  children  —  Eleanor 
Parke  and  George  Washington  Parke  Custis — 
as  his  own.  Their  early  home  was  at  Mount 
Vernon.  George  was  educated  partly  at  Prince¬ 
ton,  and  was  eighteen  years  of  age  at  the  time 
of  Washington’s  death,  who  made  him  an  exec¬ 
utor  of  his  will  and  left  him  a  handsome  es¬ 
tate,  on  which  he  lived,  until  his  death,  in  lit¬ 
erary,  artistic,  and  agricultural  pursuits.  In  his 
early  days  Mr.  Custis  was  an  eloquent  speaker; 
and  in  his  later  years  he  produced  a  series  of 
historical  pictures,  valuable,  not  as  works  of 
art,  but  for  the  truthfulness  of  the  costume  and 
equipment  of  the  soldiers  delineated  iu  them. 
His  Personal  Recollections  of  Washington  were  ar¬ 
ranged  and  fully  annotated  by  Benson  J.  Los- 
sing,  and  published  in  1859,  with  a  memoir  by 
his  daughter,  Mrs.  Robert  E.  Lee. 

Custom-house,  A,  was  first  established  at 
Charleston,  S.C.,  for  the  enforcement,  of  the  acts 
of  trade  iu  1685.  The  colonists  there  cast  every 
obstacle  iu  the  way  of  the  enforcement  of  those 


acts.  They  were  as  obstinate  as  those  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts. 

Custom-house,  First  in  New  England,  was 
established  in  Boston  iu  1680,  with  Edward  Ran¬ 
dolph  as  commissiouer.  His  authority  was  su¬ 
perseded  by  the  creation,  by  the  General  Court, 
of  a  colonial  naval  office.  (See  Randolph,  Ed¬ 
ward .) 

Cutler,  Manasseh,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Kil- 
lingly,  Conn.,  May  3,1742;  died  at  Hamilton, 
Mass.,  July  28, 1823.  He  graduated  at  Yale  Col¬ 
lege  in  1765 ;  studied  theology  ;  was  ordaiued  in 
1771 ;  was  a  chaplain  of  a  regiment  in  the  army 
in  1776;  became  an  excellent  botanist;  and  gave 
the  first  scientific  description  of  the  plants  of 
New  England.  As  agent  for  the  Ohio  Company 
in  1787,  he  bought  one  million  five  hundred 
thousand  acres  of  land  northwest  of  the  Ohio, 
and  started  the  first  company  of  emigrants  to 
that  region,  who  founded  the  town  of  Marietta 
in  April,  1787.  He  travelled  thither  in  a  “  sulky  ” 
(a  two-wheeled,  one-seated  carriage),  seven  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  miles,  in  twenty-nine  days.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1800  to  1804. 


D. 


Dablon,  Claude,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary, 
who  labored  in  Canada,  New  York,  and  iu  the 
present  states  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  He 
was  born  in  1618,  and  died  in  Quebec,  Sept.  20, 
1697.  He  began  a  mission  at  Onondaga,  in  New 
York,  in  1655,  and  in  1661  he  set  out  for  Hud¬ 
son’s  Bay  by  land.  He  accompanied  Marquette 
(which  see)  to  Lake  Superior  in  1668,  and  estab¬ 
lished  the  mission  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Mary ;  also 
one  among  the  Fox  tribe  of  Indians.  In  1670 
he  became  superior  of  the  Canada  Jesuit  mis¬ 
sions,  and  prepared  the  Relations  concerning 
New  France  for  1671-72,  which  was  printed  in 
New  York  in  1861 ;  also  that  for  1675.  An  ac¬ 
count.  of  Marquette’s  discovery  of  the  Mississippi 
River  was  edited  by  him. 

Dacres,  James  Richard,  a  British  admiral. 
His  father  wras  a  commander  in  the  battle  with 
Arnold  on  Lake  Champlain  iu  1776.  The  son 
entered  the  royal  navy  in  1796,  and,  being  placed 
in  command  of  the  frigate  Guerriere  in  1811. 
was  sent  to  fight  the  Americans.  He  proudly 
boasted  that  he  would  “send  the  Constitution  to 
Davy  Jones’s  locker”  when  he  should  be  so  fort¬ 
unate  as  to  meet  her.  She  had  escaped  him  in 
her  famous  retreat  (see  Constitution,  Retreat  of), 
but  willingly  met  and  fought  the  Guerriere  after¬ 
wards.  ( See  Constitution  and  Guerriere. )  Da¬ 
cres  was  then  captain.  He  attained  the  rank 
of  flag-officer  in  1838,  and  in  1845  was  vice-ad¬ 
miral  and  commauder-in-cliief  of  the  fleet  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  was  presented  with  a 
gratuity  from  the  “  Patriotic  Fund”  at  Lloyd’s, 
in  consideration  of  his  wound.  He  was  mar¬ 
ried,  in  1810,  to  Arabella  Boyd,  who  died  in 
1828.  Vice-admiral  Dacres  died  in  England, 
Dec.  4,  1853. 

Daggett,  Naphthali,  was  born  at  Attlebor¬ 
ough,  Mass.,  Sept.  8,  1727 ;  died  at  New  Haven, 


Conn.,  Nov.  25, 1780.  He  graduated  at  Yale  Col¬ 
lege  in  1748,  was  ord  ained  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  at  Smithtown,  Long  Island,  in  1751,  and 
in  1755  was  chosen  professor  of  divinity  at  Yale, 
which  position  he  held  until  his  death.  In  1766, 
on  the  resignation  of  President  Clap,  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  college  pro  tempore,  and 
officiated  in  that  capacity  more  than  a  year. 
He  was  an  active  patriot  when  the  War  of  the 


JAMES  RICHARD  DACRES. 


Revolution  broke  out;  and  when  tlie  British 
attacked  New  Haven,  in  1779,  he  took  part  in 
the  resistance  made  by  the  citizens  and  sur¬ 
rounding  militia.  Dr.  Daggett  was  made  a 


DAHLGREN 


357 


DAKOTAS 


prisoner,  and  the  severe  treatment  to  which  he 
was  subjected  so  shattered  his  constitution  that 
he  never  recovered  his  health.  After  the  fa¬ 
mous  “  Dark  Day”  (which  see),  in  1780,  he  pub¬ 
lished  an  account  of  it. 

Dahlgren,  John  A.,  U.  S.  Navy,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  November,  1809;  died  in  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  July  12,  1870.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1826,  and  was  made  rear-admiral  in 
1863.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Dahlgren 


JOHN  A.  DAHLGREN. 


gun,  which  he  perfected  at  the  navy-yard  at 
Washington,  and  in  1862  he  was  made  Chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance.  In  July,  1863,  he 
took  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  squad¬ 
ron,  and,  with  the  land-forces  of  General  Gill- 
more,  captured  Morris  Island  and  Fort  Wag¬ 
ner,  and  reduced  Fort  Sumter  to  a  heap  of 
ruins.  He  conducted  a  successful  expedition 
up  the  St.  John’s  River,  in  Florida,  in  1864, 
and  co-operated  with  General  Sherman  in  the 
capture  of  Savannah.  After  the  evacuation 
of  Charleston  (which  see)  he  moved  his  ves¬ 
sels  up  to  that  city.  Admiral  Dahlgren,  be¬ 
sides  being  the  inventor  of  a  cannon,  intro¬ 
duced  into  the  navy  the  highly  esteemed  light 
boat-howitzer. 

Dakota  originally  formed  apart  of  Minnesota 
Territory.  It  was  a  portion  of  the  great  Louis¬ 
iana  purchase  in  1803.  The  Nebraska  Territory 
was  formed  in  1854,  and  comprised  a  part  of 
what  is  now  Dakota.  The  latter  territory  was 
organized  by  act  of  Congress,  approved  March 
2,  1861,  and  included  the  present  territories  of 
Montana  and  Washington  (which  see).  In  1863 
a  part  of  the  territory  was  included  in  Idaho, 
of  which  the  northeastern  part  was  organized 
as  Montana  in  1864,  and  the  southern  part  was 
transferred  to  Dakota.  In  1868  a  large  area 
was  taken  from  Dakota  to  form  Wyoming  Ter¬ 
ritory  (which  see).  The  first  permanent  settle¬ 
ments  of  Europeans  in  Dakota  were  made  in 
1859,  in  what  are  now  Clay,  Union,  and  Yank¬ 
ton  counties.  The  first  Legislature  convened 
March  17,  1862.  Emigration  was  limited  until 
1866,  when  settlers  began  to  flock  in,  and  popu¬ 


lation  has  rapidly  increased.  Yankton,  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Missouri  River,  is  its 
capital.  The  mineral  resources  already  devel¬ 
oped  indicate  that  Dakota  is  a  territory  rich  in 
these  products,  and  its  agricultural  resources  are 
very  great.  Population  in  1880,  135,177. 

Dakotas,  or  Sioux.  This  is  a  large  and  pow¬ 
erful  tribe  of  Indians,  who  were  found  by  the 
French,  in  1640,  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  River.  The  Algouquius  called  them  Na- 
dowessioux,  whence  they  came  to  be  called  Sioux, 
and  they  were  also  called  by  the  collective  name 
of  Dakotas.  They  occupied  the  vast  domain  ex¬ 
tending  from  the  Arkansas  River,  in  the  south, 
to  the  western  tributary  of  Lake  Winnipeg  in 
the  north,  and  westward  to  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  have  been  class¬ 
ed  into  four  grand  divisions — namely,  the  Win- 
nebagoes,  who  inhabited  the  country  between 
Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mississippi,  among  the 
Algouquius;  the  Assinniboins,  or  Sioux  proper 
(the  most  northerly  of  the  nation);  the  Minna- 
teree  group,  in  Minnesota,  and  the  Southern 
Sioux,  who  dwelt  in  the  country  between  the 
Arkansas  and  Platte  rivers,  and  whose  hunt¬ 
ing-grounds  extended  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
(See  Winnebagoes,  Assinniboins,  Minnaterees,  and 
Southern  Sioux.)  In  1679  Jean  Duluth,  a  French 
officer,  set  up  the  Gallic  standard  among  them 
near  Lake  St.  Peter,  and  the  next  year  he  res¬ 
cued  from  them  Father  Hennepin,  who  first  ex¬ 
plored  the  Upper  Mississippi.  The  French  took 
formal  possession  of  the  country  in  1685,  when 
they  were  divided  into  seven  eastern  and  nine 
western  tribes.  In  wars  with  the  French  and 
other  Indians,  they  were  pushed  down  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  and,  driving  off  the  inhabitants  of  the 
buffalo  plains,  took  possession.  Others  remain¬ 
ed  on  the  shores  of  the  St.  Peter'.  Some  of  them 
wandered  into  the  plains  of  Missouri,  and  there 
joined  the  Southern  Sioux.  In  the  War  of  1812 
the  Dakotas  took  sides  with  the  British.  In 
1822  the  population  of  the  two  divisions  of  the 
Dakotas  was  estimated  at  nearly  thirteen  thou¬ 
sand.  In  1837  they  ceded  to  the  United  States 
all  their  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in 
1851  they  ceded  thirty-five  million  acres  west 
of  the  Mississippi  for  $3,000,000.  The  neglect 
of  the  government  to  carry  out  .all  the  provi¬ 
sions  of  the  treaties  for  these  cessions  caused 
much  bitter  feeling,  and  a  series  of  hostilities 
by  some  of  the  Sioux  ensued ;  but  after  beiug 
defeated  by  General  Harney,  in  1855,  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded.  Enraged  by  the  fail¬ 
ure  of  the  government  to  perform  its  part  of  the 
bargain  and  the  frauds  practised  upon  them, 
there  was  a  general  uprising  of  the  Upper  Sioux, 
or  Dakotas,  in  1862,  and  nearly  a  thousand  set¬ 
tlers  were  killed.  The  Lower  Sioux,  of  the  plains, 
also  became  hostile,  but  all  were  finally  subdued. 
Full  one  thousand  were  held  captive,  and  thir¬ 
ty-nine  were  hanged.  Many  bands  fled  into 
Dakota  Territory,  and  the  strength  of  the  na¬ 
tion  was  greatly  reduced.  The  most  guilty 
bands  fled  into  the  British  dominions,  while 
others,  from  time  to  time,  have  attacked  settle¬ 
ments  and  menaced  forts.  Loosely  made  trea¬ 
ties  were  violated  on  both  sides.  By  one  of  these 


DALE 


358 


DALLAS 


tlie  Black  Hills  were  made  part  of  a  reserva¬ 
tion,  but  gold  having  been  discovered  there,  the 
United  States  wished  to  purchase  the  tract,  and 
induce  the  Indians  to  abandon  that  region  and 
emigrate  to  the  Indian  Territory.  They  showed 
great  reluctance  to  treat.  Sitting  Bull,  Spotted 
Tail,  and  Red  Cloud  visited  the  national  capi¬ 
tal  in  1875,  but  President  Grant  could  not  induce 
them  to  sign  a  treaty.  Commissioners  met  an 
immense  number  of  them  at  the  Red  Cloud 
Agency,  in  September,  but  the  Indians  set  such 
an  enormous  value  on  their  lands  that  nothing, 
was  done.  The  sending  of  surveyors  under  a 
military  escort  to  the  Black  Hills  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  Sioux,  and  they  prepared  for 
war.  In  the  spring  of  1876  a  military  force  was 
sent  against  them,  aud  in  June  a  severe  battle 
was  fought,  in  which  General  Custer  aud  a  large 
portion  of  his  immediate  command  were  slain.  ; 
Sitting  Bull,  who  led  the  Indians,  then  fled,  with 
a  large  number  of  his  followers,  into  the  British 
dominions. 


yard,  Philadelphia,  and  over  the  grave  is  a  white 
marble  slab  with  a  long  inscription. 


DALE’S  MONUMENT. 


Dale,  Richard,  born  near  Norfolk,  Va.,  Nov. 
6, 1756 ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  24, 1826.  He 
went  to  sea  at  twelve  years  of  age,  and  at  nine¬ 
teen  commanded  a  merchant-vessel.  He  was 
first  a  lieutenaut  in  the  Virginia  navy,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  Continental  navy,  as  midshipman,  in 
1776.  He  was  captured  in  1777,  and  confined  in 
Mill  Prison,  England,  from  which  he  escaped, 
but  was  recaptured  in  London,  and  taken  back. 


The  next  year  he  escaped,  reached  France,  joined 
Paul  Jones,  and  soon  became  lieutenant  of  the 
Bonhomme  Richard,  receiving  a  wound  in  the 
famous  battle  with  the  Serapis.  (See  Bonhomme 
Richard  and  Serapis.)  He  continued  to  do  good 
service  to  the  end  of  the  w  ar,  and  in  1794  was 
made  captain.  He  commanded  the  squadron 
ordered  to  the  Mediterranean  in  1801,  and  in 
April,  1802,  returning  home,  he  resigned  his 
commission.  He  spent  the  latter  years  of  his 
life  in  ease  in  Philadelphia.  The  remains  of 
Commodore  Dale  wrere  buried  in  Christ  Church- 


Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  governor  of  Virginia,  died 
near  Bantam,  East  Indies,  early  in  1620.  He 
was  a  distinguished  soldier  in  the  Low  Coun¬ 
tries,  and  was  knighted  by  King  James  in  1606. 
Appointed  chief  magistrate  of  Virginia,  he  ad¬ 
ministered  the  government  on  the  basis  of  mar¬ 
tial  law' ;  planted  new  settlements  on  the  James, 
towards  the  Falls  (nowr  Richmond);  and  intro¬ 
duced  salutary  changes  in  the  land  law  s  of  the 
colony.  He  conquered  the  Appomattox  Indians. 
In  1611  Sir  Thomas  Gates  succeeded  him,  but  he 
resumed  the  office  in  1614.  In  1616  lie  returned 
to  England  ;  w  ent  to  Holland  ;  and  in  1619  was 
made  commander  of  the  East  India  fleet,  when, 
near  Bantam,  he  fought  the  Dutch. 

Dallas,  Alexander  James,  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Jamaica,  June  21,1759;  died  at  Tren¬ 
ton,  N.  J„  Jan.  16,  1817.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Scotch  physician,  and  his  mother  becoming  a 
widow  and  marrying  again,  by  which  he  was 
deprived  of  any  share  in  his  father’s  estate,  he 
left  home  in  1783,  settled  in  Philadelphia,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law  in  that 
state.  He  soon  became  a  practitioner  in  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  He  wrote 
for  the  newspapers,  and  at  one  time  was  the  ed¬ 
itor  of  the  Columbian  Magazine.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Secretary  of  State  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1791,  and  was  engaged  as  paymaster  of  a  force  to 
quell  the  Whiskey  Insurrection  (wdiich  see).  In 
1801  he  was  appointed  United  States  Attorney 
for  the  Eastern  Department  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  he  held  that  position  until  called  to  the 
cabinet  of  Madison  as  Secretary  of  t  he  Treasury 
in  October,  1814.  In  1815  he  also  performed, 
the  duties  of  the  War  Office,  and  wras  earnest  in 
his  efforts  to  re-establish  a  national  bank.  He 
resigned  in  November,  1816,  and  resumed  the 
practice  of  law,  in  which  profession  he  was  al¬ 
ways  eminently  successful. 

Dallas,  George  Mifflin,  LL.D.,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  July  10,1792;  died  there  Dec.  31, 
1864.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey  in  1810,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1813. 
He  went  with  Mr.  Gallatin  to  Russia  as  private 


DANA 


359 


secretary,  and  returned  in  1814,  when  he  assist¬ 
ed  his  father  in  the  Treasury  Department.  In 
1828  he  was  Mayor  of  Philadelphia;  United 
States  Senator  from  1832  to  1833,  and  declined 
a  re-election.  He  was  ambassador  to  Russia 
•from  1837  to  1839,  and  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  from  1845  to  1849.  From  1856  to 
1861  he  was  American  minister  in  London.  Mr. 
Dallas  was  an  able  lawyer  and  statesman. 

Dana,  Francis,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Charles¬ 
town,  Mass.,  June  13,1743;  died  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  April  25,  1811.  Graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1762.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1767 ; 
was  an  active  patriot;  a  delegate  to  the  Pro¬ 
vincial  Congress  in  1774  ;  went  to  England  in 
1775  with  confidential  letters  to  Franklin  ;  wTas 
a  member  of  the  Executive  Council  from  1776 
to  1780;  member  of  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1776  to  1778,  and  again  in  1784;  member 
of  the  Board  of  War,  Nov.  17,  1777  ;  and  was  at 
the  head  of  a  committee  charged  with  the  en¬ 
tire  reorganization  of  the  army.  (See  Continental 
Army,  Second  Organization  of.)  When  Mr.  Adams 
went  on  an  embassy  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of 
peace  and  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  Mr. 
Dana  was  secretary  of  the  legation.  At  Paris, 
early  in  1781,  he  received  the  appointment  from 
Congress  of  minister  to  Russia,  clothed  with 
power  to  make  the  accession  of  the  United 
States  to  the  “Armed  Neutrality”  (which  see). 
He  resided  two  years  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  Berlin  in  1783.  He  was  again  in  Con¬ 
gress  in  the  spring  of  1784,  and  the  next  year 
was  made  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  chief- 
justice  of  Massachusetts,  which  position  he  held 
fifteen  years,  keeping  aloof  from  political  life, 
except  in  1792  and  1806,  when  he  was  presiden¬ 
tial  elector.  He  retired  from  the  bench  and 
public  life  in  1806. 

Dana,  James  Dwight,  LL.D.,  born  at  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  12,  1813.  Graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1833.  He  went  to  the  Mediterranean  in  the 
Delaware  as  teacher  of  mathematics  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  Navy,  and  was  mineralogist  and  geol¬ 
ogist  of  Wilkes’s  exploring  expedition,  1838-42. 
(See  South  Sea  Exploring  Expedition.)  For  thir¬ 
teen  years  afterwards  Mr.  Dana  was  engaged 
preparing  the  reports  of  this  expedition  and 
other  scientific  labors.  These  reports  were  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  government,  with  atlases  of  draw¬ 
ings  made  by  Mr.  Dana’s  own  hand.  He  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  Silliman  Professor  of 
Natural  History  and  Geology  in  Yale  College  in 
1850,  and  entered  upon  his  duties  in  1855,  a  po¬ 
sition  which  he  yet  (1880)  retains;  and  has  for 
many  years  been  associated  with  his  brother-in- 
law,  Benjamin  Silliman,  Jr.,  in  the  editing  and 
publishing  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science  and 
Art,  founded  by  the  elder  Silliman  in  1819.  Pro¬ 
fessor  Dana  has  contributed  much  to  scientific 
journals,  and  is  a  member  of  many  learned  so¬ 
cieties  at  home  and  abroad.  In  1872  the  Wol¬ 
laston  gold  medal,  in  charge  of  the  London  Geo¬ 
logical  Society,  was  conferred  upon  him. 

Dana,  Napoleon  Jackson  Tecumseii,  was 
born  in  Fort  Sullivan,  Eastport,  Me.,  April  10, 


DANBURY,  DESTRUCTION  OF 

;-  1822,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  He 
u  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico  ;  resigned  in 
d  1855;  and  in  October,  1861,  became  colonel  of 
d  the  First  Minnesota  regiment  of  volunteers, 
a  He  was  in  the  battle  at  Ball’s  Bluff  (which 
e  see);  was  made  brigadier-general  early  in  1862; 
o  was  active  throughout  the  whole  campaign  on 
l\  the  Peninsula,  participating  in  all  the  battles ; 
and  at  Antietam  commanded  a  brigade,  and 
was  wounded.  A  few  weeks  later  be  was  made 
;  major-general  of  volunteers ;  was  with  the  Army 
of  the  Gulf  in  1863;  commanded  the  Thirteenth 
.  Army  Corps  a  while ;  and  had  charge  of  the 
District  of  Vicksburg  and  West  Tennessee  in 
a  1864.  From  December,  1864,  to  May,  1865,  he 
g  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Mis- 
g  sissippi. 

s  Dana,  Richard  Henry,  poet  and  essayist, 
r  was  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  15,  1787 ; 
t  died  in  Boston,  Feb.  2, 1879.  He  chose  the  pro- 

*  fession  of  law,  but  his  tastes  led  him  into  lit- 
^  erary  pursuits.  In  1814  he  and  others  ( the 
8  “North  American  Club”)  founded  the  North 
f  American  Review,  yet  (1880)  published,  of  which 
'•  he  was  sole  conductor  for  a  while.  He  closed 
5  his  connection  with  it  in  1820.  It  was  while 
11  Dana  was  editor  of  the  Review  that  Bryant’s 
h  Thanatopsis  was  published  in  its  pages,  the  au- 
1  tlior  being  then  unknown.  In  1821  the  first 
t  volume  of  The  Idle  Man  was  published.  It  was 

■  unprofitable,  and  Mr.  Dana  dropped  it.  In  it 

•  he  published  stories  and  essays  from  his  own  pen. 
r  In  the  same  year  he  contributed  to  the  New 
f  York  Review  (then  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Bry- 
'  ant )  his  first  poem  of  much  pretension,  The 
1  Dying  Raven.  In  1827  his  most  celebrated 

poetical  production,  The  Buccaneer,  was  pub- 

■  lisbed,  with  some  minor  poems.  Of  that  pro- 
1  duction  Wilson,  of  Blackwood's  Magazine,  wrote, 

“  It  is  by  far  the  most  powerful  and  original  of 
.,  American  poetical  compositions.”  Mr.  Dana’s 
e  writings  were  always  marked  by  great  delicacy 
3  and  grace  and  strong  individuality.  Among 

-  his  most  valuable  prose  compositions  were  a 

-  series  of  lectures  upon  Shakespeare,  ten  in  uum- 
.  her,  delivered  in  the  winter  of  1839-40  in  the 

-  cities  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 
1  After  1833  Mr.  Dana  wrote  but  little,  though  his 
1  life  was  extended  about  forty-five  years  longer. 

Danbury,  Destruction  of.  Governor  Tryon 
was  one  of  the  most  malignant  foes  of  the  Amer- 
,  ican  patriots.  He  delighted,  apparently,  in  con¬ 
spicuously  cruel  acts  ;  and  when  anything  of 
1  that  nature  was  to  be  done  he  was  employed  to 
’  do  it  by  the  more  respectable  British  officers. 

He  was  chosen  to  lead  a  marauding  expedition 
’  into  Connecticut  from  New  York  in  the  spring 
of  1777.  At  the  head  of  two  thousand  men,  he 
left  that  city  (April  23),  and  landed  at  Compo, 
between  Norwalk  and  Fairfield,  two  days  later. 

'  They  pushed  on  towards  Danbury,  an  inland 
town,  where  the  Americans  had  gathered  a 
large  quantity  of  provisions  for  the  army.  The 
marauders  reached  the  town  unmolested  (April 
25)  by  some  militia  that  had  retired,  and,  not 
i  contented  with  destroying  a  large  quantity  of 
,  stores  gathered  there,  they  laid  eighteen  houses 


DANE 


360 


DARE 


in  the  Tillage  in  ashes  and  cruelly  treated  some 
of  the  inhabitants.  General  Silliman,  of  the 
Connecticut  militia,  was  at  his  home  in  Fair- 
field  when  the  enemy  landed.  He  immediately 
sent  out  expresses  to  alarm  the  country  and  call 
the  militia  to  the  field.  The  call  was  nobly  re¬ 
sponded  to.  Hearing  of  this  gathering  from  a 
Tory  scout,  Tryon  made  a  hasty  retreat  by  way 
of  Ridgefield,  near  which  place  he  was  confront¬ 
ed  by  the  militia  under  Generals  Wooster,  Ar¬ 
nold,  and  Silliman.  A  sharp  skirmish  ensued, 
in  which  Wooster  was  killed,  and  Arnold  had  a 
narrow  escape  from  capture,  after  his  horse  had 
been  shot  under  him.  For  his  gallantry  on 
that  occasion  the  Congress  presented  him  with 
a  horse  richly  caparisoned.  Tryon  spent  the 
night  in  the  neighborhood  for  his  troops  to 
rest,  and  early  the  next  morning  he  hurried  to 
his  ships,  terribly  smitten  on  the  way  by  the 
gathering  militia,  and  at  the  landing  by  can¬ 
non-shot  directed  by  Lieutenant  -  colonel  Os¬ 
wald.  They  escaped  capture  only  through  the 
gallant  services  of  some  marines  led  by  General 
Erskine.  About  sunset  the  fleet  departed,  the 
British  having  lost  about  three  hundred  men, 
including  prisoners,  during  the  invasion.  The  j 
Americans  lost  about  one  hnudred  men.  The  j 
private  losses  of  property  at  Danbury  amounted  j 
to  about  eighty  thousand  dollars. 

Dane,  Nathan,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Ipswich, 
Mass.,  Dec.  27,  1752 ;  died  at  Beverly,  Feb.  15, 
1835.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  in  1778. 
An  able  lawyer  and  an  influential  member  of 
Congress  (1785-88),  he  was  the  framer  of  the 
celebrated  ordinance  of  1787  (which  see).  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature 
several  years,  and  was  engaged  to  revise  the 
laws  of  the  state  (1799),  and  revise  and  publish 
the  charters  ( 1811 )  which  had  been  granted 
therein.  Mr.  Dane  was  a  member  of  the  Hart¬ 
ford  Convention  (which  see)  in  1814.  His  work 
entitled  A  General  Abridgment  and  Digest  of  Amer¬ 
ican  Laic,  in  nine  large  volumes  (1823-29),  is  a 
monument  of  his  learning  and  industry.  By  his 
munificence  he  founded  the  Dane  professorship 
of  law  in  Harvard  University. 

D’Anville's  Expedition  (1746).  While  the 
eastern  colonies  were  preparing  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  Canada  (see  Canada,  Expedition 
against),  they  were  alarmed  by  the  intelligence 
that  a  powerful  French  fleet,  under  command  of 
the  Duke  D’Anville,  was  crossing  the  Atlantic 
from  France.  It  consisted  of  forty  ships-of-war, 
besides  transports,  and  bore  nearly  four  thousand 
regular  land-troops,  under  experienced  officers, 
with  nil  kinds  of  military  stores.  This  was  the 
most  powerful  armament  ever  sent  to  North 
America  from  Europe.  It  came  to  recover  Louis- 
burg  (which  see),  and  to  distress,  if  not  to  con¬ 
quer,  all  New  England.  D’Anville  had  been  in¬ 
structed  to  dismantle  Louisburg,  retake  Annap¬ 
olis,  N.  S.,  destroy  Boston,  ravage  along  the  North 
American  coast,  and  to  visit  the  British  sugar- 
islands.  The  troops  destined  for  Canada  were 
recalled,  and  six  thousand  four  hundred  of  the 
inland  militia  marched  into  Boston  (September, 
1746).  To  their  assistance  six  thousand  more 


were  prepared  to  march  from  Connecticut  at 
the  first  notice.  The  old  forts  on  the  sea-coasts 
were  strengthened,  and  great  anxiety  every¬ 
where  prevailed.  This  was  relieved  when  in¬ 
telligence  came  of  disasters  to  the  French  fleet 
as  they  approached  the  American  coast.  In  a 
terrible  gale  several  ships  were  wrecked;  the 
expected  junction  with  some  vessels  from  Santo 
Domingo  had  failed;  a  pestilent  fever  among 
the  French  land-troops  had  carried  off  many ; 
and  intercepted  letters,  opened  in  a  council  of 
war  on  the  admiral’s  ship,  which  indicated  the 
speedy  arrival  of  an  English  fleet,  caused  a  di¬ 
vision  among  the  officers.  Mortified  by  the  re¬ 
sult  of  his  great  expedition,  D’Anville  died  sud¬ 
denly,  either  by  apoplexy,  brought  on  by  anxi¬ 
ety  and  mortification,  or  by  self -administered 
poison.  His  successor,  D'Estournelle,  proposed 
to  abandon  the  expedition.  The  rejection  of  bis 
proposition  so  agitated  him  that  a  fever  was 
brought  on,  and,  in  delirium,  he  fell  on  his 
sword.  The  remains  of  the  shattered  fleet  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Annapolis, 
but  when  off  Cape  Sable  (Oct.  13)  another  vio¬ 
lent  tempest  scattered  them,  and  they  returned 
singly  to  France.  They  had  buried  two  thou¬ 
sand  four  hundred  men  in  American  soil. 

Dare,  Virginia.  In  1587  John  White  went 
to  Roanoke  Island  as  governor  of  an  agricult¬ 
ural  colony  sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  He 
was  accompanied  by  his  son-in-law,  William 
Dare,  and  his  young  wife.  It  was  intended  to 
plant  the  colony  on  the  mainland,  but  White 
went  no  farther  than  Roanoke.  There  he  found 
the  melancholy  remains,  in  the  form  of  whiten¬ 
ed  skeletons  and  a  broken  fort,  which  told  the 
sad  fate  of  the  “  protectors  of  the  rights  of 
England”  which  Grenville  had  left  there.  (See 
Grenville.)  The  new  colonists  wisely  deter¬ 
mined  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  In¬ 
dians.  Manteo  —  the  chief  who  accompanied 
Amidas  and  Barlow  (see  Amidas)  to  England — - 
living  with  his  mother  and  relatives  on  Croa- 
tan  Island,  invited  the  colonists  to  settle  on  his 
domain.  White  persuaded  him  to  receive  the 
rite  of  Christian  baptism,  and  bestowed  upon 
him  the  title  of  baron,  as  Lord  of  Roanoke  — 
the  first  and  last  peerage  ever  created  on  the 
soil  of  our  Republic.  It  became  necessary  for 
the  ships  to  return  to  England  for  supplies,  and, 
to  hasten  them,  White  went  with  them,  leaving 
behind  eighty-nine  men,  seventeen  women,  and 
two  children.  Among  the  women  was  his  mar¬ 
ried  daughter,  Eleanor  Dare,  who  had  given 
birth  to  a  daughter  since  her  arrival,  to  whom 
they  gave  the  name  of  Virginia.  On  his  way 
home,  White  touched  at  Ireland,  where  he  left 
some  potatoes  which  he  took  from  Virginia — 
the  first  of  that  kind  ever  seen  in  Europe.  He 
started  back  with  two  ships  laden  with  sup¬ 
plies  ;  but  his  greed  made  him  ueglect  his  duty 
to  the  colonists,  and,  instead  of  going  directly  to 
Virginia,  he  pursued  Spanish  ships  in  search  of 
plunder.  His  vessels  were  so  battered  that  he 
was  obliged  to  return  to  England,  and  Spanish 
war- vessels  in  British  waters  prevented  his  sailing 
for  America  again  until  1590.  He  found  Roanoke 
a  desolatiou,  and  no  trace  of  the  colony  was  ever 


DARIEN  SHIP  CANAL 


361 


DARK  DAY 


found.  It  is  believed  that  they  became  min¬ 
gled  with  the  natives,  for  long  years  afterwards 
families  of  the  Hatteras  tribe  exhibited  unmis¬ 
takable  specimens  of  blood  mixed  with  that  of 
Europeans.  It  is  supposed  the  friendly  “  Lord 
of  Roanoke”  had  saved  their  lives,  for  an  in¬ 
scription  on  bark  indicated  that  they  had  gone 
from  Roanoke  to  Croatan.  Perhaps  when  James¬ 
town  was  founded  (1607),  on  the  Roanoke  River 
(see  Jamestoivn),  little  Yirgiuia  Dare,  then  twen¬ 
ty  years  of  age,  was  a  beautiful  young  Indian 
queen  on  the  banks  of  the  Roanoke. 

Darien  Ship  Canal.  (See  Interoceanic  Canal.') 
One  of  the  great  canal  projects  which  have  at¬ 
tracted  the  nations  is  yet  (1887)  under  consid¬ 
eration  by  the  United  States  government.  It 
is  the  construction  of  a  ship  canal  to  connect 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 
In  1849  an  Irish  adventurer  published  a  book  in 
which  he  said  he  had  crossed  and  recrossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  that  in  the  construction 
of  a  canal  there  only  “three  or  four  miles  of 
deep  rock  cutting”  would  be  required.  Believ¬ 
ing  this,  an  English  company  was  formed  for 
the  purpose,  with  a  capital  of  seventy-five  mill¬ 
ion  dollars,  and  an  engineer  was  sent  to  survey  a 
route,  who  reported  that  the  distance  between 
“tidal  effects”  was  only  thirty  miles,  and  the 
summit  level  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet. 
The  governments  of  England,  France,  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States,  and  New  Granada  joined,  late  in  1853, 
in  an  exploration  of  the  best  route  for  a  canal. 
It  was  soon  ascertained  that  the  English  engi¬ 
neer  had  never  crossed  the  isthmus  at  all.  The 
summit  level  to  which  he  directed  the  expedi¬ 
tion  was  one  thousand  feet  above  tide -water, 
instead  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  The  ex¬ 
pedition  effected  nothing.  In  1854  Lieutenant 
Isaac  Strain  led  an  American  expedition  for  the 
same  purpose.  They  followed  the  route  pointed 
out  by  the  English  engineer,  and,  after  intense 
suffering,  returned  and  reported  the  proposed 
route  wholly  impracticable.  The  success  of  the 
Suez  Canal  revived  the  project,  and  in  1870  two 
expeditions  were  sent  out  by  the  United  States 
government — one,  under  Commander  T.  O.  Sel¬ 
fridge,  of  the  United  States  Navy,  to  the  Isth¬ 
mus  of  Darien;  and  the  other,  under  Captain 
Shufeldt,  of  the  navy,  to  the  Isthmus  of  Te¬ 
huantepec.  Three  routes  were  surveyed  across 
the  narrow  part  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  by 
Selfridge,  and  he  reported  all  three  as  having 
obstacles  that  made  the  construction  of  a  canal 
impracticable.  He  reported  a  route  by  the 
Atrato  and  Napipi  rivers  as  perfectly  feasible. 
It  would  include  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  of 
river  navigation  and  a  canal  less  than  forty 
miles  in  extent.  It  would  call  for  three  miles 
of  rock-cutting  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet 
deep,  and  a  tunnel  of  five  miles,  with  a  roof  suf¬ 
ficiently  high  to  admit  the  tallest-masted  ships. 
Selfridge  estimated  the  entire  cost  at  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  twenty -four  million  dollars.  The 
whole  matter  was  referred  in  1872  to  a  commis¬ 
sion  to  continue  investigations.  The  vast  im¬ 
portance  of  such  a  work  is  conceded,  and  the 
commercial  interests  of  the  world  demand  its 
speedy  completion.  It  will  undoubtedly  be  ac¬ 


complished  by  the  joint  efforts  of  Americans 
and  Europeans. 

Daring  Raid  in  Northern  Georgia.  While 
General  Mitchel  was  holding  the  Charleston 
and  Memphis  Railway  in  Northern  Alabama 
(see  Mitchel' s  Expedition),  he  set  on  foot  one  of  the 
most  daring  enterprises  attempted  during  the 
war.  It  was  an  effort  to  break  up  railway 
communication  between  Chattanooga  and  At¬ 
lanta,  in  Georgia.  For  this  purpose  J.  J.  An¬ 
drews,  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  secret  ser¬ 
vice  by  General  Buell,  was  employed.  In  April, 
1862,  with  twenty  picked  men,  in  the  guise  of 
Secessionists  from  Kentucky  seeking  Georgia’s 
freedom,  Andrews  walked  to  Marietta.  At  that 
place  they  took  the  cars  for  a  station  not  far 
from  the  foot  of  Great  Kenesaw  Mountain,  and 
there,  while  the  engineer  and  conductor  were 
at  breakfast,  they  uncoupled  the  engine,  ten¬ 
der,  and  box-car  from  the  passenger  tiain  and 
started  up  the  road  at  full  speed.  They  told 
inquirers  where  they  were  compelled  to  stop 
that  they  were  conveying  powder  to  Beaure¬ 
gard’s  army.  They  passed  several  trains  be¬ 
fore  they  began  to  destroy  the  road.  The  first 
train  that  came  to  a  broken  spot  had  its  engine 
reversed  and  became  a  pursuer  of  the  raiders. 
Onward  they  dashed  with  the  speed  of  a  gale, 
passing  other  trains,  when,  at  an  important  curve 
of  the  road,  after  destroying  the  track  a  consid¬ 
erable  distance,  Andrews  said,  “Only  one  more 
train  to  pass,  boys,  and  then  we  will  put  our  en¬ 
gine  at  full  speed,  burn  the  bridges  after  us, 
dash  through  Chattanooga,  and  on  to  Mitchel, 
at  Huntsville.”  The  exciting  chase  continued 
many  miles.  The  raiders  cut  telegraph  wires 
and  tore  up  tracks.  The  pursuers  gained  upon 
them.  Finally  their  lubricating-oil  became  ex¬ 
hausted,  and  such  was  the  speed  of  the  engine 
that  the  brass  journals  in  which  the  axles  re¬ 
volved  were  melted.  Fuel  failing,  the  raiders 
were  compelled  to  leave  their  conveyance,  fif¬ 
teen  miles  from  Chattanooga,  and  take  refuge 
in  the  tangled  woods  on  Chickamauga  Creek. 
A  great  man-hunt  was  organized.  Tbe  moun¬ 
tain  passes  were  picketed,  and  thousands  of 
horse  and  foot  soldiers,  with  several  blood¬ 
hounds,  scoured  the  country  in  all  directions. 
Tbe  whole  party  were  finally  captured,  and  An¬ 
drews  and  seven  of  his  companions  were  hanged. 
To  each  of  the  survivors  the  Secretary  of  War 
gave  a  bronze  medal  in  token  of  approval. 

Dark  and  Bloody  Ground.  Two  sections  of 
our  country  have  received  this  appellation. 
First  it  was  applied  to  Kentucky,  the  great  bat¬ 
tle-field  between  the  Northern  and  Southern  In¬ 
dians,  and  afterwards  to  the  portion  of  that  state 
wherein  Daniel  Boone  and  his  companions  were 
compelled  to  carry  on  a  warfare  with  the  sav¬ 
ages.  It  was  also  applied  to  the  Valley  of  the 
Mohawk,  in  New  York,  and  its  vicinity,  known 
as  Tryon  County,  wherein  the  Six  Nations  and 
their  Tory  allies  made  fearful  forays  during  t  he 
Revolution. 

Dark  Day,  The.  On  the  12th  of  May,  1780,  a 
remarkable  darkness  overspread  all  New  Eng¬ 
land,  varying  in  intensity  at  different  places.  In 


DARLEY 


362 


DARTMOOR  PRISON 


some  sections  persons  could  not  rend  common 
printed  matter  in  the  open  air.  Birds  became 
silent  and  went  to  rest;  barn-yard  fowls  went 
to  roost,  and  cattle  sought  their  accustomed 
evening  resorts.  Houses  were  lighted  with  can¬ 
dles,  and  nearly  all  out-of-doors’  work  was  sus¬ 
pended.  The  obscuration  began  at  ten  o’clock 
in  the  morning  aud  continued  until  night.  The 
cause  of  the  darkness  has  never  been  revealed. 
The  air  was  unclouded. 

Darley,  Felix  O.  C.,  an  eminent  American  de¬ 
signer  and  painter,  was  born  in  Philadelphia 
June  23, 1822.  He  evinced  a  taste  for  drawing 
at  an  early  age.  While  a  lad  in  a  mercantile 
house  he  spent  his  leisure  time  in  sketching. 
For  some  of  these  he  was  offered  a  handsome 
sum,>aud  this  induced  him  to  choose  art  as  a  life 
pursuit.  He  spent  several  years  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  always  living  hy  his  pencil,  and  in  1848  he 
went  to  New  York,  where  he  made  admirable  il- 
1  ustrations  for  some  of  Irving’s  humorous  works. 
Among  these  were  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow 
and  Rip  Van  Winkle.  These  works  procured  for 
him  the  reputation,  at  home  and  abroad,  as  a 
leader  in  the  art  of  outline  illustrations.  Mr. 
Darley  has  illustrated  a  great  many  books  and 
made  numerous  admirable  designs  for  bank¬ 
notes.  For  Cooper’s  works  he  made  five  hun¬ 
dred  illustrations.  More  than  sixty  of  them 
were  engraved  ou  steel.  He  executed  four  large 
works  ordered  by  Prince  Napoleon  while  in  this 
country.  These  were,  “  Emigrants  attacked  by 
Indians  on  the  Prairies,”  “The  Village  Black¬ 
smith,”  “The  Unwilling  Laborer,”  and  “The 
Repose.”  He  illustrated  several  of  Dickens’s 


beautiful  design  of  the  certificate  of  stock  giv¬ 
en  as  evidence  of  subscription  for  the  Cen¬ 
tennial  Exhibition  in  1876.  Among  the  later 
works  of  Mr.  Darley  in  book  illustrations  were 
five  hundred  beautiful  designs  for  Lossing’s 
Our  Country.  Mr.  Darley  went  to  Europe  near 
the  close  of  the  war,  studied  models  in  Rome, 
and  returned  with  a  portfolio  full  of  personal 
sketches.  He  died  March  27, 1888. 

Darlington,  William,  LL.D.,  was  born  of 
Quaker  parents  at  Birmingham,  Penn.,  April  28, 
1782;  died  at  West  Chester,  Penn.,  April  23, 
1863.  Having  studied  medicine  and  also  lan¬ 
guages  and  botany,  he  went  to  Calcutta  as  sur¬ 
geon  of  a  ship.  Returning  in  1807,  he  practised 
medicine  at  West  Chester  with  success;  was  a 
Madisonian  in  politics,  and  when  the  war  broke 
out  in  1812  he  assisted  in  raising  a  corps  for  the 
service  in  his  neighborhood.  He  was  chosen 
major  of  a  volunteer  regiment,  but  did  not  see 
any  active  service.  He  was  a  member  of  Con¬ 
gress  from  1815  to  1817  and  from  1819  to  1823.  In 
his  town  he  founded  an  academy,  an  athenaeum, 
and  a  society  of  natural  history.  Dr.  Darling¬ 
ton  was  an  eminent  botanist,  and  a  new  and 
remarkable  variety  of  the  Pitcher  plant,  found 
in  California  in  1853,  was  named,  in  his  honor, 
“  Darlingtonica  California.”  He  wrote  and  pub¬ 
lished  works  on  botany,  medicine,  biography, 
and  history.  Dr.  Darlington  was  a  member  of 
about  forty  learned  societies  in  America  aud  Eu¬ 
rope. 

Dartmoor  Prison.  At  the  close  of  the  War  of 
1812-15  prisoners  held  by  both  parties  were  re¬ 
leased  as  soon  as  proper  arrangements  for  their 


DARTMOOR  PRISON  IN  1315. 


works,  and  during  the  Civil  War  lie  delineated 
many  characteristic  scenes.  Some  of  the  more 
elaborate  pictures  on  the  United  States  govern¬ 
ment  bonds  were  made  by  Darley  ;  and  also  the 


enlargement  could  be  made.  At  the  conclusion 
of  peace  there  were  about  six  thousand  Ameri¬ 
can  captives  confined  in  Dartmoor  Prison,  in¬ 
cluding.  two  thousand  five  hundred  American 


DARTMOOR  PRISONERS 


363 


DAVENPORT 


seamen  impressed  by  British  cruisers,  who  had 
refused  to  fight  in  the  British  navy  against 
their  countrymen,  and  were  there  when  tlie  war 
began.  Some  had  been  captives  ten  or  eleven 
years.  The  prison  was  situated  on  Dart  Moor, 
a  desolate  region  in  Devonshire,  where  it  had 
been  constructed  for  the  confinement  of  French 
prisoners  of  war.  It  comprised  about  thirty 
acres,  enclosed  within  double  walls,  with  seven 
distinct  prison-houses,  with  enclosures.  The 
place,  at  the  time  in  question,  was  in  charge  of 
Captain  T.  G.  Shortland,  with  a  military  guard. 
He  was  accused  of  cruelty  towards  the  captives. 
It  was  nearly  three  months  after  the  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  before  they  were  permitted  to 
know  the  fact.  From  that  time  they  were  in 
daily  expectation  of  release.  Delay  caused  un¬ 
easiness  and  impatience,  and  symptoms  of  a  de¬ 
termination  to  escape  soon  appeared.  On  April 
4  the  prisoners  demanded  bread  instead  of  hard 
biscuit,  and  refused  to  receive  the  latter.  On 
the  6th,  so  reluctantly  did  the  prisoners  obey 
orders  to  retire  to  their  quarters,  that  when  some 
of  them,  with  the  appearance  of  mutinous  inten¬ 
tions,  not  only  refused  to  retire,  but  passed  be¬ 
yond  the  prescribed  limits  of  their  confinement, 
they  were  fired  upon  by  order  of  Captain  Short- 
land,  for  the  purpose  of  intimidating  all.  The 
firing  was  followed  up  by  the  soldiers,  without 
excuse.  Five  prisoners  were  killed  and  thirty- 
three  were  wounded.  This  act  was  regarded 
by  the  Americans  as  a  wanton  massacre,  and 
when  the  British  authorities  pronounced  it  “jus¬ 
tifiable”  the  hottest  indignation  was  excited 
throughout  the  Republic. 

Dartmoor  Prisoners.  The  last  survivor  of 
the  Dartmoor  prisoners  was  Lewis  P.  Clover, 
Who  died  in  Brooklyn,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  in 
February,  1879,  at  the  age  of  eighty-nine  years. 

Dartmouth  College,  one  of  the  higher  insti¬ 
tutions  of  learning  in  the  English-American 
colonies,  was  chartered  in  1769.  It  grew  out  of 
an  earlier  school  established  by  Rev.  Dr.  Whee- 
lock  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  designed  for  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  Indian  children,  he  being  encouraged  by 
his  success  in  educating  a  young  Moliegan,  Sam¬ 
son  Occom,  who  became  a  remarkable  preach¬ 
er.  (See  Occom,  S .)  Pupils  from  the  Delaware 
tribe  were  received,  and  the  school  soon  attract¬ 
ed  public  attention.  James  Moor,  a  farmer, 
gave  two  acres  of  land  and  a  house  for  the  use 
of  the  school,  and  from  that  time  it  was  known 
as  Moor’s  Indian  Charity  School.  Occom  ac¬ 
companied  Rev.  N.  Whittaker  to  England  to 
raise  funds  for  the  increase  of  the  usefulness  of 
the  school,  and  about  $50,0Q0  were  subscribed. 
A  board  of  trustees  was  organized,  of  which 
Lord  Dartmouth,  one  of  the  subscribers,  was 
elected  president.  The  children  of  the  New 
England  Indians  came  to  the  school  in  large 
numbers,  and  Dr.  Wheelock  resolved  to  transfer 
it  to  a  place  nearer  the  heart  of  the  Indian  pop¬ 
ulation  in  that  region.  He  selected  Hanover,  on 
the  Connecticut  River,  in  the  western  part  of 
New  Hampshire,  and  grants  of  about  forty-four 
thousand  acres  of  land  were  made.  Governor 
Wentworth  gave  it  a  charter  (1769),  under  the 


title  of  Dartmouth  College,  so  named  in  honor 
of  Lord  Dartmouth.  The  institution  was  re¬ 
moved,  with  the  pupils,  to  Hanover,  in  1770, 
where  President  Wheelock  and  all  others  lived 
in  log  cabins,  for  it  was  an  almost  untrodden 
wilderness.  Dr.  Wheelock  held  the  presidency 
until  his  death,  in  1779  (see  Wheelock,  E.),  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  John,  who  was  sent 
to  Europe  to  procure  funds  for  the  support  of 
the  college.  He  obtained  considerable  sums, 
and  philosophical  implements.  In  1816  a  re¬ 
ligious  controversy  led  to  a  conflict  with  the 
Legislature,  and  the  latter  created  a  new  cor¬ 
poration,  called  Dartmouth  Uni  versity,  in  which 
the  property  of  the  old  corporation  was  vested. 
A  lawsuit  ensued,  carried  on  for  the  college  by 
Daniel  Webster,  which  resulted  (1819),  finally, 
in  the  establishment  of  the  inviolability  of  char¬ 
tered  rights  and  the  restoration  of  the  old  char¬ 
ter.  Wheelock  was  raised  to  the  presidency  in 
18L,  by  the  new  board,  but  died  a  few  months 
afterwards.  He  was  succeeded  by  William  Allen. 

Davenant  (D’Avenant),  Sir  William,  and  his 
Projected  Colony.  Davenant  was  an  English 
dramatist,  son  of  an  innkeeper,  at  whose  house 
Shakespeare  often  stopped  while  on  his  journeys 
between  Stratford  and  London,  and  who  noticed 
the  boy.  Young  Davenant  left  college  without 
a  degree.  Showing  much  literary  talent,  he  was 
encouraged  in  writing  plays  by  persons  of  dis¬ 
tinction,  and  on  the  death  of  Ben  Jonson  in  1637 
he  was  made  poet-laureate.  He  adhered  to  the 
royal  cause  during  the  civil  war  in  England, 
and  escaped  to  France,  where  he  became  a  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic.  After  the  death  of  his  king  he 
projected  (  1651 )  a  colony  of  French  people  in 
Virginia,  the  only  American  province  that  ad¬ 
hered  to  royalty,  and,  with  a  vessel  filled  with 
French  men,  women,  and  children,  he  sailed  for 
Virginia.  The  ship  was  captured  by  a  parlia¬ 
mentary  cruiser,  and  the  passengers  were  landed 
in  England,  where  the  life  of  Sir  William  was 
spared,  it  is  believed,  by  the  intervention  of  John 
Milton,  the  poet,  who  was  Cromwell’s  Latin  sec¬ 
retary.  Sir  William  had  a  strong  personal  re¬ 
semblance  to  Shakespeare,  and  it  was  currently 
believed  that  he  was  a  natural  son  of  the  great 
dramatist.  This  idea  Sir  William  encouraged.  He 
died  in  April,  1668,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three  years. 

Davenport,  John,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
New  Haven  colony,  was  born  at  Coventry,  Eng., 
1597  ;  died  in  Boston,  March  15, 1670.  Educated 
at  Oxford,  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Es¬ 
tablished  Church.  He  finally  became  a  non¬ 
conformist,  was  persecuted,  and  retired  to  Hol¬ 
land,  where  he  engaged  in  secular  teaching  in  a 
private  school.  He  returned  to  London  and 
came  to  America  in  June,  1637,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  respect.  The  next  year  he 
assisted  in  founding  the  New  Haven  colony,  and 
was  one  of  the  chosen  “seven  pillars.”  (See 
New  Haven.)  He  concealed  Goffe  and  Whalley, 
two  of  the  “regicides,”  in  his  house,  and  by  his 
preaching  induced  the  people  to  protect  them 
from  the  king’s  commissioners,  sent  over  to  ar¬ 
rest  them.  (See  Regicides.)  In  1668  Mr.  Daven¬ 
port  was  ordained  minister  of  the  first  church  in 


DAVIDSON 


364 


DAVIS 


Boston,  and  left  New  Haven.  He  was  the  au¬ 
thor  of  several  controversial  pamphlets. 

Davidson,  John  Wynn,  was  horn  in  Fairfax 
County,  Va.,  Aug.  18,  1824,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1845,  entering  the  dragoons.  Ac¬ 
companying  Kearney  to  California  in  1846,  he 
was  in  the  several  battles  during  the  war  with 
Mexico.  He  was  also  active  in  New  Mexico,  af¬ 
terwards,  against  the  Indians.  In  1861  he  was 
made  major  of  cavalry,  and  early  in  1862  briga¬ 
dier-general  of  volunteers,  commanding  a  bri¬ 
gade  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  After  serv¬ 
ing  in  the  campaign  on  the  Peninsula,  he  was 
transferred  (August,  1862)  to  the  Department  of 
t lie  Mississippi,  and  co-operated  with  General 
Steele  in  the  capture  of  Little  Rock,  Ark.  He 
was  breveted  major-general  of  volunteers  iu 
Match,  1865. 

Davie,  William  Richardson,  was  born  near 
Whitehaven,  Eng.,  June  20,  1756;  died  at  Cam¬ 
den,  S.  C.,  Nov.  8, 1820.  He  came  to  America  in 
1764  with  his  father,  and  settled  in  South  Caro¬ 
lina  with  his  uncle,  who  educated  him  at  the 


WILLIAM  RICHARDSON  DAVIE. 


College  of  New  Jersey  (where  he  graduated  in 
1776),  and  adopted  him  as  his  heir.  He  pre¬ 
pared  himself  for  the  law  as  a  profession,  but  be¬ 
came  an  active  soldier  in  the  Revolution  in  a 
troop  of  dragoons.  When  he  was  in  command 
of  the  troop  he  annexed  it  to  Pulaski’s  legion. 
He  fought  at  Stono,  Hanging  Rock,  and  Rocky 
Mount;  aud  at  the  head  of  a  legionary  corps, 
with  the  rank  of  major,  he  opposed  the  advance 
of  Cornwallis  into  North  Carolina.  After  the 
overthrow  of  the  American  army  at  Camden  he 
saved  the  remnant  of  it;  and  he  was  a  most  ef¬ 
ficient  commissary  under  General  Greene  iu  the 
Southern  Department.  He  rose  to  great  emi¬ 
nence  as  a  lawyer  after  the  war,  and  was  a  del¬ 
egate  to  the  convention  that  framed  the  Na¬ 
tional  Constitution,  but  sickuess  at  home  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  leave  before  the  work  was  accom¬ 
plished.  Iu  the  convention  of  North  Carolina 
he  was  its  most  earnest  and  able  supporter.  In 
1799  he  was  governor  of  North  Carolina,  but 


was  soon  afterwards  sent  as  one  of  the  envoys 
to  the  French  Directory.  Very  soon  after  his  re¬ 
turn  he  withdrew  from  public  life.  Iu  March, 
1813,  he  was  appointed  a  major-general,  but  de¬ 
clined  the  service  on  accouut  of  hodily  infirmi¬ 
ties. 

Davis,  Andrew  Jackson,  the  subject  of  re¬ 
markable  psychological  phenomena,  was  born  at 
Blooming  Grove,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  11, 1826. 
While  a  shoemaker’s  apprentice  in  Poughkeep¬ 
sie,  early  in  1843,  remarkable  clairvoyant  powers 
were  developed  iu  him  by  the  manipulation  of 
mesmeric  influences  by  William  Leviugston.  He 
was  quite  uneducated,  yet  while  under  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  mesmerism  or  animal  magnetism  he 
would  discourse  fluently  and  in  proper  language 
on  medical,  psychological,  and  general  scientific 
subjects.  While  in  a  magnetic  or  trance  state 
he  made  medical  diagnoses  and  gave  prescrip¬ 
tions.  In  March,  1844,  he  fell  into  a  trance  state 
without  any  previous  manipulations,  during 
which  he  conversed  for  sixteen  hours,  as  he  al¬ 
leged,  with  invisible  beings,  and  received  inti¬ 
mations  and  instructions  concerning  the  posi¬ 
tion  he  was  afterwards  to  occupy  as  a  teacher 
from  the  interior  state.  In  1845,  while  in  this 
state,  he  dictated  to  Rev.  William  Fishbough  his 
first  and  most  considerable  work,  The  Principles 
of  Nature,  her  Divine  Revelations,  and  a  Voice  to 
Mankind,  which  embraces  a  wide  range  of  sub¬ 
jects.  He  has  since  put  forth  several  works, 
all  of  which  he  claims  to  have  been  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  his  mind  under  divine  illumination  and 
the  influence  of  disembodied  spirits.  Among  his 
most  considerable  works  are  The  Great  Har- 
monia,  in  four  volumes;  The  Penetralia  ;  History 
and  Philosophy  of  Evil ;  The  Harbinger  of  Health, 
and  Stellar  Key  to  the  Summer  Land.  Mr.  Davis 
may  be  considered  as  the  pioneer  of  modern  spir¬ 
itualism. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  born  in  Christian  County, 
Ky.,  June  3,  1808;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1828;  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  Black  Hawk 
War  (which  see)  in  1831-32,  aud  resigned  in  1835 


to  become  a  cotton-planter  in  Mississippi.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1845-46,  aud  served 
as  colonel  of  a  Mississippi  regiment  in  the  war 
with  Mexico.  He  was  United  States  Senator 


DAVIS 


365 


DAVIS 


from  1847  to  1851,  and  from  1857  to  1861.  He 
was  called  to  the  cabinet  of  President  Pierce  as 
Secretary  of  War  in  1853,  and  remained  fonr 
years.  He  abdicated  his  seat  in  the  Senate  to 
join  the  insurrection  against  the  life  of  the  Re¬ 
public  in  January,  1861,  and  was  chosen  provi¬ 
sional  President  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  in 
February.  In  November,  1861,  he  was  elected 
permanent  President  for  six  years.  Early  in 
April,  1865,  he  and  his  associates  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  fled  from  Richmond,  first  to  Danville,  Va., 
and  then  towards  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  He  was 
arrested  by  Union  cavalry  in  Georgia,  taken  to 
Fortress  Monroe,  and  confined  on  a  charge  of 
treason  for  about  two  years,  when  he  was  re¬ 
leased  on  bail,  and  was  never  brought  to  trial. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  Capture  of.  (See  Con¬ 
federate  Government,  Flight  of  the.)  Mr.  Davis’s 
wife  and  children,  and  his  wife’s  sister,  had  ac¬ 
companied  him  from  Danville  to  Washington, 
Ga.,  where,  for  prudential  reasons,  the  father 
separated  from  the  others.  He  soon  learned 
that  some  Confederate  soldiers,  believing  that 
the  treasure  that  was  carried  away  from  Rich¬ 
mond  was  with  Mrs.  Davis,  had  formed  a  plot  to 
seize  all  her  trunks  in  search  of  it.  He  hastened 
to  the  rescue  of  his  family  and  property,  riding 
rapidly  eighteen  miles.  They  were  near  Irwins- 
ville,  south  of  Macon,  Ga.  The  tents  were 
pitched  at  night,  and  the  wearied  ones  retired 
to  rest,  intending  to  resume  their  flight  in  the 
morning.  General  Wilson,  at  Macon,  hearing 
of  Davis’s  flight  towards  the  Gulf,  had  sent  out 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin  cavalry,  whose  vigi¬ 
lance  was  quickened  by  the  offered  reward  of 
$100,000  for  the  arrest  of  the  fugitive.  Simul¬ 
taneously,  from  opposite  points,  these  two  par¬ 
ties  approached  the  camp  of  Davis  and  his  little 
party  just  at  dawn,  May  11,  1865.  Mistaking 
each  other  for  foes,  they  exchanged  shots  with 
such  precision  that  two  men  were  killed  and 
several  wounded  before  the  error  was  discov¬ 
ered.  The  sleepers  were  aroused.  The  camp  was 
surrounded,  and  Davis,  while  attempting  to  es¬ 
cape  in  disguise,  was  captured  and  conveyed 
to  General  Wilson’s  headquarters.  Davis  had 
slept  in  a  wrapper,  and  when  aroused  hastily 
pulled  on  his  boots  and  went  to  the  tent-door.  He 
observed  the  National  cavalry.  “  Then  you  are 
captured!”  exclaimed  his  wife.  In  an  instant 
she  fastened  the  wrapper  around  him  before  he 
was  aware,  and  then,  bidding  him  adieu,  urged 
him  to  go  to  a  spring  near  by,  where  his  horse 
and  arms  were.  He  complied,  and  as  he  was 
leaving  the  tent-door,  followed  by  a  servant 
with  a  water-bucket,  his  sister-in-law  flung  a 
shawl  over  his  head.  It  was  in  this  disguise 
that  he  was  captured.  Such  is  the  story  as  told 
by  C.  E.  L.  Stuart  of  Davis’s  staff’.  The  Confed¬ 
erate  chieftain  was  taken  to  Fortress  Monroe  by 
way  of  Savannah  and  the  sea,  where  lie  was  con¬ 
fined  about  two  years  under  a.  charge  of  treason, 
and  finally  released  on  hail.  He  was  never  tried 
for  his  offence.  (See  Amnesty  and  Pardon,  and 
Davi8,J.)  Reagan,  who  was  captured  with  Da¬ 
vis,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  the  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Confederacy,  were  sent  to  Fort  War¬ 
ren,  in  Boston  Harbor. 


Davis,  Jefferson  C.,  U.  S.  Army,  was  born 
in  Clarke  County,  Ind.,  March  2,  1828;  died  in 
Chicago,  Nov.  29,  1879.  He  served  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  and  was  made  lieutenant  in  1852. 
He  was  one  of  the  garrison  of  Fort  Sumter  dur¬ 
ing  the  bombardment  in  April,  1861.  The  same 
year  he  was  made  captain,  and  became  colonel 
of  an  Indiana  regiment  of  volunteers.  In  De¬ 
cember  he  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  and  commanded  a  division  in  the 


JEFFERSON  C.  DAVIS. 


battle  of  Pea  Ridge  early  in  1862.  He  partici¬ 
pated  in  the  battle  of  Corinth  in  1862;  com¬ 
manded  a  division  in  the  battles  of  Stone  Riv¬ 
er,  Murfreesborough,  and  Chickamauga  in  1862- 
63 ;  and  in  1864  commanded  the  Fourteenth 
Army  Corps  in  the  Atlanta  campaign  and  in 
the  march  through  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas. 
He  was  breveted  major-general  in  1865,  and  the 
next  year  (July  28)  was  commissioned  a  colonel 
of  infantry  in  the  army  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  afterwards  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
commanded  troops  in  Alaska.  He  commanded 
the  forces  that  subdued  the  Modocs  (which  see) 
in  1873. 

Davis  Medal.  The  only  medal  bestowed  as 
a  token  of  grateful  recognition  of  valuable  ser¬ 
vices  by  the  Confederates  during  the  Civil  War 
was  given  to  a  company,  mostly  Irishmen,  known 
as  the  “Davis  Guards,”  for  gallantly  repulsing 
the  attack  of  the  Nationals  at  Sabine  Pass 
(which  see),  Sept.  8,  1863.  Jefferson  Davis  pre¬ 
sented  each  of  the  men  with  a  small  silver  med¬ 
al — not  struck  in  a  die,  but  cut  out  of  sheet  sil¬ 
ver. 

Davis,  President,  Reception  of,  at  Rich¬ 
mond,  Va.  The  Confederate  Congress  adjourned 
May  21,  1861,  to  meet  at  Richmond  on  July  20. 
On  May  26  President  Davis  started  for  that  city, 
intending,  it  is  said,  to  take  command  of  the 
Confederate  troops  in  Virginia  in  person.  He 
was  accompanied  by  his  favorite  aid,Wigfall  of 
Texas  (see  Wigfall  at  Fort  Sumter),  and  his  Sec¬ 
retary  of  State,  Robert  Toombs  of  Georgia.  His 
journey  was  a  continuous  ovation.  At  every 
railway  station  men,  women,  and  children  greet¬ 
ed  him  with  cheers  and  waving  of  haudkor- 


DAVIS’S  CABINET 


366 


DAY'S  WORK  IN  CONGRESS 


chiefs.  A  reporter  for  the  Richmond  Examiner, 
who  accompanied  him,  said:  “Never  were  a 
people  more  enraptured  with  their  chief  magis¬ 
trate  than  ours  are  with  President  Davis;  and 
the  trip  from  Montgomery  to  Richmond  will 
ever  be  remembered  with  delight  by  all  who 
witnessed  it.”  At  Petersburg,  Davis  and  his 
ixirty  were  met  by  Governor  Letcher  and  the 
mayor  of  Richmond,  and  he  was  escorted  into 
his  future  “capital”  by  soldiers  and  civilians. 
He  was  taken  to  the  Fair  Grounds,  where  he 
addressed  (May  28)  a  great  multitude.  On  the 
31st.  he  -was  serenaded,  when  he  uttered  a  mem¬ 
orable  speech  that  foreshadowed  the  policy  of 
his  administration  and  evinced  the  spirit  of  his 
associates.  “  Those  with  whom  we  have  lately 
associated,”  he  said,  “  have  shown  themselves 
so  incapable  of  appreciating  the  blessings  of  the 
glorious  institutions  they  inherited  that  they 
are  to-day  stripped  of  the  liberty  to  which  they 
were  born.  They  have  allowed  an  ignorant 
usurper  [President  Lincoln]  to  trample  upon 
all  the  prerogatives  of  citizenship,  and  to  exer¬ 
cise  power  never  delegated  to  him ;  and  it  has 
been  reserved  to  your  state,  so  lately  one  of  the 
original  thirteen,  but  now,  thank  God!  fully 
separated  from  them,  to  become  the  theatre  of  a 
great  central  camp,  from  which  will  pour  forth 
thousands  of  brave  hearts  to  roll  back  the  tide 
of  this  despotism.  ...  To  the  remotest  limits 
of  the  Confederacy,  every  proud  heart  beats 
high  with  indignation  at  the  thought  that  the 
foot  of  the  invader  has  been  set  upon  the  soil 
of  Old  Virginia.  There  is  not  one  true  son  of 
the  South  who  is  not  ready  to  shoulder  his  mus¬ 
ket,  to  bleed,  to  die,  or  to  conquer,  iu  the  cause 
of  liberty  here.”  Davis’s  reference  to  Virginia 
having  become  “  the  theatre  of  a  great  central 
camp,”  and  the  battle-tield  in  defence  of  the 
South,  recalled  to  thoughtful  minds  the  assur¬ 
ance  of  Governor  Pickens  of  South  Carolina,  so 
early  as  the  close  of  December,  1860,  that  the 
people  of  that  state  would  not  suffer  the  horrors 
of  war — “  You  may  plant  your  seed  in  peace,  for 
Old  Virginia  will  have  to  bear  the  brunt  of  bat¬ 
tle.”  A  caricature  of  the  day,  printed  on  en¬ 
velopes,  represents  the  “  Old  Dominion  ”  as  a 
decrepit  old  woman,  much  bent  and  leaning 
upon  a  short  staff,  while  armies  are  contending 
upon  her  back — horse,  foot,  and  artillery.  Un¬ 
der  the  figure  are  the  words  “Poor  old  simple 
Virginia.”  To  a  remark  from  a  spectator — “  Tell 
ns  something  about  Buena  Vista”  (which  see) — 
Davis  said,  “We  will  make  the  battle-fields  in 
Virginia  another  Buena  Vista,  and  drench  them 
with  blood  more  precious  than  any  that  flowed 
there.”  The  citizens  of  Richmond  purchased 
from  James  A.  Seddon  (see  Peace  Congress')  his 
elegant  mansion,  and  presented  it,  sumptuously 
furnished,  to  President  Davis  as  a  residence. 

Davis’s  Cabinet.  Jefferson  Davis,  President 
of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  chose  for  his  con¬ 
stitutional  advisers  a  cabinet  modelled  after 
that  of  the  United  States.  He  appointed  Rob¬ 
ert  Toombs,  of  Georgia,  Secretary  of  State; 
Charles  G.  Memminger,  of  South  Carolina,  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury ;  Le  Roy  Pope  Walker, 
of  Alabama,  Secretary  of  War;  Stephen  R.  Mal¬ 


lory,  of  Florida,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  ;  and 
John  H.  Reagan,  of  Texas,  Postmaster-general. 
Afterwards,  Judah  P.  Benjamin  was  made  At¬ 
torney-general. 

Davis’s  Proclamation.  Two  days  after  Pres¬ 
ident  Lincoln’s  call  for  troops  (which  see)  by 
proclamation,  Jefferson  Davis  issued  an  intend¬ 
ed  countervailing  one,  in  the  preamble  of  which 
he  said  the  President  of  the  United  States  had 
“  announced  the  intention  of  invading  the  Con¬ 
federacy  with  an  armed  force  for  the  purpose 
of  capturing  its  fortresses  (see  Public  Seizure  of 
Property),  aud  thereby  subverting  its  indepen¬ 
dence,  and  subjecting  the  free  people  thereof  to 
the  dominion  of  a  foreign  power.”  He  said  it 
was  the  duty  of  his  government  to  repel  this 
threatened  invasion,  and  “defend  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  people  by  all  the  means  which 
the  laws  of  nations  aud  usages  of  civilized  war¬ 
fare  placed  at  its  disposal.”  He  invited  the 
people  of  the  Confederacy  to  engage  in  priva¬ 
teering  (see  Privateering) ;  and  he  exhorted  those 
who  had  “felt  the  wrongs  of  the  past”  from 
those  w  hose  enmity  was  “  more  implacable,  be¬ 
cause  unprovoked,”  to  exert  themselves  in  pre¬ 
serving  order  and  maintaining  the  authority  of 
the  Confederate  lawrs.  This  proclamation  was 
met  by  President  Lincoln  by  a  public  notice 
that  he  should  immediately  order  a  blockade  of 
all  the  Southern  ports  claimed  as  belonging  to 
the  Confederacy  ;  and  also  that  if  any  person,  un¬ 
der  the  pretended  authority  of  such  states,  or 
under  any  other  pretence,  should  molest  a  v(  ssel 
of  the  United  States,  or  the  persons  or  cargo  on 
board  of  her,  such  person  would  be  held  :.mena- 
ble  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States  for  tae  pre¬ 
vention  and  punishment  of  piracy.  With  this 
opposing  proclamation  the  great  Civil  War  was 
actively  begun. 

Day,  Stephen,  was  the  first  printer  in  the 
English -American  colonies.  He  wTas  born  in 
London  in  1611 ;  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec. 
22,  1668.  He  came  to  Massachusetts  iu  1638, 
and  was  employed  to  manage  the  printing-press 
sent  out  by  Rev.  Mr.  Glover.  He  began  print¬ 
ing  at  Cambridge  iu  March,  1639.  He  wms  not 
a  skilful  workman,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
management,  about  1648,  by  Samuel  Green,  who 
employed  Day  as  a  journeyman. 

Day’s  Work  in  Congress,  A  (1774).  The 
most  momentous  act  of  the  first  Continental 
Congress  during  its  whole  sessiou  occupied  the 
entire  business  on  Oct.  8,  1774.  After  a  short 
and  spicy  debate,  the  great  council  “  Resolved, 
That  this  Congress  approve  the  opposition  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Massachusetts  Bay  to  the  ex¬ 
ecution  of  the  late  acts  of  Parliament;  and  if 
the  same  shall  be  attempted  to  be  carried  into 
execution  by  force,  in  such  case  all  America 
ought  to  support  them  in  their  opposition.”  This 
is  all  that  appears  on  the  journal  for  that  day. 
It  was  enough.  From  that  day  the  crystalliza¬ 
tion  of  the  British-American  colonies  into  au  in¬ 
dependent  nation  w  ent  rapidly  on.  It  was  like 
the  luminous  handwriting  on  Belshazzar’s  w  all, 
and  wise  men  interpreted  it  as  a  prophecy  of  the 
dismemberment  of  the  British  empire.  George 


DAYTON 


367 


DEANE 


III.  responded  to  this  resolution  by  denouncing 
bis  American  subjects  as  rebels. 

Dayton,  Elias,  was  born  at  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.,  in  1735;  died  there  in  July,  1807.  He 
fought  with  the  Jersey  Blues  under  Wolfe  at 
Quebec;  was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
Safety  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  and 
became  colonel  of  a  New  Jersey  regiment.  He 
served  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey ;  fought  in 
several  battles,  the  last  at  Yorktown,  and  in 
January,  1783,  was  made  a  brigadier- general. 
He  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1787-88,  and 
was  afterwards  in  the  New  Jersey  Legislature. 

Dayton,  Jonathan,  LL.D.,  son  of  Elias,  was 
born  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Oct.  16, 1760  ;  died 
there,  Oct.  9,  1824.  He  graduated  at  the  Col¬ 
lege  of  New  Jersey  in  1776;  entered  the  army  as 
paymaster  of  his  father’s  regiment  in  August; 
aided  in  storming  a  redoubt  at  Yorktown,  which 
was  taken  by  Lafayette;  and  served  faithfully 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  that  framed  the  National  Consti¬ 
tution  in  1787,  and  was  a  representative  in  Con¬ 
gress  from  1791  to  1799.  He  was  speaker  in 
1795,  and  was  made  United  States  Senator  in 
1799.  He  held  the  seat  until  1805.  He  served 
in  both  branches  of  his  state  Legislature.  Sus¬ 
pected  of  complicity  in  Burr’s  conspiracy,  he 
was  arrested,  but  was  never  proceeded  against. 

Deaf  and  Dumb.  In  1870  the  whole  number 
of  deaf  and  dumb  persons  in  the  United  States 
and  territories  was  sixteen  thousand  two  hun¬ 
dred  and  five.  Much  has  been  done  in  our  coun¬ 
try  for  their  instruction.  So  early  as  1793,  Dr. 
W.  Thornton  published  an  essay  in  Philadelphia 
on  Teaching  the  Dumb  to  Speak,  but  no  attempt 
was  made  to  establish  a  school  for  the  purpose 
here  until  1811,  when  the  effort  was  unsuccess¬ 
ful.  A  school  for  the  instruction  of  the  silent 
that  proved  successful  was  opened  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  by  Rev.  T.  H.  Gallaudet  (which  see)  in 
1817,  and  was  chartered  under  the  name  of  the 
“  New  England  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.” 
Congress  granted  for  its  support  a  township  of 
land  in  Alabama,  the  proceeds  of  which  formed 
a  fund  of  about  $340,000.  Other  asylums  have 
since  been  established,  numbering  thirty-six  in 
1870,  and  a  National  Deaf-mute  College  was  es¬ 
tablished  at  Washington  in  1864.  In  1876  there 
were  about  four  thousand  four  hundred  pupils 
in  these  institutions. 

Dean  Tucker’s  Proposition.  The  British 
ministry  knew  more  of  the  differences  of  opin¬ 
ion  in  the  Continental  Congress  than  did  the 
Americans,  for  Galloway  had  let  out  the  secret 
to  friends  of  the  crown.  This  fact  encouraged 
Lord  North  and  his  colleagues  to  believe  that  a 
little  firmness  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  would 
shake  the  resolution  and  break  up  the  apparent 
union  of  the  colonists.  It  was  known  that  a 
large  portion  of  the  most  respectable  and  influ¬ 
ential  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  colonies  were 
warmly  attached  to  the  mother  country.  In 
several  colonies  there  was  a  strong  prejudice 
felt  towards  New  England,  where  the  most  vio¬ 
lent  proceedings  had  occurred.  The  Quakers, 
as  a  body,  were  opposed  to  violent  measures. 


The  governor  of  Pennsylvania  was  indifferent, 
and  Scotch  Highlanders  settled  in  New  York 
and  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  were  very  loyal. 
Even  should  the  union  remain  perfect,  it  was 
believed  the  limited  resources  of  the  colonists 
would  be  wholly  inadequate  to  any  obstinate  or 
lengthened  resistance.  Military  officers  boast¬ 
ed  that,  at  the  head  of  a  few  regiments,  they 
would  “  march  from  one  end  of  America  to  the 
other.”  All  British  writers  and  speakers  exer¬ 
cised  their  pens  and  tongues  in  the  same  strain. 
Only  one  had  the  good  sense  to  recommend  a 
peaceful  separation.  That  was  Dean  Tucker, 
author  of  the  Light  of  Nature,  and  a  prolific  pam¬ 
phleteer  of  the  day.  He  proposed  that  Parlia¬ 
ment,  by  a  solemn  act  declaring  them  to  have 
forfeited  all  the  privileges  of  British  subjects  by 
sea  and  laud,  should  cut  off  the  rebellious  prov¬ 
inces  from  the  British  empire;  with  provision, 
however,  for  granting  pardou  and  restoration 
to  either  or  all  of  them  on  their  humble  petition 
to  that  effect.  Had  this  proposition  been  then 
adopted,  Great  Britain  would  have  still  retained 
a  large  and  influential  party  in  the  colonies,  the 
hatreds  engendered  by  war  would  have  been 
avoided,  and,  at  the  worst,  the  colonies  would 
have  been  lost  to  Great  Britain,  as  they  finally 
were,  without  the  loss  of  blood  and  treasure  on 
both  sides  which  the  war  caused.  But  vulgar 
expedients  were  preferred,  and  this  wise  propo¬ 
sition  was  denounced  as  the  height  of  folly,  and 
even  the  wise  Burke  called  it  “  childish.” 

Deane,  James,  was  a  missionary  to  the  Six  Na¬ 
tions  (which  see).  He  was  born  in  Connecticut, 
Aug.  20, 1748;  died  at  Westmoreland,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
10,  1823.  Graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in 
1773.  From  the  age  of  twelve  years  he  was  with 
a  missionary  in  the  Oneida  tribe  of  Indians,  and 
mastered  their  language.  After  his  graduation 
he  went  as  a  missionary  to  the  Caughnawagas 
and  St.  Francis  tribes  for  two  years ;  and  when 
the  Revolution  broke  out,  Congress  employed 
him  to  conciliate  the  tribes  along  the  northern 
frontier.  He  was  made  Indian  agent  and  inter¬ 
preter  at  Fort  Stanwix  (now  Romfe,  Oneida  Co.), 
with  the  rank  of  major.  He  was  many  years  a 
judge  in  Oneida  County,  and  twice  a  member 
of  the  New  York  Assembly.  Mr.  Deane  wrote 
an  Indian  mythology. 

Deane,  Silas,  was  horn  at  Groton,  Conn., 
Dec.  24,  1737  ;  died  at  Deal,  Eng.,  Aug.  23,  1789. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1758,  became 
a  merchant  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  and  was  a 
delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress.  He 
was  very  active  in  Congress,  in  1775,  in  fitting 
out  a  naval  force  for  the  colonies,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1776  he  was  sent  to  France  as  a  secret 
political  and  financial  agent,  with  authority  to 
operate  in  Holland  and  elsewhere.  He  was  to 
ascertain  the  feeling  of  the  French  government 
towards  the  revolted  colonies  and  Great  Britain, 
and  to  obtain  military  supplies.  He  made  ar¬ 
rangements  with  Beaumarchais  (which  see)  for 
substantial  aid  from  France,  and,  with  Dr.Frank- 
lin  and  Arthur  Lee,  negotiated  treaties  of  amity, 
commerce,  and  alliance  in  February,  1778.  (See 
Treaties  with  France.)  Complaints  were  made  of 


DEARBORN 


363  DEATH  AND  BURIAL  OF  DE  SOTO 


his  extravagance  in  making  contracts,  especial¬ 
ly  with  French  officers  to  serve  in  the  Conti¬ 
nental  Army,  and  he  was  recalled  by  order  of 
Congress  (  Nov.  21,  1777  ),  and  returned  home. 


John  Adams  took  his  place  abroad.  Deane  ar¬ 
rived  at  Philadelphia  Ang.  10,  1778,  and  on  the 
13th  reported  to  Congress.  In  that  body  he 
found  false  reports  operating  against  him  ;  and 
finally,  exasperated  by  the  treatment  which  he 
received  at  their  hands,  he  engaged  in  a  contro¬ 
versy  with  influential  members.  He  was  re¬ 
quired  to  give  a  full  statement  of  his  financial 
transactions  in  France,  and  was  compelled  to 
return  to  that  country  for  his  papers,  which  he 
did.  Owing  to  some  strictures  which  he  had 
made  upon  the  conduct  of  the  French  govern¬ 
ment,  he  became  obnoxious  to  the  authorities 
there,  and  retired  to  the  Netherlands.  Arthur 
Lee  (whose  enmity  to  Deane  was  created  by  jeal¬ 
ousy)  wras  the  author  of  the  misrepresentations 
that  gave  Deane  all  his  trouble.  He  charged 
him  with  appropriating  public  funds  to  his  pri¬ 
vate  use.  Dr.  Franklin  testified  to  Deane’s 
strict  honesty  and  private  worth,  but  Lee  had 
the  ear  of  Congress,  and  Deane  had  to  suffer.  He 
died  in  obscurity  and  poverty  in  England.  He  has 
since  been  vindicated,  and  all  unjust  suspicions 
have  been  removed  from  intelligent  minds. 

Dearborn,  Henry,  was  born  at  Northhamp¬ 
ton,  N.  H.,  Feb.  23, 1751 ;  died  at  Roxbury,  Mass., 
June  6,  1829.  He  became  a  physician,  and  em¬ 
ployed  his  leisure  time  in  the  study  of  military 
science.  At  the  head  of  sixty  volunteers  he 
hastened  to  Cambridge  on  the  day  after  the  af¬ 
fair  at  Lexington,  a  distance  of  sixty-five  miles. 
He  was  appointed  a  captain  in  Stark’s  regiment, 
participated  in  the  battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill,  and 
in  September  following  (1775)  accompanied  Ar¬ 
nold  in  his  wonderful  expedition  to  Quebec. 
(See  Arnold's  Expedition.)  He  participated  in 
the  siege  of  Quebec,  and  wTas  made  prisoner,  but 
was  paroled  in  May,  1776,  when  he  became  ma¬ 
jor  of  Scammel’s  New  Hampshire  regiment.  He 
was  iu  the  battles  of  Stillwater  and  Saratoga  in 
the  fall  of  1777,  and  led  troops  in  those  engage¬ 
ments — in  the  latter  as  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
was  in  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  was  in  Sulli¬ 
van’s  campaign  (which  see)  against  the  Indians 
in  1779,  and  in  1781  was  attached  to  Washing¬ 
ton’s  staff  as  deputy  quartermaster -general, 


with  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  that  capacity  he 
served  in  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  Iu  1784  he 
settled  iu  Maine,  and  became  general  of  militia. 
He  was  marshal  of  Maine,  by  the  appointment 
of  Washington,  in  1789,  member  of  Congress 
from  1793  to  1797,  and  was  Secretary  of  War  un¬ 
der  Jefferson  from  1801  to  1809.  From  1809  till 
1812  he  w'as  collector  of  the  port  of  Boston,  when 
he  was  appointed  as  senior  major-general  in  the 
United  States  Army,  and  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Northern  Department.  He  was  not  very  suc¬ 
cessful  in  that  position,  and  was  superseded 
July  6,  1813,  in  consequence  of  being  charged 


HKXRY  DEARBORN. 


with  political  intrigue.  He  asked  in  vain  for  a 
court  of  inquiry.  In  1822— 24  he  was  the  Amer¬ 
ican  minister  in  Portugal,  and  iu  the  latter  year 
returned  to  his  farm  at  Roxbury,  near  Boston, 
where  he  died. 

Dearborn's  Invasion  of  Canada.  On  the  first 
of  September,  1812,  Brigadier-general  Bloomfield 
had  collected  about  eight  thousand  men — regu¬ 
lars,  volunteers,  and  militia  —  at  Plattsburg, 
on  Lake  Champlain,  besides  some  small  ad¬ 
vanced  parties  at  Chazy  and  Champlain.  On 
the  arrival  of  General  Dearborn,  he  assumed 
direct  command  of  all  the  troops,  and  on  Nov. 
16  he  moved  towards  the  Canada  line  with  three 
thousand  regulars  and  two  thousand  militia.  He 
moved  on  to  the  La  Colie,  a  small  tributary  of 
the  Sorel,  where  he  was  met  by  a  considerable 
force  of.mixed  British  and  Canadian  troops  and 
Indians,  under  Lieutenant-colonel  De  Salaberry, 
an  active  British  commander.  Just  at  dawn, 
on  the  morning  of  the  20th,  Colonel  Zebulon 
M.  Pike  crossed  the  La  Colle  and  surrounded  a 
block-house.  Some  New  York  militia  approach¬ 
ing  were  mistaken,  in  the  dim  light,  for  Brit¬ 
ish  soldiers.  Pike’s  men  opened  fire  upon  them, 
and  for  nearly  half  an  hour  a  sharp  conflict 
was  maintained.  When  they  discovered  their 
mistake,  they  found  De  Salaberry  approaching 
with  an  overwhelming  force.  These  were  fierce¬ 
ly  attacked,  but  the  Americans  were  soon  forced 
to  retreat  so  precipitately  that  they  left  five  of 
their  number  dead  and  five  wounded  on  the  field. 
The  army,  disheartened,  returned  to  Plattsburg. 

Death  and  Burial  of  De  Soto.  On  May  21, 
1542,  De  Soto  (which  see)  died  on  the  banks  of 


DEATH  OF  KING  PHILIP  ' 


369 


DECATUR 


the  Mississippi,  which  he  had  discovered.  As 
he  had  declared  to  the  Indians,  who  were  sun- 
worshippers,  that  he  was  a  son  of  the  sun,  and 
that  Christians  could  not  die,  it  was  thought 
wise  to  conceal  his  death  from  the  pagans.  He 
was  secretly  buried  in  the  gateway  of  the  Span¬ 
ish  camp.  The  Indians  knew  he  was  sick.  He 
was  not  to  be  seen,  and  they  saw  a  new-made 
grave.  They  looked  upon  it,  and  pondered. 
Moscoso,  whom  De  Soto  had  appointed  his  suc¬ 
cessor,  ordered  the  body  to  he  taken  up  at  the 
dead  of  night.  It  was  wrapped  in  mantles  in 
which  sand  had  been  sewed  up,  taken  in  a  boat  to 
the  middle  of  the  great  river,  and  there  dropped 
to  the  bottom  in  nineteen  fathoms  of  water. 
Herrera  says  it  was  sunk  in  a  hollowr  live-oak 
log.  When  the  Indian  chief  asked  Moscoso  for 
De  Soto,  that  leader  replied,  “  He  has  ascended 
to  heaven,  but  w'ill  return  soon.” 

Death  of  King  Philip.  Captain  Church  (which 
see)  surprised  Philip  at  Mount  Hope  (Aug.  2, 
1676),  killed  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  of 
his  followers,  and  captured  his  wife  and  son. 
Philip  barely  escaped.  Ten  days  afterwards  an 
Indian  deserter  told  Church  that  Philip  was  on 
Mount  Hope  Neck,  and  offered  to  guide  him  to 
the  place  and  help  to  kill  him,  for  Philip  had 
killed  the  deserter’s  brother  because  he  had  pro¬ 
posed  peace  with  the  English.  Church  imme¬ 
diately  went  in  search  of  Philip  with  a  small 
number  of  men,  English  and  Indians,  following 
his  volunteer  guide.  On  his  arrival  at  a  swamp 
where  Philip  was  concealed,  he  disposed  his  men 
around  it  in  ambuscade.  Philip’s  shelter  was 
soou  discovered  on  the  edge  of  the  swamp,  and 
the  English  and  Indians  opened  fire  upon  it. 
At  that  instant  Philip  seized  his  gun  and  fled 
for  the  thicket,  w'liere  he  was  confronted  by  an 
Englishman  and  an  Indian  in  covert.  When  lie 
was  within  fair  musket-shot  distance  the  Eng¬ 
lishman  snapped  his  gun.  It  missed  fire,  when 
he  hade  the  Indian  to  shoot.  He  did  so,  and 
the  bullet  pierced  King  Philip’s  heart. 

Death  of  President  Harrison.  On  Saturday, 
March  27,  1841,  President  Harrison,  who  had 
been  inaugurated  twenty-three  days  before,  after 
suffering  much  from  a  cold  for  a  week  previous, 
was  taken  with  a  chill  and  other  symptoms  of 
fever.  This  attack  was  followed  by  pneumonia, 
which  baffled  medical  skill,  and  terminated  his 
life  on  Sunday  morning,  just  one  month  from 
the  day  when  he  took  the  chair  of  the  Presi¬ 
dency.  He  was  seriously  ill  only  eight  days. 
About  three  hours  before  his  death,  after  his 
physician  had  just  administered  something  for 
his  comfort,  and  while  his  mind  seemed  wan¬ 
dering,  he  spoke  out  as  if  to  his  successor,  say¬ 
ing,  “Sir,  I  wish  you  to  understand’  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  the  government.  I  wish  them  carried 
out.  I  ask  nothing  more.”  These  were  his  last 
words.  The  members  of  his  family  who  were  in 
Washington,  the  members  of  his  cabinet,  Colo¬ 
nels  Chambers  and  Todd,  who  were  his  aides  in 
the  battle  of  the  Thames  (which  see),  and  a  num¬ 
ber  of  relatives  and  friends  were  near  his  bedside 
when  lie  expired.  His  funeral  took  place  from 
the  presidential  mansion  on  April  7,  attended  by 
I.— 24 


an  immense  multitude  of  people.  The  body  was 
interred  iu  tbe  Congressional  burying-ground, 
and  was  afterwards  conveyed  to  North  Bend, 
Ohio,  and  placed  in  the  family  vault. 

Death  of  President  Taylor.  While  the  hot 
debates  in  Congress  were  going  on  concerning 
the  slavery  question,  the  country  was  called  to 
mourn  the  death  of  the  President.  He  was  seized 
by  a  malady  similar  iu  its  effects  to  cholera, 
which  assumed  the  form  of  bilious  fever,  and 
terminated  his  life  (July  9,  1850)  iu  five  days. 
He  died  at  the  presidential  mansion,  in  the  six¬ 
ty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  attended  in 
his  last  moments  by  his  wife  ;  his  daughter  (Mrs. 
Colonel  Bliss)  and  her  husband ;  his  sou,  Colonel 
Taylor,  and  family;  his  son  -  iu  -  law,  Jefferson 
Davis,  and  family;  and  by  Vice-President  Fill¬ 
more,  other  officers  of  the  government,  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  diplomatic  corps,  etc.  His  last  audi¬ 
ble  words  were:  “I  am  about  to  die.  I  expect 
the  summons  soon.  I  have  endeavored  to  dis¬ 
charge  all  my  official  duties  faithfully.  I  regret 
nothing,  but  am  sorry  that  I  am  about  to  leave 
my  friends.”  The  funeral  occurred  on  Saturday, 
July  13,  and  was  attended  by  a  vast  concourse 
of  citizens  and  strangers.  The  pageant  exceed¬ 
ed  everything  of  the  kind,  in  order  and  magnifi¬ 
cence,  that  had  ever  taken  place  at  the  national 
capital. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  was  born  at  Siuepnxent, 
Md.,  Jan.  5,  1779;  died  near  Washington,  D.  C., 
March  22, 1820.  He  entered  the  United  States 
Navy  as  midshipman  April  30, 1798,  and  rose  to 
captain  iu  1804.  His  first  notable  exploit  was 


STEPHEN  DECATPR. 


the  destruction  of  the  Philadelphia  in  the  harbor 
of  Tripoli  (see  Philadelphia),  for  which  Congress 
gave  him  thanks,  a  sword,  and  promotion.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  gunboats  in  the  at¬ 
tack  on  Tripoli,  Aug.  3,  1804.  In  command  of 
the  frigate  United  States,  he  captured  the  frigate 
Macedonian,  Oct.  25,  1812,  for  which  Congress 
gave  him  a  gold  medal.  In  January,  1815,  after 
a  running  fight,  the  President,  his  Hag-ship,  was 
captured  by  a  British  squadron  ;  and  a  few 
months  later  he  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  compelled  the  government  of  Algiers  to  re¬ 
linquish  its  barbarous  conduct  towards  other 
powers,  and  to  pay  for  American  property  de- 


DECATUR 


370  DECLARATION  OF  COLONIAL  RIGHTS 


stroyed.  (See  Algiers.')  He 
was  appointed  a  navy  com¬ 
missioner  in  November,  1815, 
and  made  his  residence  in  the 
line  mansion  of  Kalorama, 
about  a  mile  from  George¬ 
town,  built  by  Joel  Barlow. 

Decatur  had  opposed  the  re¬ 
instatement  of  Barron  to  his 
former  position  in  the  navy, 
and  a  duel  was  the  conse¬ 
quence.  (See  Barron.)  They 
fought  at  the  famous  duel¬ 
ling  ground  near  Bladens- 
burg,  when  Decatur  was  mor¬ 
tally  wounded,  and  was  tak¬ 
en  to  Washington.  Gener¬ 
al  Solomon  Van  Rensselaer 
wrote  to  his  wife  from  that 
city,  on  March  20,  1820,  as 
follows:  “I  have  only  time, 
after  writing  to  several,  to 
say  that  an  affair  of  honor  took  place  this  morn¬ 
ing  between  Commodores  Decatur  and  Barron, 
in  which  both  fell  at  the  first  tire.  The  ball  en¬ 
tered  Decatur’s  body  two  inches  above  the  hip 
and  lodged  against  the  opposite  side.  I  just 
came  from  bis  house.  He  yet  lives,  but  will 
never  see  another  sun.  Barron’s  wound  is  se¬ 
vere,  but  not  dangerous.  The  ball  struck  the 
upper  part  of  his  hip  and  turned  to  the  rear. 
He  is  ruined  in  public  estimation.  The  ex¬ 
citement  is  very  great.”  On  the  following  day 
Van  Rensselaer  wrote  of  his  death,  and  said, 
'•  His  poor  wife  (they  have  no  children)  is  dis¬ 


decatur’s  monument. 

tressed  beyond  expression.  She  would  suffer 
no  one  to  be  in  her  room,  and,  strange  to  say, 
she  did  not  see  him  until  after  his  death.”  Gen¬ 
eral  Van  Rensselaer  was  misinformed,  for  she 


KALORAMA. 

j  was  present  when  he  died.  Mrs.  Decatur  sur¬ 
vived  her  husband  about  forty  years,  dying  at 
Georgetown,  in  1860.  Decatur’s  remains  were 
taken  from  the  house  in  Washington,  at  four 
O’clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  borne  to  Kal¬ 
orama  by  the  following  officers  :  Commodores 
Tingey,  Macdonough,  Rodgers,  and  Porter,  Cap¬ 
tains  Cassin,  Ballard,  and  Chauncey,  Generals 
Brown  and  Jesup,  and  Lieutenant  McPherson. 
The  funeral  was  attended  by  nearly  all  the  pub¬ 
lic  functionaries  in  Washington,  American  and 
foreign,  and  a  great  number  of  citizens.  While 
S  the  procession  was  moving  minute-guns  were 
fired  at  the  navy -yard.  His  remains  were 
deposited  in  Joel  Barlow’s  vault  at  Kalo¬ 
rama,  where  they  remained  until  1846,  when 
they  were  taken  to  Philadelphia  and  rein¬ 
terred, with  appropriate  ceremonies, in  St.Pe- 
ter’s  Burying-ground.  Over  them  a  beautiful 
monument,  delineated  in  the  engraving,  was 
erected. 

Declaration  of  Colonial  Rights.  In  the 
First  Continental  Congress  (1774)  a  commit¬ 
tee  of  two  from  each  colony  framed  and  re¬ 
ported,  iu  the  form  of  a  series  of  ten  resolves, 
a  declaration  of  the  rights  of  the  colonies: 
1.  Their  natural  rights ;  2.  That  from  their 
ancestry  they  were  entitled  to  all  the  rights, 
liberties,  and  immunities  of  free  and  natural- 
born  subjects  of  England  ;  3.  That  by  the  em¬ 
igration  to  America  by  their  ancestors  they 
never  lost  any  of  those  rights,  and  that  their 
descendants  wTere  entitled  to  the  exercise  of 
those  rights ;  4.  That  the  foundation  of  all 
free  governments  is  in  the  right  of  the  people 
to  participate  in  their  legislative  council; 
and  as  the  American  colonists  could  not  exer¬ 
cise  such  right  in  the  British  Parliament,  they 
were  entitled  to  a  free  and  exclusive  power 
of  legislation  in  their  several  provincial  leg¬ 
islatures,  w  here  the  right  of  representation 
could  alone  be  preserved.  (They  conceded 
the  right  of  Parliament  to  regulate  external 
commerce,  but  denied  its  right  to  tax  them  in 
any  wTay,  without  their  consent,  for  raising  an 
internal  or  external  revenue. )  5.  That  they 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  371  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 


■were  entitled  to  the  common  law  of  England, 
and  more  especially  the  great  privilege  of  being 
tried  by  their  peers  of  the  vicinage  according  to 
the  course  of  law  ;  6.  That  they  were  entitled  to 
the  benefit  of  English  statutes  at  the  time  of 
the  emigration  of  their  ancestors;  7.  That  they 
were  entitled  to  all  the  immunities  and  privi¬ 
leges  conferred  upon  them  by  royal  charters  or 
secured  to  them  by  provincial  laws ;  8.  That 
they  had  a  right  peaceably  to  assemble,  state 
their  grievances,  and  petition  the  kiug  without 
interference  of  ministers  ;  9.  That  the  keeping 
of  a  standing  army  in  any  colony,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Legislature,  was  unlawful ;  10. 
That  the  exercise  of  legislative  power  in  sev¬ 
eral  colonies  by  a  council  appointed  during 
pleasure  by  the  crown  was  unconstitutional, 
dangerous,  and  destructive  to  the  freedom  of 
American  legislation.  The  report  of  the  com¬ 
mittee  designated  the  various  acts  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  which  were  infringements  and  violations 
of  the  rights  of  the  colonists,  and  that  the  repeal 
of  them  was  essentially  necessary  in  order  to  re¬ 
store  harmony  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
American  colonies.  The  acts  enumerated  were 
eleven  in  number — namely,  Sugar  Act,  Stamp 
Act,  two  quartering  acts,  Tea  Act,  Act  suspend¬ 
ing  the  New  York  Legislature,  two  acts  for  the 
trial  in  Great  Britain  of  offences  committed  in 
America,  Boston  Port  Bill,  the  Act  for  Regulating 
[subverting]  the  Government  of  Massachusetts, 
and  the  Quebec  Act.  (See  Quebec  Act.) 

Declaration  of  Independence.  It  was  very 
important  to  have  Lee’s  resolution  for  indepen¬ 
dence,  offered  June  7,  1776,  prefaced  by  a  pre¬ 
amble  that  should  clearly  declare  the  causes 
which  impelled  the  representatives  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  to  adopt  it.  To  avoid  loss  of  time,  a  com¬ 
mittee  was  then  appointed  to  prepare  such  decla¬ 
ration.  The  committee  was  composed  of  Thom¬ 
as  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
Roger  Sherman,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston.  Mr. 
Lee  having  been  called  home  before  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  the  committee,  Mr.  Jefferson  was 
put  in  his  place.  He  was  requested  by  thfe 
committee,  after  discussing  the  topics,  to  make 
a  draft  of  a  declaration  of  independence.  It  was 
discussed  in  committee,  amended  very  slightly, 
and  finally  reported.  Debates  upon  it  were 
long  and  animated.  There  was  some  opposi¬ 
tion  to  voting  for  independence  at  all,  and  it 
was  considerably  amended.  It  was  evident  from 
the  beginning  that  a  majority  of  the  colonies 
would  vote  for  iudependence  (the  vote  in  Con¬ 
gress  was  by  colonies),  but  it  was  important  that 
the  vote  should  be  unanimous.  The  declaration 
was  warmly  debated  on  the  day  (July  2)  when 
the  resolution  was  passed,  and  also  on  the  3d. 
Meanwhile  news  came  of  the  arrival  of  a  large 
British  armament,  under  the  brothers  Howe,  at 
Sandy  Hook.  Immediate  and  united  action  was 
essential.  McKean,  one  of  the  two  representa¬ 
tives  of  Delaware  present,  burning  with  a  de¬ 
sire  to  have  the  vote  of  his  colony  recorded  in 
the  affirmative,  sent  an  express  after  the  third 
delegate,  Caesar  Rodney.  He  was  eighty  miles 
from  Philadelphia.  Ten  minutes  after  receiv¬ 
ing  McKean’s  message  Rodney  was  in  the  sad¬ 


dle,  and,  riding  all  night,  he  reached  the  floor 
of  Congress  (July  4)  just  in  time  to  secure  the 
vote  of  Delaware  in  favor  of  independence. 
All  three  of  the  delegates  from  Delaware  voted 
for  the  declaration.  The  vote  of  Pennsylvania 
was  also  secured,  a  majority  of  its  seven  dele¬ 
gates  being  in  favor  of  the  measure ;  and  on 
the  4th  of  July,  1776,  the  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dependence  was  adopted  by  the  unanimous 
vote  of  the  thirteen  colonies.  (See  New  York 
on  Independence.)  In  that  document,  after  re¬ 
citing  the  causes  and  the  reasons  for  making 
it,  in  a  series  of  definite  charges  against  King 
George  III.,  the  Congress  said,  “  We,  therefore, 
the  representatives  of  the  United  States  in  gen¬ 
eral  Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Su¬ 
preme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of 
our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the  au¬ 
thority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies,  sol¬ 
emnly  publish  and  declare  that  the  united  col¬ 
onies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  in¬ 
dependent  states ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown  ;  and  that  all  po¬ 
litical  connection  between  them  and  the  State 
of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dis¬ 
solved  ;  and  that,  as  free  and  independent  states, 
they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace, 
contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  do 
all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent 
states  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the  support  of 
this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the 
protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually 
pledge  to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and 
our  sacred  honor.”  This  declaration  was  signed 
on  the  day  of  its  adoption  by  every  member 
present  who  voted  for  it,  to  show  that  a  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  colonies  approved  the  measure. 
These  signatures  were  attached  to  a  copy  on 
paper.  It  was  engrossed  on  parchment  and  again 
signed  on  the  2d  of  August.  Two  others  after¬ 
wards  signed  it  —  one  in  Sejitember,  and  the 
other  later  in  autumn.  Immediately  after  it 
was  adopted  it  was  printed  and  sent  through¬ 
out  the  colonies,  with  only  the  names  of  John 
Hancock,  President  of  Congress,  and  Charles 
Thomson,  the  Secretary,  attached  to  it.  In 
January,  1777,  it  was  printed  on  a  “broadside,” 
with  the  names  of  all  the  signers,  and  sent  to 
the  several  assemblies  and  to  the  several  com¬ 
manding  officers  of  the  Continental  troops.  (See 
fac-simile  on  following  page.) 

Declaration  of  Independence,  The,  in 
France.  Yergennes,  the  French  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  was  not  a  man  of  high-toned 
morality,  but  was  a  keen  diplomat,  and  never 
scrupulous  in  regard  to  measures  that  would 
favorably  affect  the  interests  of  France.  He 
was  eager  to  promote  and  prolong  the  quarrel 
of  Great  Britain  with  her  colonies  and  push  it 
to  a  separation,  for  it  would  weaken  the  power 
of  the  “  natural  enemy  of  France.”  He  favored 
secret  aid  to  the  struggling  colonists  (see  Beau¬ 
marchais),  and  when  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence  reached  Versailles  (August,  1776)  he 
read  to  the  king,  in  cabinet  council,  considera¬ 
tions  on  the  part  which  France  should  then 
take  towards  England.  Ho  showed  the  advan¬ 
tages  of  war  with  that  nation.  “The  war  will 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  372 


DECLARATION  OF  REBELLION 


form,”  he  said,  “  between  France  ancl  North 
America  a  connection  which  will  not  grow  up 
and  vanish  with  the  need  of  the  moment.  No 
interest  can  divide  the  two  nations.  Commerce 
will  form  between  them  a  very  durable,  if  not 


yonng  king,  whose  decision  in  the  matter  was 
invoked,  too  wreak  to  lead  in  affairs  of  such 
magnitude,  hating  republicanism  and  fearing 
revolution,  resolved  that  peace  with  England 
should  not  be  broken  during  his  reign.  That 


an  eternal,  chain;  vivifying  industry,  it  will 
bring  into  our  harbors  the  commodities  which 
America  formerly  poured  into  those  of  England, 
with  a  double  benefit,  for  the  augmentation  of 
our  national  labor  lessens  that  of  a  rival.”  The 


broken  peace  was  only  delayed  less  than  two 
years,  not  prevented. 

Declaration  of  Rebellion  in  the  Colonies. 

In  an  address  to  the  throne  (Feb.  7, 1775),  pro¬ 
posed  by  the  ministry,  they  declared  that  a  re- 


DECLARATION  OF  RIGHTS 


373 


DECLARATION  OF  WAR 


TeHion  existed  in  Massachusetts,  countenanced 
and  fomented  by  unlawful  combinations  in  oth¬ 
er  colonies,  and  recommended  energetic  meas¬ 
ures  for  suppressing  it.  The  address  was  adopt¬ 
ed,  after  a  long  debate,  by  a  large  majority; 
and  Parliament  pledged  its  support  to  the  king- 
in  the  maintenance  of  the  just  authority  of 
the  crown  aud  nation. 

Declaration  of  Rights  by  Virginia.  George 
Mason  drafted  for  Virginia  a  declaration  of 
rights,  and  on  May  27,  1776,  Archibald  Carey 
presented  it  to  the  Virginia  convention.  On 
the  12th  of  June  it  was  adopted.  It  declared 
that  all  men  are  by  nature  equally  free,  and  are 
invested  with  inalienable  rights  — namely,  the 
enjoyment  of  life,  liberty,  property,  and  the  pur¬ 
suit  of  happiness  and  safety ;  that  all  power  is 
vested  in,  and  consequently  derived  from,  the 
people;  that  government  is,  or  ought  to  be,  in¬ 
stituted  for-  the  common  benefit  aud  security  of 
the  people,  nation,  or  community,  and  that  when 
government  shall  fail  to  perform  its  required 
functions,  a  majority  of  the  people  have  an  in¬ 
alienable  right  to  reform  or  abolish  it ;  that, 
public  services  not  being  descendible,  the  office 
of  magistrate,  legislator,  or  judge  ought  not  to 
be  hereditary ;  that  the  legislative  and  execu¬ 
tive  powers  of  the  state  should  be  distinct  from 
the  judicature,  aud  that  the  members  of  the 
first  two  should,  at  fixed  periods,  return  unto 
the  body  from  which  they  were  originally  taken, 
and  the  vacancies  be  supplied  by  frequent  elec¬ 
tions;  that  elections  ought  to  be  free;  that  all 
men  having  a  permanent  interest  in  and  attach¬ 
ment  to  the  country  have  the  right  of  suffrage, 
and  cannot  be  taxed  or  deprived  of  their  prop¬ 
erty  for  public  uses  without  their  own  consent 
or  that  of  their  representatives  freely  elected, 
nor  bound  by  any  law  to  which  they  have  not, 
in  like  manner,  assented;  that  there  ought  to 
be  no  arbitrary  power  for  suspending  laws,  for 
requiring  excessive  bail,  or  for  granting  of  gen¬ 
eral  warrants;  that  no  man  ought  to  be  de¬ 
prived  of  liberty  except  by  the  law  of  the  land 
or  the  judgment  of  liis  peers,  holding  sacred 
the  ancient  trial  by  jury;  that  the  freedom  of 
the  press  is  one  of  the  greatest  bulwarks  of  lib¬ 
erty,  and  can  never  be  restrained  but  by  des¬ 
potic  governments;  that  a  well-regulated  mili¬ 
tia,  composed  of  the  body  of  the  people,  trained 
to  arms,  is  the  proper,  natural,  and  safe  defence 
of  a  free  state;  that  standing  armies  in  times 
of  peace  should  be  avoided  as  dangerous  to  lib¬ 
erty,  and  in  all  cases  the  military  should  be  un¬ 
der  strict  subordination  to  the  civil  power;  that 
the  people  have  a  right  to  uniform  government ; 
that  no  free  government  can  be  preserved  but 
by  a  firm  adherence  to  justice,  moderation,  tem¬ 
perance,  frugality,  and  virtue,  and  by  frequent 
recurrences  to  fundamental  principles ;  and  that 
religion  can  be  directed  only  by  reason  and  con¬ 
viction,  not  by  force  or  violence;  therefore  all 
men  are  equally  entitled  to  the  free  exercise  of 
it  according  to  tho  dictates  of  conscience.  The 
unanimous  voice  of  the  convention  approved  ol 
this  declaration  of  rights. 

Declaration  of  War  against  Great  Britain 


(1812).  The  British  Orders  in  Council  and 
French  Decrees  remained  unrepealed.  For¬ 
bearance  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  no 
longer  seemed  a  virtue.  British  newspapers 
had  declared  that  the  United  States  could  not 
“be  kicked  into  a  war.”  The  indignation  of 
the  American  people  was  at  fever  heat ;  and  on 
June  1,  1812,  President  Madison  submitted  to 
Congress  a  confidential  war  message,  iu  which 
he  recapitulated  all  the  causes  of  complaint 
against  Great  Britain,  and  asking  the  National 
Legislature  to  consider  and  decide  whether 
their  country  should  longer  remain  passive 
“  under  these  progressive  and  accumulated 
wrougs.”  He  also  made  grave  charges  against 
France.  The  message  was  referred  to  the  Com¬ 
mittee  on  Foreign  Relations,  which,  on  June  3, 
reported  an  echo  to  the  sentiments  of  the  mes¬ 
sage.  As  a  part  of  the  report,  Calhoun,  the 
chairman,  presented  a  bill  declaring  war  against 
Great  Britain.  A  motion  was  made,  and  lost, 
to  include  France  iu  the  same  declaratiou. 
While  the  matter  was  pending  in  Congress  the 
people  throughout  the  country  were  fearfully 
excited  by  contending  emotions.  After  much 
debate  in  Congress,  it  finally  passed  both  houses, 
June  18,  and  became  a  law  on  receiving  the  sig¬ 
nature  of  the  President.  The  bill  had  been  de¬ 
bated  in  secret  session  ;  now  the  seal  of  secrecy 
was  removed,  and  on  the  19th  the  President  is¬ 
sued  a  proclamation  announcing  the  fact,  and 
calling  upon  the  people  of  the  United  States  to 
sustain  the  public  authorities  iu  measures  for 
obtaining  a  speedy,  just,  and  honorable  peace. 
In  the  House  of  Representatives  the  members 
from  Pennsylvania  and  the  states  south  aud  west 
gave  sixty-two  votes  for  the  measure  to  seven¬ 
teen  against  it.  In  the  Senate  the  same  states 
gave  fourteen  for  it  to  five  against  it.  “  Thus,” 
said  a  late  writer,  “  the  war  may  be  said  to  have 
been  a  measure  of  the  South  and  West  to  take 
care  of  the  interests  of  the  North,  much  against 
the  will  of  the  latter.”  The  minority  in  Con¬ 
gress  soon  issued  an  able  protest  against  the  war, 
which  was  chiefly  written  by  Josiah  Quincy, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  the  opposition,  not  only 
in  Congress,  but  throughout  the  country. 

Declaration  of  War  between  England  and 
France.  On  March  15, 1744,  the  King  of  France, 
at  Versailles,  declared  war  against  England  ; 
and  on  the  29tli  King  George,  at  St.  James’s 
Palace,  declared  war  against  France.  Before 
these  declarations  were  made  known  in  Boston 
the  governor  of  Cape  Breton  sent  about  nine 
hundred  men  under  Duvivier,  who  surprised 
and  took  Canso,  burned  the  place,  and  sent  the 
prisoners  (eighty  in  number)  to  Boston.  An¬ 
napolis  (Port  Royal)  was  kept  in  alarm  for  a 
month  by  the  French  and  Indians,  and  two  hun¬ 
dred  men  were  seut  from  Boston  to  reinforce 
the  English  garrison  there.  Massachusetts 
took  vigorous  measures  for  defence  against 
the  French  and  Indians  everywhere.  Full  five 
hundred  men  were  impressed,  of  which  three 
hundred  were  for  tho  eastern  frontier,  and  two 
hundred  for  tho  western.  The  garrisons  in  the 
East  were  reinforced.  Fortunately,  twenty  can¬ 
nons  (42-pounders)  and  two  13-inch  mortars  had 


DECLARATORY  ACT 


374 


DEERFIELD 


just  been  sent  to  Castle  William,  in  Boston  har¬ 
bor,  a  gift  from  the  king,  with  all  stores  except¬ 
ing  gunpowder.  The  Legislature  also  ordered 
a  chain  of  forts  to  be  built  between  the  Con¬ 
necticut  River  and  the  New  York  bouudary- 
line. 

Declaratory  Act,  The.  Pitt  concluded  his 
speech  in  the  Commons  against  the  Stamp  Act 
by  a  proposition  for  its  absolute  and  immediate 
repeal,  at  the  same  time  recommending  an  act, 
to  accompany  the  repeal,  declaring,  in  the  most 
unqualified  terms,  the  sovereign  authority  of 
Great  Britain  over  her  colonies.  This  was  in¬ 
tended  as  a  salve  for  the  national  honor,  neces¬ 
sary,' as  Pitt  knew,  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the 
act.  But  Lor^  Camden,  who  was  the  principal 
supporter  of  the  repeal  bill  in  the  Upper  House, 
was  opposed  to  the  declaratory  act,  and  vehe¬ 
mently  declared  that  “taxation  and  representa¬ 
tion  are  inseparable.”  The  declaratory  act  be¬ 
came  a  law,  but  it  was  distasteful  to  thinking 
Americans,  for  it  involved  the  kernel  of  royal 
prerogative,  which  the  colonists  rejected.  But 
it  was  overlooked.  Pitt  had  the  honor  of  the 
repeal.  The  London  merchants  lauded  him  as 
a  benefactor,  and  there  was  a  burst,  of  gratitude 
towards  him  in  America.  New  York  voted  a 
statue  to  Pitt  and  the  king;  Virginia  voted  a 
statue  to  the  monarch  ;  Maryland  passed  a  sim¬ 
ilar  Vote,  and  ordered  a  portrait  of  Lord  Cam¬ 
den  ;  and  the  authorities  of  Boston  ordered  full- 
length  portraits  of  Barrfi  and  Conway,  friends 
of  the  Americans,  for  Faueuil  Hall. 

Decorum,  First  Breach  of,  in  Congress. 
Matthew  Lyon  was  a  rough,  energetic  member 
of  Congress  from  Vermont  from  1797  to  1801.  A 
native  of  Ireland,  he  possessed  much  of  the  ex¬ 
citability  of  his  people.  Roger  Griswold  was 
also  a  member  of  Congress  from  Connecticut  at 
the  same  time.  Lyon  was  a  democrat,  Griswold 
a  federalist.  In  his  maiden  speech  Lyon  ridi¬ 
culed  the  formality  exercised  towards  the  Pres¬ 
ident  in  waiting  upon  him,  and  challenged  the 
ill-will  of  the  Federalists  and  the  dislike  of  his 
own  partisans,  for  he  assumed  to  be  a  leader  of 
the  democracy.  During  the  balloting  in  the 
house  (Jan.  30, 1798),  in  the  case  of  the  impeach¬ 
ment  of  Senator  Blount,  Lyon  began  a  conver¬ 
sation  with  the  speaker  in  a  loud  tone,  as  if  he 
desired  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  other 
members,  in  which  he  made  disparaging  and  in¬ 
sulting  remarks  about  the  Connecticut  mem¬ 
bers,  saying  the  people  of  that  state  were  mis¬ 
represented  by  their  members  of  Congress.  He 
said  he  knew  the  people  well,  for  he  had  had 
occasion  to  fight  them  when  they  came  to  visit 
their  relations.  “Did  you  fight  them  with  your 
wooden  sword  ?”  asked  Griswold,  in  jocular  al¬ 
lusion  to  the  dismissal  of  Lyon  from  a  company 
of  Green  Mountain  Boys  (which  see)  in  1775  for 
cowardice.  This  taunt  was  repeated  in  another 
form  when  Lyon  declared  that  if  he  could  only 
go  to  Connecticut  and  manage  a  newspaper 
there  he  would  enlighten  the  people.  “  You 
couldn’t  change  the  opinion  of  the  meanest 
hostler  in  the  state,”  said  Griswold,  good-nat¬ 
uredly.  Lyon  declared  he  could,  and  that  he 


had  serious  thoughts  of  moving  into  the  state 
and  fighting  them  on  their  own  ground.  Gris¬ 
wold  laid  his  hand  on  Lyon’s  arm,  and  said, 
smiling,  “  If  you  go,  Mr.  Lyon,  I  suppose  you  will 
wear  your  wooden  sword  ?”  At  this  Lyon  took 
fire,  and,  turning  suddenly  round,  spat  in  Gris¬ 
wold’s  face.  There  was  some  commotion  for  a 
moment,  and  a  motion  was  made  for  Lyon’s  ex¬ 
pulsion  from  the  house.  Lyon’s  party  friends 
rallied,  and  defeated  the  motion  for  expulsion. 
Soon  afterwards  Griswold  attacked  Lyon  with 
a  cane  as  he  sat  in  his  seat  in  the  House,  aud 
seriously  beat  him  over  the  head.  Lyon  rushed 
to  the  fireplace,  and,  seizing  a  pair  of  tongs, 
approached  Griswold,  who  struck  him  a  violent 
blow  in  the  face,  threw  him  down,  and  heat  him 
on  the  floor.  Griswold  dragged  him  by  the  legs, 
when  a  call  to  order  from  the  speaker  stopped 
the  disgraceful  affray.  A  motion  was  made  for 
the  expulsion  of  both  Lyon  and  Griswold,  but  it 
was  lost ;  so  also  was  a  motion  for  a  vote  of  cen¬ 
sure.  This  wras  the  first  of  those  undignified 
personal  encounters  on  the  floor  of  Congress 
which  have  occasionally  disgraced  that  body.  A 
caricature  representing  the  fight  with  cane  and 
tongs  Avas  published  soon  after  the  occurrence. 

Deerfield,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Connecti¬ 
cut  River,  Franklin  County,  Mass.,  was  twice 
the  victim  of  a  foray  by  French  and  Indians. 
During  King  Philip’s  War  a  terrible  slaughter 
occurred  a  mile  from  the  town,  Sept.  18  (O.  S.), 
1675.  The  Indians  had  burned  Deerfield  and 
murdered  some  of  the  inhabitants.  The  surviv¬ 
ors  fled,  leaving  about  three  thousand  bushels 
of  wheat  in  stacks  in  the  field.  Captain  Thomas 
Lothrop,  commanding  part  of  a  force  at  Had¬ 
ley,  was  sent  with  eighty  men  to  secure  this 
grain.  They  were  young  soldiers,  the  “flower 
of  Essex  County.”  As  they  approached  Deer¬ 
field  they  fell  into  an  Indian  ambush,  and  the 
captain  and  seventy-six  of  his  men  were  slain. 
They  sold  their  lives  dearly,  for  ninety-six  of 
their  assailants  perished  in  the  fight.  The  stream 
near  which  the  scene  occurred  has  been  called 
Bloody  Brook  to  this  day.  A  rude  monument 
was  erected  on  the  spot  forty  years  afterwards, 
and  in  1838  another — an  obelisk  of  white  mar¬ 
ble — was  put  up  there.  Late  in  February,  1704, 
a  party  of  French  and  Indians,  under  Major  Her- 
tel  de  Rouville,  who  had  travelled  on  snow- 
shoes  from  Canada,  approached  Deerfield.  The 
chief  object  of  the  expedition  was  to  procure  a 
little  bell  hung  over  the  meeting-house  in  that 
village.  It  had  been  bought  in  France  for  the 
church  in  the  Indian  village  of  Caughnawaga, 
ten  miles  above  Montreal.  The  vessel  that  bore 
it  to  America  was  captured  by  a  New  England 
privateer  and  taken  into  Boston  harbor.  The 
bell  was  sold  to  the  Deerfield  congregation.  Fa¬ 
ther  Nicolas,  the  priest  at  Caughnawaga,  per¬ 
suaded  the  Indians  to  accompauy  him,  under 
De  Rouville,  to  get  the  bell.  When  the  invad¬ 
ers  approached  Deerfield,  the  snow  lay  four  feet 
deep  in  that  region,  and  was  covered  by  a  hard 
crust  that  bore  the  men.  Upon  drifts  that  lay 
by  the  palisades  they  were  able  to  crawl  over 
these  defences  in  the  gloom  of  night,  while  the 
inhabitants  were  slumbering.  The  first  intima- 


DEFECTION  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


375 


DEFENCE,  PREPARATIONS  FOR 


Congressional  Pugilists. 


Jonathan  Dayton ,  Speaker. 


2.  Jonathan  W.  Condy»  Clerk. 


He  in  a  trice  struck  Lyon  thrice 
Upon  his  head ,  enrag'd  sir , 


Who  seiz’d  the  tongs  to  ease  his  wrongs. 
And  Griswold  thus  engag'd,  sir. 

FIRST  FIGHT  IN  CONGRESS. 


Congress  Hall, 
in  Phi  lad' a,  Feb.  15,  1798. 
S.E.  Cor.  6 tk  &  Chestnut  St. 


tion  the  villagers  had  of  danger  was  the  burst¬ 
ing  in  of  the  doors  before  the  dawn  (March  1, 
1704),  and  the  terrible  sound  of  the  war-whoop. 
The  people  were  dragged  from  their  beds  and 
murdered,  without  regard  to  age  or  sex,  or  car¬ 
ried  iuto  captivity.  The  village  was  set  on  fire, 
and  every  building,  excepting  the  chapel  and 
one  dwelling-house,  was  laid  in  ashes.  Foity- 
seven  of  the  inhabitants  were  killed,  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  were  captives  on  their  way 
through  the  wilderness  towards  Canada  an  hour 
after  sunrise.  Under  the  direction  of  Father 
Nicolas,  the  bell  was  carried  away,  and  finally 
found  its  destined  place  in  the  belfry  of  the 
church  at  Caughuawaga,  where  it  still  hangs. 
Among  the  victims  of  this  foray  were  Rev.  John 
Williams,  pastor  of  the  church  at  Deerfield,  and 
his  family,  who  were  carried  into  captivity,  ex¬ 
cepting  two  children,  who  were  murdered.  (See 
Williams,  John.) 

Defection  in  Pennsylvania.  The  gloomy 
outlook  after  the  fall  of  Fort  Washington  (which 
see)  and  the  flight  of  Washington  and  his  molt¬ 
ing  army  across  New  Jersey  in  1776  caused 
many  persons  of  influence  in  Pennsylvania,  as 
well  as  in  New  Jersey,  to  waver  and  fall  away 
from  the  patriot  cause.  The  most  conspicuous 
of  these  in  Pennsylvania  were  Joseph  Galloway, 
who  had  been  a  member  of  the  first  Continental 
Congress,  and  Andrew  Allen,  also  a  member  o 
that  Congress,  and  two  of  his  brothers.  I  ho 
brothers  Howe  having  issued  a  new  proclama¬ 


tion  of  pardon  and  amnesty  to  all  who  should 
within  sixty  days  promise  not  to  take  up  arms 
against  the  king,  these  men  availed  themselves 
of  it,  not  doubting  their  speedy  restoration  to 
their  former  fortunes  and  political  importance. 
They  went  over  to  Howe ;  so  did  Samuel  Tuck¬ 
er,  a  leader  in  the  movements  against  British 
oppression  in  New  Jersey,  and  a  host  of  Jersey- 
men,  who  signed  a  pledge  of  fidelity  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish  crown.  Even  John  Dickinson,  whose  fidel¬ 
ity  as  a  patriot  may  not  be  questioned,  was  so 
thoroughly  convinced  of  the  folly  of  the  Dec¬ 
laration  of  Independence  and  the  probability  of 
a  return  to  the  British  fold  that  he  discredited 
the  Continental  bills  of  credit,  and  refused  to 
accept  an  appointment  from  Delaware  as  a  del¬ 
egate  in  Congress.  The  State  of  Maryland  also 
showed  a  willingness  at  this  juncture  to  renounce 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  for  the  sake  of 
peace.  Amidst  this  falling  away  of  civilians 
and  the  rapid  melting  of  his  army,  Washing¬ 
ton’s  faith  and  courage  never  faltered.  From 
Newark,  when  he  was  Hying  with  his  shattered 
and  rapidly  diminishing  forces  towards  the  Del¬ 
aware  River  before  pursuing  Cornwallis,  lie  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  patriotic  and  energetic  William 
Livingston,  governor  of  New  Jersey,  for  aid.  To 
expressions  of  sympathy  from  the  governor,  ho 
replied  (Nov.  30, *1776),  “  I  will  not  despair.” 

Defence,  General  Preparations  for.  On 
May  26,  1775,  the  Continental  Congress  unani¬ 
mously  determined  that,  as  hostilities  had  actu- 


DEFENCES  OF  THE  DELAWARE 


37G 


DE  HAVEN 


ally  commenced  in  Massachusetts,  and  large  rein¬ 
forcements  were  expected  for  the  British  troops 
in  Boston,  the  several  provinces  should  he  imme¬ 
diately  put  in  a  state  of  defence.  The  necessary 
committees  were  speedily  appointed  to  prepare 
reports.  One  of  them  was  to  designate  the  posts 
to  be  occupied  in  New  York;  another  to  recom¬ 
mend  methods  for  raisiug  ammunition  and  mili¬ 
tary  stores;  a  third  to  estimate  the  amount  of 
money  necessary  to  be  raised  for  purposes  of 
defence;  and  a  fourth  to  prepare  rules  and  reg¬ 
ulations  for  the  government  of  the  army.  Wash¬ 
ington’s  good  judgment  had  been  so  conspicuous 
iu  the  past  that-  he  was  named  chairman  of  all 
these  committees. 

Defences  of  the  Delaware.  When  Howe  en¬ 
tered  Philadelphia  (September,  1777)  the  Amer¬ 
icans  still  held  control  of  the  Delaware  River 
below  that  city.  On  Mud  Island  (consisting  of 
mud  and  sand),  near  the  confluence  of  the  Schuyl¬ 
kill  and  Delaware,  was  built  Fort  Mifflin.  On 
the  New  Jersey  shore,  opposite,  at  Red  Bank, 
was  Fort  Mercer,  a  strong  redoubt,  well  fur¬ 
nished  with  heavy  artillery.  At  Billingsport, 
on  the  same  shore,  three  miles  lower  down,  were 
extensive  but  unfinished  works  designed  to 
guard  some  obstructions  in  the  river  there. 
Other  formidable  obstructions  were  placed  in 
the  river  below  forts  Mifflin  and  Mercer,  in  the 
form  of  chevaux-de-frise — sunken  crates  of  stones, 
with  heavy  spears  of  iron-pointed  timber,  to  re¬ 
ceive  and  pierce  the  bows  of  vessels.  Besides 
these,  there  were  floating  batteries  on  the  river. 
(See  Fort  Mercer  and  Fort  Mifflin.) 

Defences  of  Washington.  Immediately  af¬ 
ter  the  battle  at  Bull’s  Run  (which  see)  ener¬ 
getic  measures  were  taken  to  place  defences 
around  the  city  of  Washington  that  should 
make  it  absolutely  secure  from  attack.  General 
George  B.  McClellan  had  been  called  to  the 
chief  command  of  the  forces  at  and  near  Wash¬ 
ington.  With  the  assistance  of  Majors  Barry 
and  Barnard  he  projected  a  series  of  fortifica¬ 
tions  at  prominent  elevated  points,  and  the  two 
officers  named  were  detailed  to  construct  them. 
Not  an  eminence  near  the  capital  was  long  with¬ 
out  a  fortification  upon  it.  So  vigorously  was 
the  enterprise  prosecuted  that  in  the  course  of 
a  few  months  not  less  than  fifty-two  of  these 
military  works  wTere  completed.*  At.  no  time 
afterwards  during  the  war  did  the  Confederates 
ever  seriously  attempt  to  assail  them.  At  no 
time  was  the  capital  in  danger  from  external 
foes.  (See  map  on  opposite  page.) 

Definitive  Treaty  of  Peace.  (See  Treaty  of 
Peace,  1783.) 

De  Gourgues  hangs  Spaniards  in  Florida. 
(See  Huguenots  in  Florida.) 

De  Grasse,  Count,  defeated.  On  April  12, 
1782,  a  fierce  naval  engagement  occurred  in  the 
West  Indies  between  Admiral  the  Count  de 
Grasse  and  Admiral  Sir  George  Rodney.  The 


*  According  to  general  orders  issued  by, McClellan  on  Sept. 
30,  1861,  in  which  the  names  and  locations  of  these  forts  were 
designated,  thirty-two  of  them  were  then  completed.  At  the 
beginning  of  December  forty-eight  were  finished. 


count’s  flag-ship  was  the  Yille  de  Paris,  the  same 
as  when  he  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Cornwal¬ 
lis  at  Yorktown.  She  was  a  magnificent  vessel, 
which  the  city  of  Paris  bad  presented  to  the 


COUNT  DE  GRASSE. 


king  (Louis  XV.).  The  count  fought  his  antag¬ 
onist  with  such  desperation  that  when  he  was 
compelled  to  strike  his  colors  only  two  men  be¬ 
sides  himself  were  left  standing  on  the  upper 
deck.  By  this  defeat  and  capture  there  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  thirty-six  chests 
of  money  and  the  whole  train  of  artillery  in¬ 
tended  for  an  attack  on  Jamaica.  The  French 
lost  in  the  engagement,  iu  killed  and  wounded, 
about  three  thousand  men ;  the  British  lost 
eleven  hundred.  For  more  than  a  century  the 
French  had  not,  in  any  naval  engagement.,  been 
so  completely  beaten.  The  fleet  was  nearly  ru¬ 
ined.  (See  Grasse,  Count  de.) 

De  Haas,  John  Philip,  was  born  in  Holland 
about  1735 ;  died  in  Philadelphia  about  1794. 
He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  family  iu 
northern  France ;  came  to  America  in  1750 ; 
was  an  ensign  in  the  French  and  Indian  War ; 
participated  iu  a  sharp  conflict  with  Indians 
near  Pittsburgh  ;  and  was  colonel  of  the  First 
Pennsylvania  regiment  in  1776.  He  served  in 
the  American  army  in  Canada,  and  afterwards 
at  Ticonderoga.  He  led  his  regiment,  from  Lake 
Champlain  to  New  York,  and  participated  in 
the  battle  on  Long  Island  in  August,  1776.  In 
February,  1777,  he  was  promoted  to  brigadier- 
general.  General  De  Haas  was  a  good  discipli¬ 
narian,  and  served  iu  various  capacities  during 
the  entire  war  with  credit  to  himself  and  ben¬ 
efit  to  his  adopted  country.  The  latter  years 
of  his  life  were  passed  in  Philadelphia. 

De  Haven,  Edwin  J.,  an  arctic  explorer,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  iu  1819;  died  there  May  9, 
1865.  He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman,  rose 
to  lieutenant  in  1841,  and  resigned  in  1857.  He 
was  with  Wilkes  in  his  great  exploring  expedi¬ 
tion  in  1838-42,  and  commanded  the  first  explor¬ 
ing  expedition  fitted  out  at  New  York  to  search 
for  Sir  John  Franklin  in  the  Arctic  seas.  The 
expedition  consisted  of  the  Advance,  one  hundred 
and  forty  tons,  and  the  Rescue,  ninety  tons.  Dr. 
Kane,  who  accompanied  the  expedition,  pub¬ 
lished  a  full  account  of  it. 


DE  LANCEY 


377 


DELAWARE,  POSITION  OF 


De  Lancey,  James,  was  born  in  New  York  in 
1703 ;  died  there,  Aug.  2, 1760.  He  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  England,  and  soon 
after  his  return  to  New  York  (1729)  was  made  a 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  that  province, 
and  chief-justice  in  1733.  For  two  years,  as 
lieutenant-governor,  he  was  acting  governor 
(1753-55),  after  the  death  of  Governor  Osborn. 
Mr.  De  Lancey  was  for  many  years  the  most  in¬ 
fluential  man  in  the  politics  and  legislation  of 
the  colony,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  King’s 
(now  Columbia)  College.  He  wrote  a  Review  of 
the  Military  Operations  from  1753  to  1756. 

De  Lancey,  Oliver,  brother  of  Chief-justice 
James,  was  born  in  New7  York  city  in  1717  ;  died 


British  army  in  Boston  during  the  siege  in  1775- 
76,  and  accompanied  it  to  Nova  Scotia.  He  re¬ 
turned  with  it  to  Staten  Island  in  June,  aud 
commanded  British  cavalry  w'hen  the  army  in¬ 
vaded  Long  Island  in  August,  which  formed  the 
advance  of  the  right  column.  To  him  General 
Woodhull  surrendered  under  promise  of  protec¬ 
tion,  but  it  was  not  afforded,  and  the  patriot  was 
murdered.  He  was  active  under  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  throughout  the  wrar.  In  1781  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  Major  Andrd  as  adjutant-general,  and  on 
his  return  to  England  undertook  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  claims  of  the  loyalists  for  compen¬ 
sation  for  losses  in  America.  He  v7as  also  at  the 
head  of  a  commission  for  settling  all  army  ac- 


MAP  SHOWING  TIIE  DEFENCES  OF  WASHINGTON. 


counts  during  the  war. 
Because  of  defalcations 
in  his  public  accounts, 
he  was  removed  from 
office,  and  was  elected  to  Par¬ 
liament.  in  1796. 

Delaware  consents  to  In¬ 
dependence.  On  the  14th  and 
15th  of  J une,  1776,  the  Assembly 
of  Delaware  unanimously  ap¬ 
proved  the  resolutions  of  Con¬ 
gress  of  May  15th,  overturned 
the  proprietary  government 
within  her  borders,  substituted 
her  own  name  on  all  occasions 


at  Beverley,  England,  Oct.  27,  1785.  He  was 
for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Assembly  and 
council,  also  a  colonel  of  provincial  troops,  and 
when  the  Revolution  broke  out  he  organized  and 
equipped,  chiefly  at  his  ow'n  expense,  a  corps  of 
loyalists.  In  1777  he  was  appointed  brigadier 
in  the  royal  service.  His  military  operations 
were  chiefly  in  the  region  of  New  York  city.  At 
the  evacuation  of  that  city  in  1783  he  went  to 
England. 

De  Lancey,  Oliver,  was  born  in  New  York 
city ;  died  in  Edinburgh  in  September,  1822. 
Educated  abroad,  he  entered  the  British  army 
in  1766,  and  rose  to  major  in  1773;  was  with  the 


for  that  of  the  king,  and  gave  to  her  delegates 
new  instructions,  which  left  them  at  liberty  to 
vote,  respect  ing  independence,  according  to  their 
judgment.  This  was  considered  a  tacit  sanction 
of  independence. 

Delaware,  Position  of  (1861).  This  little 
state  lay,  still  more  than  Maryland,  within  the 
embrace  of  the  free-labor  states,  and  took  but 
very  little  part  in  the  secession  movements  at 
the  beginning  of  1861.  Its  governor  (William 
Burton),  several  of  its  senators,  its  representa¬ 
tives  ip  the  National  Senate,  and  many  leading 
politicians  sympathized  with  the  Secessionists, 
hut  the  people  in  general  were  conservative  and 


DELAWARES 


DELAWARE,  COLONY  AND  STATE  OF  378 


loyal.  Its  Legislature  convened  at  Dover,  the  i 
capital  of  the  state,  on  June  3,  1861,  when  the 
governor,  in  his  message,  charged  the  impend¬ 
ing  troubles  upon  the  Abolitionists  of  the  North, 
who,  from  “pulpits,  rostrums,  aud  schools,  by 
press  and  people,”  had  waged  a  “  persistent  war 
upon  more  than  $2,000,000,000  of  property.”  On 
the  following  day  Henry  Dickiuson,  a  commis¬ 
sioner  from  Mississippi,  addressed  the  Legislat¬ 
ure,  and  urged  the  right  and  duty  of  secession 
from  the  free-labor  states.  The  House,  by  unan¬ 
imous  vote  (concurred  in  by  a  majority  of  the 
Senate),  adopted  a  resolution  that  they  deemed 
it  proper,  and  due  to  themselves  and  the  people 
of  Delaware,  to  express  their  unqualified  disap¬ 
proval  of  the  remedy  for  existing  evils  proposed 
by  the  coiuuiissiouer  from  Mississippi.  This 
ended  his  mission.  Delaware  maintained  this 
position  during  the  war  that  ensued;  and  it  is 
a  noteworthy  fact  that  it  was  the  only  slave- 
labor  state  whose  soil  was  not  moistened  with 
the  blood  of  the  slain  in  battle. 

Delaware,  The  Colony  and  State  of,  takes 
its  name  from  Lord  De  la  Warr  (Delaware),  who 
entered  the  bay  ot  that  name  iu  1610,  when  he 
was  governor  of  Virginia.  It  had  been  discov¬ 
ered  by  Hudson  in  1600.  In  1629  Samuel  Godyn, 

a  director  of  the 
Dutch  West  India 
Company,  bought 
of  the  Indians  a 
tract  of  land  near 
the  mouth  of  the 
Delaware;  and  the 
next  year  De  Vries, 
with  twenty  colo¬ 
nists  from  Holland, 
settled  near  the  site 
of  L  e  w  e  s.  (  See 
Vries,  De.)  The  col¬ 
ony  was  destroyed 
by  the  natives  three  years  afterwards,  and  the 
red  men  had  sole  possession  of  that  district  until 
1638,  when  a  colony  of  Swedes  and  Finns  land¬ 
ed  on  Cape  Henlopen,  and  purchased  the  lands 
along  the  bay  and  river  as  far  north  as  the  falls 
at  Trenton.  (See  New  Sweden.)  They  built  Fort 
Christiana  near  the  site  of  Wilmington.  Their 
settlements  were  mostly  planted  within  the 
present  limits  of  Pennsylvania.  The  Swedes 
were  conquered  by  the  Dutch  of  New  Nether- 
land  in  1655,  and  from  that  time  until  1664, 
when  New  Netherlaud  was  conquered  by  the 
English,  the  territory  was  claimed  by  the  Dutch, 
and  controlled  by  them.  Then  Lord  Balti¬ 
more,  proprietor  of  Maryland,  claimed  all  the 
territory  on  the  west  side  of  Delaware  Bay, 
and  even  to  latitude  40°;  and  settlers  from  Ma¬ 
ryland  attempted  to  drive  away  the  settlers  iu 
the  present  State  of  Delaware.  When  William 
Penn  obtained  a  grant  of  Pennsylvania,  he  was 
very  desirous  of  owning  the  land  on  Delaware 
Bay  to  the  sea,  and  procured  from  the  Duke  of 
York  a  release  of  all  his  title  and  claim  to  New 
Castle  .and  twelve  miles  around  it,  and  to  the 
land  between  that  tract  and  the  sea;  and  in  the 
presence  of  all  the  settlers  he  produced  his  deeds 
(October,  1682),  aud  formally  accepted  the  sur¬ 


render  of  the  territory.  Lord  Baltimore  pressed 
his  claim,  but  in  1685  the  Lords  of  Trade  and 
Plantations  made  a  decision  iu  Penn’s  favor.  A 
compromise  afterwards  adjusted  all  conflicting 
claims.  The  tracts  which  now  constitute  the 
State  of  Delaware,  Penn  called  “The  Territo¬ 
ries,”  or  “  Three  Lower  Counties  on  the  Dela¬ 
ware.”  They  were  governed  as  a  part  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  for  about  twenty  years  afterwards,  and 
each  county  had  six  delegates  in  the  Legislat¬ 
ure.  Theu  Penn  allowed  them  a  separate  Leg¬ 
islature  ;  but  the  colony  was  under  the  governor 
of  Pennsylvania  until  1776,  when  the  inhab¬ 
itants  declared  it  an  independent  state.  A  con¬ 
stitution  was  adopted  by  a  convention  of  the 
people  of  the  three  counties — New  Castle,  Kent, 
and  Sussex — Sept.  20, 1776.  A  state  government 
was  organized,  aud  John  McKinley  was  elected 
its  first  governor.  In  1702  a  second  constitution 
was  framed  and  adopted.  Delaware  was  the  first 
state  that  adopted  the  National  Constitution. 
This  was  done  by  a  convention  on  Dec.  7,  1787, 
or  less  than  three  months  after  it  was  signed  by 
the  members  of  the  convention  who  framed  it. 
Although  Delaware  was  a  slave-labor  state,  it 
refused  to  secede  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War;  and,  though  it  assumed  a  sort  of  neutral¬ 
ity,  that  little  state  furnished  several  regiments 
of  volunteers  for  the  National  army.  Iu  all 
the  wars  Delaware  patriotically  furnished  its 
share  of  men  and  money  for  the  public  defeuce. 
Population  iu  1880, 146,608. 

Delawares,  an  important  family  of  the  Al- 
gonquiu  nation,  who  are  also  called  Lenni-Le- 
napes,  or  “  men.”  When  the  Europeans  found 
them,  they  w’ere  dwelling  in  detached  bands, 
under  separate  sachems,  on  the  Delaware  River. 
The  Dutch  traded  with  them  as  early  as  1613, 
and  held  friendly  relations  with  them  ;  but  in 
1632  the  Dutch  settlement  of  Swanendael  was 
destroyed  by  them.  The  Swedes  found  them 
peaceful  when  they  settled  on  the  Delaware. 
This  family  claim  to  have  come  from  the  west 
with  the  Minquas,  to  whom  they  became  va,s- 
sals.  They  also  claimed  to  be  the  source  of  all 
the  Algonquins,  aud  were  styled  “grand  fa¬ 
thers.”  The  Delawares  comprised  three  power¬ 
ful  families  (viz.,  Turtle,  Turkey,  aud  Wolf), 
and  were  known  as  Minseys,  or  Munsees,  and 
Delawares  proper.  The  former  occupied  the 
northern  part  of  New  Jersey  and  a  portion  of 
Pennsylvania,  aud  the  latter  inhabited  lower 
New  Jersey,  the  banks  of  the  Delaware  below 
Trenton,  and  the  whole  valley  of  the  Schuylkill. 
After  the  conquest  of  New  Netherlaud,  the  Eng¬ 
lish  kept  up  trade  with  the  Delawares,  and  Will¬ 
iam  Penn  aud  his  followers  bought  large  tracts 
of  land  from  them.  They  were  parties  on  the 
Iudian  side  to  the  famous  treaty  with  Penn. 
At  that  time  the  Indians  within  the  limits  of 
his  domain  were  estimated  at  six  thousand  in 
number.  The  Five  Nations  conquered  the  Del¬ 
awares,  and  called  them  “  women  ”  in  contempt ; 
and  when,  at  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the 
latter,  dissatisfied  with  the  interpretation  of  a 
treaty,  refused  to  leave  their  land,  the  Five  Na¬ 
tions  haughtily  ordered  them  to  go.  Commin¬ 
gling  with  warlike  tribes,  the  Delawares  became 


STATE  SEAL  OF  DELAWARE. 


DEMOCRACY,  EARLY,  IN  NEW  YORK  379  DEMOCRACY  IN  NEW  NETHERLAND 


warlike  themselves,  and  developed  great  energy 
on  the  war-path.  They  fought  the  Cherokees, 
and  in  1773  some  of  them  went  over  the  moun¬ 
tains  and  settled  in  Ohio.  So  early  as  1741  the 
Moravians  had  begun  missionary  work  among 
them  on  the  Lehigh,  near  Bethlehem  and  Naza¬ 
reth,  and  a  little  church  was  soon  tilled  with  In¬ 
dian  converts.  At  the  beginning  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War  the  Delawares  were  opposed  to 
the  English,  excepting  a  portion  who  were  led 
by  the  Moravians ;  but  in  treaties  held  at  Eas¬ 
ton,  in  Pennsylvania,  at  different  times,  from 
1756  until  1761,  they  made  peace  with  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  and  redeemed  themselves  from  their  vas¬ 
salage  to  the  Six  Nations.  They  settled  on 
the  Susquehanna,  the  Christian  Indians  apart. 
Then  another  emigration  over  the  mountains 
occurred,  and  they  planted  a  settlement  at  Mus¬ 
kingum,  Ohio.  These  joined  Pontiac,  and  be¬ 
sieged  Fort  Pitt  (Pittsburgh)  and  other  frontier 
posts,  but  were  defeated  in  August,  1763,  by 
Colonel  Bouquet,  and  their  great  chief,  Teedy- 
uscung,  was  killed.  Their  towns  were  ravaged, 
and  the  Moravian  converts,  who  were  innocent, 
fled  for  refuge  to  Philadelphia.  These  returned 
to  the  Susquehanna  in  1764,  and  the  Ohio  por¬ 
tion  made  peace  at  Muskingum  the  same  year, 
and  at  Fort  Pitt  in  1765.  The  remainder  in 
Pennsylvania  emigrated  to  Ohio,  and  in  1786 
not  a  Delaware  was  left  east  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  Moravian  missionaries  went  with 
their  flocks,  and  the  Christian  Indians  increased. 
The  pagans  kept  upon  the  war-path  until  they 
were  severely  smitten  in  a  drawn  battle  at  Point 
Pleasant,  in  1774.  The  Delawares  joined  the 
English  when  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out, 
but  made  peace  with  the  Americans  in  1778,  when 
a  massacre  of  ninety  of  the  Christian  Indians 
in  Ohio  by  the  Americans  aroused  the  fury  of 
the  tribe.  Being  almost  powerless,  they  fled  to 
the  Huron  River  and  Canada.  Under  the  pro¬ 
visions  of  a  treaty  in  1787,  a  small  band  of  Del¬ 
awares  returned  to  the  Muskingum,  the  remain¬ 
der  being  hostile.  These  fought  Wayne,  and  were 
parties  to  the  treaty  at  Greenville  in  1795.  (See 
Greenville.)  The  scattered  tribes  in  Ohio  refused 
to  join  Tecumtlia  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  in  1818 
they  ceded  all  their  lands  to  the  United  States, 
and  settled  on  the  White  River,  in  Illinois,  to 
the  number  of  eighteen  hundred,  leaving  a  small 
remnant  behind.  They  finally  settled  in  Kansas, 
where  missions  were  established  among  them, 
and  they  rapidly  increased  in  the  arts  of  civil¬ 
ized  life.  In  the  late  Civil  War,  the  Delawares 
furnished  one  hundred  and  seventy  soldiers  for 
the  National  army.  Having  acquired  land  from 
the  Cherokees  in  the  Indian  Territory,  they  are 
now  there,  about  one  thousand  strong,  and  still 
keep  up  their  totemic  distinction  of  Turtle,  Tur¬ 
key,  and  Wolf  families. 

Democracy,  Early,  in  New  York.  We  have 
observed  (see  Keith  and  Stugresant)  how  the  first 
germ  of  democracy  or  republicanism  appeared 
in  New  Amsterdam,  and  was  checked  in  its  vis¬ 
ible  growth  by  the  heel  of  power.  It  grew,  nev¬ 
ertheless.  It  was  stimulated  by  the  kind  acts 
of  Governor  Dongan  (see  Dongan );  and  when 
the  English  revolution  of  1688  had  developed 


the  strength  of  the  people’s  will,  and  their  just 
aspirations  were  formulated  in  the  Bill  of  Rights, 
it  sprang  up  into  a  vigorous  fruit-bearing  plant. 
Its  power  was  manifested  in  the  choice  and  ad¬ 
ministration  of  Leisler  as  ruler  until  a  royal 
governor  was  appointed  (see  Leisler),  and  his 
death  caused  the  line  of  separation  between  de¬ 
mocracy  and  aristocracy  —  republicanism  and 
monarchy  —  “  Leislerians”  and  “  Anti-Leisleri- 
ans”— - to  be  distinctly  drawn.  During  the  ex¬ 
citing  period  of  Leisler’s  rule,  the  aristocratic 
or  royalist  party  were  led  by  Nicholas  Bayard, 
a  wealthy  and  influential  citizen,  who  was  warm¬ 
ly  seconded  by  Robert  Livingston.  These  two 
men  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  bringing  Leis¬ 
ler  to  the  scaffold  and  treating  his  family  and 
friends  in  a  shameful  manner.  This  conduct 
was  continued  until  the  Earl  of  Bellomont  suc¬ 
ceeded  Fletcher  as  governor  (see  Bellomont), 
when  the  “  Auti-Leisleriaus”  were  reduced  to  a 
minority,  and  kept  quiet  for  a  while.  After  the 
death  of  Bellomont  (March  5,  1701),  John  Nan- 
fan,  his  lieutenant,  ruled  for  a  while.  Nanfan 
favored  the  democratic  party.  So  soon  as  it 
was  known  that  Lord  Cornbury,  a  thorough 
aristocrat  and  royalist,  had  been  appointed  gov¬ 
ernor,  Bayard  and  his  party  heaped  abuse  not 
only  upon  the  dead  Bellomont,  but  upon  Nan- 
fan.  The  latter  saw  that  Bayard  was  on  the 
verge  of  a  pit  which  he  had  digged  himself,  and 
he  pushed  him  into  it.  Bayard  had  procured  an 
act,  in  1691,  aimed  at  Leisler  and  his  supporters, 
providing  that  any  person  who  should  in  any 
manner  endeavor  to  disturb  the  government  of 
the  colony  should  be  deemed  “  rebels  and  trai¬ 
tors  unto  their  majesties,”  and  should  incur  the 
pains  and  penalties  of  the  la  ws  of  England  for 
such  offence.  Bayard  was  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  tried,  convicted,  and  received  the 
horrid  sentence  then  imposed  by  the  English 
law  upon  traitors — to  be  hanged,  quartered,  etc. 
Bayard  applied  for  a  reprieve  until  his  majesty’s 
pleasure  should  be  known.  It  was  granted,  and 
in  the  meantime  Cornbury  arrived,  when  all  was 
reversed.  Bayard  was  released  and  reinstated. 
The  democrats  were  placed  under  the  lash  of 
the  aristocrats,  which  Bayard  and  Livingston 
used  without  mercy  by  the  hand  of  the  wretch¬ 
ed  ruler  to  whom  they  offered  libations  of  flat¬ 
tery.'  The  chief-justice  who  tried  Bayard,  and 
the  advocate  who  opposed  him,  were  compelled 
to  fly  to  England.  From  that  time  onward  there 
was  a  continuous  conflict  by  the  democracy  of 
New  York  with  the  aristocracy  as  represented 
by  the  royal  governors  and  their  official  para¬ 
sites.  It  fought  bravely,  and  won  many  victo¬ 
ries,  the  greatest  of  which  was  in  a  fierce  battle 
for  the  freedom  of  the  press,  in  the  case  of  John 
Peter  Zenger.  (See  Zeng<r’s  Trial.) 

Democracy  in  New  Netherland.  Governor 
Kieft  (which  see)  had  resolved  to  chasten  the 
Raritan  Indians  for  a  grave  offence.  He  called 
upon  the  people  to  shoulder  their  muskets  for  a 
fight.  They  knew  his  avarice  and  greed,  and 
withal  his  cowardice,  and  boldly  charged  these 
things  upon  him.  “  It  is  all  well  for  you,”  they 
said,  “  who  have  not  slept  out  of  the  fort  a  sin¬ 
gle  night  since  you  came,  to  endanger  our  lives 


DEMOCRACY  IN  NEW  NETHERLAND  380 


DEMOCRATIC  CONVENTION 


and  our  homes  iu  undefended  places,”  and  they 
refused  to  obey.  This  attitude  of  the  people 
transformed  the  governor.  He  invited  (Aug. 
23,  1641)  the  heads  of  families  of  New  Amster¬ 
dam  to  meet  him  in  consultation  on  public  af¬ 
fairs.  They  assembled  at  the  fort,  and  prompt¬ 
ly  chose  twelve  citizens  to  represent  them.  So 
appeared  the  first  popular  assembly,  and  so  was 
chosen  the  first  representative  congress  in  New 
Netherland.  It  was  a  spontaneous  outgrowth 
of  the  innate  spirit  of  democracy  that  animated 
the  people.  The  twelve  were  the  vigorous  seeds 
of  that  representative  democracy  which  bore 
fruit  in  all  the  colonies  more  than  a  century 
later.  Again,  when  the  colony  -was  threatened 
with  destruction  by  the  Indians,  Kieft  summon¬ 
ed  the  people  into  council  (September,  1643),  who 
chose  eight  men  as  the  popular  representatives, 
to  act  with  the  governor  in  public  affairs.  Again, 
when  Governor  Stuyvesant  (which  see)  found 
the  finances  of  the  colony  of  New  Netherland  in 
such  a  wretched  condition  that  taxation  was 
necessary,  he  dared  not  tax  the  people  without 
their  consent,  for  fear  of  offending  the  States- 
General,  so  he  called  a  convention  of  citizens, 
and  directed  them  to  choose  eighteen  of  their 
best  men,  of  whom  he  might  select  nine  as  rep¬ 
resentatives  of  the  tax-payers,  and  who  should 
form  a  co-ordinate  branch  of  the  local  govern¬ 
ment.  He  tried  to  hedge  them  around  with  re¬ 
strictions,  but  the  nine  proved  to  be  more  potent 
in  promoting  popular  liberty  than  had  Kieft’s 
twelve.  They  nourished  the  prolific  seed  of  de¬ 
mocracy,  which  burst  into  vigorous  life  in  the 
time  of  Jacob  Leisler  (which  see).  Stuyvesant 
tried  to  stifle  its  growth.  The  more  it  was  op¬ 
posed,  the  more  vigorous  it  grew.  Late  in  the 
autumn  of  1653  a  convention  of  nineteen  dele¬ 
gates,  who  represented  eight  villages  or  com¬ 
munities,  assembled  at  the  town-hall  in  New 
Amsterdam,  ostensibly  to  take  measures  to  se¬ 
cure  themselves  from  the  depredations  of  the 
barbarians  around  them  and  sea-rovers.  The 
governor  tried  in  vain  to  control  their  action  ; 
they  paid  very  little  attention  to  his  wishes  or 
his  commands.  He  stormed  and  threatened,  but 
prudently  yielded  to  the  demands  of  the  people 
that  he  should  issue  a  call  for  another  conven¬ 
tion,  and  give  legal  sanction  for  the  election 
of  delegates  thereto.  These  met  in  New  Am¬ 
sterdam  on  Dec.  10,  1653.  Of  the  eight  dis¬ 
tricts  represented,  four  were  Dutch  and  four 
English.  Of  the  nineteen  delegates,  ten  were 
of  Dutch  and  nine  were  of  English  nativity. 
This  was  the  first  really  representative  assem¬ 
bly  in  the  great  State  of  New  York  chosen  by 
the  people.  The  names  of  the  delegates  were 
as  follows:  From  New  Amsterdam,  Van  Hat- 
tem,  Kregier,  and  Van  de  Grist;  from  Breuck- 
len  (Brooklyn),  Lubbertsen,  Van  der  Beeck,  and 
Beeckman ;  from  Flushing,  Hicks  and  Flake ; 
from  Newtown,  Coe  and  Hazard ;  from  Heem- 
stede  (Hempstead),  Washburn  and  Somers;  from 
Amersfoort  (  Flatlands  ),  Wolfertsen,  Strycker, 
•  and  Swartwout;  from  Midwont  (Flatbush),  El- 
bertsen  and  Spicer ;  and  from  Gravesend,  Bax¬ 
ter  and  Hubbard.  Baxter  was  then  the  Eng¬ 
lish  secretary  of  the  colony,  and  led  the  English 


delegates.  The  object  of  this  convention  was 
to  form  and  adopt  a  remonstrance  against  the 
tyrannous  rule  of  the  governor.  It  was  drawn 
by  Baxter,  signed  by  all  the  delegates  present, 
and  sent  to  the  governor,  with  a  demand  that 
he  should  give  a  “  categorical  answer.”  In  it 
the  grievances  of  the  people  were  stated  under 
six  heads.  Stuyvesant  met  this  severe  docu¬ 
ment  with  his  usual  pluck.  He  denied  the  right 
of  some  of  the  delegates  to  seats  in  the  conven¬ 
tion.  He  denounced  the  whole  thing  as  the 
wicked  work  of  Englishmen, and  doubted  wheth¬ 
er  George  Baxter  knew  what  he  w  as  about.  He 
wanted  to  know  whether  there  was  no  one  among 
the  Dutch  in  New  Netherlaud  “  sagacious  and 
expert  enough  to  draw  up  a  remonstrance  to 
the  Director-general  and  his  council,”  and  se¬ 
verely  reprimanded  the  new  city  government  of 
New  Amsterdam  (New  York)  for  “  seizing  this 
dangerous  opportunity  for  conspiring  with  the 
English  [with  whom  Holland  was  then  at  war], 
who  were  ever  hatching  mischief,  but  never  per¬ 
forming  their  promises,  and  who  might  to-mor¬ 
row  ally  themselves  with  the  North” — meaning 
Sweden  and  Denmark.  The  convention  was 
not  to  be  intimidated  by  bluster.  They  inform¬ 
ed  Stuyvesant,  by  the  mouth  of  Beeckman,  that 
unless  he  answered  their  complaints,  they  would 
appeal  to  the  States-General.  At  this  the  gov¬ 
ernor  took  fire,  and,  seizing  his  cane,  ordered 
Beeckman  to  leave  his  presence.  The  plucky 
ambassador  coolly  folded  his  arms,  and  silently 
defied  the  magistrate.  When  Stuyvesant’s  an¬ 
ger  had  abated,  he  asked  Beeckman’s  pardon  for 
his  rudeness.  He  was  not  so  complaisant  with 
the  convention.  He  ordered  them  to  disperse 
on  pain  of  his  “  high  displeasure.”  The  con¬ 
vention  executed  their  threat  by  sending  an  ad¬ 
vocate  to  Holland  to  lay  their  grievances  before 
the  States-General. 

Democratic  Convention  at  Charleston 

(1860).  On  April  23,  1860,  about  six  hundred 
chosen  representatives  of  the  Democratic  party 
assembled  in  convention  in  the  hall  of  the  South 
Carolina  Institute  in  Charleston,  and  chose  Ca¬ 
leb  Cushing,  of  Massachusetts,  their  chairman. 
From  the  first  hour  of  the  session  knowing  ones 
discovered  omens  of  an  impending  tempest, 
which  might  topple  from  its  foundations  the 
political  organization,  founded  in  1828,  known 
as  the  Democratic  party.  Mr.  Cushing  was  a 
statesman  of  great  experience,  and  then  sixty 
years  of  age.  He  was  a  scholar  of  wide  and  va¬ 
ried  culture,  and  a  sagacious  observer  of  men. 
Having  joined  the  Democratic  party  at  the  time 
of  the  defection  of  President  Tyler,  he  became 
conspicuous  among  the  advocates  of  the  war 
with  Mexico  and  other  measures  for  the  exten¬ 
sion  of  slave  territory  and  the  perpetuation  of 
the  system,  and  was  regarded  with  great  favor 
by  the  Southern  politicians  in  the  convention  as 
their  fast  political  friend.  His  opening  address 
to  the  convention  pleased  them.  In  it  he  de¬ 
clared  it  to  be  the  mission  of  the  Democratic 
party  “  to  reconcile  popular  freedom  with  con¬ 
stituted  order,”  and  to  maintain  “the  sacred 
reserved  rights  of  the  sovereign  states.”  He 
charged  the  Republicans  with  “  laboring  to  over- 


DEMOCKATIC  CONVENTION 


381 


DEMOCRATIC  REVOLUTION 


throw  the  Constitution.”  He  declared  that  the 
Republicans  were  aiming  to  produce  “  a  perpet¬ 
ual  sectional  conspiracy,”  which  would  hurry 
the  country  on  to  civil  war,”  and  that  it  was 
“  the  high  and  noble  part  of  the  Democratic 
party  of  the  Union  to  withstand  —  to  strike 
down  and  conquer  —  these  banded  enemies  of 
the  Constitution.”  This  speech  was  applauded 
by  all  but  the  extreme  pro-slavery  wing  of  the 
convention;  who,  it  is  said,  desired  rather  to 
“strike  down”  the  Democratic  party,  to  obtain 
more  important  advantages  for  themselves. 
They  had  come  instructed  to  demand  from  the 
convention  a  candidate  and  an  avowal  of  prin¬ 
ciples  which  should  promise  a  guarantee  for  the 
speedy  recognition  by  the  national  government 
and  the  people,  in  a  political  way,  of  the  system 
of  slavery  as  a  national  institution.  The  most 
prominent  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  the 
convention  was  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  who  was 
committed  to  an  opposite  policy  concerning 
slavery,  and  whose  friends  would  never  vote 
for  the  demands  of  the  extreme  pro -slavery 
men.  This  the  latter  well  knew.  They  also 


THE  SOUTH  CAROLINA  INSTITUTE. 

knew  that  the  rejection  of  Mr.  Douglas  by  the 
representatives  of  the  slaveholders  would  split 
the  Democratic  party,  and  they  resolved  to  act, 
it  is  said,  in  accordance  with  their  convictions. 
They  held  the  dissevering  wedge  in  their  own 
hands,  and  they  determined  to  use  it  with  effect. 
(See  Impending  Crisis.)  A  committee  of  one  del¬ 
egate  from  each  state  was  appointed  to  prepare 
a  platform  of  principles  for  the  action  of  the 
convention.  Mr.  Butler,  of  Massachusetts,  pro¬ 
posed  in  that  committee  to  adopt  the  doctrine 
of  the  right  of  the  people  in  any  state  or  terri¬ 
tory  to  decide  whether  slavery  should  or  should 
not  exist  within  its  borders.  This  was  rejected 
by  seventeen  states  (only  two  of  them  free-labor 
states)  against  fifteen.  This  was  the  entering  of 
the  dissevering  wedge.  The  majority  now  of¬ 
fered  to  accept  that  doctrine,  with  an  addition¬ 
al  resolution  declaring  that, in  the  spirit  of  Judge 
Taney’s  opinion  (see  Died  Scott  Case),  neither  Con¬ 
gress  nor  any  other  legislative  body  had  a  right 
to  interfere  with  slavery  anywhere,  or  to  impair 
or  destroy  the  right  of  property  in  slaves  by  any 
legislation.  This  was  a  demand  for  the  Demo¬ 


cratic  party  to  recognize  slavery  as  a  sacred, 
permanent,  and  national  institution.  The  mi¬ 
nority,  composed  wholly  of  delegates  from  the 
free-labor  states,  resolved  that  the  limit  of  con¬ 
cession  to  the  demands  of  the  Southern  politi¬ 
cians  was  reached,  and  they  would  yield  no  fur¬ 
ther.  They  represented  a  majority  of  the  pres¬ 
idential  electors — one  huudred  and  seventy-two 
against  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven.  They 
offered  to  adopt  a  resolution  expressive  of  their 
willingness  to  abide  by  any  decision  of  the  Su¬ 
preme  Court  of  the  United  States.  To  this  con¬ 
cession  Butler  objected,  and  three  reports  from 
the  committee  went  into  the  convention  — a 
majority  and  minority  report,  and  one  from  Mr. 
Butler.  A  warm  debate  ensued,  and  Avery, 
from  North  Carolina,  declared  that  the  doctrine 
of  popular  sovereignty- — the  authority  of  the 
people  concerning  slavery — was  as  dangerous 
as  that  of  Congressional  interference  with  the 
institution.  The  debate  continued  until  the 
29th,  and  the  next  morning  a  vote  was  taken. 
The  minority  report,  in  favor  of  popular  sover¬ 
eignty,  was  adopted  by  a  decided  majority, 
when  Walker,  of  Alabama,  afterwards 
the  Confederate  Secretary  of  War,  an¬ 
nounced  that  the  delegates  from  his 
state  would  secede  from  the  conven¬ 
tion.  The  movement  was  preconcerted. 
This  delegation  was  followed  by  those 
of  other  slave -labor  states,  and  the 
seceders  assembled  in  St.  Andrew’s 
Hall,  to  prepare  for  an  independent 
political  organization.  The  disruption 
of  the  Democratic  party,  as  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  convention,  was  now 
complete.  When  D.  C.  Glenn,  of  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  announced  the  secession  of 
the  delegation  from  his  state,  he  said  : 
“  I  tell  Southern  members,  and  for 
them  I  tell  the  North,  that  in  less 
than  sixty  days  you  will  find  a  united 
South  standing  side  by  side  with  us.” 
There  was  great  rejoicing  in  Charleston 
that  night  because  of  this  secession,  for  the  pol¬ 
iticians  were  aware  that  the  scheme  for  disunion 
was  ripe  for  execution.  The  seceders  organized 
a  “Constitutional  Convention,”  with  James  A. 
Bayard,  of  Delaware,  as  chairman.  They  called 
the  body  they  had  left  the“  Rump  Convention.” 
On  May  3d  they  adjourned,  to  meet  in  Richmond, 
Va.,  in  June.  (See  Seceders ’  Convention.)  The 
regular  convention  also  adjourned,  to  meet  in 
Baltimore  June  18.  (See  Baltimore  Convention.) 

Democratic  Revolution  in  England.  Upon 
the  changes  in  the  policy  of  Great  Britain  the 
English-American  colonies  were  always  affect¬ 
ed  ;  and  of  each  phase  of  the  imperial  govern¬ 
ment,  admirers  and  supporters  would  always 
be  found  in  the  colonies.  The  revolt  against 
Charles  I.  (1641)  was  an  active  protest  of  grow¬ 
ing  democracy  against  the  absurd  doctrine  of 
the  divine  right  of  kings  and  the  almost  illimit- 
able  royal  prerogative.  The  revolution,  which 
was  for  a  while  successful,  and  swept  monarchy* 
from  the  land,  was  the  effort  of  the  people  to 
lead  in  the  progress  of  humanity,  and  to  con¬ 
tend  for  that  equality  which  the  law  of  nature 


DEMOCRATIC  SOCIETIES 


382 


DE  MONTS 


gave  them.  They  failed  to  secure  permanent 
success  because  they  attempted  too  much  at 
once.  Their  energy  in  detaching  the  decaying 
institutions  of  the  past  from  the  living  issues 
of  the  hour  was  too  heroic,  and  a  little  more 
than  eleven  years  after  they  decapitated  their 
monarch  the  old  order  of  things  was  restored  in 
the  person  of  his  son.  In  these  changes  society 
in  America  felt  the  shocks,  but  with  far  less  in¬ 
tensity  than  they  were  felt  in  England. 

Democratic  Societies.  In  imitation  of  the 
Jacobin  clubs  in  Paris,  member's  of  the  Re¬ 
publican  party,  at  about  the  time  when  Genet 
arrived  from  France,  formed  secret  associations, 
which  they  called  “  Democratic  societies.”  Their 
ideas  and  feelings  were  almost  wholly  French, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  their  membership  con¬ 
sisted  of  French  people.  They  were  disloyal  to 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  sought 
to  control  the  politics  of  the  Union.  They  seem 
to  have  been  inspired  with  the  fanaticism  which 
at  that  time  controlled  France.  They  vigorous¬ 
ly  denounced  and  opposed  Washington’s  proc¬ 
lamation  of  neutrality.  The  societies  existed  in 
various  states,  and  lirst  introduced  the  word 
“Democrat”  into  American  politics.  Many  of 
the  Republican  party  would  not  adopt  the  word, 
preferring  the  old  name,  until  the  combined  op¬ 
position  became  known  as  the  Democratic-Re¬ 
publican  party.  The  Democratic  societies  flour¬ 
ished  for  a  while  with  great  vigor.  Their  mem¬ 
bers  were  pledged  to  secrecy.  Each  society  had 
a  distinct  seal  of  its  own,  which  was  attached 
to  the  certificate  of  every  member,  in  which  he 
was  commended  to  the  good  offices  of  every  sim¬ 
ilar  society  in  the  Union.  The  informed  and 
thoughtful  citizens  saw  scarcely  any  resem¬ 
blance  between  French  and  American  democra¬ 
cy.  The  former  assumed  the  aspect  of  violence 
in  every  form,  while  the  latter  was  calm,  just, 
and  peaceful.  A  pamphlet  was  published  in 
179G  in  which  the  difference  is  delineated  by 


in  the  political  societies  which  played  a  con¬ 
spicuous  part  in  national  politics  during  the 
administration  of  President  Washington  ran  as 
follows:  “To  all  other  societies  established  on 
principles  of  Liberty,  Equality,  Union,  Pa¬ 
triotic  Virtue,  and  Perseverance  :  We,  the 
members  of  the  Republican  Society  of  Balti¬ 
more,  certify  and  declare  to  all  Republican  or 
Democratic  societies,  and  to  all  Republicans  in¬ 
dividually,  that  citizen  - hath  been  admit¬ 

ted,  and  now  is  a  member  of  our  society,  and 
that,  from  his  known  zeal  to  promote  Republi¬ 
can  principles  and  the  rights  of  humanity,  we 
have  granted  him  this  our  certificate  (which  lie 

hassignedinthe  mar¬ 
gin),  and  do  recom¬ 
mend  him  to  all  Re¬ 
publicans,  that  they 
may  receive  him  wit  h 
fraternity,  which  we 
offer  to  all  those  who 
may  come  to  us  with 
similarcredentials.  In 
witness  w hereof,  etc. 
Alexander  McKinn, 
President;  George 
Sears, Secretary.”  The 
seal  of  the  Baltimore 
seat.  Society,  which  issued 

the  above  certificate, 
is  composed  of  a  figure  of  Liberty,  with  pileus, 
Phrygian  cap,  and  fasces,  with  the  name  of  the 
society. 

De  Monts,  Sieur  (Pierre  de  Gast),  a  wealthy 
Huguenot  (see  Huguenots),  who  was  commis¬ 
sioned  viceroy  of  New  France  (see  Verrazani), 
with  full  powers  to  settle  and  rule  in  a  region 
extending  over  six  degrees  of  latitude,  from 
Cape  May  to  Quebec.  The  domain  was  named 
Cadffi  in  the  charter.  (See  Acadia.)  Vested  with 
the  monopoly  of  the  fur-trade  in  the  region  of 
the  River  and  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  they  at- 


THE  CONTRAST. 


an  engraving  called  The  Contrast.  It  was  soon 
•after  that  these  societies  began  to  dwindle  in 
numbers  and  soou  disappeared. 

Democratic  Societies,  Certificate  of  Mem¬ 
bership  in.  The  certificate  of  membership 


tempted  to  make  a  settlement  on  the  former. 
Making  arrangements  with  Champlain  as  chief 
navigator,  De  Monts  sailed  from  France  in 
March,  1604,  with  four  ships,  well  manned,  ac¬ 
companied  by  his  bosom  friend,  the  Baron  de  Pou- 


DE  MONTS 


383 


DENNIE 


trinconrt,  and  Pont-Grevd  as  bis  lieutenants; 
and  finding  the  St.  Lawrence  ice-bound,  on  his 
arrival  early  in  April,  be  determined  to  make  a 
settlement  farther  to  the  southward.  The  ships 
also  bore  a  goodly  company  of  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  emigrants,  with  soldiers,  arti¬ 
sans  and  convicts.  There  were  several  Jesuits 
in  the  company.  Passing  around  Cape  Breton 
and  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  into  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  they  anchored  in  a  fine  harbor  on  the 
northern  shore  of  that  peninsula  early  in  May. 
Poutrincourt  was  charmed  with  the  country, 
and  was  allowed  to  remain  with  a  part  of  the 
company,  while  De  Monts,  with  the  remainder, 


seventy  in  number,  went  to  Passamaquoddy  Bay, 
and,  on  an  island  near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix, 
built  a  fort,  and  there  spent  a  terribly  severe  win¬ 
ter,  that  killed  half  of  them.  In  the  spring  they 
returned  to  Pontrincourt’s  settlement,  which  he 
had  named  Port  Royal  —  now  Annapolis,  N.  S. 
Early  the  next  autumn  De  Monts  and  Poutrin¬ 
court  returned  to  France,  leaving  Champlain 
and  Pont-Grev6  to  make  further  explorations. 
(See  Champlain.)  There  was  a  struggle  for  rule 
and  existence  at  Port  Royal  for  a  few  years. 
Poutrincourt  returned  to  France  for  recruits  for 
his  colony.  Jesuit  priests  who  accompanied  him 
on  his  return  to  Acadid  (Nova  Scotia)  claimed 


the  right  to  supreme  rule  by  virtue  of  their  Indy 
office.  Poutrincourt  resisted  their  claim  stoutly, 
saying,  “  It  is  my  part  to  rule  you  on  earth  ;  it 
is  your  part  to  guide  me  to  heaven.”  When  he 
finally  left  Port  Royal  (1612)  in  charge  of  his 
sou,  the  Jesuit  priests  made  the  same  claim  on 
the  fiery  young  Poutrincourt,  who  threatened 
them  with  corporal  punishment,  when  they  with- 
1  drew  to  Mount  Desert  Island  (now  a  summer 
resort)  and  set  up  a  cross  in  token  of  sover¬ 
eignty.  They  were  there  in  1613,  when  Samuel 
Argali,  a  freebooter  of  the  seas,  went,  under  the 
sanction  of  the  governor  of  Virginia,  to  drive  the 
French  from  Acadid  as  intruders  on  the  soil  of  a 
powerful  English  company.  The  Jesuits 
at  Mount  Desert,  it  is  said,  thirsting  for 
vengeance,  piloted  Argali  to  Port  Royal. 
He  plundered  aud  burned  the  town, 
drove  the  inhabitants  to  the  woods,  and 
broke  up  the  settlement.  (See  Acadia.) 
Unable  to  contend  with  the  English 
company,  De  Monts  abandoned  Acadid 
and  proposed  to  plant  a  colony  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  under  the  direction 
of  Champlain  and  Pont-Grevd.  But  his 
monopoly  was  partially  revoked  in  1608. 
Under  the  auspices  of  a  company  of  mer¬ 
chants  at  Dieppe  aud  St.  Malo,  settle¬ 
ments  were  begun  at  Quebec  aud  Mon¬ 
treal.  (See  Champlain.)  Soou  after¬ 
wards  the  fortune  of  De  Monts  was  so 
much  reduced  that  he  could  not  pursue 
his  scheme  of  colonization,  and  it  was 
abandoned. 

Denmark,  and  American  Cruisers. 

Near  the  close  of  September,  1779,  an 
American  frigate  entered  the  port  of 
Bergen,  with  two  rich  prizes.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  envoy  at  Copenhagen  complained, 
and  the  Danish  minister  published  an 
ordinance  forbidding  the  sale  of  the 
prizes  until  they  should  have  been  con¬ 
demned  in  an  American  court  of  ad¬ 
miralty.  In  the  same  ordinance  he  de¬ 
clared  that  as  the  King  of  Denmark  had 
recognized  neither  the  independence 
nor  the  flag  of  the  United  States,  its  ves¬ 
sels  could  not  be  permitted  to  bring 
their  prizes  into  Danish  harbors.  The 
two  prizes  were  set  free. 

Dennie,  Joseph,  author  and  journal¬ 
ist,  was  born  in  Boston,  Aug.  30,  1768; 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  7,  1812.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1790,  became  a  law¬ 
yer,  but  abandoned  his  profession  for  the  pur¬ 
suit  of  literature.  He  contributed  articles  to 
various  newspapers,  while  yet  practising  law, 
over  the  signature  of  “  Farrago.”  In  1795  he 
became  connected  with  a  Boston  weekly  news¬ 
paper  called  The  Tablet.  It  survived  only  three 
months,  when  Dennie  became  the  editor  of 
the  Farmer’s  Weekly  Museum,  at  Walpole,  N.  H., 
which  acquired  an  extensive  circulation.  To 
it  he  contributed  a  series  of  attractive  essays 
under  the  title  of  The  Lay  Preacher.  These 
gave  their  author  a  high  reputation  and  were 
extensively  copied  into  the  newspapers  of  the 


SIKCB  DE  MONTS. 


DENNISON 


384  DEPRECIATION  OF  PAPER-MONEY 


country.  He  went  to  Philadelphia,  in  1799, 
where  he  was  confidential  secretary  to  Timothy 
Pickering,  then  Secretary  of  State.  In  that 
position  he  remained  for  a  few  months,  and 
after  editing  for  a  short  time  the  United  States 
Gazette ,  he  commenced,  in  conjunction  with  As- 
bury  Dickens,  the  Portfolio ,  at  first  a  weekly, 
but  afterwards  a  monthly  periodical,  which 
acquired  a  high  reputation.  In  that  publica¬ 
tion  he  adopted  the  literary  name  of  “Oliver 
Oldschool.”  The  Portfolio  became  the  recog¬ 
nized  leader  in  periodical  literature,  and  was 
enriched  by  the  contributions  of  some  of  the 
foremost  writers  in  the  country.  Mr.  Dennie 
continued  his  connection  with  it  until  his  death. 

Dennison,  William,  known  as  the  “  w  ar- 
governor”  of  Ohio,  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  Nov. 
23, 1815.  He  was  educated  at  the  Miami  Uni¬ 
versity,  and  graduated  in  1835.  Admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1840,  he  became  an  eminent  practi- 


1VILLIA5I  DENNISON. 


tioner.  In  1848-50  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Ohio  Legislature ;  and  he  took  an  active  part  in 
financial  and  railroad  matters.  Mr.  Dennison 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Republican  party 
in  1856.  In  1860  he  was  chosen  governor  of 
Ohio,  which  office  he  held  two  years,  during 
which  time  he  performed  most  important  official 
service  in  putting  troops  into  the  field  for  the 
defence  of  the  life  of  the  Republic.  From  Octo¬ 
ber,  1864,  to  July,  1866,  Mr.  Dennisou  was  Post¬ 
master-general,  when  he  withdrew'  from  the  cab¬ 
inet  of  President  Johnson.  Died  June  15,  1882. 

De  Nonville,  The  Expedition  of.  In  1685 
the  Marquis  de  Nonville,  a  colonel  in  the  French 
army,  brave  and  sagacious,  was  appointed  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Canada,  with  instructions  to  “humble 
the  pride  of  the  Iroquois,”  who  were  the  friends 
of  the  English  and  had  rejected  overtures  from 
the  French.  He  took  post  at  Fort  Frontenac 
(see  La  Salle),  on  the  site  of  Kingston,  Canada, 
and  there  prepared  for  an  expedition  against  a 
portion  of  the  Five  Nations.  He  declared  to  his 
sovereign  that  the  Indians  sustained  themselves 
only  by  the  aid  of  the  English,  who  were  “  the 
chief  promoters  of  the  insolence  and  arrogance 
of  the  Iroquois.”  He  tried  to  induce  them  to 
meet  him  in  council,  to  seduce  them  from  the  in¬ 
ti  ueuce  of  the  English,  and  a  few  went  to  Frou- 


tenac;  but  when  Dongan  heard  of  the  designs 
of  the  French  he  invited  representatives  of  the 
Five  Nations  to  a  council  iu  New  York  city. 
They  came,  and  Dongan  told  them  the  King  of 
England  would  be  their  “  loving  father,”  and 
conjured  them  not  to  listen  to  the  persuasions 
of  the  French.  Finally,  in  May,  1687,  De  Nou- 
ville  wras  joined  by  eight  hundred  French  regu¬ 
lars  from  France,  and  soon  afterwards  assem¬ 
bling  more  than  two  thousand  French  regulars, 
Canadians,  and  Indians,  he  proceeded,  at  their 
head,  to  attack  the  Senecas.  (See  Iroquois  Con¬ 
federacy.)  He  coasted  along  the  southern  shores 
of  Lake  Ontario  to  Irondequoit  Bay,  in  Monroe 
County,  where  he  landed  and  was  joined  by 
some  French  and  Indians  coming  from  the  West. 
Thence  he  penetrated  to  Ontario  County,  where 
he  was  attacked  by  a  party  of  Seuecas  in  am¬ 
bush,  but  he  repulsed  his  assailants.  The  next 
day  two  old  Seneca  prisoners,  after  having  been 
confessed  by  the  Jesuit  priests,  were  cooked  and 
eaten  by  the  savages  and  the  French.  With¬ 
drawing  to  a  point  in  Monroe  County,  De  Non¬ 
ville  proceeded  to  take  possession  of  the  whole 
Seneca  country  (July,  1687)  in  the  name  of 
King  Louis,  with  pompous  ceremonies.  After- 
destroying  all  the  stored  corn  (more  than  one 
million  bushels),  the  growing  crops,  cabins,  and 
a  vast  number  of  swine  belonging  to  the  natives 
whose  country  he  had  invaded,  De  Nonville  re¬ 
turned  to  Irondequoit  Bay  and  thence  to  Mon¬ 
treal.  An  act  of  gross  treachery  committed  by 
him  before  he  undertook  the  expedition,  in  seiz¬ 
ing  deputies  from  those  nations  and  sending 
them  to  France,  gave  the  death-blow  to  Jesuit 
missions  among  the  Five  Nations.  Lamberville, 
a  faithful  missionary,  barely  escaped  with  his 
life,  through  the  generosity  of  the  Onondagas. 

De  Peyster,  Abraham,  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  merchants  and  citizens  of  New  York  in 
the  days  of  early  English  rule  there.  He  was 
born  in  New  Amsterdam  (afterwards  New  York), 
July  8, 1658 ;  died  there,  Aug.  10, 1728.  Between 
1691  and  1695  he  was  mayor  of  the  city  of  New 
York;  was  first  assistant  justice  and  then  chief- 
justice  of  New  York,  and  was  one  of  the  king’s 
council  under  Governor  Hyde  (afterwards  Lord 
Cornbury),  and  as  its  president  was  acting-gov¬ 
ernor  for  a  time  iu  1701.  Mr.  De  Peyster  was 
colonel  of  the  forces  in  New  York  and  treasurer 
of  that  province  and  New  Jersey.  He  was  a 
personal  friend  and  correspondent  of  William 
Penn.  Having  amassed  considerable  wealth,  he 
built  a  fine  mansion,  which  stood,  until  1856,  in 
Pearl  Street.  It  was  used  by  Washington  as  his 
headquarters  for  a  while  in  1776.  His  father, 
John,  was  born  in  Haerlem,  was  of  Huguenot 
descent,  and  was  one  of  the  earlier  settlers  of 
New  Amsterdam. 

Depreciation  of  the  Continental  Paper- 
money.  The  issue  of  bills  of  credit  had  been 
of  vast  benefit  to  the  colonies  at  the  beginning 
of  the  armed  contest  with  Great  Britain,  and 
their  value  was  kept  up  remarkably  through  the 
patriotism  of  the  people.  At  the  end  of  eighteen 
months  from  the  first  issue,  $20,000,000  had  been 
emitted,  besides  large  issues  by  the  several  col- 


DERMER 


385 


DE  SOTO 


onies,  and  no  depreciation  had  been  observed. 
It  was  soon  obvious,  however,  that  depreciation 
could  only  be  prevented  by  stopping  the  issue, 
and  Congress,  as  a  substitute,  proposed  to  raise  a 
loan  and  to  establish  a  lottery  for  the  same  pur¬ 
pose.  But  at  the  beginning  of  1777,  owing  to 
reverses  to  the  American  arms,  depreciation  be¬ 
gan.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1777,  the  value  of 
$100  in  specie  was  $105  in  Continental  money. 
The  scale  of  depreciation  was  as  follows  : 


1777.  1778.  1779.  1780.  1781. 

January . $105  $325  $742  $2934  $7400 

February .  107  350  868  3322  7500 

March . .  109  370  1000  3736  - 

April .  112  400  1104  4000  - 

May .  115  400  1215  4600  - 

June .  120  400  1342  6400  - 

July .  125  425  1477  8900  - 

August .  150  450  1630  7000  - 

September .  175  475  1800  7100  - 

October .  275  500  2030  7200  - 

November .  300  545  2303  7300  - 

December .  310  634  2593  7400  - 


The  credit  of  Congress  was  so  low  that  loans 
came  in  slowly.  The  rate  of  interest  was  raised 
from  four  to  six  per  cent.,  with  very  little  effect, 
and  Congress  was  compelled  to  resume  the  issue 
of  bills  of  credit.  The  result  was  a  very  rapid 
depreciation  in  their  nominal  value.  (See  Con¬ 
tinental  Paper-money.') 

Dermer,  Thomas,  an  active  friend  of  coloni¬ 
zation  schemes,  aud  a  man  of  prudence  and  in¬ 
dustry,  was  employed  by  the  Plymouth  Com¬ 
pany  after  his  return  from  Newfoundland,  in 
1618,  to  bring  about,  if  possible,  reconciliation 
with  the  barbarians  of  New  England,  and  to 
make  further  explorations.  He  sailed  from 
Plymouth  with  two  vessels  (one  a  small  open 
piunace)  in  February,  1619,  touched  at  Mohe- 
gan  Island,  aud  then  visited  the  coast.  Dermer 
was  accompanied  from  England  by  Squauto 
(see  New  England) ;  also  by  Samoset,  a  native 
of  Sagadahock,  whom  John  Masou,  Governor  of 
Newfoundland,  had  lately  sent,  home,  he  having 
been  one  of  Hunt’s  captives.  Dermer  succeed¬ 
ed,  in  a  degree,  and  proceeded  to  explore  the 
coast  to  Virginia.  He  sent  home  his  ship  from 
Mohegan  Island,  laden  with  fish  and  furs,  and, 
leaving  Squauto  at  Saco,  sailed  southward. 
Near  Cape  Cod  he  was  captured  by  Indians, 
but  ransomed  himself  by  a  gift  of  some  hatch¬ 
ets.  Passing  Martin’s  (Martha’s)  Vineyard,  he 
navigated  Long  Island  Sound  by  the  help  of  an 
Indian  pilot,  the  first  Englishman  who  had  sailed 
upon  these  waters,  and  passed  out  to  sea  at 
Sandy  Hook.  Going  through  Hell  Gate  he  lost 
an  anchor  in  “  the  dangerous  cataract,”  and  the 
current  was  so  swift  that  he  did  not  stop  at 
Manhattan ;  but  on  his  return  from  Virginia 
(1620)  he  touched  there  and  held  a  conference 
with  some  Dutch  traders  “  on  Hudson’s  River.” 
Dermer  took  occasion  to  warn  the  Dutch  that 
they  were  on  English  territory,  when  they  re¬ 
plied  that  they  found  no  Englishmen  there,  un¬ 
derstood  no  such  thing,  and  “  hoped  they  had 
not  offended.”  Dermer  sent  a  journal  of  his 
proceedings  to  Gorges,  and  thus,  no  doubt,  hast¬ 
ened  the  procurement  of  t  he  new  charter  for  the 
Plymouth  Company.  (See  Plymouth  Company.) 

DesBarres,  Joseph  Frederick  Wallet,  born 
I.— 25 


in  1722;  died  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  Oct.  24,  1824, 
aged  one  hundred  aud  two  years.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  for  the  army  at  the  Royal  Military  Col¬ 
lege  at  Woolwich,  and,  as  lieutenant,  came  to 
America  in  1756,  aud  raising  three  hundred  re¬ 
cruits  in  Pennsylvania  aud  Maryland,  formed 
them  into  a  corps  of  field-artillery.  He  distin¬ 
guished  himself  as  an  engineer  iu  the  siege  of 
Louisburg  (which  see),  and  was  aide-de-camp 
to  Wolfe  when  he  fell  at  Quebec,  that  general 
dying  in  Des  Barres’s  arms.  He  was  active  iu 
the  retaking  of  Newfoundland  in  1762,  and  for 
ten  years  afterwards  he  was  employed  in  a  coast 
survey  of  Nova  Scotia.  He  prepared  charts  of 
the  North  American  coasts  in  1775  for  Earl  Howe, 
and  in  1777  he  published  The  Atlantic  Neptune, 
in  two  large  folios.  He  was  made  governor  of 
Cape  Breton,  with  the  military  command  of 
Prince  Edward’s  Island,  iu  1784,  and  in  1804, 
being  then  about  eighty-two  years  of  age,  he 
was  made  lieutenant  -  governor  of  Prince  Ed¬ 
ward’s  Island. 

Desolation  of  the  Niagara  Frontier  (1813). 
Early  in  October,  1813,  General  McClure,  of  the 
New  York  militia,  was  left  in  command  of  Fort 
George,  on  the  Niagara  River.  In  November 
the  startling  intelligence  reached  him  from  the 
westward  that  Lieutenant-general  Drummond 
was  approaching  with  a  heavy  force  of  white 
men  aud  Indians.  McClure’s  garrison  was  then 
reduced  to  sixty  effective  men,  and  he  deter¬ 
mined  to  abandon  the  post  and  cross  over  to 
Fort  Niagara.  The  weather  became  extremely 
cold,  and  on  Dec.  10  he  attempted  to  blow  up 
the  fort  while  his  troops  were  crossing  the 
river.  He  also  wantonly  set  on  fire  the  village 
of  Newark,  near,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty 
houses  were  speedily  laid  in  ashes.  McClure 
had  barely  escaped  with  his  troops,  leaving  Fort 
George  unharmed  and  tents  that  would  shelter 
fifteen  hundred  men,  when  Colonel  Manning  ar¬ 
rived  with  his  regulars  aud  Indians.  Retalia¬ 
tion  immediately  began.  The  British  seized 
Fort  Niagara,  and  massacred  a  part  of  the  gar¬ 
rison;  and  every  village  and  hamlet  along  the 
New  York  side  of  the  river  between  the  lake 
and  Buffalo  was  plundered  and  burned.  Buf¬ 
falo,  also,  was  given  to  the  flames  ;  only  four 
buildings  were  left.  Hundreds  of  innocent  in¬ 
habitants  at  Newark  and  on  the  American  side 
suffered  intensely  in  consequence  of  the  cruel 
acts  of  McClure. 

De  Soto,  Fernando,  was  born  at  Xeres,  Es- 
tremadura,  Spain,  about  the  year  1500.  His 
family  was  noble  but  impoverished.  Davila, 
Governor  of  Darien  (see  Nunez),  was  his  kind 
patron,  through  whose  generosity  he  received  a 
good  education,  aud  who  took  him  to  Central 
America,  where  he  engaged  in  exploring  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  hundreds  of  miles  in 
search  of  a  supposed  strait  connecting  the  two 
oceans.  When  Pizarro  went  to  Peru,  De  Soto 
accompanied  him,  and  was  his  chief  lieutenant 
in  achieving  the  conquest  of  that  country. 
Brave  and  judicious,  De  Soto  was  the  chief 
hero  in  the  battle  that  resulted  in  the  capture 
of  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  the  Incas  (Peruvian 


DE  SOTO 


386 


DE  SOTO 


kings),  and  the  destruction  of  their  empire. 
(See  Incas.)  Soon  after  that  event  he  returned 
to  Spain  with  large  wealth,  and  was  received 
by  the  king  (Charles  V.)  with  great  considera¬ 
tion.  He  married  Isabella  Bobadilla,  a  scion  of 
one  of  the  most  renowned  of  the  Castilian  fam¬ 
ilies,  and  his  influence  at  court  was  thereby 
strengthened.  Longing  to  rival  Cortez  and 
Pizarro  in  the  brilliancy  of  his  deeds,  and  be¬ 
lieving  Florida  to  be  richer  in  the  precious  met¬ 
als  than  Mexico  or  Peru,  De  Soto  offered  to  con- 


FERNANDO  BE  SOTO. 


quer  it  at  his  own  expense.  Permission  was 
readily  given  him  by  his  king  (Charles  V.),  who 
commissioned  him  governor  of  Cuba,  from  which 
island  he  would  set  out  on  his  conquering  expe¬ 
dition.  Elegant  in  deportment,  winning  in  all 
his  ways,  an  expert  horseman,  rich  and  influen¬ 
tial,  and  then  thirty-seven  years  of  age,  hun¬ 
dreds  of  young  men,  the  flower  of  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  nobility,  flocked  to  his  stand¬ 
ard,  the  wealthier  ones  dressed  in  suits  of  gor- 
geous  armor  and  followed  by  trains  of  servants. 
With  these  and  his  beautiful  young  wife  and 
other  noble  ladies  De  Soto  sailed  from  Spain 
early  in  April,  1538,  with  seven  large  and  three 
small  vessels,  the  San  Christoval,  of  eight  hun¬ 
dred  tons,  being  his  flag-ship.  Amply  supplied 
and  full  of  joy  in  the  anticipation  of  entering 
an  earthly  paradise,  gayety  and  feasting,  music 
aud  dancing,  prevailed  on  board  the  flag-ship 
during  that  sunny  voyage,  in  which  richly 
dressed  ladies,  with  handsome  pages  to  do  their 
bidding,  were  conspicuous,  especially  on  warm 
moonlit  nights  within  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  At 
near  the  close  of  May  the  fleet  entered  Cuban 
waters.  De  Soto  occupied  a  whole  year  prepar¬ 
ing  for  the  expedition,  and  at  the  middle  of 
May,  1539,  he  sailed  from  Cuba  with  nine  ves¬ 
sels,  bearing  a  thousand  followers,  and  cattle, 
horses,  mules,  and  swine,  the  first  of  the  latter 
seen  on  the  American  continent.  He  left  pub¬ 
lic  affairs  in  Cuba  in  the  hands  of  his  wife  and 
the  lieutenant-governor.  The  voyage  to  Flor¬ 
ida  was  pleasant,  and  the  armament  landed  on 
the  shores  of  Tampa  Bay  on  the  25th  of  May, 
near  where  Narvaez  had  first  anchored.  (See 


Narvaez.)  Instead  of  treating  the  natives  kind¬ 
ly  and  winning  their  friendship,  De  Soto  un¬ 
wisely  sent  armed  men  to  capture  some  of 
them,  in  order  to  learn  something  about  the 
country  he  was  to  conquer.  The  savages,  cruel¬ 
ly  treated  by  Narvaez,  and  fearing  the  same 
usage  by  De  Soto,  were  cautious.  They  were 
also  wily,  expert  with  the  bow,  revengeful,  and 
fiercely  hostile.  With  cavaliers  clad  in  steel 
and  riding  oue  hundred  and  thirteen  horses, 
with  many  footmen  armed  with  arquebuses, 
cross -bows,  swords,  shields,  and  lances,  and  a 
single  cannon,  and  supplied  with  savage  blood¬ 
hounds  from  Cuba,  aud  handcuffs,  iron  neck- 
collars,  aud  chains  for  the  captives,  De  Soto  be¬ 
gan  his  march  in  June,  1539.  He  was  accom¬ 
panied  by  mechanics,  priests,  inferior  clergy, 
and  monks  in  sacerdotal  robes  bearing  images 
of  the  Virgin,  holy  relics,  and  sacramental  bread 
and  wine,  wherewith  to  make  Christians  of  the 
captured  pagans.  At  the  very  outset  the  expe¬ 
dition  met  with  determined  opposition  from  the 
dusky  inhabitants,  but  De  Soto  pressed  forward 
towards  the  interior  of  the  fancied  land  of  gold. 
He  wintered  east  of  the  Flint  River,  near  Talla¬ 
hassee,  on  the  borders  of  Georgia.  The  next  year 
he  went  northward  to  the  head- waters  of  the 
Savannah  River,  crossed  the  beautiful  country 
of  the  Cherokees  (see  Chei'okees),  and  penetrated 
the  fertile  Coosa  region,  where  the  Spaniards 
practised  the  most  cruel  treachery  towards  the 
friendly  natives.  De  Soto  was  rewarded  in 
kind  not  long  afterwards,  and  in  a  terrible  bat¬ 
tle  with  the  Mobilians  (see  Maubila),  on  the  site 
of  Mobile,  the  expedition  was  nearly  ruined. 
Turning  northward  with  the  remnant  of  his 
forces,  he  fought  his  way  through  the  Chicka¬ 
saw  country  (  see  Chickasaivs  ),  and  reached  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Yazoo  River  late  in  Decem¬ 
ber,  where  he  wintered,  in  great  distress.  Mov¬ 
ing  westward  in  the  spring,  he  discovered  the 
Mississippi  River,  in  all  its  grandeur,  full  to  the 
brim,  in  May,  1541.  (  See  Mississippi.)  It  was 

near  the  Lower  Chickasaw  Bluff,  in  Tunica 
Co.,  Miss.  Crossing  the  mighty  stream,  De  Soto 
went  westward  in  his  yet  fruitless  search  for 
gold,  and  spent  a  year  in  the  country  towards 
the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Re¬ 
turning  to  the  Mississippi  in  May,  1542,  he  died 
of  a  fever  on  its  banks  in  May  or  June,  at  the 
age  of  forty-two,  and  was  buried  in  its  turbid 
waters,  encased  in  a  trough  made  of  the  trunk 
of  a  live-oak.  It  was  sunk  in  the  waters  at 
midnight,  to  prevent  its  being  desecrated  by 
the  Indians.  Before  his  death  he  had  conferred 
the  leadership  of  the  expedition  upon  Moscoso, 
his  lieutenant,  who,  with  the  wretched  remnant 
of  the  expedition,  wandered  another  year  in  the 
region  west  of  the  Mississippi ;  and  returning 
to  that  river  in  May,  1543,  they  built  rude  ves¬ 
sels,  and,  with  a  number  of  beautiful  Alabama 
girls  whom  they  had  carried  away  captive  after 
the  battle  at  Maubila  (  which  see  ),  they  made 
their  way  to  Mexico,  where  the  elegant  Castil¬ 
ian  ladies  at  the  court  of  the  viceroy  were  en¬ 
raptured  by  the  beauty  of  the  dusky  Mobilian 
girls.  The  news  of  De  Soto’s  death  cast  a  gloom 
over  Havana,  and  poor  Dona  Isabella,  wife  of 


387 


DE  SOTO'S  PERFIDY 

the  great  leader,  who  had  so  long  waited  for 
his  return,  died  of  a  broken  heart. 

De  Soto’s  Perfidy  towards  an  Indian 
Queen.  The  Spaniards  in  Florida  wintered  at 
Tallahassee.  In  March,  1540,  De  Soto  broke  up 
his  encampment  and  inarched  northward,  hav¬ 
ing  been  told  that  gold  would  be  found  in  that 
direction.  He  reached  the  Savannah  River,  at 
Silver  Bluff.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  stream, 
in  (present)  Barnwell  County,  lived  an  Indian 
queen,  young,  beautiful,  and  a  maiden,  who 
ruled  over  a  large  extent  of  country.  In  a 
richly  wrought  canoe  filled  with  shawls  and 
skins  and  other  things  for  presents,  the  dusky 
cacica  glided  across  the  river,  and  with  kind 
words  welcomed  the  Spaniards  and  offered  them 
her  services.  Presents  were  exchanged.  A  mag¬ 
nificent  string  of  pearls  was  upon  her  neck. 
This  she  drew  over  her  head  and  hung  it  around 
the  neck  of  De  Soto  as  a  token  of  her  regard. 
Then  she  invited  him  and  his  followers  to  cross 
over  to  her  village.  Iu  canoes  and  on  log-rafts 
they  passed  the  stream,  and,  encamping  in  the 
shadows  of  mulberry-trees,  they  soon  received  a 
bountiful  supply  of  venison  and  wild  turkeys. 
There  they  enjoyed  the  young  queen’s  hospital¬ 
ity  until  May,  and  when  they  departed  De  Soto 
requited  the  kindness  of  the  royal  maiden  with 
foul  treachery.  He  carried  her  away  a  pris¬ 
oner,  and  kept  her  near  his  person  as  a  hostage 
for  the  good  behavior  of  her  people  towards  the 
Spaniards.  She  finally  escaped,  and  returned 
home  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  perfidious  white 
people.  (See  Maiden  Indian  Queen.) 

Destruction  of  the  Pequod  Nation.  Sas- 
sacus  and  his  warriors  crossed  the  Pequod  (now 
Thames)  River  and  fled  westward,  pursued  by 
the  English.  They  took  refuge  iu  Sasco  swamp, 
near  the  site  of  Fairfield,  Conn.,  where  they  were 
nearly  all  either  killed  or  captured.  Sassacus 
and  a  few  followers  escaped  to  the  Mohawks. 
Those  who  were  yet  free  in  the  forests  were 
hunted  like  wild  beasts,  and  the  scalps  of  Pe- 
quods  were  almost  daily  brought  into  Hartford 
or  Windsor.  Sachem’s  Head,  a  point  on  Long 
Island  Sound,  in  Guilford,  was  so  named  because 
there  two  Pequod  sachems  who  bad  been  made 
prisoners  were  executed.  Those  of  the  nation 
who  were  made  prisoners  were  divided  among 
the  Mohegans  and  Narragansets  and  incorpo¬ 
rated  with  those  people.  Literally,  “a  nation 
had  perished  in  a  day.”  The  result  was  relief 
to  the  colonies  from  Indian  wars  for  nearly  forty 
years.  The  Puritans,  who  believed  themselves 
to  be  uuder  the  peculiar  care  of  Divine  Provi¬ 
dence,  and  the  Indians  to  be  the  children  of  the 
devil,  exulted  iu  this  signal  instance  of  the  fa¬ 
vor  of  Heaven.  “  The  Lord  was  pleased,”  wrote 
Captain  Mason,  “  to  smite  onr  enemies  in  the 
hinder  parts  and  give  us  their  laud  for  an  in¬ 
heritance.”  (See  Pequod  War.) 

Detroit,  Siege  ok  (1763-64).  The  tragedy  of 
Pontiac’s  war  was  to  open  at  Detroit  Under 
pretext  of  holding  a  friendly  council  with  Ma¬ 
jor  Gladwin,  comrnandqr  of  the  fort,  the  wily 
chief  entered  it  in  May  (1763)  with  about  three 
hundred  warriors,  each  carrying  a  knife,  toma- 


DETROIT,  SURRENDER  OF 

hawk,  and  short  gun  under  his  blanket.  When 
Pontiac  should  rise  and  present  the  green  side 
of  a  belt,  the  massacre  of  the  garrison  was  to 
begin.  Gladwin  was  warned  of  the  plot  the 
day  before  by  a  friendly  Indian,  and  the  calam¬ 
ity  was  averted  by  the  appointment  of  another 
day  for  the  council.  When  the  Indians  retired, 
the  gates  of  the  fort  were  closed  upon  them, 
and,  knowing  the  reason,  Pontiac  began  a  siege 
that  lasted  full  a  year.  General  Amherst  hast¬ 
ily  collected  a  small  body  in  the  East  for  the 
relief  of  Detroit  and  reinforcement  of  Fort  Ni¬ 
agara,  and  sent  them  under  the  command  of 
Captain  Dalzell,  one  of  his  aides.  Dalzell  left 
reinforcements  at  Niagara,  and  proceeded  to  De¬ 
troit  with  the  remainder  of  his  troops  and  pro¬ 
visions  in  a  vessel  that  arrived  on  the  evening 
of  July  30.  They  succeeded  in  entering  the 
fort  with  provisions.  Pontiac  had  already  sum¬ 
moned  Gladwin  to  surrender;  now  Dalzell  pro¬ 
posed  to  make  a  sortie  and  attack  the  besieging 
Indians.  Gladwin  thought  it  would  be  impru¬ 
dent,  but  Dalzell  persisted,  aud  before  daylight 
on  the  morning  of  July  31  he  sallied  out  with 
two  hundred  and  forty  chosen  men  to  attack 
the  barbarians,  who  lay  about  a  mile  up  the 
river.  Pontiac  was  on  the  alert,  aud  at  a  small 
stream  on  the  northern  verge  of  the  city  of  De¬ 
troit  the  English,  furiously  assailed  by  the  In¬ 
dians,  were  forced  to  make  a  precipitate  retreat 
in  the  darkness,  leaving  twenty  of  their  com¬ 
rades  killed  and  forty-two  wounded  on  the  bor¬ 
ders  of  the  brook,  which  has  ever  since  been 
called  “Bloody  Run.”  Dalzell  was  slain  while 
trying  to  carry  oft’  some  of  the  wounded,  and  his 
scalp  became  an  Indian’s  trophy.  Poutiac  con¬ 
tinued  the  siege  of  Detroit  until  the  arrival  of 
Colonel  Bradstreet  in  May,  1764. 

Detroit,  Surrender  of  (  1812  ).  General 
Brock,  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  with  a  few 
regulars  and  three  hundred  militia,  hastened  to 
Amherstburg  to  assist  in  turning  back  the  in¬ 
vaders  of  Canada.  He  arrived  there  on  the 
night  of  Aug.  13.  Tecumtha  and  his  Indian 
warriors  were  on  an  island  opposite  Fort  Mal¬ 
den.  On  the  following  morning  Brock  held  a 
conference  with  the  Indians  (of  whom  about 
one  thousand  were  present ),  telling  them  he 
had  come  to  assist  in  driving  the  Americans 
from  their  rightful  hunting-grounds  north  of 
the  Ohio.  The  barbarians  were  pleased,  and 
at  a  subsequent  interview  with  Tecumtha  and 
other  chiefs  they  assured  him  that  the  Indiaus 
would  give  him  all  their  strength  in  the  under¬ 
taking.  Then  Brock  marched  from  Malden  to 
Sandwich,  which  the  Americans  had  deserted, 
and  a  battery  was  planted  opposite  Detroit, 
which  commanded  the  fort  there.  The  Ameri¬ 
can  artillerists  begged  permission  to  open  fire 
upon  it,  and  Captain  Snelling  asked  the  privi¬ 
lege  of  going  over  in  the  night  to  capture  the 
British  works.  Hull  would  not  allow  any  dem¬ 
onstrations  against  the  enemy,  and  the  latter 
prepared  for  assault  without  any  molestation. 
It  is  evident  that  Hull  had  determined  to  sur¬ 
render  his  post,  under  certain  contingencies, 
and  did  not  wish  to  exasperate  the  British  and 
Indiaus.  The  truth  is,  ho  was  much  deceived 


DETROIT,  SURRENDER  OF  388  DEY  OF  ALGIERS,  INSOLENCE  OF 


by  letters  intended  to  be  intercepted,  showing 
preparations  for  large  and  immediate  reinforce¬ 
ments  to  Brock’s  army ;  and  he  had  also  been  de¬ 
ceived  into  the  belief  that  a  large  port  ion  of  the 
followers  of  the  latter,  who  were  only  militia, 
were  regulars.  The  militia  had  been  dressed 
in  scarlet  uniforms,  and  were  paraded  so  as  to 
show  treble  their  real  number.  Hull  was  hem¬ 
med  in  on  every  side  ;  his  provisions  were  scarce, 
and  he  saw  no  chance  of  receiving  any  from  Ohio. 
He  knew  that  if  the  barbarians  were  exasperat¬ 
ed  and  the  fort  should  be  taken  there  would  be 
a  general  massacre  of  the  garrison  and  the  in¬ 
habitants,  and  his  kindness  of  heart  and  grow¬ 
ing  caution,  incident  to  old  age,  made  him  really 
timid  and  fearful.  When  Brock’s  preparations 
for  attack  were  completed  (on  the  15tli),  he  sent 
a  summons  to  Hull  for  an  unconditional  surren¬ 
der  of  the  post.  In  that  demand  was  a  covert 
threat  of  letting  loose  the  bloodthirsty  barba¬ 
rians  in  case  of  resistance.  Hull’s  whole  effect¬ 
ive  force  at  that  time  did  not  exceed  one  thou¬ 
sand  men.  The  fort  was  thronged  with  trem¬ 
bling  women  and  children  and  decrepit  old  men 
of  the  village  and  surrounding  country,  who  had 
fled  to  it  for  protection  from  the  Indians.  He 
kept  the  flag  that  bore  the  summons  waiting 
full  two  hours,  for  his  innate  bravery  and  pa¬ 
triotism  bade  him  refuse  and  fight,  while  his 
fear  of  dreadful  consequences  to  his  army  and 
the  people  bade  him  surrender.  His  troops 
were  confident  in  their  ability  to  successfully 
confront  the  enemy,  and  he  finally  refused  com¬ 
pliance  with  the  demand.  Active  preparations 
were  then  made  for  defence.  The  British  open¬ 
ed  a  cannonade  and  bombardment  from  their 
battery,  which  was  k^pt  up  until  near  mid¬ 
night.  The  firing  was  returned  with  spirit; 
but  Hull  would  listen  to  no  suggestions  for  the 
erection  of  a  battery  at  Spring  Wells  to  oppose 
the  enemy  if  they  should  attempt  to  cross  the 
river.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  16th  they 
crossed  and  landed  unmolested  ;  and  as  they 
moved  towards  the  fort,  in  single  column,  Te- 
cumtha  and  his  Indians,  seven  hundred  strong, 
who  had  crossed  two  miles  below  during  the 
night,  took  position  in  the  woods  on  their  left 
as  flankers,  while  the  right  was  protected  by 
the  guns  of  the  Queen  Charlotte,  in  the  river. 
They  had  approached  to  a  point  within  five 
hundred  yards  of  the  American  line,  when  Hull 
sent  a  peremptory  order  for  the  soldiers  to  re¬ 
treat  within  the  already  overcrowded  fort. 
The  infuriated  soldiers  reluctantly  obeyed ; 
and  while  the  enemy  were  preparing  to  storm 
the  fort,  Hull,  without  consulting  any  of  his 
officers,  hoisted  a  white  flag,  and  a  capitulation 
for  a  surrender  was  soon  agreed  upon.  The 
surrender  took  place  at  noon,  Aug.  16,  1812. 
The  fort,  garrison,  army,  and  the  Territory  of 
Michigan  were  included  in  the  terms  of  surren¬ 
der.  The  spoils  of  victory  for  the  British  were 
twenty-five  hundred  stand  of  arms,  twenty-five 
iron  and  eight  brass  pieces  of  ordnance,  forty 
barrels  of  gunpowder,  a  stand  of  colors,  a  great 
quantity  of  military  stores,  and  the  armed  brig 
John  Adams.  One  of  the  brass  cannons  bore 
the  following  inscription :  “  Taken  at  Saratoga 


on  the  17th  of  October,  1777.”  General  Hull 
and  his  fellow-captives  were  sent  first  to  Fort 
George  and  then  to  Montreal,  where  they  ar¬ 
rived  Sept.  6,  when  they  were  paroled,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  their  homes.  Hull  was  tried  for  trea¬ 
son  and  cowardice,  and  sentenced  to  be  shot, 
but  was  pardoned  by  the  President.  His  char¬ 
acter  has  since  been  fully  vindicated.  (  See 
Hull’s  Trial.) 

Devens,  Charles,  Jr.,  was  born  at  Charles¬ 
town,  Mass.,  April  4, 1820,  and  graduated  at  Har¬ 
vard  University  in  1838.  He  studied  at  the 
Cambridge  Law  School,  and  practised  the  pro¬ 
fession  of  law  several  years.  In  1848  he  was  a 
State  Senator,  and  was  United  States  Marshal 
for  Massachusetts  from  1849  to  1853.  He  was 
engaged  in  his  profession  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
when  the  Civil  War  began,  and  was  one  of  the 
earliest  Union  volunteers,  becoming  major  of  a 
rifle  battalion  April  16,  1861,  and  colonel  of  a 
regiment  in  July  following.  Before  the  arrival 
of  Colouel  Baker,  he  commanded  at  Ball’s  Bluff 
(which  see),  and  again  after  that  officer’s  death. 
In  April,  1862,  he  was  made  brigadier-general ; 
served  on  the  Peninsula;  was  wounded  at  Fair 
Oaks ;  was  in  the  battles  of  South  Mountain 
and  Antietam  ;  and  commanded  a  division  in 
the  Eleventh  Corps  at  Chancellorsville.  In  the 
Richmond  campaign  of  1864  -  65  he  was  con¬ 
tinually  engaged,  and  in  December,  1864,  he 
was  in  temporary  commaud  of  the  Twenty- 
fourth  Army  Corps.  In  April,  1865,  he  was 
breveted  major  -  geueral  of  volunteers,  and  in 
1867  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Massachusetts.  In  March,  1877,  he 
was  called  to  the  cabinet  of  President  Hayes  as 
Attorney-general  of  the  United  States. 

De  Witt,  Simeon,  was  born  in  Ulster  County, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  26, 1756 ;  died  at  Albany,  Dec.  3, 1834. 
He  graduated  at  Queeu’s  (now  Rutgers)  Col¬ 
lege  in  1776 ;  joiued  the  army  under  Gates  ;  and 
was  made  assistant  geographer  to  the  army  in 
1778,  and  chief  geographer  in  1780.  He  was 
surveyor-general  of  New  York  fifty  years  (1784- 
1834).  In  1796  he  declined  the  appointment  of 
surveyor-general  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
regent,  vice  -  chancellor,  and  chancellor  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  member  of  many  learn¬ 
ed  societies. 

Dexter,  Samuel,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Boston, 
May  14, 1761 ;  died  at  Athens,  N.  Y.,  May  4, 1816. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1781 ;  studied  law 
at  Worcester;  and  became  a  state  legislator,  in 
which  position  he  became  distinguished  for  in¬ 
tellectual  ability  and  oratory.  President  Adams 
appointed  him,  successively,  Secretary  of  War 
(1800)  and  of  the  Treasury  (1801),  and  for  a  while 
he  had  charge  of  the  State  Department.  On  the 
accession  of  Jefferson  ( 1801 )  he  resumed  the 
practice  of  law.  He  declined  foreign  embassies 
offered  by  Adams  and  Madison.  Mr.  Dexter  was 
a  Federalist  until  the  War  of  1812,  when,  being- 
in  favor  of  that  measure,  he  separated  himself 
from  his  party.  He  -was  the  first  president  of 
the  first  temperance  society  formed  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts. 

Dey  of  Algiers,  Insolence  of  the.  In  May, 


DICKINSON 


DEY  OF  ALG1EKS,  INSOLENCE  OF  389 


1800,  Captain  Baiubridge,  in  command  of  the 
George  Washington,  24  gnus,  went  to  Algiers  with 
the  usual  tribute  to  its  ruler.  (S ee  Algiers,  Trib¬ 
ute  to.)  He  arrived  in  September,  performed  with 
courtesy  the  duties  enjoined  upon  him,  and  was 
about  to  leave  port,  when  the  dey  commanded 
him  to  carry  an  Algerine  ambassador  to  the  court 
of  the  sultan  at  Constantinople.  Baiubridge 
politely  refused  compliance,  when  the  haughty 
and  offended  dey  said  sternly,  “You  pay  me 
tribute,  by  which  you  become  my  slaves,  and 
therefore  I  have  a  right  to  order  you  as  I  think 
proper.”  The  guns  of  the  Algerine  castle,  he 
was  assured,  would  open  upon  his  vessel  if  he 
attempted  to  leave  the  harbor  without  the  am¬ 
bassador,  and  he  was  compelled  to  submit.  As¬ 
sured  also  that  if  he  did  not  accede  to  the  Alge- 
riue  ruler’s  demands  his  vessel  would  be  seized, 
he  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  further  hu¬ 
miliation  of  displaying  the  Algerine  dug  at  the 


main  and  that  of  the  United  States  at  the  fore. 
He  sailed  out  of  the  port,  transposed  the  flags, 
and  bore  the  ambassador  to  Constantinople.  “  I 
hope,”  he  wrote  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
“I  shall  never  again  be  sent  to  Algiers  with 
tribute  unless  I  am  authorized  to  deliver  it  from 
the  mouth  of  our  cannon.”  The  sultan  had 
uever  heard  of  the  United  States;  but  he  drew 
a  good  omen  from  the  fact  that  its  flag  was  re¬ 
lated  to  his  own,  for  it  bore  stars,  while  his  dis¬ 
played  a  crescent  moon.  He  believed  the  two 
nations  would  always  be  friends,  and  so  they 
have  been.  On  his  return  to  Algiers,  Baiubridge 
bore  a  firman  from  the  Turkish  authorities  for 
his  protection.  The  dey  requested  him  to  go 
on  another  errand  to  Constantinople.  He  re¬ 
fused.  The  dey  flew  into  a  rage,  threatened 
war,  and  finally  menaced  the  captain  with  per¬ 
sonal  violence.  Baiubridge  produced  the  firman, 
and  the  haughty  dey  became  as  obsequious  as  a 
slave.  Then  Baiubridge  assumed  the  air  of  a 
dictator.  He  demanded  the  instant  release  of 


the  French  consul  and  fifty  or  sixty  of  his  coun¬ 
trymen  who  had  lately  been  imprisoned  by  the 
dey;  and  when  Baiubridge  left  he  carried  away 
all  the  French  in  Algiers. 

Diamond  State.  A  name  sometimes  applied 
to  the  State  of  Delaware  because  of  its  small 
size,  wealth,  and  supposed  importance. 

Diaz  del  Castillo,  Bernal,  was  born  at  Me¬ 
dina  del  Campo,  Spain,  about  1500,  and  came  to 
America  as  an  adventurer  in  extreme  youth  in 
1514,  joining  the  expedition  of  Cordova  in  1517, 
and  of  Grijalva  in  1518.  He  served  Cortez 
faithfully  and  valiantly.  During  his  adventu¬ 
rous  career  he  was  eugaged  in  one  hundred  aud 
nineteen  battles  and  skirmishes,  aud  was  wound¬ 
ed  several  times.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  con¬ 
quest  of  New  Spain,  which  he  completed  in  1568, 
intended  to  correct  the  misstatements  of  Goma- 
ra’s  Chronicle  of  New  Spain,  in  which  nearly  all 
the  glory  of  its  conquest  was  given  to  Cortez. 

Diaz  was  a  rough,  un¬ 
lettered  soldier,  and  his 
history  has  been  pro¬ 
nounced  a  “collection 
of  fables.” 

Dickinson,  John, 
LL.D.,  was  born  in  Mary- 
land,  Nov.  13,  1732  ;  died 
at  Wilmington,  Del.,  Feb. 
14, 1808.  He  studied  law 
in  Philadelphia  and  at 
the  Temple  in  London, 
aud  practised  his  pro¬ 
fession  in  Philadelphia. 
In  the  Pennsylvania 
Assembly,  to  which  he 
was  elected  in  1764,  he 
showed  great  legislative 
ability,  aud  was  a  ready 
and  vehement  debater. 
At  the  same  time,  he 
wrote  much  on  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  British  infringe¬ 
ment  on  the  liberties  of 
the  colonies.  The  most 
noted  of  these  writings  were  papers  (twelve 
in  number)  entitled  Letters  from  a  Pennsylvania 
Farmer,  etc.  (see  Letters,  etc.),  published  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Chronicle  in  1767.  Mr.  Dickinson 
was  a  member  of  the  first  Continental  Congress, 
and  wrote  several  of  the  state  papers  put  forth 
by  that  body  (see  Continental  Congress).  Con¬ 
sidering  the  resolution  of  independence  unwise, 
he  voted  against  it  and  the  Declaration,  and 
did  not  sign  the  latter  document.  This  made 
him  unpopular.  In  1777  ho  was  made  a  briga¬ 
dier-general  of  the  Pennsylvania  militia.  He 
wras  elected  a  representative  in  Congress  from 
Delaware  in  1779,  and  wrote  the  Address  to  the 
States  put  forth  by  that  body  in  May  of  that 
year.  He  was  successively  president  of  the 
states  of  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  (1781-85), 
and  a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed 
the  National  Constitution  (1787).  Letters  from 
his  pen,  over  the  signature  of  “  Fabius,”  advo¬ 
cating  the  adoption  of  the  National  Consti¬ 
tution,  appeared  iu  1788 ;  and  auothor  series, 


ALGIERS  IX  1800. 


DICTATORSHIP  CONFERRED 


390 


DINWIDDLE  AND  THE  FRENCH 


over  the  same  signature,  on  onr  relations  with 
France,  appeared  in  1797.  Mr.  Dickinson  as¬ 
sisted  in  framing  the  Constitution  of  Delaware 
in  1792.  His  monument  is  Dickinson  College, 


JOHN  DICKINSON. 


at  Carlisle,  Penn.,  which  he  founded  and  liber¬ 
ally  endowed. 

Dictatorship  conferred  on  Washington.  On 

Dec.  27, 1776,  the  Congress,  sitting  in  Baltimore, 
alarmed  at  the  dangerous  itspect  of  affairs,  u  Re¬ 
solved,  That  General  Washington  shall  be,  and 
he  is  hereby,  invested  with  full,  ample,  and  com¬ 
plete  powers  to  raise  and  collect  together,  in  the 
most  speedy  and  effectual  manner,  from  any  or 
all  of  these  United  States,  seventy-six  battalions 
of  infantry,  in  addition  to  those  already  voted 
by  Congress  (see  Continental  Army,  First  Organi¬ 
zation  of  the)  ;  to  appoint  officers  for  the  said  bat¬ 
talions  of  infantry ;  to  raise,  officer,  and  equip 
three  thousand  light  horse,  three  regiments  of 
artillery,  and  a  corps  of  engineers,  and  to  estab¬ 
lish  their  pay  ;  to  apply  to  any  of  the  states  for 
such  aid  of  the  militia  as  he  shall  judge  neces¬ 
sary  ;  to  form  such  magazines  of  provisions,  and 
in  such  places,  as  he  shall  think  proper;  to  dis¬ 
place  and  appoint  all  officers  under  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  and  to  611  up  all  vacancies  in 
every  other  department  in  the  American  armies ; 
to  take,  wherever  he  may  be,  whatever  he  may 
want  for  the  use  of  the  army,  if  the  inhabitants 
will  not  sell  it,  allowing  a  reasonable  price  for 
the  same ;  to  arrest  and  con  Hue  persons  who  re¬ 
fuse  to  take  the  Continental  currency  [not  then 
beginning  to  depreciate],  or  are  otherwise  dis¬ 
affected  to  the  American  cause;  and  return  to 
the  states  of  which  they  are  citizens  their  names 
and  the  nature  of  their  offences,  together  with 
the  witnesses  to  prove  them.”  The  foregoing 
powers  were  vested  in  Washington  for  the  term 
of  six  months  ensuing  the  date  of  the  resolution, 
unless  sooner  determined  by  Congress.  These 
powTers  were  almost  equal  to  those  of  a  Roman 
dictator.  They  were  conferred  before  the  Con¬ 
gress  could  possibly  have  heard  of  the  brilliant 
victory  at  Trenton  on  the  morning  of  the  pre¬ 
vious  day. 


Dieskau,  Ludwig  August,  Baron,  was  born 
in  Saxony  in  1701 ;  died  at  Suresnes,  near  Paris, 
Sept,  8,  1757.  He  was  lieutenant-colonel  of  cav¬ 
alry  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  was  made  briga¬ 
dier-general  of  infantry  in  1748,  and  commander 
of  Brest.  In  1755  he  was  sent  to  Canada 
with  the  rank  of  major-general;  and  in  an  at¬ 
tack  upon  the  fortiffed  encampment  of  General 
William  Johnson  at  the  head  of  Lake  George 
(Sept.  8, 1755),  he  was  so  severely  wounded  that 
he  died  from  the  effects  exactly  two  years  after¬ 
wards. 

Dinwiddie  and  the  French.  The  revelations 
made  to  Washington  at  Fort  Le  Bceuf,  the  evi¬ 
dent  preparations  of  the  French  to  make  a  con¬ 
certed  movement  to  secure  the  occupation  of  the 
Ohio  region,  and  the  tenor  of  St.  Pierre’s  answer 
to  Din  w  iddie’s  letter,  convinced  the  latter  of  the 
necessity  of  quick  and  energetic  countervailing 
measures.  St.  Pierre  declared  that  he  was  act¬ 
ing  under  the  instructions  of  his  superior,  the 
Marquis  Duquesne,  at  Montreal,  and  refused  to 
withdraw  his  troops  from  the  disputed  territory. 
Diuw  iddie  immediately  prepared  for  an  expedi¬ 
tion  against  the  French,  and  asked  the  other 
colonies  to  co-operate  with  Virginia.  This  was 
the  first  call  for  a  general  colonial  union  against 
the  common  enemy.  All  hesitated  excepting 
North  Carolina.  The  Legislature  of  that  prov¬ 
ince  promptly  voted  four  hundred  men,  who 
were  soon  on  the  march  for  Winchester,  the 
place  of  rendezvous ;  but  they  eventually  proved 
of  little  wTorth,  for,  doubtful  of  being  paid  for 
their  services,  a  great  part  of  them  were  dis¬ 
banded  before  they  reached  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  Some  volunteers  from  South  Carolina 
and  New  York  hastened  to  the  gathering-place. 
Virginia  responded  to  the  call  to  arms  by  organ¬ 
izing  a  regiment  of  six  hundred  men,  of  which 
Joshua  Fry  was  appointed  colonel  and  Major 
Washington  lieutenant-colonel.  The  Virginians 
assembled  at  Alexandria,  on  the  Potomac, whence 
Lieutenant  -  colonel  Washington,  with  the  ad¬ 
vance.  marched  (April  2,  1754)  at  their  head  for 
the  Ohio.  Meanwhile  Captain  Trent  had  re¬ 
cruited  a  company  among  the  traders  west  of 
the  mountains,  and  had  begun  the  erection  of  a 
fort  at  the  fol  ks  of  the  Ohio,  the  site  of  Pitts¬ 
burgh.  They  were  attacked  (April  18)  by  a 
party  of  French  and  Indians,  who  expelled  Trent 
and  his  men,  completed  the  fort,  and  named  it 
Duquesne,  in  honor  of  the  captain  -  general  of 
Canada.  News  of  this  event  reached  Washing¬ 
ton  at  Will’s  Creek  (now'  Cumberland).  He 
pushed  forward  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  men 
to  a  point  on  the  Monongaliela  less  than  forty 
miles  from  Fort  Duquesne.  There  he  was  in¬ 
formed  that  a  strong  force  of  French  and  In¬ 
dians  wras  marching  to  intercept  him.  He  wisely 
fell  back  to  the  Great  Meadow's,  where  he  erect¬ 
ed  a  stockade,  and  called  it  Fort  Necessity.  Be¬ 
fore  it  was  completed,  a  few  of  his  troops  at¬ 
tacked  an  advanced  party  of  the  enemy  under 
Jumonville  in  the  night,  and  the  commander 
and  several  of  his  men  were  killed.  Some  of  his 
captured  men  were  sent  to  Governor  Dinwiddie. 
Reinforced,  Washington  marched  for  Fort  Du- 
quesue  again,  but  was  driven  back  to  Fort  Ne- 


DINWIDDIE  AND  VIRGINIA  ASSEMBLY  391  DIPLOMACY  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 


cessity,  which  he  was  obliged  to  surrender  on 
the  3d  of  July.  (See  Fort  Necessity.') 

Dinwiddie  and  the  Virginia  Assembly. 

Robert  Dinwiddie,  born  in  Scotland  about  1G90; 
died  at  Clifton,  England,  Aug.  1, 1770,  was  lieu¬ 
tenant-governor  of  Virginia  from  1752  to  1757. 
He  was  rapacious,  and  unscrupulous  in  the  ac¬ 
cumulation  of  wealth.  Owing  to  his  exaction 
of  enormous  fees  authorized  by  the  Board  of 
Trade  for  the  issue  of  patents  for  lands,  he  gained 
the  ill-will  of  the  people  of  Virginia,  and  when 
he  called  for  money  to  enable  him  to  oppose  the 
encroachments  of  the  French,  the  House  of  Bur¬ 
gesses  paid  no  attention  to  his  expressed  wishes. 
(See  Dinwiddie  and  the  French.)  Dinwiddie,  un¬ 
mindful  of  this  conduct,  enlisted  a  captain’s 
command,  and  sent  them  to  build  a  fort  at  the 
forks  of  the  Ohio  (now  Pittsburgh),  and  called 
on  neighboring  colonies  for  aid  in  the  work.  On 
the  return  of  Washington,  the  governor  called 
the  Virginia  Assembly  together.  They  now  saw 
impending  danger,  and  granted  $50,000  towards 
the  defence  of  the  frontiers.  A  committee  of 
the  burgesses  was  appointed  to  act  in  concert 
with  the  governor  in  the  expenditure  of  this 
money,  for  Dinwiddie  could  not  be  trusted.  He 
submitted  with  a  bad  grace  to  this  “encroach¬ 
ment  on  the  prerogative”  of  a  royal  governor. 

Dinwiddie,  Robert,  was  born  in  Scotland 
about  1690;  died  at  Clifton,  England,  Aug.  1, 
1770.  While  acting  as  clerk  to  a  collector  of 
customs  iu  the  West  Indies  he  discovered  and 
exposed  enormous  frauds  practised  by  his  prin¬ 
cipal,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  office  of  sur¬ 
veyor  of  the  customs,  and  afterwards  with  that 
of  lieutenant-governor  of  Virginia.  He  arrived 
in  the  colony  in  1752,  and  returned  to  England 
in  1758.  He  attempted  to  expel  the  French  from 
the  Ohio  region,  after  sending  Washington  to 
their  commander  on  a  mission  of  observation. 
Washington  proved  himself  to  be  a  zealous  offi¬ 
cer;  and  Dinwiddie,  discovering  his  capacity, 
made  him  adjutant -general  of  a  military  dis¬ 
trict.  Dinwiddie  was  the  first  to  suggest  to  the 
British  Board  of  Trade  the  taxing  of  the  colo¬ 
nies  (1754)  for  funds  to  carry  on  the  war  with 
the  French  and  Indians;  and  he  was  one  of  the 
five  colonial  governors  who  memorialized  Par¬ 
liament  (1755)  in  favor  of  the  measure.  He  had 
much  clashing  and  vexation  with  the  House  of 
Burgesses ;  and,  worn  out  with  trouble  and 
age,  he  left  Virginia  under  a  cloud  caused  by  a 
charge  made  by  his  enemies  that  he  had  appro¬ 
priated  to  his  own  use  £20,000  transmitted  to 
him  for  compensation  to  the  Virginians  for  mon¬ 
ey  expended  by  them  in  the  public  service. 

Diplomacy  of  the  Revolution.  So  soon  as 
the  idea  of  independence  had  taken  the  practi¬ 
cal  shape  of  a  resolution  and  declaration  adopt¬ 
ed  by  Congress,  the  Americans  began  to  contem¬ 
plate  the  necessity  of  foreign  aid,  material  and 
moral.  The  Congress  appointed  a  Secret  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Correspondence  (which  see)  for  the 
purpose,  and  sent  Silas  Deane  upon  a  half-com¬ 
mercial,  half- diplomatic  mission  to  France. 
Franklin  was  at  first  opposed  to  seeking  foreign 
alliances.  “A  virgin  state,”  he  said,  “should 


preserve  the  virgin  character,  and  not  go  about 
suitoring  for  alliances,  but  wait  with  decent  dig¬ 
nity  for  the  application  of  others.”  But  Frank¬ 
lin  soon  became  the  chief  suitor  in  Europe,  for 
in  the  autumn  of  1776  he  was  sent  as  “commis¬ 
sioner” —  a  real  “ambassador”  —  to  France  to 
seek  an  alliance  and  material  aid.  The  aid  was 
furnished  through  Beaumarchais,  at  first  secret¬ 
ly,  and  afterwards  by  the  government  openly. 
(See  Beaumarchais.)  The  American  commission¬ 
ers  proposed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  France, 
but  the  French  government  hesitated,  for  it  did 
not  then  desire  an  open  rupture  with  England ; 
but  when  the  news  of  the  defeat  and  capture  of 
Burgoyne’s  army,  late  in  1777,  reached  France, 
the  king  no  louger  hesitated,  and  a  treaty  of 
amity,  commerce,  and  alliance  was  consum¬ 
mated  in  February,  1778.  (See  Treaties  with 
France.)  The  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
the  United  States  involved  France  in  war  with 
England,  and  the  latter  sent  commissioners  to 
negotiate  with  the  Americans  for  peace.  The 
terms  were  not  satisfactory,  and  the  mission 
failed.  The  French  government  pressed  Spain 
to  join  in  espousing  the  cause  of  the  Americans, 
but  that  power  hesitated,  because  a  support  of 
such  a  republican  system  iu  America  might  be 
dangerous  to  the  integrity  of  her  own  colouial 
system  in  that  part  of  the  world.  Iu  this  feel¬ 
ing  France  had  been  alike  cautious,  and  for  the 
same  reasons.  They  had  agreed  that  while  it 
would  not  be  politic  to  invade  the  rights  of  the 
British  crown,  they  would  evade  the  obligations 
of  treaties,  for  both  had  a  mischievous  intent  to 
foment  the  disturbances  between  England  and 
her  American  colonies.  While  doing  this  se¬ 
cretly,  they  held  the  language  of  honest  neu¬ 
trality.  When,  therefore,  France  had  determined 
opeidy  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  Americans, 
Spain  was  urged  to  do  likewise;  but  the  Span¬ 
ish  court  could  not  be  persuaded  to  go  beyond  a 
certain  point.  The  French  minister,  with  keen 
prescience,  saw  ultimate  independence  for  Amer¬ 
ica,  while  the  Spanish  court  dreaded  such  a  re¬ 
sult.  Meanwhile  the  Continental  Congress  had 
sent  Mr.  Jay  as  ambassador  to  Spain,  to  win  the 
active  friendship  of  that  power.  He  could  effect 
nothing;  and  it  was  well  he  did  not,  as  subse¬ 
quent  events  manifested.  From  the  time  of  the 
treaty  of  alliance  with  France,  the  action  of 
Spain  towards  the  United  States  was  selfish, 
hypocritical,  and  often  sullen.  She  declared 
war  against  England  for  her  own  selfish  pur¬ 
pose,  but  it  worked  in  favor  of  the  Americans 
by  keeping  British  troops  employed  elsewhere 
than  in  America.  The  Count  d’Araiula,  the 
Spanish  minister  in  France,  who  had  watched 
the  course  of  events  with  keen  vision  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  the  American  war  for 
independence,  suggested  to  his  sovereign,  as  an 
antidote  to  American  independence,  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies  into  inde¬ 
pendent  Spanish  monarchies.  He  said,  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1783 :  “The  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  English  colonies  has  been,  then, 
recognized.  It  is  for  me  a  subject  of  grief  and 
fear.  France  has  but  few  possessions  in  Ameri¬ 
ca  ;  but  she  was  bound  to  consider  that  Spain, 


DIPLOMATIC  TROUBLES 


392  DIRECTORY,  FRENCH  EXECUTIVE 


her  most  intimate  ally,  bad  many,  and  that  slie 
now  stands  exposed  to  terrible  reverses.  From 
the  beginning  France  lias  acted  against  her  true 
interests  in  encouraging  and  supporting  this  in¬ 
dependence,  and  so  I  have  often  declared  to  the 
ministers  of  this  nation.”  When  the  Armed  Neu¬ 
trality  (which  see)  was  proposed  in  1780,  the 
Americans  gladly  joined  the  European  powers 
with  their  moral  influence  (all  they  could  then 
give),  for  it  would  aid  themselves  by  weakening 
England.  Its  results  were  disappointing  to  the 
other  powers,  but  it  added  to  the  open  enemies 
of  England.  The  Congress,  in  instructions  to 
Dana  at  St.  Petersburg,  had  said:  “You  will 
readily  perceive  that  it  must  be  a  leading  and 
capital  point,  if  these  United  States  shall  be  for¬ 
mally  admitted  as  a  party  to  the  convention  of 
the  neutral  maritime  powers  for  maintaining 
the  freedom  of  commerce.”  Thus  early,  while 
yet  figlitiug  for  independence,  the  American 
statesmen  assumed  the  dignity  and  used  the 
language  of  the  representatives  of  a  powerful 
nation,  which  they  certainly  expected  to  form. 
The  Americans  had  opened  negotiations  with 
the  States-General  of  Holland  for  a  treaty  so 
early  as  1778.  William,  brother  of  Richard  Hen¬ 
ry  and  Arthur  Lee,  had  begun  the  discussion  of 
such  a  treaty  with  Van  Berkel,  the  pensionary 
of  Amsterdam.  This  negotiation  with  a  single 
province  wyas  made  in  secret.  Lee  had  no  au¬ 
thority  to  sign  a  treaty,  nor  could  the  expression 
of  a  single  province  bind  the  Dutch  Republic. 
Finally,  Henry  Laurens  was  sent  by  Congress 
to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  States-General, 
but  was  captured  while  crossing  the  Atlantic, 
aud  imprisoned  iu  Eugland.  Then  John  Adams 
was  sent  for  the  purpose  to  the  Hague.  Early 
iu  1782,  through  the  joint  exertions  of  Mr.  Ad¬ 
ams  and  the  French  minister  at  the  Hague,  the 
provinces,  one  after  another,  consented  to  the 
public  recognition  of  Mr.  Adams,  aud  so  open¬ 
ly  recognized  the  independence  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  publicly  introduced  to  the 
Prince  of  Orange  on  April  22, 1782.  Iu  October 
following  he  had  completed  the  negotiation  of  a 
treaty  with  Holland,  and  signed  it  with  great 
satisfaction.  It  was  a  “  Treaty  of  Alliance  be¬ 
tween  their  High  Mightinesses  the  States-Gen¬ 
eral  of  the  United  Netherlands  aud  the  United 
States  of  America.”  This  treaty  was  not  alto¬ 
gether  dependent  upon  the  alliance  of  the  United 
States  with  France,  and  was  a  step  forward  in 
the  march  of  the  former  towards  independent 
national  existence.  The  final  great  act  in  the 
diplomacy  of  the  Revolution  was  the  negotia¬ 
tion  of  a  treaty  of  peace  with  England,  the  chief 
points  of  which  will  be  found  under  the  title  of 
Treaty  of  Peace.  In  their  foreign  diplomacy  the 
Congress  had  been  greatly  aided  at  almost  every 
step  by  the  enlightened  wisdom,  prudence,  and 
firmness  of  Count  Gravier  de  Vergennes,  who 
was  a  faithful  servant  of  his  king,  while  he  ear¬ 
nestly  desired  the  boon  of  the  enjoyment  of  ra¬ 
tional  liberty  for  all  peoples.  He  died  soon  after 
the  peace.  '(See  Vergennes.) 

Diplomatic  Troubles  (1778).  To  Silas  Deane, 
who  was  first  sent  to  France  as  a  diplomatic 
and  commercial  agent  of  the  Congress,  were  in¬ 


trusted  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  money 
by  the  commissioners.  Dr.  Franklin  had  de¬ 
served  confidence  in  his  ability  and  honesty. 
The  jealous,  querulous  Arthur  Lee,  who  be¬ 
came  associated  with  him  and  Franklin,  soon 
made  trouble.  He  wrote  letters  to  his  brother 
iu  Congress  (Richard  Henry  Lee),  in  which  he 
made  many  insinuations  against  the  probity  of 
both  his  colleagues.  Ralph  Izard,  commission¬ 
er  to  the  Tuscan  court,  offended  because  he  was 
not  consulted  about  the  treaty  with  France,  had 
written  home  similar  letters  ;  and  William  Car¬ 
michael,  a  secretary  of  the  commissioners,  w  ho 
had  returned  to  America,  insinuated  in  Con¬ 
gress  that  Deane  had  appropriated  the  public 
money  to  his  own  use.  Deane  was  recalled, 
and  out  of  this  affair  sprang  twro  violent  par¬ 
ties,  Robert  Morris  and  other  members  of  Con¬ 
gress  who  were  commercial  experts  taking  the 
side  of  Deane,  and  Richard  Henry  Lee,  then 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs, 
being  against,  him.  Deane  published  in  the 
Philadelphia  Gazette  an  “Address  to  the  People 
of  the  United  States,”  in  which  he  referred  to 
the  brothers  Lee  writh  much  severity,  and  claim¬ 
ing  for  himself  the  credit  of  obtaining  supplies 
from  France  through  Beaumarchais.  Thomas 
Paine,  then  secretary  of  the  Committee  on  For¬ 
eign  Affairs,  replied  to  Deane  (Jan.  2,  1779), 
availing  himself  of  public  documents  in  his 
charge.  In  that  reply  he  declared  that  the  ar¬ 
rangement  had  been  made  by  Arthur  Lee,  in 
Loudon,  and  revealed  the  secret  that  the  sup¬ 
plies,  though  nominally  furnished  by  a  com¬ 
mercial  house  (see  Beaumarchais),  really  came 
from  the  French  government.  This  statement 
called  out  loud  complaints  from  the  French 
minister  (Gerard),  for  it  exposed  the  duplicity 
of  his  government,  and  to  soothe  the  feelings  of 
their  allies,  Congress,  by  resolution,  expressly 
denied  that  any  gratuity  had  been  received 
from  the  French  court  previous  to  the  treaty  of 
alliance.  This  resolution  gave  Beaumarchais 
a  valid  claim  upon  Congress  for  payment  for 
supplies  wrhich  he,  under  the  firm  name  of  Hor- 
tales  &  Co.,  had  sent  to  America.  (See  Beau¬ 
marchais.)  Paine’s  indiscretion  cost  him  his 
place.  He  was  compelled  to  resign  his  secre¬ 
taryship.  The  discussion  among  diplomatic 
agents  soon  led  to  the  recall  of  all  of  them  ex¬ 
cepting  Dr.  Franklin,  w  ho  remained  sole  minis¬ 
ter  at  the  French  court.  Deane,  wTho  was  un¬ 
doubtedly  an  able,  houest  man,  preferred  claims 
for  services  and  private  expenditures  abroad, 
but,  under  the  malign  influence  of  the  Lees,  he 
was  treated  with  neglect  and  fairly  driven  into 
poverty  and  exile.  In  1842  Deane’s  long -dis¬ 
puted  claim  was  adjusted  by  Congress,  a  large 
sum  of  money  being  paid  over  to  his  heirs.  (See 
France ,  Relations  with.) 

Directory,  The  French  Executive.  This 
name  wyas  given  to  the  government  of  the 
French  Republic,  established  by  a  constitution 
iu  August,  1795,  framed  by  the  moderate  Repub¬ 
lican  party  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  and  the 
end  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  The  Executive  Di¬ 
rectory  consisted  of  five  persons,  who  promul¬ 
gated  the  laws,  appointed  the  ministers,  aud  had 


DISAFFECTION  IN  NEW  YORK 


393  DISBANDING  OF  CONTINENTAL  ARMY 


the  management  of  military  and  naval  affairs. 
They  decided  questions  by  a  majority  vote,  and 
presided,  by  turns,  three  mouths  each,  the  pre¬ 
siding  member  having  the  signature  and  the 
seal.  During  their  terms  of  office  none  of  them 
could  have  a  persoual  command,  or  absent  him¬ 
self  for  more  than  five  days  from  the  place 
where  the  council  held  its  sessions  without  its 
permission.  The  legislative  power,  under  the 
constitution,  was  vested  in  two  assemblies,  the 
Couucil  of  Five  Hundred  and  the  Council  of  the 
Ancients,  the  former  having  the  exclusive  right 
of  preparing  laws  for  the  consideration  of  the 
latter.  The  judicial  authority  was  committed 
to  elective  judges.  The  first  directors  chosen 
(Nov.  1,  1795)  were  MM.  Barras,  Revelliere-Le- 
peaux,  Rewbell,  Letourneur,  and  Carnot.  The 
latter  organized  the  armies  with  great  skill  and 
wisdom. 

Disaffection  in  New  York.  During  the  win¬ 
ter  of  1775-76  disaffection  to  the  Republican 
cause,  especially  among  the  older  and  wealthier 
families,  became  conspicuous  and  alarming  to 
the  patriots,  and  there  were  fears  of  the  loss  of 
the  city  of  New  York  to  the  Republican  cause. 
In  Queens  County,  on  Long  Island,  the  people  be¬ 
gan  To  arm  in  favor  of  the  crown.  Hearing  of 
this,  General  Howe,  in  Boston,  sent  General  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  on  a  secret  expedition.  Wash¬ 
ington  suspected  New  York  was  his  destination, 
where  Governor  Tryon  was  sowing  the  seeds  of 
disaffection  from  his  “  seat  of  government  ”  on 
board  the  Duchess  of  Gordon  in  the  harbor.  The 
Committee  of  Safety  and  the  Provincial  Convert 
tion  of  New  York  were  strongly  tinctured  with 
Toryism.  General  Lee,  then  in  Connecticut,  had 
heard  of  disaffection  there  and  asked  permission 
of  Washington  to  raise  volunteers  to  go  there  and 
suppress  it.  The  privilege  was  granted,  and,  with 
the  aid  of  Governor  Trumbull,  he  embodied  about 
twelve  hundred  volunteers  and  pressed  on  tow¬ 
ards  New  York,  with  the  bold  “  King  Sears  ”  as 
his  adjutant-general.  His  approach  (February, 
1776;  produced  great  alarm.  Many  Tories  fled 
with  their  families  to  Long  Island  and  New  Jer¬ 
sey  ;  and  the  timid  Committee  of  Safety  protest¬ 
ed  against  his  entering  the  city,  for  the  captain 
of  the  Asia  (which  see)  had  declared  that  if 
“  rebel  troops  ”  were  permitted  to  enter  the 
town,  he  would  cannouade  and  burn  it.  Lee 
pressed  forward  and  encamped  in  the  Fields, 
and  in  a  proclamation  he  said  he  had  come  to 
prevent  the  occupation  of  Long  Island  and  New 
York  by  the  enemies  of  liberty.  u  If  the  ships 
of  war  are  quiet,”  he  said,  “  I  shall  be  quiet ;  if 
they  make  my  presence  a  pretext  for  firing  on 
the  town,  the  first  house  set  in  flames  by  their 
guns  shall  be  a  funeral  pile  of  some  of  their 
best  friends.”  Before  this  manifesto  the  Tories 
shrank  into  inactivity.  A  glow  of  patriotism 
warmed  the  Provincial  Congress,  and  that  body 
speedily  adopted  measures  for  fortifying  the  city 
and  its  approaches  and  garrisoning  it  with  two 
thousand  men.  On  the  day  when  Lee  entered 
New  York  Sir  Henry  Clinton  arrived  at  Sandy 
Hook,  but  did  not  deem  it  prudent  to  enter  the 
harbor  of  New  York.  He  sailed  on  to  the  coast 
of  North  Carolina. 


Disaffection  in  Pennsylvania.  When  Gen¬ 
eral  Howe  landed  at  the  head  of  Elk  River 
(August,  1777)  and  marched  on  Philadelphia,  he 
found  the  country  swarming  with  Tories.  A 
large  part  of  the  Quakers,  a  wealthy  and  influ¬ 
ential  class,  were  enemies  of  the  patriots,  or  at 
least  neutral,  while  the  German  population 
(which  was  large)  were  indifferent,  except  as  to 
means  to  avoid  the  burdens  of  war.  The  Penn¬ 
sylvania  militia,  which  had  been  recently  organ¬ 
ized,  numbered  thirty  thousand  men  ;  but  owing 
to  the  prevalence  of  Toryism,  the  loudest  call 
could  not  bring  out  at  any  one  time  more  than 
three  thousand.  Delaware,  also,  was  largely 
disaffected  towards  the  American  cause,  but  her 
sons  were  more  largely  represented  in  the  Con¬ 
tinental  army  than  those  of  auy  other  state  in 
proportion  to  the  population. 

Disappointment  of  the  British  in  New 
York.  Having  driven  Washington  and  his 
little  army  beyond  the  Delaware,  and  seeing  the 
alacrity  with  which  the  people  of  New  Jersey, 
under  the  influence  of  his  proclamation,  seemed 
to  return  to  their  allegiance,  Howe  believed  the 
rebellion  was  broken,  and  he  and  his  officers 
prepared  for  a  winter’s  enjoyment  in  New  York. 
Cornwallis  had  leave  to  return  home.  The 
young  officers  were  preparing  to  have  theatri¬ 
cal  performances,  and  other  indoor  amusements. 
The  fighting  being  over,  as  was  supposed,  Corn¬ 
wallis  had  sent  his  baggage  on  board  a  packet 
about  to  sail  for  England,  and  the  loyalists  of 
that  city  were  feeling  jubilant,  when  the  news 
of  Washington’s  fatal  blow  at  Trenton  (see 
Trenton ,  Battle  of)  dispelled  the  pleasant  dream. 
Cornwallis  recalled  his  baggage  and  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  take  the  field  for  a  winter  campaign, 
and  he  did  not  leave  the  country  for  nearly  five 
years  afterwards. 

Disarmament  of  Tories.  On  March  14, 1776, 
Congress  by  resolution  recommended  to  the  sev¬ 
eral  assemblies,  conventions,  and  committees 
and  councils  of  safety  of  the  united  colonies  im¬ 
mediately  to  cause  all  persons  to  be  disarmed 
in  their  respective  colonies  who  were  notorious¬ 
ly  disaffected  to  the  patriot  cause,  or  who  had 
not  associated,  or  refused  to  associate,  to  defend 
by  arms  the  liberties  of  the  united  colonies. 

Disbanding  of  the  Continental  Army  (1783). 
It  was  expected  that  the  immediate  disbanding 
of  the  army  would  follow  the  proclamation  of 
peace.  A  definitive  treaty  had  not  yet  been  ne¬ 
gotiated,  and  British  troops  still  held  New  York 
city.  It  would  not  be  safe,  under  such  circum¬ 
stances,  to  actually  disband  the  army.  The  Con¬ 
gress  therefore  decided  that  the  engagements  of 
men  enlisted  for  the  war  were  binding  till  the 
treaty  of  peace  was  definitively  ratified.  On  the 
recommendation  of  Washington  orders  were  is¬ 
sued  for  granting  furloughs  or  discharges  at  the 
discretion  of  the  commander-in-chief.  Greene 
was  authorized  to  grant  furloughs  for  North 
Carolina  troops;  and  the  lines  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania  serving  under  him  were  ordered 
to  march  for  their  respective  states.  Three 
months’  pay  was  to  be  furnished  the  furloughed 
soldiers.  They  were  also  to  keep  their  arms  and 


DISBANDING  OF  THE  UNION  ARMIES  394  DISLOYALTY  AT  NATIONAL  CAPITAL 


accoutrements  as  an  extra  allowance.  These 
furloughs  amounted  to  discharges.  Few  of  the 
recipients  ever  returned,  and  so  a  great  portion 
of  the  army  was  gradually  disbanded  before  the 
definitive  treaty  was  concluded  in  September. 
*A  remnant  of  the  Continental  army  remained  at 
West  Point  under  Knox  until  the  British  evac¬ 
uated  New  York  (Nov.  25,  1783).  After  that 
event  they  all  received  their  discharge. 

Disbanding  of  the  Union  Armies  (1865). 
The  soldiers  of  the  great  armies  that  confront¬ 
ed  Lee  and  Johnston  in  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina,  and  conquered  them,  were  marched  to 
the  vicinity  of  the  National  capital,  and  dur¬ 
ing  two  memorable  days  (May  22  and  23, 1865) 
moved  through  that  city,  with  tens  of  thousands 
of  moistened  eyes  gazing  upon  them,  and  passed 
in  review  before  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  na¬ 
tion  and  his  ministers.  Then  began  the  work 
of  disbanding  the  armies  by  mustering  out  of 
service  officers  and  men.  On  the  2d  of  June 
Lieutenant-general  Grant,  the  general-in-chief 
of  the  National  armies,  issued  the  following 
address  to  them :  “  Soldiers  of  the  Armies  of 
the  United  States :  By  your  patriotic  devo¬ 
tion  to  your  country  in  the  hour  of  danger  and 
alarm,  your  magnificent  fighting,  bravery,  and 
endurance,  you  have  maintained  the  supremacy 
of  the  Union  and  the  Constitution,  overthrown 
all  armed  opposition  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
laws  and  of  the  proclamation  forever  abolishing 
slavery — the  cause  and  pretext  of  the  rebellion 
— and  opened  the  way  to  the  rightful  authori¬ 
ties  to  restore  order  and  inaugurate  peace  on  a 
permanent  and  enduring  basis  on  every  foot  of 
American  soil.  Your  marches,  sieges,  and  bat¬ 
tles,  in  distance,  duration,  resolution,  and  brill¬ 
iancy  of  results,  dim  the  lustre  of  the  world’s 
past  military  achievements,  and  will  be  the  pa¬ 
triot’s  precedent  in  defence  of  liberty  and  right 
in  all  time  to  come.  In  obedience  to  your  coun¬ 
try’s  call,  you  left  your  homes  and  families, 
and  volunteered  in  her  defence.  Victory  has 
crowned  your  valor  and  secured  the  purpose  of 
your  patriotic  hearts ;  and  with  the  gratitude 
of  your  countrymen  and  the  highest  honors  a 
great  and  free  nation  can  accord,  you  will  soon 
be  permitted  to  return  to  your  homes  and  fami¬ 
lies,  conscious  of  having  discharged  the  highest 
duty  of  American  citizens.  To  achieve  these  glo¬ 
rious  triumphs,  and  secure  to  yourselves,  your 
fellow-countrymen,  and  posterity  the  blessings 
of  free  institutions,  tens  of  thousands  of  your 
gallant  comrades  have  fallen,  and  sealed  the 
priceless  legacy  with  their  blood.  The  graves 
of  these  a  grateful  nation  bedews  with  tears, 
honors  their  memory,  and  will  ever  cherish  and 
support  their  stricken  families.”  (See  Lee's  Fare¬ 
well  to  his  Army.)  On  March  1, 1865,  there  was 
an  aggregate  force  on  the  muster-rolls  of  the 
army  of  965,591  men,  of  whom  602,593  were  pres¬ 
ent  for  duty  and  132,538  were  on  detached  ser¬ 
vice.  The  aggregate  force  was  increased  by  the 
1st  of  May,  by  enlistments,  to  1,000,516,  of  all 
arms,  officers  and  men.  The  disbanding  of  this 
army  went  steadily  on  from  June  1,  and  by  the 
middle  of  autumn  786,000  officers  and  men  were 
mustered  out  of  the  service.  The  wonderful 


spectacle  was  exhibited  of  vast  armies  of  men, 
surrounded  by  all  the  paraphernalia  of  war, 
transformed  in  the  space  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  days  into  a  vast  army  of  citizens,  engaged 
in  the  blessed  pursuits  of  peace. 

Discovery,  Rights  conferred  by.  It  early 
became  a  law  among  European  nations  that  the 
country  which  each  should  first  explore  should 
be  deemed  absolute  property  of  the  discoverer, 
from  which  all  others  should  be  entirely  exclud¬ 
ed.  The  English,  in  turn,  adopted  the  law  that 
a  nation,  a  citizen  or  subject  of  which  should 
discover  the  mouth  of  a  great  river,  became 
owner  of  the  region  drained  by  that  river  and 
its  tributaries. 

Disinterested  Patriotism.  In  arranging  new 
regiments  at  Cambridge  late  in  1775,  Colonel  Asa 
Whitcombe,  a  meritorious  officer,  who  had  served 
in  the  late  French  and  Indian  war,  was  left  out 
on  account  of  his  age.  His  men  were  indignant, 
and  refused  to  re-enlist.  The  colonel,  to  set 
them  an  example,  himself  enlisted  as  a  private 
soldier.  One  of  the  other  colonels  gave  up  his 
regiment  to  Whitcombe ;  and  these  examples  of 
disinterested  patriotism  were  noticed  by  Wash¬ 
ington  in  general  orders. 

Disloyalty  at  the  National  Capital.  At  the 

close  of  1860,  when  South  Carolina  had  passed 
an  ordinance  of  secession,  the  enemies  of  the 
government  were  bold  and  defiant  at  the  Na¬ 
tional  capital.  Secession  cockades  (which  see) 
appeared  in  the  streets.  The  newspapers  there 
were  generally  filled  with  seditious  matter.  Vir¬ 
ginia  newspapers  had  already  suggested  (what 
the  conspirators  had  planned)  the  capture  of 
Fortress  Monroe,  the  Gosport  navy-yard,  and 
the  arsenal  at  Harper’s  Ferry,  preparatory  to 
the  seizure  of  the  National  capital  and  its  ar¬ 
chives.  (See  “  On  to  Washington.'’)  The  disunion- 
ists  were  so  confident  of  the  success  of  their 
scheme  that  a  leading  Virginian  said  openly  : 
“Mr.  Lincoln  will  not  dare  to  come  to  Wash¬ 
ington  after  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  Mr. 
Buchanan.  The  city  will  be  seized  and  occu¬ 
pied  as  the  capital  of  the  Southern  Confederacy, 
and  Mr.  Lincoln  will  be  compelled  to  take  his 
oath  of  office  in  Philadelphia  or  New  York.” 
The  veteran  journalist  Duff  Green,  the  warm  co¬ 
worker  with  Calhoun,  said  to  Joseph  C.  Lewis, 
of  Washington  :  “  We  intend  to  take  possession 
of  the  army  and  navy  and  of  the  archives  of  the 
government;  not  allow  the  electoral  vote  to  be 
counted  ;  proclaim  Buchanan  provisional  Presi¬ 
dent,  if  he  will  do  as  we  wish — and  if  not,  choose 
another;  seize  the  Harper’s  Ferry  arsenal  and  the 
Gosport  navy-yard  simultaneously,  and,  sending 
armed  men  down  from  the  former  and  aimed  ves¬ 
sels  up  from  the  latter,  seize  Washington  and  es¬ 
tablish  a  new  government.”  The  Secessionists 
believed  the  President  was  pledged  not  to  in¬ 
terfere,  and  that  the  seat  of  government  of  a 
“Southern  Confederacy”  might  be  established 
there  without  governmental  resistance.  But  all 
were  not  satisfied  of  the  co-operation  of  the 
President.  Some  South  Carolina  spies  in  Wash¬ 
ington  could  not  trust  him.  One  of  them,  writ¬ 
ing  to  the  Charleston  Mercury,  said  :  “  1  know  all 


DISMEMBERMENT  OF  RHODE  ISLAND  395  DISRUPTION  OF  BUCHANAN’S  CABINET 


that  has  been  done  here,  bnt  depend  upon  noth¬ 
ing  that  Mr.  Buchanan  promises.  He  will  cheat 
us  unless  we  are  too  quick  for  him.”  Nor  would 
they  confide  implicitly  in  each  other.  The  same 
writer  said :  “  Further  let  me  warn  you  of  the 
dauger  of  Governor  Pickens  making  Trescott 
his  channel  of  communication  with  the  Presi¬ 
dent,  for  the  latter  will  be  informed  of  every¬ 
thing  that  transpires,  and  that  to  our  injury.” 
( See  Unfaithful  Cabinet  Ministers. )  And  R.  B. 
Rhett  began  a  letter  to  his  son,  of  the  Mercury ,  by 
saying,  “  Jefferson  Davis  is  not  only  a  dishonest 
man,  but  a  liar.”  (From  an  autograph  letter.) 
Washington  society  was  at  that  time  thorough¬ 
ly  permeated  with  the  views  of  secession  ism, 
and  the  Southern  members  of  Congress,  in  both 
houses,  formed  the  focus  of  the  disunion  move¬ 
ments  in  the  slave-labor  states  which  soon  cre¬ 
ated  insurrection,  rebellion,  and  civil  war.  Yet 
with  all  this  tide  of  open  disloyalty  surging 
around  the  National  capitol,  the  President, 
seemingly  bound  hand  and  foot  in  the  toils  of 
the  enemies  of  his  country,  sat  with  folded 
hands,  and  did  not  lift  a  finger  to  stay  the  fury 
of  the  rising  tempest.  Of  him  a  writer  at  the 
capital  [J.  W.  Forney]  said:  “His  confidants 
are  disunionists ;  his  leaders  in  the  Senate  and 
in  the  House  are  disunionists,  aud  while  he  drives 
into  exile  the  oldest  statesman  in  America  [Gen¬ 
eral  Cass]  simply  and  only  because  he  dares  to 
raise  his  voice  in  favor  of  the  country,  he  con¬ 
sults  daily  with  men  who  publicly  avow  in  their 
seats  in  Congress  that  the  Union  is  dissolved  aud 
that  the  laws  are  standing  still.” 

Dismemberment  of  Rhode  Island.  At¬ 
tempted  in  1653.  While  extending  her  domain 
northward  by  the  annexation  of  Maine  and  La¬ 
conia,  Massachusetts  was  eager  to  dismember  the 
commonwealth  of  Rhode  Island.  Coddington 
had  obtained  from  the  English  Council  of  State  a 
commission  for  a  separate  government  for  Aqui- 
day,  or  Rfiode  Island  proper,  and  this  favored  the 
scheme  of  Massachusetts.  The  latter  claimed 
Warwick  as  a  part  of  its  territory  by  virtue  of 
the  submission  of  two  sachems  to  whom  it  for¬ 
merly  belonged,  backed  by  an  alleged  grant  from 
Plymouth  of  any  claim  she  might  have  under 
her  patent.  The  Plymouth  people  denied  both 
the  fact  and  the  legality  of  any  such  claim.  The 
people  of  Warwick  were  hostile  in  feeling  tow¬ 
ards  Massachusetts.  Hearing  that  two  persons 
had  lately  been  huug  for  witchcraft,  one  at  Hart¬ 
ford  and  one  at  Charlestown  (two  women),  they 
said  that  “  there  were  no  other  witches  upon 
earth,  nor  devils,  but  the  ministers  of  New  Eng¬ 
land  and  such  as  they.”  This  caused  the  quar¬ 
rel  to  wax  warm,  and  the  people  of  Providence, 
Warwick,  and  Newport,  apprehending  danger  to 
their  independence,  appealed  to  England  for  a 
confirmation  of  their  charter,  protection  from 
the  Indian  vassals  of  Massachusetts,  and  the  re¬ 
call  of  Coddiugton’s  commission.  This  matter 
produced  a  quarrel  among  the  commissioners  or 
congressmen  of  the  united  colonies,  and  came 
near  breaking  up  the  confederacy  at  that  time. 
The  charter  was  confirmed.  (See  Coddington,  \V.) 

Disputes  between  Royal  Governors  and  I 


the  People.  These  disputes,  which  continued 
about  seventy  years,  were  begun  in  Massachu¬ 
setts  when,  in  1702,  Joseph  Dudley  arrived  from 
England  with  a  commission  from  Queen  Anne 
to  be  cap  tain -general  and  governor  of  the  prov¬ 
ince.  In  his  first  speech  he  demanded  a  “  fit 
and  convenient  house”  for  the  governor,  and  a 
settled  and  stated  salary  for  him.  The  House, 
in  their  answer  the  next  day,  observed  that  they 
would  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  these 
propositions  “  with  all  convenient  speed.”  They 
resolved  to  present,  out  of  the  public  treasury, 
the  sum  of  £500,  and  said,  “  as  to  settling  a  sal¬ 
ary  for  the  governor,  it  is  altogether  new  to  us, 
nor  can  we  think  it  agreeable  to  our  present  Con¬ 
stitution,  but  we  shall  be  ready  to  do,  according 
to  our  ability,  what  may  be  proper  on  our  part  for 
the  support  of  the  government.”  The  governor 
sent  for  the  speaker  and  the  representatives  to 
come  to  his  chamber,  when  he  declared  his  dis¬ 
appointment  because  of  their  procedure,  and 
expressed  a  hope  that  they  would  think  better 
of  the  matter.  So  began  those  disputes  which 
were  one  of  the  causes  of  the  final  dismember¬ 
ment  of  the  British  empire. 

Disruption  of  Buchanan’s  Cabinet.  On  Dec. 
27, 1860,  news  of  the  occupation  of  Fort  Sumter  by 
Major  Anderson  reached  Washington.  ( See  An¬ 
derson  in  Fort  Sumter.)  The  cabinet  assembled  at 
noon.  They  had  a  stormy  session.  Floyd  de¬ 
manded  of  the  President  an  order  for  Anderson’s 
return  to  Fort  Moultrie,  urging  that  the  Presi¬ 
dent,  if  he  should  withhold  it,  would  “  violate 
the  solemn  pledges  of  the  government.”  The 
President  was  inclined  to  give  the  order,  but 
the  warning  voices  of  law  and  duty,  as  well  as 
public  opinion,  made  him  hesitate,  and  the  cab¬ 
inet  adjourned  without  definite  action.  The 
position  of  the  President  was  painful.  He  had 
evidently-  made  pledges  to  the  Secessionists, 
without  suspecting  their  disloyal  schemes  when 
he  made  them,  and  had  filled  his  cabinet  with 
disloyal  men,  supposing  them  to  be  honest.  It 
is  said  that  at  that  time  he  was  in  continual 
fear  of  assassination.  On  the  morning  after  the 
cabinet  meeting  just  referred  to,  news  came  of 
the  seizure  of  Fort  Moultrie  and  Castle  Pinck¬ 
ney.  The  President  breathed  more  freely.  The 
Secessionists  had  committed  the  first  act  of  war, 
and  he  felt  relieved  from  his  pledges.  He  per¬ 
emptorily  refused  to  order  the  withdrawal  of 
Anderson  from  Sumter,  and  on  the  following 
day  Floyd  resigned  the  seals  of  Secretary  of 
War  and  fled  to  Richmond.  In  his  letter  of 
resignation  he  said,  respecting  the  secretary¬ 
ship,  “I  can  no  longer  hold  office,  under  my  con¬ 
victions  of  patriotism,  nor  with  honor,  subject¬ 
ed  as  I  am  to  a  violation  of  solemn  pledges.” 
Joseph  Holt,  of  Kentucky,  a  thoroughly  loyal 
man,  took  Floyd’s  place,  and  a  load  of  anxiety 
was  lifted  from  the  minds  of  the  loyal  people 
of  the  Republic.  The  disruption  of  Buchan¬ 
an’s  cabinet  went  on.  Attorney-general  Black 
had  taken  the  place  of  General  Cass  as  Secreta¬ 
ry  of  State,  and  Edwin  M.  Stanton  filled  the  of¬ 
fice  of  Attorney-general.  Philip  F.  Thompson, 
of  Maryland,  had  succeeded  Orr  as  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  but,  unwilling  to  assist  the  gov- 


DISSENSIONS  IN  CABINET 


396 


DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  UNION 


eminent  in  enforcing  the  laws,  he  was  succeed¬ 
ed  by  John  A.  Dix,  a  stanch  patriot  of  New 
York.  Thompson  left  the  Interior  Department 
Jan.  8,  1861. 

Dissensions  in  Washington’s  Cabinet.  Mr. 

Jefferson  returned  from  France  in  the  autumn 
of  1789,  to  take  a  seat  in  Washington’s  cabinet. 
He  was  tilled  with  the  French  enthusiasm  for 
republican  ideas  and  hatred  of  monarchy,  and 
he  was  chilled  by  the  coldness  of  Washington, 
Adams,  Hamilton,  aud  others  towards  the  cause 
of  the  French  revolutionists.  He  became  mor¬ 
bidly  sensitive  aud  suspicious,  especially  of 
Hamilton,  regarding  him  as  still  a  champion 
of  a  limited  monarchy,  for  which  he  had  ex¬ 
pressed  his  preference  in  the  convention  that 
framed  the  Constitution.  The  consequence  was, 
that  bitter  animosity  grew  up  between  them 
which  gave  Washington  great  uneasiness,  and 
they  became  the  acknowledged  leaders  of  two 
violently  opposing  parties — Federalists  aud  Re¬ 
publicans.  When  Washington  thought  of  re¬ 
tiring  from  the  presidency,  at  the  close  of  his 
first  term,  Jefferson,  who  knew  and  valued  his 
sterling  patriotism,  urged  him  to  accept  the  of¬ 
fice  a  second  time.  In  a  letter  to  him,  he  bold¬ 
ly  avowed  his  belief  that  there  was  a  conspiracy 
on  foot  to  establish  a  monarchy  in  this  country 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Republic,  and  pointed  to  the 
measures  advocated  by  Hamiltou  as  indicative 
of  a  scheme  to  corrupt  legislators  and  people. 
Washington  plainly  told  Jefferson  that  his  sus¬ 
picions  about  a  monarchical  conspiracy  were 
uufounded,  and  that  the  people,  especially  of  the 
great  cities,  were  thoroughly  attached  to  repub¬ 
lican  principles.  But  Jefferson  was  firm  in  his 
belief  in  a  conspiracy,  and,  finally,  criminations 
and  recriminations  having  taken  place  in  the 
public  prints  between  the  two  secretaries,  Ham¬ 
ilton  charged  Freneau’s  Gazette,  which  continu¬ 
ally  attacked  the  administration,  with  being  the 
organ  of  Jefferson,  edited  by  a  clerk  in  his  office. 
The  whole  article  was  courteous  in  words,  but 
extremely  bitter  in  allusions.  It  produced  an 
open  rupture  between  the  two  secretaries,  which 
Washington  tried  in  vain  to  heal  in  a  letter  to 
Jefferson.  Jefferson,  not  long  afterwards,  left 
the  cabinet,  which  Washington  regretted,  for  he 
was  able  and  thoroughly  patriotic. 

Dissolution  of  Non -importation  Leagues. 

Towards  the  close  of  1770  the  merchants  began 
to  be  lax  in  the  observance  of  non-importation 
agreements,  and  at  a  meeting  in  Boston  in  Oc¬ 
tober  it  was  resolved  to  import  everything  but 
tea.  Merchants  in  other  cities  followed  their  ex¬ 
ample.  These  associations,  while  having  a  pow¬ 
erful  political  effect,  brought  about  many  salu¬ 
tary  social  reforms  among  the  people  of  t  he  col¬ 
onies,  by  causing  the  discontinuance  of  many 
extravagant  customs  which  involved  large  ex¬ 
penditures  of  money,  and  needed  lessons  of  strict 
economy  were  learned. 

Dissolution  of  the  Union  long  Contem¬ 
plated.  State  pride,  the  mother  of  the  doctrine 
of  state  supremacy,  was  conspicuously  manifest¬ 
ed  in  the  formation  of  the  League  of  States  un¬ 
der  the  Articles  of  Confederation  (which  see). 


It  was  also  conspicuous  in  the  convention  that 
framed  the  National  Constitution,  and  especial¬ 
ly  so  in  the  state  conventions  called  to  ratify 
that  document.  It  was  so  strong  in  New  York 
that  the  ratification  was  effected  by  only  one 
majority  in  the  convention.  Whenever  the  im¬ 
perious  will  of  politicians  became  thwarted  by  a 
public  policy  opposed  to  their  wishes,  they  were 
in  the  habit  of  speaking  of  a  dissolution  of  the 
Union  as  the  remedy  for  the  provocation.  Such 
was  eminently  the  case  with  the  opposers  of 
Jay’s  treaty  in  1795  (which  see).  Such  wTas  the 
tone  of  the  famous  Virginia  resolutions  of  1798 
(which  see).  So  threatening  to  the  peace  of  the 
Union  had  the  expression  of  such  threats  become 
during  the  administration  of  President  Wash¬ 
ington,  that  the  chief  burden  of  his  Farewell 
Address  was  a  plea  for  union.  The  purchase  of 
Louisiana  and  its  creation  as  a  state  called  forth 
this  sentiment  from  New  England  politicians 
(see  Secession  in  New  England),  and  the  positive 
declarations  of  Calhoun  to  Commodore  Stewart, 
in  1812,  of  the  intention  of  the  Southern  politi¬ 
cians  to  dissolve  the  Union  in  case  of  a  certain 
contingency,  showed  the  alarming  prevalence  of 
this  idea  in  the  slave-labor  states.  (See  Ruling 
Class  in  the  South.)  It  was  put  forth  conspicu¬ 
ously  in  the  debates  on  the  admission  of  Mis¬ 
souri.  (See  Missouri  Compromise.)  After  the  tar¬ 
iff  act  of  1828,  so  obnoxious  to  the  cotton-grow¬ 
ers,  became  a  law,  the  citizens  of  St.  John’s  par¬ 
ish,  in  South  Carolina,  said  in  convention :  “We 
have  sworn  that  Congress  shall,  at  our  demand, 
repeal  the  tariff'.  If  she  does  not,  our  state  Leg¬ 
islature  will  dissolve  our  connection  with  the 
Union,  and  we  will  take  our  stand  among  the 
nations ;  and  it  behooves  every  true  Carolinian 
‘to  stand  by  his  arms,’  and  to  keep  the  halls  of 
our  Legislature  pure  from  foreign  intruders.” 
When,  in  the  autumn  of  1832,  the  famous  Nul¬ 
lification  Ordinance  was  passed  (which  see),  so 
positive  were  the  politicians  of  South  Carolina 
that  the  dissolution  of  the  Union  was  nigh,  that 
they  caused  a  medal  to  be  struck  with  this  in¬ 
scription,  “  John  C.  Calhoun,  First  President 
of  the  Southern  Confederacy.”  In  1836  a 
novel  was  written  by  Beverly  Tucker,  of  Virginia, 
called  The  Partisan  Leader,  in  which  the  doctrine 
of  state  supremacy  and  sectional  feeling  was  in¬ 
culcated  in  the  seductive  form  of  a  romance, 
■which  was  widely  circulated  at  the  South,  and 
made  the  people  familiar  with  the  idea  of  seces¬ 
sion  as  a  great  good  for  that  section.  “  South¬ 
ern  Rights  Associations”  were  founded,  having 
for  their  object  the  dissolution  of  the  Union. 
These  were  active  at  the  time  of  the  excitement 
about  the  admission  of  California  into  the  Union. 
One  of  the  most  active  of  the  Virginians  in  dis¬ 
union  movements  at  that  time  was  M.  R.  H.  Gar¬ 
nett  (who  was  in  Congress  when  the  Civil  War 
broke  out).  In  a  letter  to  W.  H.  Trescott,  a 
leader  in  the  “  Southern  Rights  Association”  of 
South  Carolina  (May,  1851),  Garnett  mourned 
over  the  action  of  Virginia  in  hesitating  to  en¬ 
ter  into  the  scheme  of  revolution  then.  “I  do 
not  believe,”  he  wrote,  “that  the  course  of  the 
Legislature  is  a  fair  expression  of  the  popular 
feeling.  In  the  East,  at  least,  the  great  major- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ARMS 


397  DISUNION  THREATENED  IN  1779 


ity  believe  in  tbe  right  of  secession,  and  feel  the 
deepest  sympathy  with  Carolina  in  opposition 
to  measures  which  they  regard  as  she  does. 
But  the  West — Western  Virginia — here  is  the 
rub!  On ly  60,000  slaves  to  494, 000  whites !  When 
I  consider  this  fact,  and  the  kind  of  argument 
which  we  have  heard  in  this  body,  I  cannot  but 
regard  with  the  greatest  fear  the  question, 
whether  Virginia  would  assist  Carolina  in  such 
an  issue.  .  .  .  You  will  object  to  the  word  Demo¬ 
crat.  Democracy,  in  its  original  philosophical 
sense,  is,  indeed,  incompatible  with  slavery  and 
the  whole  system  of  Southern  society.”  Mr. 
Garnett  expressed  a  fear  that,  if  the  question 
was  raised  between  Carolina  and  the  National 
government,  and  the  latter  prevailed,  the  last 
hope  of  Southern  civilization  would  expire. 
Preston  S.  Brooks,  who  assaulted  Senator  Sum¬ 
ner  of  Massachusetts,  when  alone  at  his  desk  in 
the  Senate  (see  Sumner,  Charles),  with  a  heavy 
cane,  said,  in  an  harangue  before  an  excited  pop¬ 
ulace  in  South  Carolina,  “I  tell  you  that  the 
only  mode  which  I  think  available  for  meet¬ 
ing  the  issue  is,  just  to  tear  in  twain  the  Consti¬ 
tution  of  the  United  States,  trample  it  under  foot., 
and  form  a  Southern  Confederacy,  every  state 
of  which  shall  be  a  slave-holding  state. ...  I  have 
been  a  disunionist  from  the  time  I  could  think. 
If  I  were  commander  of  an  army,  I  never  would 
post  a  sentinel  who  would  not  swear  slavery 
was  right.  ...  If  Fremont  be  elected  President 
of  the  United  States,  I  am  for  the  people,  in 
their  majesty,  rising  above  the  laws  and  lead¬ 
ers,  taking  the  power  into  their  own  hands,  go¬ 
ing,  by  concert  or  not  by  concert,  and  laying 
the  strong  arm  of  Southern  powrer  upon  the 
treasury  and  archives  of  the  government.” 
This  was  attempted  in  1861.  (See  On  to  Wash¬ 
ington.) 

Distribution  of  Arms  in  the  South.  Sec¬ 
retary  Floyd  stripped  Northern  arsenals  of  arms 
and  sent  them  to  Southern  arsenals,  in  prepara¬ 
tion  for  the  insurrection  that  broke  out  in  1861. 
(See  Floyd’s  Disloyal  Acts.)  These  arms  were 
distributed  as  follows: 


Percussion  Muskets.  Altered  Muskets.  Rifles. 


To  Charleston  Arsenal . . 

. ..  9,280 

5,720 

2,000 

To  Fayetteville  Arsenal . 

...  15,480 

9,520 

2,000 

To  Augusta  Arsenal . 

...  12,380 

7,620 

2.000 

To  Mount  Vernon  Arsenal. . . , 

,..  9,280 

5,720 

2,000 

To  Baton  Rouge  Arsenal . . . . 

. ..  18,580 

11,420 

2,000 

65,000 

40,000 

10,000 

District  of  Columbia,  Organization  of  the 
(1791).  The  District  was  erected  into  two  coun¬ 
ties,  as  divided  by  the  Potomac,  and  was  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  circuit  court,  com¬ 
posed  of  a  chief-justice  and  two  assessors;  the 
judgment  of  this  court  to  be  final  in  criminal 
cases,  but  in  civil  cases,  where  the  amount  in 
dispute  exceeded  $100  in  value,  a  writ  of  error 
to  lie  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
This  arrangement  was  afterwards  modified.  In¬ 
stead  of  providing  a  homogeneous  code  of  laws 
for  the  District,  those  of  Maryland  and  Virginia 
were  continued.  Population  in  1880,  177,624'. 
(See  National  Capital.) 

District  of  Columbia,  Slavery  in  the,  Abol¬ 
ished.  A  bill  for  this  purpose  was  passed  by 


the  National  Congress  (April  11,  1862),  and  be¬ 
came  a  law  by  the  signature  of  the  President 
April  16.  It  provided  for  the  payment,  out  of 
the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  of  an  average 
compensation  of  $300  to  the  master  or  mistress 
of  each  slave  thus  emancipated.  Thus  emanci¬ 
pation  began  at  the  national  capital.  In  connec¬ 
tion  with  this  event  was  a  curious  proceeding. 
A  free  negro  of  the  district,  who  had  bought 
and  paid  for  his  slave  wife,  she  and  her  cliil- 
dren  being,  by  the  slave  code,  his  lawful  slaves, 
claimed  and  received  compensation  for  her  and 
her  half-dozen  children. 

District  of  Louisiana.  All  the  region  west 
of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  Orleans  Territory 
(which  see)  was  constituted  the  District  of  Lou¬ 
isiana  iu  1804.  It  included  a  little  village  on 
the  Arkansas  River,  and  several  on  or  near  the 
Mississippi,  the  principal  of  which  was  St.  Louis. 
(See  Fur-trade.)  The  white  population  was  less 
than  four  thousand,  and  it  was  proposed  to  re¬ 
serve  this  region  for  the  Indians.  The  Presi¬ 
dent  was  authorized  to  propose  to  the  tribes 
east  of  the  Mississippi  an  exchange  of  their  lands 
for  other  territory  out  of  the  reserve,  and  their 
migration  thither.  This  policy  has  since  been 
extensively  carried  out.  The  District  of  Lou¬ 
isiana  was  placed  under  the  charge  of  Indiana, 
and  was  erected  into  a  separate  territory  of  the 
i  second  class  in  1805,  the  power  of  legislation 
being  vested  iu  the  governor  and  judges. 

Disunion,  Proposition  for  (1804).  The  pur¬ 
chase  of  Louisiana  was  deprecated  and  violently 
opposed  by  the  Federalist  leaders,  because  it 
would  strengthen  the  Southern  political  influ¬ 
ence  then  controlling  the  national  government. 
They  professed  to  regard  the  measure  as  inim¬ 
ical  to  the  Northern  and  Eastern  sections  of  the 
Union.  The  Southern  politicians  had  made 
them  familiar  with  the  prescription  of  disunion 
as  a  remedy  for  incurable  political  evils,  and 
they  resolved  to  try  its  efficacy  in  the  case  in 
question.  All  through  the  years  1803  and  1804 
desires  for  and  fears  of  a  dissolution  of  the  Union 
were  freely  expressed  in  what  were  free-labor 
states  iu  1861.  East  of  the  Alleghanies,  early  in 
1804,  a  select  convention  of  Federalists,  to  be 
held  in  Boston,  was  contemplated,'  iu  the  ensu¬ 
ing  autumn,  to  consider  the  question  of  disunion. 
Alexander  Hamilton  was  invited  to  attend  it, 
but  his  emphatic  condemnation  of  the  whole 
plan,  only  a  short  time  before  his  death,  seems 
to  have  disconcerted  the  leaders  and  dissipated 
the  scheme.  The  Rev.  Jedidiah  Morse,  then  very 
influential  in  the  Church  and  in  politics  in  New 
England,  advocated  the  severance  of  the  East¬ 
ern  States  from  the  Union,  so  as  to  get  rid  of 
the  evils  of  the  slave  system  ;  and,  later,  Josiah 
Quincy,  in  a  debate  in  the  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives,  expressed  his  opinion  that  it  might  be¬ 
come  necessary  to  divide  the  Union  as  a  cure 
of  evils  that  seemed  to  be  already  chronic. 

Disunion  threatened  in  1779.  In  angry 
debates  in  Congress  on  the  subject  of  the  fish¬ 
eries,  in  1779,  threats  of  disunion  were  made  by 
deputies  of  the  North  and  the  South.  It  was 
shown  that  the  prosperity  of  New  England  de- 


DIX 


393 


DIX 


pended  on  the  fisheries ;  but  in  this  the  South¬ 
ern  States  had  no  common  interest.  Indeed,  in 
all  the  states  the  doctrine  of  state  supremacy 
was  so  universally  prevalent  that  the  deputies 
in  Congress,  instead  of  willingly  legislating  for 
the  whole,  legislated  for  their  respective  states. 
When  appeals  had  been  made  in  Congress  for  a 
favorable  consideration  of  New  England  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  the  fisheries  without  effect,  Samuel  Ad¬ 
ams  said  that  “  it  would  become  more  and  more 
necessary  for  the  two  empires  [meaning  the 
Northern  and  Southern  States  divided  by  “  Ma¬ 
son  and  Dixon’s  Line”  (which  see)]  to  separate.” 
When  the  North  offered  a  preliminary  resolution 
that  the  country,  even  if  deserted  by  France  and 
Spain,  would  continue  the  war  for  the  sake  of 
the  fisheries,  four  states  drew  up  a  protest,  de¬ 
claring  peremptorily  tliat  if  the  resolution  should 
be  adopted  they  would  withdraw  from  the  con¬ 
federation.  These  sectional  interests  continu¬ 
ally  stood  in  the  way  of  a  perfect  union  of  the 
struggling  colonists.  The  inflexible  tenacity 
with  which  each  state  asserted  its  title  to  com¬ 
plete  sovereignty  often  menaced  the  Union  with 
destruction,  and  iudependeuce  became,  in  the 
minds  of  some,  an  idle  dream.  When,  in  Au¬ 
gust,  1781,  envoys  from  Vermont  were  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  eutreating  for  the  admission  of  their 
state  into  the  Union,  the  measure  was  opposed 
by  the  Southern  delegates,  because  it  would  “de¬ 
stroy  the  balance  of  power”  between  the  two 
sections  of  the  confederacy,  and  give  the  pre¬ 
ponderance  to  the  North. 

Dix,  Dorothea  Lynde,  was  born  at  Worces¬ 
ter,  Mass.  After  her  father’s  death  she  sup¬ 
ported  herself  by  teaching  a  school  for  young 
girls  in  Boston.  Becoming  interested  in  the 
welfare  of  the  convicts  in  the  state  prison  at 
Charlestown,  her  philanthropic  spirit  expanded 
and  embraced  all  of  the  unfortunate  and  suffer¬ 
ing  classes.  Having  inherited  from  a  relative 
property  sufficient  to  render  her  independent, 
she  went  to  Europe  for  her  health.  Returning 
to  Boston  in  1837,  she  devoted  her  life  to  the  in¬ 
vestigation  and  alleviation  of  the  condition  of 
paupers,  lunatics,  and  prisoners,  encouraged  by 
her  friend  and  pastor,  Dr.  Channiug.  In  this 
work  she  visited  every  state  in  the  Union  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  endeavoring  to  per¬ 
suade  legislatures  to  aid  the  unfortunate,  and 
was  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  several  state  asylums.  At  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War  she  was  placed  in  a  re¬ 
sponsible  position  in  relation  to  public  hospi¬ 
tals  by  the  Secretary  of  War  (see  United  States 
Sanitary  Commission.')  Miss  Dix  died  at  Trenton, 
Aug.  2,  1887. 

Dix,  John  Adams,  was  born  at  Boscawen, 
N.  H.,  July  24,  1798  ;  died  April  21,  1879.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1830,  and 
completed  his  studies  in  a  French  college  at 
Montreal.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  cadet  in 
1812,  when  the  war  with  England  began.  While 
his  father,  Lieutenant-colonel  Dix,  was  at  Fort 
McHenry,  Baltimore,  young  Dix  pursued  his 
studies  at  St.  Mary’s  College.  In  the  spring  of 
1813  he  was  appointed  an  ensign  in  the  army, 


and  was  soon  promoted  to  third  lieutenant,  and 
made  adjutant  of  an  independent  battalion  of 
nine  companies.  He  was  commissioned  a  cap¬ 
tain  in  1825,  and  having  continued  in  the  army 
sixteen  years,  in  1828  he  left  the  military  ser¬ 
vice.  His  father  had  been  mortally  hurt  at 
Chrysler’s  Field  (which  see),  and  the  care  of  ex¬ 
tricating  the  paternal  estate  from  difficulties, 
for  the  benefit  of  his  mother  and  her  nine  chil¬ 
dren,  had  devolved  upon  him.  He  had  studied 


law  while  in  the  army.  After  visiting  Europe 
for  his  health,  Captain  Dix  settled  as  a  lawyer 
in  Cooperstown,  N.  Y.  He  became  warmly  en¬ 
gaged  in  politics,  and  in  1830  Governor  Throop 
appointed  him  adjutant  -  general  of  the  state. 
In  1833  he  was  elected  Secretary  of  State  of 
New  York,  which  office  made  him  a  member  of 
the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  and 
other  important  positions.  Chiefly  through  his 
exertions  public  libraries  were  introduced  into 
the  school  districts  of  the  state  and  the  school 
laws  systematized.  In  1842  he  was  a  member 
of  the  New  York  Assembly,  and  of  the  United 
States  Senate  from  1845  to  1849.  In  the  discus¬ 
sion  of  the  question  of  the  annexation  of  Tex¬ 
as  and  of  slavery  he  expressed  the  views  of 
the  small  Free  Soil  Party  whose  candidate  for 
governor  he  was  in  1848.  In  1859  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Postmaster  of  New  York  city ;  and 
when,  early  in  1861,  Buchanan’s  cabinet  was 
dissolved,  he  was  called  to  the  position  of  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury.  In  that  capacity  he  is¬ 
sued  the  famous  order.  (See  Dix,  Order  of.)  He 
was  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers  May 
16,  1861 ;  commander  at  Baltimore,  and  then  at 
Fortress  Monroe  and  on  the  Virginia  peninsula; 
and  in  September,  1862,  he  was  placed  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Seventh  Army  Corps.  He  was  also 
chosen  President  of  the  Pacific  Railway  Com¬ 
pany.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  minister  to 
France,  which  position  he  filled  until  1869.  He 
was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  of  New  York 
in  1872,  and  retired  to  private  life  at  the  end  of 
the  term  of  two  years,  at  which  time  he  per¬ 
formed  rare  service  for  the  good  name  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  General  Dix  was  a  fine 
classical  scholar,  and  translated  several  pas¬ 
sages  from  Catullus,  Virgil,  and  others  into  pol¬ 
ished  English  verse.  He  made  a  most  conscien¬ 
tious  and  beautiful  translation  of  the  Dies  Irce. 


DIX’S  FAMOUS  ORDER 


399 


DIX’S  FAMOUS  ORDER 


Dix’s  Famous  Order.  Early  in  January, 
1861,  John  A.  Dix  was  made  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  He  found  the  department  in  a 
wretched  condition,  and  proceeded  with  energy 
in  the  administration  of  it.  Hearing  of  the 


Mobile  and  New  Orleans.  He  found  the  Leicis 
Cass  in  the  hands  of  the  insurgents  at  Mobile. 
The  Robert  McClelland,  at  New  Orleans,  was  in 
command  of  Captain  J.  G.  Breshwood,  of  the 
navy.  Jones  gave  the  captain  an  order  from 


tendency  in  the  slave-labor  states  to  seize  Unit¬ 
ed  States  property  within  their  borders,  he  sent 
a  special  agent  of  his  department  (Hemphill 
Jones)  to  secure  for  service  revenue  cutters  at 


Dix  to  sail  to  the  North.  Breshwood  absolute¬ 
ly  refused  to  obey  the  order.  This  fact  Jones 
made  known,  by  telegraph,  to  Dix,  and  added 
that  the  collector  at  New  Orleans  (Hatch)  su3- 


DIXIE 


400 


DOMESTIC  SLAVE-TRADE 


tained  the  rebellions  captain.  Dix  instantly 
telegraphed  back,  “Tell  Lieut.  Caldwell  to  ar¬ 
rest  Capt.  Breshwood,  assume  command  of  the 
cutter,  and  obey  the  order  I  gave  through  you. 
If  Capt.  Breshwood,  after  arrest,  undertakes  to 
interfere  with  the  command  of  the  cutter,  tell 
Lieut.  Caldwell  to  consider  him  as  a  mutineer 
and  treat  him  accordingly.  If  anyone  attempts 
to  haul  down  the  American  flag,  shoot  him  on  the 
spot .”  The  Secessionists  in  New  Orleans  had 
possession  of  the  telegraph,  and  did  not  allow 
this  despatch  to  pass,  and  the  McClelland  was 
handed  over  to  the  authorities  of  Louisiana. 
As  Secretary  Dix’s  order  was  flashed  over  the 
land  it  thrilled  every  heart  with  hope  that  the 
temporizing  policy  of  the  administration  had 
ended.  The  loyal  people  rejoiced,  and  a  small 
medal  was  struck  by  private  hands  commemo¬ 


rative  of  the  event,  on  one  side  of  which  was 
the  Union  flag,  and  around  it  the  words,  “  The 
Flag  of  our  Union,  1862 on  the  other,  in  two 
circles,  the  last  clause  of  Dix’s  famous  order. 
After  the  war  the  authorship  of  the  famous  or¬ 
der  was  claimed  for  different  persons,  and  it  was 
asserted  that  General  Dix  was  only  the  medium 
for  its  official  communication.  In  reply  to  an 
inquiry  addressed  by  the  writer  to  General  Dix 
at  the  close  of  August,  1873,  he  responded  as 
follows  from  his  country  residence  : 

“  Seafield,  West  Haven,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  21, 1873. 

“  Your  favor  is  received.  The  ‘  order  ’  alluded  to  was  writ¬ 
ten  by  myself,  without  any  suggestion  from  any  one,  and  it 
was  sent  off  three  days  before  it  was  communicated  to  the 
President  or  cabinet.  Mr.  Stanton’s  letter  to  Mr.  Bonner,  of 
the  Ledger,  stating  that  it  was  wholly  mine,  was  published  in 
the  New  York  Times  last  October  or  late  in  September,  to 
silence  forever  the  misrepresentations  in  regard  to  it.  After 
writing  it  (about  seven  o’clock  in  the  evening),  I  gave  it  to 
Mr.  Hardy,  a  clerk  in  the  Treasury  Department,  to  copy.  The 
copy  was  signed  by  me,  and  sent  to  the  telegraph  office  the 
same  evening,  and  the  original  was  kept,  like  all  other  origi¬ 
nal  despatches.  It  is  now,  as  you  state,  in  possession  of  my 
son,  Rev.  Dr.  Dix,  No.  27  West  Twenty-fifth  Street,  New  York. 
It  was  photographed  in  1863  or  1864,  and  you,  no  doubt,  have 
the  fac-simile  thus  made. 

“  Very  truly  yours,  John  A.  Dix.  ” 

Dixie.  A  supposed  imaginary  land  of  luxu¬ 
rious  enjoyment  somewhere  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  during  the  Civil  War  it  became 
a  collective  designation  for  the  slave  -  labor 
states.  “Dixie”  songs  and  “Dixie”  mnsic  pre¬ 
vailed  all  over  those  states  and  in  the  Confed¬ 
erate  army.  It  had  no  such  significance.  It 
is  a  simple  refrain  that  originated  among  ne¬ 
gro  emigrants  to  the  South  from  Manhattan,  or 
New  York,  island  about  eighty  years  ago.  A' 
man  named  Dixy  owned  a  large  tract  of  land 
on  that  island  and  many  slaves.  They  became 
unprofitable,  and  the  growth  of  the  abolition 
sentiment  made  Dixy’s  slaves  uncertain  prop¬ 
erty.  He  sent  quite  a  large  number  of  them  to 


Southern  planters  and  sold  them.  The  heavier 
burdens  imposed  upon  them  there,  and  the  mem¬ 
ories  of  their  birthplace  and  its  comforts  on 
Manhattan,  made  them  sigh  for  Dixy’s.  It  be¬ 
came  with  them  synonymous  with  an  earthly 
paradise,  and  the  exiles  sang  a  simple  refrain 
in  a  pathetic  manner  about  the  joys  at  Dixy’s. 
Additions  to  it  elevated  it  into  the  dignity  of  a 
song,  and  it  was  chanted  by  the  negroes  all  over 
the  South,  which,  in  the  Civil  War,  was  called 
the  “  Land  of  Dixie.” 

Dodge,  Grenville  M.,  was  born  at  Danvers, 
Mass.,  April  12,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Par¬ 
tridge’s  Military  Academy,  Conn.,  and  became  a 
railroad  surveyor  in  Illinois  and  Iowa  and  west¬ 
ward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  He  was  sent  to 
Washington  in  1861  to  procure  arms  and  equip¬ 
ments  for  Iowa  volunteers,  and  became  colonel 
of  a  regiment  in  July.  He  commanded  a  bri¬ 
gade  on  the  extreme  right  at  the  battle  of  Pea 
Ridge  (which  see),  and  was  wounded.  For  his 
services  there  he  was  made  brigadier-general. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Dis¬ 
trict  of  the  Mississippi  in  June,  1862.  He  was 
with  Sherman  in  his  Georgia  campaign,  and  was 
promoted  to  major-general.  He  finally  com¬ 
manded  the  Sixteenth  Corps  in  that  campaign, 
and  in  December,  1864,  he  succeeded  Rosecrans 
in  command  of  the  Department  of  Missouri.  In 
1867-69  he  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
Iowa. 

Dodge,  Henry,  was  born  at  Vincennes,  Iml., 
Oct.  12, 1782;  died  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Jan.  19, 
1867.  He  commanded  a  company  of  volunteers 
in  the  War  of  1812-15,  and  rose  to  the  position 
of  lieutenant  -  colonel  of  mounted  infantry  in 
1814.  He  fought  the  Indians  from  1832  to  i834, 
when  he  made  peace  on  the  frontiers,  and  in 
1835  commanded  an  expedition  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  He  was  Governor  of  Wisconsin  and 
Superintendent  of  Indian  Affairs  from  1836  to 
1841 ;  a  delegate  in  Congress  from  1841  to  1845 ; 
and  United  States  Senator  from  1849  to  1857. 

Domestic  Manufactures.  (See  Home  Man¬ 
ufactures.) 

Domestic  Slave-trade.  The  rapid  exten¬ 
sion  of  settlements  in  the  southwest  after  the 
War  of  1812-15,  and  the  great  profits  derived 
there  from  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  had  not 
only  caused  the  revival  of  the  African  slave- 
trade,  in  spite  of  prohibitory  laws,  but  it  had 
given  occasion  to  a  rival  domestic  slave-trade, 
of  which  the  national  capital  had  become  one 
of  the  centres,  where  it  was  carried  on  by  pro¬ 
fessional  traffickers  in  human  beings.  They 
bought  up  the  slaves  of  impoverished  planters 
of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and  sold  them  at 
large  profits  in  the  cotton-growing  districts  of 
the  South  and  West.  This  new  traffic,  which 
included  many  of  the  worst  features  of  the  Af¬ 
rican  slave-trade,  was  severely  denounced  by 
John  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  as  “  heinous  and 
abominable,  inhuman  and  illegal.”  This  opin¬ 
ion  was  founded  on  facts  reported  by  a  commit¬ 
tee  of  inquiry.  Governor  D.  R.  Williams,  of 
South  Carolina,  denounced  the  traffic  as  “re¬ 
morseless  and  cruel a  “  ceaseless  dragging 


DOMINION  IN  AMERICA 


401 


DOUBLEDAY 


along  the  streets  and  highways  of  a  crowd  of 
suffering  victims  to  minister  to  insatiable  ava¬ 
rice,”  condemned  alike  by  “enlightened  human¬ 
ity,  wise  policy,  and  the  prayers  of  the  just.” 
The  governor  urged  that  it  had  a  tendency  to 
introduce  slaves  of  all  descriptions  from  other 
states,  “  detiling  the  delightful  avocations  of 
private  life”  “by  the  presence  of  convicts  aud 
malefactors.”  The  Legislature  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina  passed  an  act  forbidding  the  introduction 
of  slaves  from  other  states.  A  similar  act  was 
passed  by  the  Georgia  Legislature.  This  legis¬ 
lation  was  frequently  resorted  to  on  occasions 
of  alarm,  but  the  profitable  extension  of  cotton 
cultivation  and  the  demand  for  slave  labor 
overcame  all  scruples.  Within  two  years  after 
its  passage,  the  prohibitory  act  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina  was  repealed.  The  interstate  slave-traffic 
was  carried  on  extensively  until  slavery  was 
abolished  in  1863.  A  Richmond  newspaper,  in 
1861,  urging  Virginia  to  join  the  Southern  Con¬ 
federacy,  which  had  prohibited  the  traffic  be¬ 
tween  them  and  states  that  would  not  join 
them,  gave  as  a  most  urgent  reason  for  such  an 
act,  that  if  it  were  not  accomplished  the  “  Old 
Dominion  ”  would  lose  this  trade,  amounting  an¬ 
nually  to  from  thirteen  to  twenty  million  dollars. 

Dominion  in  America,  French  and  Eng¬ 
lish  Claims  for.  The  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  (which  see)  was  only  a  truce  between 
France  and  England,  contending  for  dominion 
in  America.  The  former,  excluded  from  all  tbe 
frontier  coasts  of  North  America,  aimed  to  re¬ 
pair  this  disadvantage  by  possessing  the  river 
St.  Lawrence  on  the  north  aud  the  Mississippi 
on  the  west  and  south,  and  a  connection  of  the 
colonies  of  Louisiana  and  Canada  through  the 
intermediate  lakes  aud  waters.  This  design, 
which  the  English  frustrated,  was  regarded  by 
the  latter  as  not  only  prejudicial  to  them  in  its 
operation,  but  unjust  in  principle.  The  French 
claim  rested  upon  a  prior  settlement  in  New 
France.  The  English  claim  rested  upon  the 
grant  to  the  Plymouth  Company  (1620)  of  all 
t,lie  lands  between  the  parallels  of  forty  and 
forty-eight  degrees  north  latitude  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean  (see  Council  of  Plymouth),  aud  on  treaties 
made  with  the  native  inhabitants  of  the  con¬ 
tinent.  They  insisted,  moreover,  that  the  coun¬ 
try  of  the  Six  Nations  was  ceded  to  them  by 
the  French  in  the  treaties  at  Utrecht  (1713) 
and  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748).  The  English,  there¬ 
fore,  regarded  as  encroachments  by  the  French 
the  erection  by  the  latter  of  about  twenty  forts, 
besides  block-houses  and  trading-posts,  within 
claimed  English  domain.  So,  while  Acadia  fur¬ 
nished  one  field  for  hostilities  between  the  two 
nations,  the  country  along  the  lakes  and  in  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys  furnished  another. 
The  dispute  was  settled  by  the  arbitrament  of 
arms. 

Dongan,  Thomas,  was  a  younger  son  of  an 
Irish  baronet,  born  in  1634.  He  was  a  colonel 
in  the  royal  army,  and  served  under  the  French 
king.  In  1678  lie  was  appointed  Lieufenant- 
governor  of  Tangier,  Africa,  whence  he  was  re¬ 
called  in  1680.  The  relations  between  England 
I.— 26 


and  France  were  then  delicate,  and  Dongan 
being  a  Roman  Catholic,  like  the  proprietor  of 
New  York,  he  was  chosen  by  Duke  James  gov¬ 
ernor  of  that  province  (1683),  as  it  was  thought 
his  experience  iu  France  might  make  it  easier 
to  keep  up  friendly  relations  with  the  French 
on  the  borders.  Dongan  caused  a  company  of 
merchants  iu  New  York  to  be  formed  for  the 
management  of  the  fisheries  at,  Pemaquid,  a 
part  of  the  duke’s  domain  (see  Pemaquid),  and 
he  took  measures  to  protect  the  territory  from 
encroachments.  Dongan  managed  the  relations 
between  the  English,  French,  and  Indians  with 
dexterity.  He  was  not  deceived  by  the  false 
professions  of  the  French  rulers  or  the  wiles  of 
the  Jesuit  priests;  and  when  De  Nonville  in¬ 
vaded  the  country  of  the  Five  Nations  (1686) 
he  showed  himself  as  bold  as  this  leader  in  de¬ 
fence  of  the  rights  of  Englishmen.  Dongan 
sympathized  with  the  people  of  his  province  in 
their  aspirations  for  liberty,  which  his  prede¬ 
cessor  (Andros)  had  denied;  aud  he  was  instru¬ 
mental  in  the  formation  of  the  first  General  As¬ 
sembly  of  New  York,  and  in  obtaining  a  popu¬ 
lar  form  of  government.  ( See  Liberties  and  Fran¬ 
chises,  Charter  of.)  When  the  perfidious  king 
violated  his  promises  while  he  was  duke,Dougan 
was  grieved,  and  protested ;  aud  when  the  mon¬ 
arch  ordered  him  to  introduce  French  priests 
among  the  Five  Nations,  the  enlightened  gov¬ 
ernor  resisted  the  measure  as  dangerous  to  Eng¬ 
lish  power  on  the  continent.  His  firmness  in 
defence  of  the  rights  of  the  people  and  the  safe¬ 
ty  of  the  Euglish  colonies  in  America  against 
wrhat  he  could  not  but  regard  as  the  treachery 
of  the  king  finally  offended  his  sovereign,  and 
he  was  dismissed  from  office  in  the  spring  of 
1688,  when  Andros  took  his  place,  bearing  a 
vice-regal  commission  to  rule  all  New  England 
besides.  Dongan  remained  in  the  province  un¬ 
til  persecuted  by  Leisler  in  1690,  when  he  with¬ 
drew  to  Boston. 

Doolittle,  Amos,  one  of  the  earliest  engravers 
on  copper  in  the  United  States.  While  a  vol¬ 
unteer  in  the  camp  at  Cambridge  (1775)  he  vis¬ 
ited  the  scene  of  the  skirmish  at  Lexington  and 
made  a  drawing  and  engraving  of  the  affair, 
which  furnishes  the  historian  with  the  only 
correct  representation  of  the  buildings  around 
the  “  Green  ”  at  that  time.  He  afterwards  made 
other  historical  prints  of  the  time. 

Dorr,  Thomas  Wilson,  was  born  in  Provi¬ 
dence,  R.  I.,  in  1805 ;  died  there,  Dec.  27,  1854. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1823.  He  studied 
law  with  Chancellor  Kent,  and  began  its  prac¬ 
tice  in  1827.  He  is  cliielly  conspicuous  in  our 
history  as  the  chosen  governor  of  what  was 
called  the  “  Suffrage  party,”  and  attempted  to 
take  the  place  of  what  was  deemed  to  be  the  le¬ 
gal  state  government.  (See  Rhode  Island.)  He 
was  tried  for  and  convicted  of  high-treason,  and 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life  in  1842,  but 
was  pardoned  in  1847  ;  and  in  1853  the  Legislat¬ 
ure  restored  to  him  his  civil  rights  and  ordered 
the  record  of  his  sentence  to  be  expunged.  He 
lived  to  see  his  party  triumph. 

Doubleday,  Abner,  was  born  at  Ballston 


DOUGHFACES 


402 


DOUGLASS 


Spa,  N.  Y.,  June  26, 1819,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842.  He  served  in  the  artillery  in  the 
war  with  Mexico;  rose  to  captain  in  1855;  and 
served  against  the  Seminole  Indians  in  1856-58. 
Captain  Doubleday  was  an  efficient  officer  in 


ABNER  DOUBLEDAY. 


Fort  Sumter  writh  Major  Anderson  during  its 
siege.  He  fired  the  first  gun  (April  12,  1861) 
upon  the  insurgents  from  that  fort.  On  May 
14  he  was  promoted  to  major,  and  on  Feh.  3, 
1862,  to  brigadier -general  of  volunteers.  In 
Hooker’s  corps,  at  the  battle  of  Antietam,  he 
commanded  a  division  ;  aud  when  Reynolds  fell 
at  Gettysburg,  Doubleday  took  command  of  his 
corps.  He  had  been  made  major-general  in 
November,  1862,  and  had  been  conspicuously 
engaged  in  the  battles  of  Fredericksburg  and 
Chaucellorsville.  He  was  breveted  brigadier- 
and  major-general  of  the  United  States  Army  in 
March,  1865,  and  was  commissioned  colonel  of 
infantry  in  September,  1867. 

Doughfaces.  During  the  great  debate  on 
the  slavery  question  in  1820,  elicited  by  pro¬ 
ceedings  in  relation  to  the  admission  of  Missouri 
as  a  free -labor  or  slave -labor  state,  eighteen 
Northern  men  were  induced  to  vote  for  a  sort 
of  compromise,  by  which  the  striking  the  prohi¬ 
bition  of  slavery  out  of  the  Missouri  Bill  was 
carried  by  ninety  to  eighty-seven.  John  Ran¬ 
dolph,  who  denounced  the  compromise  as  a 
“dirty  bargain,”  also  denounced  these  eighteen 
Northern  representatives  as  “doughfaces”  — 
plastic  in  the  hands  of  expert  demagogues.  The 
epithet  was  at  once  adopted  into  the  political 
vocabulary  of  the  Republic,  where  it  remains. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold,  was  born  at  Bran¬ 
don,  Vt.,  April  23, 1813 ;  died  in  Chicago,  June  3, 
1861.  He  learned  the  business  of  cabinet-mak¬ 
ing,  studied  law,  became  an  auctioneer’s  clerk 
in  Jacksonville,  Ill.,  and  taught  school  until  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar,  when  he  soon  became  an  ac¬ 
tive  politician.  Because  of  his  small  stature 
and  power  of  intellect  and  speech  he  was  called 
“The  Little  Giant.”  He  was  Attorney-general 
of  Illinois  in  1835  ;  was  in  the  Legislature;  was 
chosen  Secretary  of  State  in  1840  ;  judge  in 
1841 ;  and  was  in  Congress  in  1843-47.  He  was 


a  vigorous  promoter  of  the  war  with  Mexico, 
and  was  United  States  Senator  from  1847  to  1861. 
He  advanced  aud  supported  the  doctrine  of  pop¬ 
ular  sovereignty  (which  see)  in  relation  to  slav¬ 
ery  in  the  territories,  and  was  the  author  of  the 


STEPHEN  ARNOLD  DOUGLAS. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  (which  see) ;  and  in  1856 
was  a  rival  candidate  of  Buchanan  for  the  nom¬ 
ination  for  the  Presidency.  He  took  sides  in 
favor  of  freedom  in  Kansas,  and  so  became  in¬ 
volved  in  controversy  with  President  Buchanan. 
He  was  a  candidate  of  the  Democratic  party  in 
1860  for  President  of  the  United  States,  hut  was 
defeated  by  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  was  born  near  Easton, 
Md.,  about  1817.  He  is  a  mulatto,  the  son  of  a 
slave  mother.  He  lived  in  Baltimore  after  he 
was  ten  years  of  age,  and  secretly  taught  him¬ 
self  to  read  and  write.  Endowed  with  great 


FREDERICK  DOUGLASS. 


natural  moral  and  intellectual  ability,  he  fled 
from  slavery  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years, 
and,  going  to  New  Bedford,  married,  and  sup¬ 
ported  himself  by  day -labor  on  the  wharves  and 
in  workshops.  In  1841  he  spoke  at  an  anti- 
slavery  convention  at  Nantucket,  and  soon  af¬ 
terwards  was  made  the  agent  of  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  Anti-slavery  Society.  He  lectured  exten¬ 
sively  in  New  England,  and,  going  to  Great 
Britain,  spoke  in  nearly  all  the  large  towns  in 


DOWNFALL  OF  ANDROS 


403 


that  country  on  the  subject  of  slavery.  On  his 
return  to  the  United  States,  in  1847,  he  began 
the  publication,  at  Kochester,  N.  Y.,  of  the  North 
Star  (afterwards  Frederick  Douglass's  Paper),  a 
weekly  newspaper.  He  had  published  his  auto¬ 
biography.  In  1870  he  became  editor  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Era  at  Washington  city,  and  in  1876  was 
appointed  marshal  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Downfall  of  Andros.  When  news  came  to 
Boston  of  the  revolution  iu  England,  Governor 
Andros  affected  to  disbelieve  it,  and  imprisoned 
those  who  brought  it.  With  the  people  the 
“  wish  was  father  to  the  thought,”  and  they 
gave  credence  to  the  rumor  and  arranged  a  pop¬ 
ular  insurrection.  A  mob  gathered  in  the  streets 
of  Boston.  The  sheriff  who  attempted  to  dis¬ 
perse  them  was  made  a  prisoner;  so  also  was 
the  commander  of  the  frigate  Bose  as  he  landed 
from  his  boat.  The  militia  assembled  in  arms 
at  the  town-house  under  their  old  officers.  An¬ 
dros  and  his  council  withdrew  in  alarm  to  a 
fort  which  crowned  an  eminence  still  known  as 
Fort  Hill.  Simon  Bradstreet,  a  former  governor, 
then  eighty-seven  years  of  age,  was  seen  iu  the 
crowd  by  the  militia,  and  immediately  pro¬ 
claimed  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  redeemed 
colony.  The  magistrates  and  other  citizens 
formed  themselves  into  a  council  of  safety.  The 
ready  pen  of  Cotton  Mather  wrote  a  proclama¬ 
tion,  and  Andros  was  summoned  to  surrender. 
A  barge  sent  from  the  Bose  to  take  off  the  gov¬ 
ernor  and  his  council  was  intercepted  and  capt¬ 
ured.  Andros  yielded,  and,  with  the  royal  ex- 
President  Dudley,  Randolph,  and  his  other  chief 
partisans,  was  imprisoned  (April  18,  1689).  An¬ 
dros,  by  the  connivance  of  a  sentinel,  escaped  to 
Rhode  Island,  but  was  brought  back.  In  July 
following  he  was  sent  to  England.  (See  An¬ 
dros.) 

Draft  Riots  in  New  York.  A  draft  or  con¬ 
scription  of  men  for  the  National  army  had  been 
authorized  (April,  1862)  by  Congress.  The  Pres¬ 
ident  refrained  from  resorting  to  this  extreme 
measure  as  long  as  possible,  but,  owing  to  the 
great  discouragement  to  volunteering  produced 
by  the  unpatriotic  Peace  Faction  (which  see)  and 
the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle  (which  see),  he 
issued  a  proclamation  (May  8,  1863)  for  a  draft, 
to  begin  in  July,  and  caused  the  appointment 
iu  every  Congressional  district  of  an  enrolling 
board.  This  was  made  the  occasion  for  inaugu¬ 
rating  a  counter-revolution  in  the  free-labor 
states.  Organized  resistance  to  the  measure  in¬ 
stantly  appeared.  The  leaders  of  the  peace  fac¬ 
tion  denounced  the  law  and  all  acts  under  it  as 
despotic  and  unconstitutional,  and  an  obscure 
lawyer  of  New  York  city,  named  McCunn,  who 
had  been  elected  a  judge,  so  decided.  He  was 
sustained  by  three  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Pennsylvania  —  Lowrie,  Woodward,  and 
Thompson — and,  supported  by  these  legal  deci¬ 
sions,  the  politicians  antagonistic  to  the  admin¬ 
istration  opposed  the  draft  with  a  high  hand. 
The  public  mind  was  greatly  excited  by  the  ha¬ 
rangues  of  public  speakers  and  the  utterance  of 
the  opposition  newspapers  when  the  draft  was 
ordered.  The  national  anniversary  (July  4)  was 


DRAINSVILLE,  SKIRMISH  AT 

made  the  special  occasion  for  these  utterances, 
and  distinguished  members  of  the  peace  faction 
exhorted  the  people  to  stand  firmly  in  opposi¬ 
tion  to  what  they  called  the  “  usurpations  of  the 
government.”  Sneers  were  uttered  on  that  day 
because  Vicksburg  had  not  been  taken,  and  the 
President  had  made  “a  midnight  cry  for  help” 
because  of  Lee’s  invasion  in  Maryland  ;  when  at 
that  very  moment  Vicksburg,  with  thirty-seven 
thousand  prisoners,  was  in  the  possession  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Grant,  and  Lee  and  his  legions,  discomfited 
at  Gettysburg,  were  preparing  to  flee  back  to 
Virginia.  A  leading  opposition  journal  in  New 
York  city  counselled  its  readers  to  provide  them¬ 
selves  with  a  “good  rifled  musket,  a  few  pounds 
of  powder,  and  a  hundred  or  so  of  shot,”  to  re¬ 
sist  the  draft.  On  the  evening  of  July  3  an  in¬ 
cendiary  handbill,  calculated  to  incite  to  insur¬ 
rection,  was  scattered  broadcast  over  the  city ; 
and  it  is  believed  that  an  organized  outbreak 
had  been  planned,  and  would  have  been  ex¬ 
ecuted,  but  for  the  defeat  of  Lee  that  very  day 
at  Gettysburg,  and  Grant’s  success  at  Vicksburg. 
When,  on  Monday  (July  13),  the  draft  began  in 
New  York,  in  a  building  on  Third  Avenue,  at 
Forty-sixth  Street,  a  large  crowd  (who  had  cut 
the  telegraph-wires  leading  out  of  the  city)  sud¬ 
denly  appeared,  attacked  the  building,  drove 
out  the  clerks,  tore  up  the  papers,  poured  a  can 
of  kerosene  over  the  floor,  and  vfery  soon  that  and 
an  adjoining  building  were  in  flames.  The  fire¬ 
men  were  not  allowed  to  extinguish  them,  and  the 
police  who  came  were  overpowered,  and  the  su¬ 
perintendent  (Kennedy)  was  severely  beaten  by 
the  mob.  So  began  a  tumult  iu  which  thousands 
of  disorderly  persons,  chiefly  natives  of  Ireland, 
were  engaged  for  full  three  days  and  nights. 
The  disorders  broke  out  simultaneously  at  dif¬ 
ferent  points,  evidently  having  a  central  head 
somewhere.  The  cry  against  the  draft  soon 
ceased,  and  those  of  “Down  with  the  abolition¬ 
ists!”  “Down  with  the  niggers!”  “Hurrah  for 
Jeff.  Davis !”  succeeded.  The  mob  compelled 
hundreds  of  citizens — driven  out  of  manufactur¬ 
ing  establishments  which  they  had  closed,  or  in 
the  streets — to  join  them  ;  and,  Tinder  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  strong  drink,  arson  and  plunder  became 
the  business  of  the  rioters.  The  special  objects 
of  their  wrath  were  the  innocent  colored  people. 
They  laid  in  ashes  the  Colored  Orphan  Asylum, 
and  the  terrified  inmates,  who  fled  in  every  di¬ 
rection,  were  pursued  and  cruelly  beaten.  Men 
and  women  were  beaten  to  death  in  the  streets, 
and  the  colored  people  in  the  city  were  hunted 
as  if  they  were  noxious  wild  beasts.  Finally, 
the  police,  aided  by  the  military,  suppressed 
the  insurrection  in  the  city,  but  not  until  one 
thousand  persons  had  been  killed  or  wounded, 
and  property  to  the  amount  of  $2,000,000  de¬ 
stroyed.  Over  fifty  buildings  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  mob,  and  a  large  number  of  stores  and 
dwellings,  not  burned,  were  sacked  and  plun¬ 
dered.  This  riot  was  undoubtedly  an  irregular 
outbreak  of  avast  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
the  Republic. 

Drainsville,  Skirmish  at.  The  loyal  people 
of  the  country  became  impatient  because  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  full  two  hundred  thousand 


DRAKE 


404 


DRAKE 


strong,  at  near  Christmas,  1861,  was  seemingly 
kept  at  bay  by  sixty  thousand  Confederates— 
a  little  more  than  their  number  at  Manassas. 
There  was  a  sense  of  relief  when,  on  Dec.  20,  Gen¬ 
eral  E.  0.  C.  Ord  had  a  sharp  skirmish  with  Con¬ 
federate  cav  alry  near  Drainsville,  led  by  Colonel 
J.  E.  B.  Stuart.  Ord  had  gone  out  to  capture  in¬ 
surgent  foragers,  and  to  gather  forage  from  the 
farms  of  secessionists.  He  was  attacked  by  Stu¬ 
art,  who  had  come  up  from  Ceutreville.  A  se¬ 
vere  fight  occurred,  and  the  Confederates  were 
beaten  and  fled.  The  Nationals  lost  seven  killed 
and  sixteen  wounded  ;  the  Confederates  lost 
forty-three  killed  and  one  hundred  and  forty- 
three  wounded.  The  Nationals  returned  to  camp 
with  sixteen  wagon-loads  of  hay  and  twenty- 
two  of  corn. 

Drake,  Samuel  Gardiner,  was  born  at  Pitts¬ 
field,  N.  H.,  Oct.  11,  1798;  died  in  Boston,  June 
14, 1875.  He  received  a  common-school  education, 
and  taught  in  a  district  school  for  several  years. 
Settling  in  Boston,  he  there  established  the  first 
antiquarian  book-store  in  the  United  States,  in 
1828.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  New 
England  Historical  Genealogical  Society,  of 
which  he  was  at  one  time  president,  and  in  1847 
began  the  publication  of  the  New  England  Gene¬ 
alogical  Register ,  continuing  it  many  years  as  ed¬ 
itor  and  publisher,  making  large  contributions 
of  biography  to  its  pages.  Mr.  Drake  resided  in 
London  about  two  years  (1858—60).  He  pre¬ 
pared  many  valuable  books  on  biographical  and 
historical  subjects.  His  Book  of  the  Indians  is  a 
standard  work  on  Indiau  history  and  biography. 
He  prepared  an  excellent  illustrated  History  of 
Boston,  and  his  illustrative  annotations  of  very 
old  American  books  and  pamphlets  are  of  ex¬ 
ceeding  value. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  was  born  near  Tavistock, 
Devonshire,  England,  about  1542  ;  died  near 
Puerto  Bello,  Dec.  27, 1595.  Becoming  a  seaman 
in  early  youth,  he  was  owner  and  master  of  a 
ship  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years.  After  making 
commercial  voyages  to  Guinea,  Africa,  he  sold 
her,  and  invested  the  proceeds  in  an  expedition 
to  Mexico,  under  Captain  Hawkins,  in  1567.  The 
fleet  was  nearly  destroyed  in  an  attack  by  the 
Spaniards  at  San  Juan  de  Ulloa  (near  Vera  Cruz), 
and  Drake  returned  to  England  stripped  of  all 
his  property.  The  Spanish  government  refused 
to  indemnify  him  for  his  losses,  and  he  sought 
revenge  and  found  it.  Queen  Elizabeth  gave 
him  a  commission  in  the  royal  navy,  and  in  1572 
he  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  two  ships  for  the 
avowed  purpose  of  plundering  the  Spaniards. 
He  did  so  successfully  on  the  coasts  of  South 
America,  and  returned  in  1573  with  greater 
wealth  than  he  ever  possessed  before.  Drake 
was  welcomed  as  a  hero;  he  soon  won  the  title 
honorably  by  circumnavigating  the  globe.  He 
had  seen  from  a  mountain  on  Darien  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  resolved  to  explore 
them.  Under  the  patronage  of  the  queen,  he 
/sailed  from  Plymouth  in  December,  1577 ;  passed 
through  the  Strait  of  Magellan  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean  ;  pillaged  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the 
coasts  of  Peru  and  Chili,  and  a  Spanish  galleon 


laden  with  gold  and  silver  bullion ;  and,  push¬ 
ing  northward,  discovered  the  bay  of  San  Fran¬ 
cisco,  took  possession  of  California  in  the  name 
of  his  queen,  and  named  the  country  New  Al¬ 
bion,  or  New  England.  (See  New  England.)  Fear¬ 
ing  encounters  with  the  Spaniards  on  his  return 
with  his  treasure-laden  vessels,  Drake  sought  a 
uorth-east  passage  to  England.  Met  by  severe 
cold,  he  turned  back,  crossed  the  Pacific  to  the 
Spice  Islands,  thence  over  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and,  doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  reached 
England  in  November,  1580.  The  delighted 
queen  knighted  Drake,  who  afterwards  plun¬ 
dered  Spanish  towns  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
America ;  and,  returning,  took  a  distressed  Eng¬ 
lish  colony  from  Roanoke  Island  (see  Roanoke), 
and  carried  them  to  England.  In  command  of 
a  fleet  of  thirty  vessels,  in  1587,  he  destroyed 
one  hundred  Spanish  vessels  in  the  harbor  of 
Cadiz;  and  from  a  captured  vessel  in  the  East 
India  trade  the  English  learned  the  immense 
value  of  that  trade  and  how  to  carry  it  on.  As 
vice-admiral,  Drake  materially  assisted  in  de¬ 
feating  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588  ;  and  the 
next  year  he  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  Spanish 
peninsula.  After  various  other  exploits  of  a 
similar  kind,  he  accompanied  Hawkins  to  the 
West  Indies  in  1595.  Hawkins  died  at  Porto 
Rico,  and  Drake,  in  supreme  command,  gained 
victory  after  victory  over  the  Spaniards.  Late 
in  the  year  a  fatal  malady  destroyed  his  life, 
and  he  was  buried  at  sea. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  in  California.  After 
Drake  had  made  his  plundering  raid  along  the 
coasts  of  Spanish  South  America  in  1579,  he 
sailed  northward  as  high,  probably,  as  latitude 
46°,  or  near  the  boundary  between  Oregon  and 
the  British  possessions.  He  possibly  went  far¬ 
ther  north,  for  he  encountered  very  cold  weath¬ 
er  in  June,  and  turned  back.  Drake  entered  a 
fine  bay  and  landed  his  stores,  preparatory  to 
repairing  his  ship  ;  and  he  remained  on  the  coast 
full  a  month,  hospitably  treated  by  the  natives. 
Late  in  June  he  was  visited  by  the  king  of  the 
country  and  his  official  attendants.  The  former 
was  dressed  in  rabbit-skins — a  peculiar  mark  of 
distinction.  His  officers  were  clad  in  feathers, 
and  his  other  followers  were  almost  naked. 
Drake  received  them  cordially.  The  sceptre- 
bearer  and  another  officer  made  speeches,  after 
which  the  natives  indulged  in  a  wild  dance,  in 
which  the  women  joined.  Then  Drake  was 
asked  to  sit  down,  when  the  king  and  his  people 
desired  him  to  “  become  the  king  and  governor 
of  the  country.”  Then  the  king,  singing  with 
all  the  rest,  set  a  crown  upon  Drake’s  head,  and 
saluted  him  as  Hioh,  or  sovereign.  Drake  ac¬ 
cepted  the  honor  in  the  name  of  Queen  Eliza¬ 
beth.  He  took  formal  possession  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  named  it  New  Albion  (see  New  England), 
and,  erecting  a  wooden  post,  placed  upon  it  a 
copper  plate,  with  an  inscription,  on  which  was 
asserted  the  right  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  her 
successors  to  the  kingdom,  with  the  time  of  his 
arrival  there,  and  a  statement  of  the  voluntary 
resiguatiou  of  the  country  to  the  English  by  the 
king  and  people.  On  the  same  plate  were  en¬ 
graved  the  portrait  and  arms  of  the  queen  and 


DRAPER 


405 


DRAYTON 


the  navigator.  Then  he  sailed  for  the  Molucca 
Islands.  It  is  believed  that  Sir  Francis  Drake 
entered  the  “Golden  Gate”  of  San  Francisco 
Bay,  and  that  near  its  shores  the  ceremony  of 
his  coronation  took  place. 

Draper,  John  William,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  scien¬ 
tist,  was  horn  at  St.  Helen’s,  near  Liverpool, 
I}ng.,  May  5,  1811,  and  was  educated  in  scien¬ 
tific  studies  at  the  University  of  London.  He 
came  to  America  in  1833,  and  continued  his 


JOHN  WILLIAM  DRAPER. 


medical  and  chemical  studies  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  took  the  degree  of 
M.D.  He  became  (1836-39)  professor  of  chem¬ 
istry,  natural  philosophy,  and  physiology  in 
Hampden-Sidney  College,  Virginia.  From  1839 
Dr.  Draper  was  connected,  as  professor,  with  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  aided 
in  establishing  the  University  Medical  College, 
of  which  he  was  appointed  ^1841)  professor  of 
chemistry.  In  1850  physiology  was  added  to 
the  chair  of  chemistry.  From  that  year  he  was 
the  president  of  the  medical  faculty  of  the  in¬ 
stitution,  and  in  1874  he  was  also  president  of 
the  scientific  department  of  the  university.  Dr. 
Draper  was  one  of  the  most  patient,  careful,  and 
acute  of  scientific  investigators.  His  industry 
in  experimental  researches  was  marvellous,  and 
his  publications  on  scientific  subjects  are  vo¬ 
luminous.  He  'contributed  much  to  other  de¬ 
partments  of  learning.  His  History  of  the  Intel¬ 
lectual  Development  of  Europe  appeared  in  1862 ; 
his  Thoughts  on  the  Future  Civil  Policy  of  America , 
in  1865;  and  his  History  of  the  American  Civil 
War ,  in  three  volumes,  appeared  between  1867 
and  1870.  To  Dr.  Draper  are  due  many  funda¬ 
mental  facts  concerning  the  phenomena  of  the 
spectrum — of  light  and  heat.  Among  his  later 
productions  are  reports  of  experimental  examina¬ 
tions  of  the  distribution  of  heat  and  of  chemical 
force  in  the  spectrum.  Dr.  Draper’s  researches 
materially  aided  in  perfecting  Daguerre’s  great 
discovery.  In  1876  the  Rnmford  gold  medal 
(see  Count  Run  ford)  was  bestowed  upon  Dr. 
Draper  by  the  American  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  died  January  4, 1882. 

Drayton,  Charge  op  J udge.  The  fi  rst  charge 
to  the  grand  jury  at  Camden,  S.  C.,  in  1774, 


by  Judge  William  H.  Drayton,  is  conspicuous 
in  American  history.  “  In  order  to  stimulate 
your  exertions  in  favor  of  your  civil  liberties, 
which  protect  your  religious  rights,”  he  said, 
“  instead  of  discoursing  to  you  on  the  laws  of 
other  states  and  comparing  them  to  our  own, 
allow  me  to  tell  you  what  your  civil  liberties  are, 
and  to  charge  you,  which  I  do  in  the  most  solemn 
manner,  to  hold  them  dearer  than  your  lives — a 
lesson  and  charge  at  all  times  proper  from  a 
judge,  but  particularly  so  at  this  crisis,  when 
America  is  iu  one  general  and  grievous  commo¬ 
tion  touching  this  truly  important  point.”  The 
judge  then  discoursed  on  the  origin  of  the  col¬ 
ony,  the  nature  of  the  constitution,  and  their 
civil  rights  under  it,  and  concluded  by  saying 
that  some  might  think  his  charge  inconsistent 
with  his  duty  to  the  king  who  had  just  placed 
him  on  the  bench;  “but,  for  my  part,”  he  said, 
“  in  my  judicial  character  I  know  no  master  but 
the  law.  I  am  a  servant,  not  to  the  king,  but 
to  the  constitution  ;  and,  iu  my  estimation,  I 
shall  best  discharge  my  duty  as  a  good  servant 
to  the  king  and  a  trusty  officer  under  the  con¬ 
stitution  when  I  boldly  declare  the  laws  to  the 
people  and  instruct  them  in  their  civil  rights.” 
This  charge,  scattered  broadcast  by  the  press, 
had  a  powerful  influence  in  the  colonies,  and, 
with  other  patriotic  acts,  cost  Judge  Drayton 
his  office,  for  he  was  soon  suspended. 

Drayton,  William  Henry,  was  born  in  South 
Carolina,  September,  1742 ;  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Sept.  3, 1779.  He  was  educated  in  England,  and 
on  his  return  he  became  a  political  writer.  In 
1771  he  was  appointed  privy-councillor  for  the 


WILLIAM  HENRY  DRAYTON. 


province  of  South  Carolina,  but  he  soon  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  patriots  and  protested  against 
the  proceedings  of  his  colleagues.  Iu  1774  he 
addressed  a  pamphlet  to  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress,  in  which  he  stated  the  grievances  of  the 
Americans,  and  drew  up  a  bill  of  rights,  and 
substantially  marked  out  the  line  of  conduct 
adopted  by  the  Congress.  He  was  appointed  a 
judge  in  1774,  but  was  suspended  from  the  of¬ 
fice  when  he  became  a  member  of  the  Commit¬ 
tee  of  Safety  at  Charleston.  In  1775  he  was 
president  of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  South 
Carolina.  In  1776  he  became  chief-justice  of 


DRED  SCOTT  CASE 


406 


DRUMMOND 


the  state;  and  his  published  charge  to  a  grand 
jury  in  April,  that  year,  displayed  great  wisdom 
and  energy,  and  was  widely  circulated  and  ad¬ 
mired.  Mr.  Drayton  was  chosen  President,  or 
Governor,  of  South  Carolina  in  1777,  and  in 
1778-79  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  Revolution  to 
the  end  of  the  year  1778,  which  was  published 
by  his  son  in  1821. 

Dred  Scott  Case,  The.  At  about  the  time 
that  Mr.  Buchanan  became  President-elect  of 
the  Republic  a  case  of  much  moment  was  ad¬ 
judicated  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  A  negro  named  Dred  Scott  had  been 
the  slave  of  a  United  States  army  officer  living 
in  Missouri.  He  was  taken  by  his  master  to  a 
military  post  in  Illinois,  to  which  the  hitter  had 
been  ordered  in  the  year  1834.  There  Scott 
married  the  female  slave  of  another  officer, 
with  the  consent  of  their  respective  masters. 
They  had  two  children  born  in  that  free-labor 
territory.  The  mother  was  bought  by  the  mas¬ 
ter  of  Scott,  and  parents  and  children  were  taken 
by  that  officer  back  to  Missouri  and  there  sold. 
Scott  sued  for  his  freedom  on  the  plea  of  his  in¬ 
voluntary  residence  in  a  free-labor  territory  and 
state  for  several  years.  The  case  was  tried  in 
the  circuit  court  of  St.  Louis,  and  the  decision 
was  in  Scott’s  favor.  The  Supreme  Court  of 
the  state  reversed  the  decision,  and  the  case 
was  carried  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  Chief-justice  Roger  B.  Taney  presiding. 
The  chief-justice  and  a  majority  of  the  court 
were  friends  of  the  slave  system,  and  their  de¬ 
cision,  which,  for  prudential  reasons,  was  with¬ 
held  until  after  the  Presidential  election  in  the 
fall  of  1856,  was  against  Scott.  The  chief-jus¬ 
tice  declared  that  any  person  “  whose  ancestors 
were  imported  into  this  country  and  held  as 
slaves”  had  no  right  to  sue  in  a  court  in  the 
United  States;  in  other  words,  he  denied  the 
right  of  citizenship  to  any  person  who  had  been 
a  slave  or  was  a  descendant  of  a  slave.  The 
chief-justice,  with  the  sanction  of  a  majority  of 
the  court,  further  declared  that  the  framers  and 
supporters  of  the  Declaration  of  American  Inde¬ 
pendence  did  not  include  the  negro  race  in  our 
country  in  the  great  proclamation  that  “  all  men 
are  created  equal ;”  that  the  patriots  of  the  Rev¬ 
olution  and  their  progenitors  “  for  more  than  a 
century  before  ”  regarded  the  negro  race  as  so 
far  inferior  that  they  had  no  rights  ivhich  the 
white  man  was  hound  to  respect,  and  that  they 
were  never  spoken  of  except  as  property.  He 
also  declared  that  the  framers  of  the  National 
Constitution  held  the  same  views.  The  chief- 
justice  went  further  in  his  extra-judicial  decla¬ 
rations,  saying  that  the  Missouri  Compromise 
(which  see),  and  all  other  acts  restricting  slav¬ 
ery,  were  unconstitutional,  and  that  neither  Con¬ 
gress  nor  local  legislatures  had  any  authority 
for  restricting  the  spread  over  the  whole  Union 
of  the  institution  of  slavery.  The  dominant 
party  assumed  that  the  decision  was  final — that 
slavery  was  a  national  institution,  having  the 
right  to  exist  anywhere  in  the  Union,  and  that 
the  boast  of  a  Georgia  politician  that  he  should 
yet  “count  his  slaves  on  Bunker’s  Hill”  might 


be  legally  carried  out.  President  Buchanan, 
who  had  been  informed  of  this  decision  before 
its  promulgation,  foreshadowed  his  course  in  the 
matter  in  his  inaugural  address  (March  4,1857), 
in  which  he  spoke  of  the  measure  as  one  which 
would  “speedily  and  finally”  settle  the  slavery 
question  ;  and  he  announced  his  determination 
to  cheerfully  submit  to  it.  The  decision,  qr 
opinion,  was  promulgated  March  6, 1857.  (See 
March  of  Public  Sentiment.') 

Drewry's  Bluff,  Commodore  Rodgers  at. 
When  Huger  tied  from  Norfolk  (see  Norfolk, 
Evacuation  of)  the  Confederate  flotilla  wrent  up 
the  James  River,  pursued  by  National  gunboats 
under  Commodore  Rodgers,  whose  flag-ship  was 
the  Galena,  the  round-top  of  which  was  iron¬ 
clad,  so  as  to  make  it  a  safe  lookout.  The  pur- 


AN  ARMORED  LOOKOUT. 


suers  met  with  no  obstructions  until  they  ap¬ 
proached  Drewry’s  Bluff,  a  bank  on  the  right 
side  of  the  James,  nearly  two  hundred  feet  in 
height,  about  eight  miles  below  Richmond.  Be¬ 
low  this  point  were  two  rows  of  obstructions  in 
the  river,  formed  by  spiles  and  sunken  vessels, 
and  the  shores  were  lined  with  rifle-pits  filled 
with  sharpshooters.  The  Galena  anchored  with¬ 
in  six  hundred  yards  of  the  battery,  and  opened 
fire  upon  it  on  the  morning  of  May  15.  A  sharp 
fight  was  kept  up  until  after  eleven  o’clock, 
when  the  ammunition  of  the  Galena  was  nearly 
expended,  and  the  flotilla  withdrew.  Rodgers 
lost  in  the  attack  twenty -seven  men  and  a 
100-pound  rifled  cannon,  which  burst  on  board 
the  gunboat  Naugatuck,  disabling  her.  The 
Confederate  loss  in  the  battery  was  ten.  Rod¬ 
gers  fell  back  to  City  Point. 

Drummond,  Sir  George  Gordon,  was  born 
in  Quebec  in  1771 ;  died  in  London,  Oct.  10, 1854. 
He  entered  the  British  army  in  1789;  served  in 
Holland  and  Egypt ;  and  in  1811  was  made  lieu¬ 
tenant-general.  In  1813  he  was  second  in  com¬ 
mand  to  Sir  George  Prevost ;  planned  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  Fort  Niagara  in  December  of  that  year ; 
took  the  villages  of  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo  ; 
captured  Oswego  in  May,  1814  ;  and  was  in  chief 
command  of  the  British  forces  at  the  battle  of 
Lundy’s  Lane  (which  see)  in  July.  In  August 
he  was  repulsed  at  Fort  Erie,  with  heavy  loss, 
and  was  severely  wounded.  He  succeeded  Pre¬ 
vost  in  1814,  and  returned  to  England  in  1816. 


DUER 


DUANE  '  407 


The  next  year  he  received  the  grand  cross  of 
the  Bath. 

Duane,  James,  was  horn  in  New  York  city, 
Feb.  6,  1733 ;  died  at  Duanesburg,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  1, 
1797.  He  inherited  a  large  estate  at  the  site  of 
Duanesburg,  which  he  begau  to  settle  in  1765. 
In  1759  he  married  a  daughter  of  Colonel  Robert 
Livingstou.  He  became  au  active  patriot  iu  the 
Revolution  ;  was  a  member  of  the  First  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress  (1774) ;  also  in  Congress  from 
1780  to  1782;  was  in  the  Provincial  Convention 
of  New  York  iu  1776-77 ;  and  was  on  the  com¬ 
mittee  to  draft  the  first  constitution  of  that 
state.  He  returned  to  New  York  city  in  1783, 
after  the  evacuation,  and  was  the  first  mayor  of 
that  city  after  the  Revolution.  In  1783-84  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Council  and  State  Sena¬ 
tor,  and  in  1788  was  a  member  of  the  conven¬ 
tion  of  New  York  that  adopted  the  National 
Constitution.  From  1789  to  1794  Mr.  Duane 
was  United  States  District  Judge. 

Duane’s  Proposition.  Late  in  May,  1775, 
James  Duane,  a  delegate  from  New  York  iu  the 
Continental  Congress,  moved,  iu  Committee  of 
the  Whole,  the  “  opening  of  negotiations  iu  or¬ 
der  to  accommodate  the  unhappy  disputes  sub¬ 
sisting  between  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies, 
and  that  this  be  made  a  part  of  the  [second] 
petition  to  the  king”  prepared  by  John  Jay.  It 
was  a  dangerous  proposal  at  that  time,  as  it 
was  calculated  to  cool  the  ardor  of  resistance 
which  then  animated  the  people.  Duane  was 
a  stanch  patriot,  but  was  anxious  for  peace,  if  it 
could  be  procured  with  honor  and  for  the  good 
of  his  country. 

Duche,  Jacob,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Philadel¬ 
phia  in  1739 ;  died  there,  Jan.  3, 1798.  Educated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he  became 
an  eloquent  Episcopalian.  A  descendant  of  a 
Huguenot,  he  naturally  loved  freedom.  Assist- 


JACOB  DUCHE. 


ant  minister  of  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  he 
was  invited  by  the  Continental  Congress  of  1774 
to  open  their  proceedings  with  prayer,  and  re¬ 
ceived  their  public  thanks.  In  1775  he  became 
rector  of  Christ  Church,  and  espoused  the  pa¬ 
triot  cause.  Of  a  timid  nature,  Duch6,  when  the 
British  took  possession  of  Philadelphia  (1777), 


alarmed  by  the  gloomy  outlook,  forsook  the 
Americans,  and,  in  a  letter  to  Washington,  urged 
him  to  do  likewise.  This  letter  was  transmit¬ 
ted  to  Congress,  and  Duche  fled  to  England, 
where  he  became  a  popular  preacher.  His  es¬ 
tate  was  confiscated,  and  he  was  banished  as  a 
traitor.  In  1790  Duclifi  returned  to  Philadel¬ 
phia,  and  his  sins  were  forgiven  him. 

Ducking  -  stool.  The  English  colonies  iu 
America  continued  for  a  long  time  the  manners 
and  customs  of  their  native  laud:  among  others, 
that  of  the  use  of  the  ducking-stool  for  the  pun¬ 
ishment  of  inveterate  scolding  women.  Bishop 
Meade,  in  Old  Churches,  Ministers,  and  Families  in 
Virginia,  says,  “  If  a  womau  was  convicted  of 
slander,  her  husband  was  made  to  pay  five  hun¬ 
dred-weight  of  tobacco but  the  law  proving 
insufficient,  the  penalty  was  changed  to  duck¬ 
ing.  Places  for  ducking  were  prepared  at  court¬ 
houses.  An  instance  is  mentioned  of  a  woman 
who  was  ordered  to  be  ducked  three  times  from 
a  vessel  lying  iu  the  James  River.  The  womau 
was  tied  to  a  chair  at  the  longer  end  of  a  lever, 
controlled  at  the  shorter  end  by  men  with  a 
rope.  The  stool  being  planted  firmly,  the  wom¬ 
an  was  raised  on  the  lever,  and  then  lowered  so 
as  to  be  plunged  under  the  water. 

Dudley,  Joseph,  Governor  of  Massachusetts, 
was  born  at  Roxbury,  July  23, 1647  ;  died  there, 
April  2,  1720.  Graduated  at  Harvard  in  1665. 
He  prepared  for  the  ministry,  but,  preferring 
politics,  he  became  a  representative  in  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Court  and  a  magistrate.  From  1677  to 
1681  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the 
united  colonies  of  New  England.  He  was  iu 
the  battle  with  the  Narragausets  in  1675,  and 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  dictated  the 
terms  of  a  treaty  with  that  tribe.  In  Septem¬ 
ber,  1685,  King  James  commissioned  him  Presi¬ 
dent  of  New  England,  and  in  1687  he  was  made 
chief- justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Dudley 
was  sent  to  England  with  Andros  in  1689,  and 
the  next  year  was  made  chief-justice  of  New 
York.  He  went  to  England  in  1693,  and  was 
deputy-governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  en¬ 
tered  Parliament  in  1701,  and  from  1702  to  1715 
he  was  captain-general  and  governor  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts.  Then  he  retired  to  his  quiet  home  at 
Roxbury. 

Dudley,  Thomas,  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
in  1634,  and  also  in  1640,  1645,  and  1650.  He 
was  born  in  Northampton,  England,  in  1576  ; 
died  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  July  31,  1653.  He  was 
an  officer  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  serving  in  Hol¬ 
land  ;  and  afterwards  he  became  a  Puritan,  and. 
retrieved  the  fortunes  of  the  Earl  of  Lincoln  by 
a  faithful  care  of  his  estate  as  his  steward.  He 
came  to  Boston  in  1630,  as  deputy  -  governor, 
with  his  son-in-law,  Simon  Bradstreet,  and  held 
the  office  ten  years.  He  was  appointed  major- 
general  of  the  colony  in  1644. 

Dudley’s  Defeat.  ( See  Fort  Meigs  and  its 
Defence.) 

Duer,  William,  was  born  in  England,  March 
18,  1747  ;  died  May  7, 1799.  In  1767  he  was  aid 
to  Lord  Clive  in  India.  He  came  to  America, 


DUG  SPRINGS,  BATTLE  AT  408  DUKE’S  LAWS,  THE 


and  in  1768  he  purchased  a  tract  of  land  in 
Washington  County,  N.  Y. ;  became  colonel  of 
the  militia,  judge  of  the  county  court,  member 
of  the  New  York  Provincial  Congress,  and  of 
the  Committee  of  Safety.  He  was  one  of  the 
committee  that  drafted  the  first  constitution 
of  the  State  of  New  York  (1777),  and  was  a 
delegate  in  Congress  in  1777-78 ;  and  he  was 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Board  until  the  reor¬ 
ganization  of  the  finance  department  under  the 
National  Constitution.  He  was  Assistant  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury  under  Hamilton  until 
1790.  Colonel  Duer  married  (1779)  Catharine, 
daughter  of  Lord  Stirling. 

Dug  Springs,  Battle  at  ( 1861 ).  General 
Lyon  was  eighty  miles  from  Springfield  when 
he  heard  of  the  perils  of  Sigel  after  the  fight  at 
Carthage  (which  see).  He  pushed  on  to  the 
relief  of  the  latter,  and  on  July  13  he  and  Sigel 
joined  their  forces,  when  the  general  took  the 
chief  command.  The  combined  armies  num¬ 
bered,  at  that  time,  about  six  thousand  men, 
horse  and  foot,  with  eighteen  pieces  of  artillery. 
There  Lyon  remained  in  a  defensive  attitude 
for  some  time,  waiting  for  reinforcements  which 
had  been  ealled  for,  but  which  did  not  come. 
The  Confederates  had  been  largely  reinforced  ; 
and  at  the  close  of  July  Lyon  was  informed 
that  they  were  marching  upon  Springfield  in 
two  columns — twenty  thousand — under  the  re¬ 
spective  commands  of  Generals  Price,  McCul¬ 
loch  (of  Texas),  Pearce,  McBride,  and  Rains. 
Lyon  went  out  to  meet  them  with  about  six 
thousand  men,  foot  and  horse,  and  eighteen  can¬ 
nons,  leaving  a  small  force  to  guard  Springfield. 
At  Dug  Springs,  nineteen  miles  southwest  of 
Springfield,  in  a  broken,  oblong  valley,  they  en¬ 
countered  a  large  Confederate  force  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Rains.  While  the  National  vanguard  of 
infantry  and  cavalry,  under  Steele  and  Stanley, 
were  leading,  they  were  unexpectedly  attacked 
by  Confederate  infantry  who  suddenly  emerged 
from  the  woods.  A  sudden  charge  of  twenty- 
five  of  Stanley’s  horsemen  scattered  the  Confed¬ 
erates  in  every  direction.  The  charge  was  fear¬ 
ful,  and  the  slaughter  was  dreadful.  “  Are  these 
men  or  devils,  they  fight  so  f”  asked  some  of  the 
wounded.  Confederate  cavalry  now  appeared 
emerging  from  the  woods,  when  some  of  Lyon’s 
cannons,  managed  by  Captain  Totten,  threw 
shells  that  frightened  the  horses,  and  the  Con¬ 
federates  were  scattered.  They  then  withdrew, 
leaving  the  valley  in  possession  of  the  Nation¬ 
als.  Lyon’s  loss  was  eight  men  killed  and  thir¬ 
ty  wounded  ;  that  of  Rains  was  about  forty 
killed  and  as  many  wounded. 

Duke  of  York's  Patent.  This  grant,  given 
by  King  Charles  II.  to  his  brother  James,  in¬ 
cluded  all  the  country  between  the  Hudson  and 
Connecticut  rivers,  which  was  also  covered  by 
the  charter  of  Connecticut,  and  in  many  places, 
especially  near  the  Sound,  was  settled  by  the 
English  Puritans.  This  grant  produced  alarm, 
and  commissioners  were  appointed  on  both  sides 
to  consider  the  matter.  (See  Duke's  Charter.) 

Duke's  Charter,  The.  On  the  12th  of  March, 
1664  (0.  S.),  King  Charles  II.  granted  to  his 


brother  James,  Duke  <  f  York  and  Albany,  under 
a  patent  bearing  the  royal  seal,  a  territory  in 
America  which  included  all  the  lands  and  rivers 
from  the  west  side  of  the  Connecticut  River  to 
the  east  side  of  the  Delaware  River.  Its  inland 
boundary  was  a  line  from  the  head  of  the  Con¬ 
necticut  River  to  the  source  of  the  Hudson, 
thence  to  the  head  of  the  Mohawk  branch  of  the 
Hudson,  and  thence  to  the  east  of  Delaware  Bay. 
It  also  embraced  Long  Island  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  including  Martha’s  Vineyard  and  Nan¬ 
tucket  ;  also  the  “  territory  of  Pemaquid,”  in 
Maine.  This  granted  territory  embraced  all  of 
New  Netherland  and  a  part  of  Connecticut, 
which  had  been  affirmed  to  other  English  pro¬ 
prietors  by  the  charter  of  1662.  (See  Winthrop.) 
The  duke  (then  Lord  High  Admiral  of  England) 
detached  four  ships  from  the  royal  navy,  bear¬ 
ing  four  hundred  and  fifty  regular  troops,  for 
the  service  of  taking  possession  of  his  domain. 
Colonel  Richard  Nicolls  commanded  the  expe¬ 
dition.  Stuyvesant  was  compelled  to  surren¬ 
der  (see  Stuyvesant),  and  the  name  of  the  terri¬ 
tory  was  changed  to  New  York.  Very  soon  com¬ 
missioners  appointed  by  the  governments  of 
New  York  and  Connecticut  to  confer  about  the 
boundary  between  the  two  colonies  agreed, 
for  the  sake  of  peace  and  good-fellowship,  that 
the  territory  of  New  York  should  not  extend 
farther  eastward  than  along  aline  twenty  miles 
from  the  Hudson  River,  and  that  remains  the 
boundary  to  this  day.  In  1673  the  Dutch  (part¬ 
ly  through  treachery,  it  is  believed)  again  be¬ 
came  possessors  of  New  York,  but  the  following 
year  it  was  returned  to  England  by  treaty.  It 
was  decided  that  these  political  changes  had 
cancelled  the  Duke  of  York’s  title  to  the  do¬ 
main,  and  a  new  one,  with  boundaries  defined  as 
in  the  first  grant,  was  issued  (June  29,1674),  but 
the  line  agreed  upon  —  twenty  miles  eastward 
of  the  Hudson  —  was  fixed  upon  as  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  Province  of  New  York. 

Duke’s  County.  In  the  grant  of  New  Netli- 
erlaud  by  Charles  II.  to  his  brother  James,  Duke 
of  York  (1664),  Long  Island,  Nantucket,  Martha’s 
Vineyard,  and  the  Elizabeth  Islands  (see  Gos- 
nold)  were  included,  they  having  been  pur¬ 
chased  of  Henry,  grandson  of  William,  Earl  of 
Stirling,  and  previously  assigned  to  the  duke. 
In  1683,  when  the  Province  of  New  York  was 
parcelled  into  counties,  these  islands  otf  the 
coast  of  Massachusetts  were  constituted  a  shire 
by  the  name  of  Duke’s  County.  By  the  authori¬ 
ty  of  William  and  Mary  this  county  was  taken 
from  New  York  and  annexed  to  Massachusetts. 

Duke’s  Laws,  The.  In  1665,  a  meeting  was 
held  at  Hempstead,  L.  I.  (Feb.  28),  at  which 
thirty -four  delegates  assembled — two  represent¬ 
atives  of  each  of  the  English  and  Dutch  towns 
on  Long  Island  and  two  in  Westchester.  Some 
of  them  had  been  members  of  Stuyvesant’s  last 
General  Assembly  of  New  Netherland  the  pre¬ 
vious  year.  (See  New  Netherland.)  The  meet¬ 
ing  had  been  called  by  Governor  Nicolls  to  “  set¬ 
tle  good  and  known  laws”  in  their  government 
for  the  future  and  receive  their  “best  advice 
and  information.”  The  governor  laid  before  the 


DUNLAP 


409  DUNMORE’S  CALL,  RESPONSE  TO 


delegates  a  body  of  general  laws,  which  had  been 
ehiefly  compiled  from  statutes  then  in  force  in 
New  England,  with  more  toleration  in  matters 
of  religion.  The  delegates  were  not  satisfied 
with  many  of  them,  and  several  amendments 
were  made;  but  when  they  asked  to  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  choose  their  own  magistrates,  the  gov¬ 
ernor  exhibited  instructions  from  the  Duke  of 
York,  his  master,  wherein  the  choice  of  “  officers 
of  justice  was  solely  to  be  made  by  the  gov¬ 
ernor  and  he  told  them  decidedly  that  if  they 
would  have  a  greater  share  in  the  government 
than  he  could  give  them,  they  must  go  to  the 
king  for  it.  The  delegates  found  that  they 
were  not  popular  representatives  to  make  laws, 
but  were  mere  agents  to  accept  those  already 
prepared  for  them.  They  had  merely  ex¬ 
changed  the  despotism  of  Stuyvesaut  for  Eng¬ 
lish  despotism.  (See  Stuyvesant.)  The  New 
York  code  adopted  by  that  meeting  was  ar¬ 
ranged  in  alphabetical  order  of  subjects  and 
published,  and  is  generally  known  as  the  Duke’s 
Laws. 

Dunlap,  William,  was  a  painter,  dramatist, 
theatrical  manager,  and  historian.  He  was 
born  at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Feb.  19, 1766;  died 
in  New  York  city,  Sept.  28,  1839.  His  father, 
being  a  loyalist,  went  to  New  York  city  in  1777, 
where  William  began  to  paint.  He  made  a  por¬ 
trait  of  Washington  at  Rocky  Hill,  N.  J.,  in  1783. 
The  next  year  he  went  to  England  and  received 
instructions  from  Benjamin  West.  He  became 
an  actor  for  a  short  time,  and  in  1796  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  the  John  Street  Theatre,  New 
York.  He  took  the  Park  Theatre  in  1798.  From 
1814  to  1816  he  w  as  paymaster-general  of  the 
New  York  State  militia.  He  began  a  series  of 
paintings  in  1816.  In  1833  he  published  a  His¬ 
tory  of  the  American  Theatres,  and  in  1834  a  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Arts  of  Design.  His  History  of  New 
Netherland  and  the  State  of  New  York  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  1840.  Mr.  Dunlap  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design. 

Dunmore  and  Patrick  Henry.  The  bold 
movements  in  the  Virginia  Convention  (March, 
1775)  excited  the  official  "wrath  of  Governor 
Dunmore,  who  stormed  in  proclamations;  and 
to  frighten  the  Virginiaus  (or,  probably,  with 
a  more  mischievous  intent),  he  caused  a  rumor 
to  be  circulated  that  he  intended  to  excite  an 
insurrection  among  the  slaves.  Finally,  late 
in  April,  he  caused  marines  to  come  secretly 
at  night  from  the  Foivey,  a  sloop-of-war  in  the 
York  River,  and  carry  to  her  the  pow  der  in  the 
old  magazine  at  Williamsburg.  The  movement 
was  discovered.  The  minute-men  assembled  at 
dawn,  and  were  with  difficulty  restrained  from 
seizing  the  governor.  The  assembled  people 
sent  a  respectful  remonstrance  to  Dunmore, 
complaining  of  the  act  as  specially  cruel  at 
that  time,  when  a  servile  insurrection  was  ap¬ 
prehended.  The  governor  replied  evasively,  and 
the  people  demanded  the  return  of  the  powder. 
When  Patrick  Henry  heard  of  the  act,  he  gath¬ 
ered  a  corps  of  volunteers  and  marched  towards 
the  capital.  The  frightened  governor  sent  a 
deputation  to  meet  him.  One  of  them  was  the 


receiver-general  of  the  province.  They  met 
sixteen  miles  from  Williamsburg,  where  the 
matter  was  compromised  by  the  receiver-gen¬ 
eral  paying  the  full  value  of  the  powder.  Henry 


TIIE  OLD  MAGAZINE. 


sent  the  money  to  the  public  treasury  and  re¬ 
turned  home. 

Dunmore  captures  a  Printing-office.  John 
Holt,  a  Whig,  published  a  newspaper  at  Norfolk, 
Va.,at  the  time  when  British  vessels,  with  Gov¬ 
ernor  Dunmore,  appeared  before  that  town. 
Dunmore,  offended  with  Holt  for  “favoring  se¬ 
dition  and  rebellion,”  sent  a  small  armed  party 
ashore  to  seize  the  printing-office.  They  met 
with  no  resistance,  and  the  press  and  other  print¬ 
ing  materials  wTere  carried  on  board  the  man-of- 
war  Fowey,  with  two  printers,  and  there  used  in 
publishing  a  gazette  that  favored  the  royal  side. 

Dunmore  (John  Murray),  Fourth  Earl  of, 
Governor  of  Virginia  (1771-75),  was  born  in 
1732 ;  died  at  Ramsgate,  Eng.,  May,  1809.  He 
was  a.  Scotch  nobleman,  descended  in  the  femi¬ 
nine  line  from  the  house  of  Stuart.  He  was 

made  governor*  of 
New  York  in  Janu¬ 
ary,  1770,  and  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  July,  1771,  ar¬ 
riving  there  earlv  in 
1772.  When  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  Assembly  rec¬ 
ommended  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  correspond¬ 
ence  ( March,  1773 ), 
he  immediately  dis¬ 
solved  them  ;  and 
from  that  time  until 
he  tied  for  safety  on 
board  a  ship-of-war 
in  the  York  River 
(June  6,  1775),  he  was  in  continual  collision 
with  the  people.  He  set  fire  to  and  destroyed 
Norfolk,  Va.,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1776,  having 
been  defeated  in  a  battle  at  the  Great  Bridge 
(Dec.  9,  1775)  ten  days  before.  In  an  engage¬ 
ment  in  the  Chesapeake  (July  8)  he  was  wound¬ 
ed,  and  soon  afterwards  returned  to  England. 
In  1786  Dunmore  was  made  governor  of  Ber¬ 
muda. 

Dunmore’s  Call,  Response  to.  (See  Dun- 
vwre'e  War.)  When  Governor  Dunmore  called 


DUNMORE’S  CONSPIRACY 


410 


DUNMORE’S  WAR 


for  the  militia  of  the  southwest  to  fight  the 
Ohio  Indians,  the  settlers  in  the  region  of  the 
Greenbrier,  New  River,  and  Holston  respond¬ 
ed  cheerfully.  The  Republicans  of  Watauga 
(which  see),  led  by  Evan  Shelby,  about  fifty  in 
number,  with  James  Robertson  and  Valentine 
Sevier  as  subalterns,  left  home  in  August  and 
joined  the  camp  of  the  Virginians  on  the  Great 
Levels  of  the  Greenbrier,  at  (present)  Lewis- 
burg.  Then  these  militiamen  traversed  the 
pathless  mountains  with  their  pack-horses  and 
droves  of  cattle,  and  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
Kanawha  on  Oct.  6.  (See  Point  Pleasant  Battle.) 

Dunmore’s  Conspiracy.  John  Murray,  Earl 
of  Dunmore,  succeeded  Lord  Botetourt  as  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Virginia  in  1771,  but  did  not  arrive 
there  from  his  governorship  of  New  York  until 
the  summer  of  1772.  He  acted  independently  of 
the  people,  and  soon  there  was  a  quarrel  be¬ 
tween  them.  In  1775,  finding  the  people  of  his 
colony  committed  to  the  cause  of  freedom,  he 
engaged  in  a  conspiracy  to  bring  the  Indians  in 
hostile  array  against  the  Virginia  frontier.  He 
employed  Dr.  John  Connelly,  whom  he  had  com¬ 
missioned  in  1774  to  lead  in  a  movement  for  sus¬ 
taining  the  claims  of  Virginia  to  the  whole  dis¬ 
trict  of  Pennsylvania  west  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  He  was  a  native  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  lived  at  Pittsburgh;  and  it  is  believed  that 
he  suggested  to  Dunmore  the  plan  of  combining 
the  western  Indians  against  the  colonists.  He 
visited  General  Gage  at  Boston  early  in  the  au¬ 
tumn  of  1775,  and  immediately  after  his  return 
to  Williamsburg  he  left  Dunmore  and  departed 
for  the  Ohio  country,  with  two  companions. 
They  were  stopped  near  Hagerstown  as  suspi¬ 
cious  persons,  sent  back  tb  Frederick,  and  there 
an  examination  of  Connelly’s  papers  revealed 
the  whole  nefarious  plot.  He  bore  Dunmore’s 
commission  of  colonel,  and  was  directed  to  raise 
a  regiment  in  the  western  country  and  Canada, 
the  rendezvous  to  be  at  Detroit,  where  hostili¬ 
ties  against  the  white  people  might  be  more 
easily  fomented  among  the  Indians.  Thence  he 
was  to  march  in  the  spring,  enter  Virginia  with 
a  motley  force,  and  meet  Dunmore  at  Alexan¬ 
dria,  on  the  Potomac,  who  would  be  there  with 
a  military  and  naval  force.  The  arrest  of  Con¬ 
nelly  frustrated  the  design.  He  was  put  in  jail 
and  his  papers  were  sent  to  the  Continental 
Congress.  He  was  kept  a  prisoner  until  about 
the  end  of  the  war. 

Dunmore’s  War.  A  war  with  Ohio  Indians 
in  1774  by  Governor  Dunmore,  of  Virginia,  was 
so  called.  The  cold-blooded  murder  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  of  Logan,  an  eminent  Mingo  chief,  and  other 
atrocities,  had  caused  fearful  retaliation  on  the 
part  of  the  barbarians.  While  Pennsylvanians 
and  the  agents  of  the  Six  Nations  were  making 
efforts  for  peace,  Governor  Dunmore,  bent  on  war, 
called  for  volunteers,  and  four  hundred  of  these 
were  gathered  ou  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  a  little 
below  Wheeling.  This  force  marched  against 
and  destroyed  (Aug.  7, 1774)  a  Shawnoese  town 
on  the  Muskingum.  They  were  followed  by 
Dunmore,  with  one  thousand  five  hundred  Vir¬ 
ginians,  who  pressed  forward  against,  an  Indian 


village  on  the  Scioto,  while  Colonel  Andrew 
Lewis,  with  one  thousand  two  hundred  men,  en¬ 
countered  a  force  of  Indians  at  Point  Pleasant, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Kanawha  River  (Oct. 
10),  where  a  bloody  battle  ensued.  The  Indians 
were  led  by  Logan,  Cornstalk,  and  other  braves. 
The  Virginiaus  were  victorious,  but  lost  seventy 
men  killed  and  wounded.  Dunmore  was  charged 
with  inciting  the  Indian  war  and  arranging  the 
campaign  so  as  to  carry  out  his  political  plans. 
It  was  charged  that  he  arranged  the  expedition 
so  as  to  have  the  force  under  Lewis  annihilated 
by  the  barbarians,  and  thereby  weaken  the  phys¬ 
ical  strength  and  break  down  the  spirits  of  the 
Virginians,  for  they  were  defying  royal  power. 
His  efforts  afterwards  to  incite  a  servile  insur¬ 
rection  in  Virginia  for  the  same  purpose  show 
that  he  was  capable  of  exercising  almost  any 
means  to  accomplish  his  ends.  The  Indians  in 
the  Ohio  country,  alarmed  at  the  approach  of 
Dunmore,  had  hastened  to  make  peace.  Logan 
refused  to  attend  the  conference  for  the  purpose, 
but  sent  a  speech  which  became  famous  in  his¬ 
tory.  (See  Logan's  Speech.)  Duumore’s  officers 
in  that  expedition,  having  heard  of  the  move¬ 
ments  in  New  England,  and  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  held  a  meeting  at  Fort  Gower  (mouth 
of  the  Hockhocking  River),  and  after  compli¬ 
menting  the  governor  and  declaring  their  alle¬ 
giance  to  the  king,  resolved  to  maintain  the 
rights  of  the  colonists  by  every  means  in  their 
power. 

Dunmore’s  War  on  the  Virginians.  In  No¬ 
vember,  1775,  Lord  Dunmore  proceeded  in  the 
war-ship  Foxeey  to  Norfolk,  where  he  proclaimed 
freedom  to  all  slaves  who  should  join  the  royal 
standard,  which  he  had  unfurled,  and  take  up 
arms  against  the  “  rebels.”  He  declared  martial 
law  throughout  Virginia,  and  made  Norfolk  the 
rendezvous  for  a  British  fleet.  He  sent  maraud¬ 
ing  parties  on  the  shores  of  the  Elizabeth  and 
James  rivers  to  distress  the  Whig  inhabitants. 
Being  repelled  with  spirit,  he  resolved  to  strike 
a  severe  blow  that  should  produce  terror.  He 
began  to  lay  waste  the  country  around.  The 
people  were  aroused  and  the  militia  were  rapid¬ 
ly  gathering  for  the  defence  of  the  people,  when 
Dunmore,  becoming  alarmed,  constructed  bat¬ 
teries  at  Norfolk,  armed  the  Tories  and  negroes, 
and  fortified  a  passage  over  the  Elizabeth  River, 
known  as  the  Great  Bridge,  a  point  where  he 
expected  the  militiamen  to  march  to  attack 
him.  Being  repulsed  iu  a  battle  there  (Dec.  9, 

1775) ,  Dunmore  abandoned  his  intrenchments  at 
Norfolk  and  repaired  to  his  ships,  when,  men¬ 
aced  by  famine  —  for  the  people  would  not  fur¬ 
nish  supplies — and  annoyed  by  shots  from  some 
of  the  houses,  he  cannonaded  the  town  (Jan.  1, 

1776)  and  sent  sailors  and  marines  ashore  to  set 
it  on  fire.  The  greater  portion  of  the  compact 
part  of  the  city  was  burned  while  the  cannonade 
was  kept  up.  After  committing  other  depreda¬ 
tions  on  the  Virginia  coast,  he  landed  on  Gwyn’s 
Island,  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  with  five  hundred 
men,  black  and  white,  cast  up  some  intrench¬ 
ments,  and  built  a  stockade  fort.  Virginia  mili¬ 
tia,  under  General  Andrew  Lewis,  attacked  and 
drove  him  from  the  island.  Burning  several  of 


DUPONCEAU  411  DUQUESNE,  EXPEDITION  AGAINST 


his  vessels  that  were  aground,  Dunmore  sailed 
away  with  the  remainder,  with  a  large  amount 
of  booty,  among  which  were  about  one  thousand 
slaves.  After  more  plundering  ou  the  coast  the 
vessels  were  dispersed,  some  to  the  West  Indies, 
some  to  the  Bermudas  and  St.  Augustine,  and 
Dunmore  himself  proceeded  to  join  the  naval 
force  at  New  York,  and  soon  afterwards  went  to 
England. 

Duponceau,  Peter  Stephen,  LL.D.,  philolo¬ 
gist,  was  born  in  the  Isle  of  Rhe,  France,  June  3, 
1760  ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  April  2,  1844.  He 
went  to  Paris  in  1775,  where  he  became  acquaint¬ 
ed  with  the  Baron  de  Steuben,  and  accompanied 
him  to  America  as  his  secretary.  He  was  brev¬ 
eted  a  captain  (  February,  1778 ),  and  assisted 
Steuben  in  the  preparation  of  his  system  of  mil¬ 
itary  tactics  for  the  use  of  the  United  States 
troops.  From  1781  to  1783  he  was  secretary  to 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  then  at  the  head  of  the 
Foreign  Office  of  the  government ;  and  then 
studying  law,  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1785, 
becoming  eminent  in  the  profession  on  ques¬ 
tions  of  civil  and  international  law.  He  finally 
devoted  himself  to  literature  and  science,  and 
made  many  valuable  researches  into  the  lan¬ 
guage  and  literature  of  the  North  American  In¬ 
dians.  In  1819  he  published  a  Memoir  on  the 
Structure  of  the  Indian  Languages.  When  seven¬ 
ty-eight  years  of  age  (1838)  he  published  a  Dis- 
sertation  on  the  Chinese  Language;  also  a  trans¬ 
lation  of  a  Description  of  New  Sweden.  In  1835 
the  French  Institute  awarded  him  a  prize  for  a 
disquisition  on  the  Indian  languages  of  North 
America.  Mr.  Duponceau  opened  a  law  acade¬ 
my  in  Philadelphia  in  1821,  and  wrote  several 
essays  on  the  subject  of  law. 

Dupont,  Samuel  Francis,  was  born  at  Ber¬ 
gen  Point,  N.  J.,  Sept.  27,  1803 ;  died  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  June  23,  1865.  He  entered  the  United 
States  Navy  as  midshipman  at  twelve  years  of 
age,  and  became  commander  Oct.  28,  1842.  He 


SAMUEL  FRANCIS  DUPONT. 


saw  much  active  service  on  the  California  coast 
during  the  war  with  Mexico,  clearing  the  Gulf 
of  California  of  Mexican  vessels.  He  was  raised 
to  captain  in  1855;  and  in  October,  1861,  he 
proceeded,  in  command  of  the  South  Atlantic 


squadron,  to  capture  Port  Royal  Island,  on  the 
South  Carolina  coast,  to  secure  a  central  harbor 
and  depot  of  supplies  on  the  Southern  shores. 
(See  Port  Royal.)  In  July  Commodore  Dupont 
was  made  a  rear-admiral  on  the  active  list,  and 
in  April,  1863,  he  commanded  the  fleet  which 
made  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  capture  Charles¬ 
ton.  Admiral  Dupont  assisted  in  organizing  the 
naval  school  at  Annapolis,  and  was  the  author 
of  a  highly  commended  report  ou  the  use  of 
floating  batteries  for  coast  defence. 

Duportail,  Lebegue,  chevalier,  a  French 
general,  who  came  to  America  during  the  old 
war  for  indepeudence,  and  was  appointed  brig- 
adier-geueral  in  the  Continental  Army  in  No¬ 
vember,  1777,  and  major-general  November,  1781. 
He  was  directing-engineer  at  the  siege  of  York- 
town,  in  the  fall  of  1781.  Returning  to  France, 
he  was  named  tnarechal-de-camp ;  and  in  No¬ 
vember,  1790,  was  made  minister  of  war.  In 
December,  1791,  he  resigned;  and  when  engaged 
in  military  service  in  Lorraine,  he  received  a 
warning  of  the  designs  of  the  Jacobins,  and 
sought  safety  in  America.  He  died  at  sea  in 
1802,  when  returning  to  France. 

Duquesne,  Expedition  against  (1758).  The 
expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne  was  com¬ 
manded  by  General  John  Forbes,  who  had 
about  nine  thousand  men  at  his  disposal  at 
Fort  Cumberland  and  Raystown.  These  in¬ 
cluded  Virginia  troops  under  Colonel  Washing¬ 
ton,  the  Royal  Americans  from  South  Carolina, 
and  an  auxiliary  force  of  Cherokee  Indians. 
Sickness  and  perversity  of  will  and  judgment 
on  the  part  of  Forbes  caused  delays  almost  fatal 
to  the  expedition.  He  was  induced,  by  the  ad¬ 
vice  of  some  Pennsylvania  land  speculators,  to 
use  the  army  in  constructing  a  military  road 
farther  north  than  the  one  made  by  Braddock. 
Washington,  who  knew  the  country  well, strong¬ 
ly  advised  against  this  measure,  but  he  was  un¬ 
heeded,  and  so  slow  was  the  progress  of  the 
troops  towards  their  destination,  that  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  when  it  was  known  there  were  not 
more  than  eight  hundred  men  at  Duquesne, 
Forbes,  with  six  thousand  troops,  was  yet  east 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  Major  Grant, 
with  a  scouting-party  of  Colonel  Bouquet’s  ad¬ 
vance  corps,  was  attacked  (Sept.  21),  defeated, 
and  made  a  prisoner.  Still  Forbes  went  creep¬ 
ing  on,  wasting  precious  time,  and  exhausting 
the  patience  and  respect  of  Washington  and 
other  energetic  officers;  and  when  Bouquet 
joined  the  army  it  was  fifty  miles  from  Fort 
Duquesne.  The  winter  was  approaching,  the 
troops  were  discontented,  and  a  council  of  war 
was  called,  to  which  Forbes  intended  to  pro¬ 
pose  an  abandonment  of  the  enterprise,  when 
three  prisoners  gave  information  of  the  extreme 
weakness  of  the  French  garrison.  Washington 
was  immediately  sent  forward,  and  the  whole 
army  prepared  to  follow.  When  the  Virginians 
were  within  a  day’s  march  of  the  fort,  they  were 
discovered  by  some  Indians,  who  so  alarmed  the 
garrison  by  an  exaggerated  account  of  the  num¬ 
ber  of  the  approaching  troops  that  the  guar¬ 
dians  of  Fort  Duquesne,  reduced  to  five  hundred, 


412  DUSTIN,  HANNAH,  BRAVERY  OF 


DUQUESNE,  FORT 

set  it  on  fire  (Nov.  24),  and  fled  down  the  Ohio 
in  boats  with  such  haste  and  confusion  that 
they  left  everything  behind  them.  The  Vir¬ 
ginians  took  possession  the  next  day,  and  the 
name  of  the  fortress  was  changed  to  Fort  Pitt, 
in  honor  of  the  great  English  statesman. 

Duquesne,  Fort.  While  Captain  Trent  and 
his  company  were  building  a  fort  on  the  site  of 
Pittsburgh,  Captain  Contrecceur,  with  one  thou¬ 
sand  Frenchmen  aud  eighteen  cannons,  went 
down  the  Alleghany  River  in  sixty  bateaux  and 
three  hundred  canoes,  took  possession  of  the  un- 
finishedfortificatiou,andnamed  itFort  Duquesne, 
in  compliment  to  the  captain-general  ot  Canada 
Lieutenant- colonel  Washington,  with  a  small 
force,  hurried  from  Cumberland  to  recapture  it, 
lint  was  made  a  prisoner,  with  about  four  hun¬ 
dred  men,  at  Fort  Necessity.  (See  Dinwiddie.) 
In  1755  an  expedition  for  the  recapture  of  Fort 
Duquesne,  commanded  by  General  Edward  Brad- 
dock,  marched  from  Will’s  Creek  (Cumberland) 
on  June  10th,  about  two  thousand  strong,  British 
aud  Provincials.  Ou  the  banks  of  the  Monon- 
ga-hela  Braddock  was  defeated  aud  killed  on 
July  9,  and  the  expedition  was  ruined.  (See 
Braddock' s  Defeat.) 

Duquesne,  Fort,  Washington  in  the  Ex¬ 
pedition  against.  Washington  was  a  lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel  under  Braddock  in  the  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne  ;  also  in  1755,  and  in  that 
of  1758,  under  Forbes.  In  the  former  he  was 
chiefly  instrumental  in  saving  a  portion  of  the 
British  and  Provincial  troops  from  utter  destruc¬ 
tion.  (See  Braddock' s  Defeat.)  At  the  battle  near 
the  Monongahela,  where  Braddock  was  killed, 
every  officer  but  Washington  was  slain  or  wound¬ 
ed  ;  and  he,  alone,  led  the  survivors  on  a  safe 
retreat.  He  was  not  injured  during  the  battle. 
To  his  mother,  he  wrote :  “  I  luckily  escaped  un¬ 
hurt,  though  I  had  four  bullets  through  my  coat, 
and  two  horses  shot  under  me.”  To  his  brother, 
he  wrote :  “  By  the  all-powerful  dispensation  of 
Providence,  I  have  been  protected  beyond  all 
human  probability  or  expectation.  Death  was 
levelling  my  companions  on  every  side.”  An 
Indian  chief,  who,  fifteen  years  afterwards,  trav¬ 
elled  a  lorg  way  to  see  Washington  when  he 
was  in  Ohio,  said  he  had  singled  him  out  for 
death,  and  directed  his  fellows  to  do  the  same. 
He  tired  more  than  a  dozen  fair  shots  at  him, 
but  could  not  hit  him.  “We  felt,”  said  the 
chief,  “  that  some  Manitou  guarded  your  life, 
and  that  you  could  not  be  killed.”  Washington 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  capture  of  Fort 
Duquesne,  in  1758.  He  never  received  a  wound 
in  battle.  (See  Duquesne ,  Expedition  against  in 
1758.) 

Durand,  Asher  Brown,  painter  and  engrav¬ 
er,  was  born  at  Jefferson,  N.  J.,  Aug.  21,  1796. 
His  paternal  ancestors  were  Huguenots.  His 
father  was  a  watch-maker,  and  in  his  shop  he 
learned  engraving.  In  1812  he  became  an  ap¬ 
prentice  to  Peter  Maverick,  an  engraver  on  cop¬ 
per-plate,  and  became  his  partner  in  1817.  Mr. 
Durand’s  first  large  work  was  his  engraving  on 
copper  of  Trumbull’s  “  Declaration  of  Indepen¬ 
dence.”  He  was  engaged  upon  it  a  year,  and  it 


gave  him  a  great  reputation.  His  engravings 
of  “Musidora”  and  “Ariadne”  (the  latter  from 
Vanderlyn’s  painting )  place  him  among  the 
first  liue -engravers  of  his  time.  In  1835  he 
abandoned  that  art  for  painting,  and  became 
one  of  the  best  of  American  landscape  painters. 
His  pictures  are  always  well  selected  as  sub¬ 
jects,  pleasing  in  tone,  and  exquisite  in  color¬ 
ing.  Mr.  Durand  was  one  of  the  first  officers  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design,  and  was  its 
president  for  several  years.  He  died  Sept.  17, 
1886,  leaving  Gen.  Thomas  S.  Cummings,  its  first 
treasurer,  the  sole  survivor  of  the  founders  of 
the  institution. 

Dustin,  Hannah,  Bravery  of.  When,  in  the 
spring  of  1697,  the  French  and  Indians  devas¬ 
tated  the  New  England  frontier  settlements, 
Haverhill,  within  thirty  miles  of  Boston,  suf¬ 
fered  severely,  forty  of  its  inhabitants  being 
killed  or  carried  into  captivity.  Among  the 
latter  were  a  part  of  the  family  of  Thomas  Dus¬ 
tin,  who  was  in  the  field  when  the  savages  first 
appeared.  Mounting  his  horse,  he  hastened  to 
his  house  to  bear  away  his  wife,  eight  children, 
and  nurse  to  a  place  of  safety.  His  youngest 
child  was  only  a  week  old.  He  ordered  his  oth¬ 
er  children  to  fly.  While  he  was  lifting  his  wife 
and  her  babe  from  the  bed  the  Indians  attacked 
his  house.  “  Leave  me,”  cried  the  mother,  “  and 
fly  to  the  protection  of  the  other  children.”  Re¬ 
mounting  his  horse,  he  soon  overtook  the  pre¬ 
cious  flock,  and  placing  himself  between  them 
ami  the  pursuing  Indians,  he  defended  them  so 
valiantly  with  his  gun  that  he  pressed  back  the 
foe.  Meanwhile  the  savages  had  entered  the 
house,  ordered  the  feeble  mother  to  rise  and  fol¬ 
low  them,  killed  the  infant,  and  set  fire  to  the 
dwelling.  Half  dressed,  she  was  compelled  to 
go  with  her  captors  through  melting  snow  in 
their  hasty  retreat,  accompanied  by  her  nurse. 
They  walked  twelve  miles  the  first  day  without 
shoes,  and  were  compelled  to  lie  on  the  wet 
ground  at  night,  with  no  covering  but  the  cold 
gray  sky.  This  was  repeated  day  after  day,  un¬ 
til  they  reached  an  island  in  the  Merrimac  six 
miles  above  Concord,  N.  H.,  the  home  of  the 
leader  of  the  savages,  who  claimed  Mrs.  Dustin 
and  her  nurse  as  his  captives.  They  were  lodged 
with  his  family,  which  consisted  of  two  men, 
three  women,  seven  children,  and  a  captive  Eng¬ 
lish  boy,  who  had  been  with  them  more  than  a 
year.  They  were  told  that  they  would  soon 
start  for  an  Indian  village  where  they  would  be 
compelled  to  “run  the  gantlet;”  that  is,  be 
stripped  naked,  and  run  for  their  lives  between 
two  files  of  Indian  men,  women,  and  children, 
who  would  have  the  privilege  of  scoffing  at  them, 
beating  them,  and  wounding  them  with  hatch¬ 
ets.  The  two  women  resolved  not  to  endure  the 
indignity.  Mrs.  Dustin  planned  a  means  of  es¬ 
cape,  and  leagued  the  nurse  and  the  English  boy 
with  her  in  the  execution  of  it.  Believing  in 
the  faithfulness  of  the  lad  and  the  timidity  of 
the  women,  the  Indians  did  not  keep  watch  at 
night.  Through  inquiries  made  by  the  lad,  Mrs. 
Dustin  learned  how  to  kill  a  man  instantly,  aud 
to  take  off'  his  scalp.  Before  daylight  one  morn¬ 
ing,  when  the  whole  family  were  asleep,  Mrs. 


v 


DUTCH  BRANCH,  WASHINGTON  FAMILY  413  DUTCH  COLONISTS,  SOUTH  CAROLINA 


Dustin  and  her  colleagues  instantly  hilled  ten 
of  the  8lumberers,  she  killing  her  captor,  and 
the  boy  despatching  the  man  who  told  him  how 
to  do  it.  A  squaw  and  a  child  fled  to  the  woods 
and  escaped.  After  scuttling  all  the  boats  but 
one,  they  fled  in  it  down  the  river,  with  provi¬ 
sions  from  the  wigwam.  Mrs.  Dustin  remember¬ 
ed  they  had  not  scalped  the  victims,  so,  return¬ 
ing,  they  scalped  the  slain  savages,  and  bore 
their  trophies  away  in  a  bag,  as  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  the  story  they  might  relate  to  their 
friends.  At  Haverhill  they  were  received  as 
persons  risen  from  the  dead.  Mrs.  Dnstiu  found 
her  husband  and  children  safe.  Soon  after¬ 
wards  she  bore  to  the  governor,  at  Boston,  the 
gun,  tomahawk,  and  ten  scalps,  and  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Court  gave  these  two  women  $250  each,  as 
a  reward  for  their  heroism.  They  received  oth¬ 
er  tokens  of  regard.  The  islaud  where  the  scene 
occurred  is  called  Dustin’s  Island.  On  its  high¬ 
est  point  citizens  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
Hampshire  erected  a  commemorative  monu¬ 
ment  in  1874.  On  it  are  inscribed  the  names 
of  Hannah  Dustin,  Mary  Neff,  and  Samuel  Leou- 
ardsou,  the  latter  the  English  lad. 

Dutch  and  German  Branch  of  the  Wash¬ 
ington  Family.  The  same  political  causes 
which  impelled  the  grandfather  of  Washington 
and  his  brother  to  emigrate  to  America  in  Crom¬ 
well’s  time  induced  their  brother  James  to  go 
to  Holland.  He  settled  in  Rotterdam,  where,  in 
1650,  he  married  Clara  Van  der  Lanen,  daughter 
of  the  burgomaster.  From  them  have  descend¬ 
ed  a  long  line,  some  of  them  belonging  to  noble 
families — some  Roman  Catholics,  some  Protest¬ 
ants.  A  genealogical  register  of  this  branch  of 
the  family,  from  1650  to  1861,  is  in  the  archives 
of  the  New  York  Historical  Society,  part  of  it 
in  Dutch  and  part  in  the  German  language.  A 
copy  of  it  was  printed  in  the  number  of  The  Mag¬ 
azine  of  American  History  for  February,  1879.  The 
latest  recorded  births  are  as  follows:  “1856 — 2 
Aug.  Born,  George  Baron  of  Washington.  1858 
— June.  Born,  Stephen  Baron  Van  Washington.” 
On  Aug.  15,  1855,  was  recorded  the  marriage  of 
“  Maximilian  Baron  Van  Washington  to  Frede¬ 
rica,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg.” 

Dutch  and  Indian  Plot.  Uncas,  the  Mohe- 
gan  sachem,  always  bent  on  mischief,  spread  a 
report,  in  the  spring  of  1653,  that  Ninegret,  a 
Niantic  sachem,  uncle  of  Miantonomo,  had  vis¬ 
ited  New  Amsterdam  during  the  preceding  win¬ 
ter,  and  had  arranged  with  the  Dutch  governor 
(Stuyvesaut)  a  plot  for  a  general  insurrection  of 
the  natives  and  the  murder  of  the  New  England 
settlers.  The  story  caused  such  alarm  (England 
had  just  declared  war  against  Holland)  that  the 
commissioners  of  the  New  England  Confeder¬ 
acy  (which  see)  assembled  in  special  session 
at  Boston  in  May.  They  sent  messengers  to 
Ninegret  and  Pessacus  to  inquire  into  the  mat¬ 
ter,  and  envoys  and  a  letter  to  Governor  Stuy- 
vesant.  They  also  ordei’ed  five  hundred  men  to 
be  raised,  to  bo  ready  in  case  “  God  called  the 
colonists  to  war.”  The  sachems  totally  denied 
any  knowledge  of  such  a  plot,  and  Stuyvesaut 
indignantly  repelled  even  a  suspicion,  and  sent 


back  a  declaration  of  the  grievances  of  the 
Dutch.  These  denials  were  rebutted  by  the  testi¬ 
mony  of  English  and  Indian  malcontents  in  New 
Amsterdam.  On  the  report  of  the  envoys,  the 
commissioners  at  Boston  determined  on  war; 
but  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  desired 
the  opinions  of  the  clergy.  The  latter  thought 
they  saw  plain  evidence  of  “  an  execrable  plot 
tending  to  the  destruction  of  many  dear  saints 
of  God,”  but  were  opposed  to  going  to  war. 
Other  ministers  urged  war,  aud  so  did  a  major¬ 
ity  of  the  commissioners,  but  the  General  Court 
denied  the  power  to  make  “offensive  war”  with¬ 
out  unanimous  consent.  Meanwhile  Connecti¬ 
cut  and  New  Haven,  bent  on  war,  united  in  a 
solicitation  to  Cromwell  to  fit  out  an  expedition 
to  conquer  New  Netherland,  and  the  towns  of 
Stamford  and  Fairfield,  on  the  Dutch  frontier, 
attempted  to  raise  volunteers  to  make  war 
against  the  Dutch  on  their  own  account.  At 
another  meeting  (September,  1653)  the  commis¬ 
sioners,  believing  they  were  “called  by  God  to 
make  present  war  on  Ninegret,”  ordered  twTo 
hundred  aud  fifty  men  to  be  raised  for  that  pur¬ 
pose.  The  Massachusetts  court  again  inter¬ 
fered,  and  prevented  war.  Cromwell,  however, 
sent  three  ships  and  a  few  troops  to  attack  New 
Netherland,  hut  before  they  reached  America 
the  war  with  Holland  was  over,  and  the  expe¬ 
dition,  uuder  John  Leverett  and  Robert  Sedg¬ 
wick,  proceeded  to  capture  Acadia  from  La  Tour, 
who  laid  claim  to  it  because  of  a  grant  made  to 
his  father  by  Sir  William  Alexander.  (See  Al¬ 
exander;  also,  La  Tour’s  Expedition.') 

Dutch  Authority  at  Manhattan  defied. 

While  the  absurd  Walter  Van  Twiller  was  gov¬ 
ernor  of  New  Netberland,  Jacob  Eelkins,  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company’s  former  command¬ 
ant  at  Fort  Orange,  entered  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson  in  an  English  vessel  (April  18,  1633), 
and  avowed  his  determination  to  ascend  the 
river  and  trade  with  the  Indians.  He  was  in 
the  English  service,  and  claimed  that  the  coun¬ 
try  belonged  to  the  English,  because  it  had  been 
discovered  by  a  subject  of  England,  Hudson. 
Van  Twiller  ordered  the  Orange  flag  to  be 
raised  over  Fort  Amsterdam  as  the  best  defi¬ 
ance  of  the  intruder.  Eelkins  as  promptly  ran 
up  the  English  flag  above  his  vessel  (the  Will¬ 
iam),  weighed  anchor,  and  sailed  up  the  river. 
This  audacity  enraged  Van  Twiller.  He  gath¬ 
ered  the  people,  opened  a  barrel  of  wine,  drank 
glassful  after  glassful,  aud  cried,  “  You  who  love 
the  Prince  of  Orange  and  me  do  this,  and  assist 
me  in  repelling  the  insult  committed  by  that 
Englishman.”  Having  thus  unburdened  his  soul, 
the  governor  retired  within  the  fort.  Later  in 
the  day  the  energetic  De  Vries  (which  see)  dined 
with  the  governor,  aud  reproved  him  for  his  show 
of  impotence.  After  a  few  days  of  hesitation, 
some  small  craft  with  some  soldiers  were  sent 
after  Eelkins,  and  after  the  lapse  of  about  a 
month  the  William  was  expelled  from  the  harbor. 

Dutch  Colonists  in  South  Carolina.  After 
the  conquest  of  New  Netherland  by  the  English, 
many  of  the  Dutch  colonists  emigrated  to  South 
Carolina,  where  they  were  not  only  offered  lauds 


DUTCH  ELEMENT  IN  NEW  YORK  414 


DUTCH  WEST  INDIA  COMPANY 


by  the  proprietors,  but  two  ships  were  sent  to 
transport  them  thither.  The  surveyor  of  the  col¬ 
ony  marked  out  lands  for  them  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Ashley  River.  They  drew  lots  for  a  di¬ 
vision,  and  founded  a  town,  which  they  called 
James  Town. 

Dutch  Element  in  New  York  Society.  The 

Dutch-Americans  formed  the  basis  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  New  York,  and  were  almost  to  a  man  in 
favor  of  liberty  in  America,  and  they  formed  the 
bulwark  of  that  liberty  in  the  colony  when  it 
was  threatened.  The  supporters  of  the  crown 
were  mostly  of  British  descent-,  and  a  large  pro¬ 
portion  of  the  members  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  in  America  were  loyalists.  The  middling 
classes,  too,  were  generally  patriotic,  and  the 
mechanics  in  the  city  of  New  York  were,  almost 
to  a  man,  enthusiastic  advocates  of  decisive 
measures  against  the  pretensions  of  Parliament. 

Dutch  Gap  Canal.  There  is  a  sharp  bend 
in  the  James  River  between  the  Appomattox 
and  Richmond,  where  the  stream,  after  flowing 
several  miles,  approaches  itself  within  five  hun¬ 
dred  yards.  To  flank  Confederate  works  and 
to  shorten  the  passage  of  the  river  six  or  seven 
miles,  General  Bntler  set  a  large  force  of  colored 
troops  at  work,  in  the  summer  of  1864,  in  cutting 
a  canal  for  the  passage  of  vessels  across  this 
peninsula.  This  canal  was  completed,  with  the 
exception  of  blowing  out  the  bulkhead,  at  the 
close  of  December,  1864.  It  was  five  hundred 
yards  in  length,  sixty  feet  iu  width  at  top,  and 
sixty-five  below  the  surface  of  the  bluff.  It 
was  excavated  fifteen  feet  below  high-water 
mark.  On  New-year’s  Day,  1865,  a  mine  of 
twelve  thousand  pounds  of  guupowder  was  ex¬ 
ploded  under  the  bulkhead,  and  the  water 
rushed  through,  but  not  iu  sufficient  depth  for 
practical  purposes,  for  the  mass  of  the  bulkhead 
(left  to  keep  out  the  water)  fell  back  into  the 
opening  after  the  explosion.  The  canal  was 
now  swept  by  Confederate  cannons,  and  could 
not  be  dredged.  As  a  military  operation,  it  was 
a  failure.  It  was  excavated  in  one  hundred  and 
forty  days,  and  has  since  been  made  navigable. 

Dutch,  The,  at  New  Plymouth.  In  the 
spring  of  1627  the  colony  at  New  Plymouth  was 
officially  informed  that  the  Dutch  had  planted 
settlements  at  Manhattan  and  elsewhere.  Gov¬ 
ernor  Bradford  wTote  a  friendly  letter  to  Gov¬ 
ernor  Minuits,  but  warned  him  not  to  traffic 
with  the  Indians  north  of  latitude  40°,  as  the 
country  belonged  to  the  English.  Minuits  ap¬ 
pointed  a  commission  to  visit  Plymouth  to  con¬ 
fer  upon  subjects  of  mutual  interest.  Rasieres, 
Secretary  of  New  Netherland,  was  at  the  head  of 
the  commission.  They  landed  at  one  of  the  out¬ 
posts  of  the  Plymouth  colony,  and,  with  the  blare 
of  trumpets,  announced  their  approach.  With 
the  same  noise,  the  Dutch  entered  the  village, 
where  they  were  hospitably  entertained  several 
days  at  Governor  Bradford’s  table.  They  also 
attended  public  worship  with  the  Pilgrims  on 
the  Sabbath.  Nothing  decisive  was  done.  The 
Dutch,  with  an  eye  to  self-interest,  advised  the 
Pilgrims  to  leave  their  sterile  seat  and  make 
their  home  iu  the  beautiful  and  fertile  Valley 


of  the  Connecticut,  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
New  Netherland.  They  would  not  consent  to 
become  subjects  of  the  Dutch. 

Dutch,  The,  in  Connecticut.  Governor 
Stuyvesant  steadily  asserted  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Dutch  over  the  country  to  Narraganset 
Bay,  until  a  settlement  was  made  iu  1650.  In 
1647  he  heard  that  a  Dutch  ship  was  at  New 
Haven,  taking  in  a  cargo  without  a  permit  from 
the  government  at  Manhattan.  It  happened  at 
about  that  time  that  the  deputy-governor  of  the 
New  Haven  colony  had  purchased  the  ship  Zwol 
from  the  Dutch,  to  be  delivered  at  that  settle¬ 
ment.  Stuyvesant  took  advantage  of  this  op¬ 
portunity  to  assert,  iu  a  forcible  manner,  the 
right  of  Dutch  jurisdiction  iu  Connecticut.  The 
Dutch  vessel  at  New  Haven  (the  St.  Benino)  was 
regarded  as  a  smuggler ;  and  when  the  Zwol 
sailed  for  that  port  she  bore,  under  her  hatches, 
a  company  of  soldiers,  led  by  Captain  Van  der 
Geist,  to  seize  the  offending  vessel  and  take  her 
to  New  Amsterdam.  Suddenly,  on  Sunday  morn¬ 
ing,  Van  der  Geist,  with  his  soldiers,  boarded  the 
St.  Benino,  made  prisoners  of  all  on  board,  and 
sailed  for  New  Amsterdam.  Governor  Eaton, 
ruler  of  the  New  Haven  colony,  sent  an  angry 
protest  to  the  Dutch  governor  because  of  this 
high-handed  act.  “  We  have  protested,  and  by 
these  presents  do  protest,  against  you,  Peter 
Stuyvesant,  Governor  of  the  Dutch  at  Manhat¬ 
tan,”  wrote  Eaton,  “  for  disturbing  the  peace  be¬ 
tween  the  English  and  Dutch  in  these  parts 
and  he  specified  the  particular  acts  of  which  he 
complained.  Stuyvesant  paid  no  heed  to  this 
protest,  but  confiscated  the  ship  and  cargo,  and 
exteuded  his  claims  to  territory  in  New  Eng¬ 
land.  A  hot  correspondence  ensued,  Eaton  com¬ 
plaining  that  Stuyvesant  wrote  to  him  in  Low 
Dutch,  of  which  he  understood  but  little,  and 
could  not  get  an  interpretation  from  Stuyve- 
saut’s  messenger.  At  length  Stuyvesant  re¬ 
fused  to  hold  any  further  correspondence  with 
Eaton  on  that  subject,  but  did  on  another  iu  an 
offensive  way.  Three  servants  of  the  Dutch 
governor  escaped  to  the  New  Haven  colony. 
Stuyvesant  demanded  of  Eaton  their  return, 
addressing  his  letter  to  the  English  governor  at 
“  New  Haven  in  the  Netherlands.”  Eaton  re¬ 
fused,  and  Stuyvesant  retaliated  by  issuing  a 
proclamation  that  any  servant  fleeing  from  New 
Haven  to  Manhattan  should  be  free  on  his  ar¬ 
rival.  His  servants,  assured  of  pardon,  return¬ 
ed  to  Manhattan  and  their  master. 

Dutch  West  India  Company.  The  Dutch 
East  India  Company  was  a  great  monopoly,  the 
profits  of  the  trade  of  which  were  enormous. 
Their  ships  whitened  the  Indian  seas,  and  in 
one  year  the  shareholders  received  in  dividends 
the  amount  of  three  fourths  of  their  invested 
capital.  It  was  believed  that  trade  with  the 
Western  Continent  might  be  made  equally 
profitable,  and  so  early  as  1607  William  Ussel- 
linx  suggested  a  similar  association  to  trade  in 
the  West  Indies.  The  States -General  of  Hol¬ 
land  were  asked  to  incorporate  such  an  as¬ 
sociation.  The  government,  then  engaged  in 
negotiations  for  a  truce  with  Spain,  refused; 


DUTCH  WEST  INDIA  COMPANY 


415 


DUYCKINCK 


but  when  that  truce  expired,  in  1621,  a  charter 
was  grauted  to  a  company  of  merchants,  which 
gave  the  association  almost  regal  powers  to 
“  colonize,  govern,  and  protect”  New  Netherland 
for  the  term  of  twenty  -  four  years.  (  See  New 
Netherland .)  It  was  ordained  that  during  that 
time  none  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  Prov¬ 
inces  (the  Dutch  Republic)  should  be  permitted 
to  sail  thence  to  the  coasts  of  Africa  between 
the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope ;  nor  to  the  coasts  of  America  or  the  West 
Indies  between  Newfoundland  and  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  except  with  the  permission  of  the 
company.  It  was  vested  with  sovereign  pow¬ 
ers,  to  be  exercised  in  the  name  of  the  States- 
General,  and  to  report  to  that  body,  from  time 
to  time,  all  their  transactions.  The  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  company  was  vested  in  live  sepa¬ 
rate  chambers  of  managers,  the  principal  one  at 
Amsterdam,  and  the  other  four  in  as  many  sep¬ 
arate  cities.  General  executive  powers  were  in¬ 
trusted  to  a  board  of  nineteen  delegates,  called 
the  “  College  of  Nineteen,”  in  which  one  delegate 
represented  the  States  -  General,  by  whom  the 
company  were  guaranteed  protection,  and  re¬ 
ceived  assistance  to  the  amount  of  one  million 
guilders  ($380,000).  The  company  was  organ¬ 
ized  on  the  21st  of  June,  1623;  and  with  such  a 
charter,  such  powers,  and  such  privileges,  they 
began  the  settlement  and  development  of  New 
Netherland.  The  English  claimed  the  domain, 
and  the  Dutch  hastened  to  acquire  eminent  do¬ 
main,  according  to  the  policy  of  England,  by 
plantiug  permanent  settlements  there ;  and  the 
same  year  (1623)  they  sent  over  thirty  families, 
chiefly  Walloons,  to  Manhattan.  (See  Walloons.) 
The  management  of  New  Netherland  was  in¬ 
trusted  to  the  Amsterdam  chamber.  Their  traf¬ 
fic  was  successful.  In  1624  the  exports  from 
Amsterdam,  in  two  ships,  were  worth  almost 
$10,000,  and  the  returns  from  New  Netherland 
were  considerably  more.  The  company  estab¬ 
lished  a  trading-post,  called  Fort  Orange,  on  the 
site  of  Albany,  and  traffic  was  extended  east¬ 
ward  to  the  Connecticut  River,  and  even  to  Nar- 
raganset  Bay ;  northward  to  the  Mohawk  Val¬ 
ley,  and  southward  and  westward  to  the  Dela¬ 
ware  River  and  beyond.  To  induce  private 
capitalists  to  engage  in  the  settlement  of  the 
country,  the  company  gave  lands  and  special 
privileges  to  such  as  would  guarantee  settle¬ 
ment  aud  cultivation.  (See  Patroons.)  These 
became  troublesome  landholders,  and  in  1638 
the  rights  of  the  company,  it  was  claimed,  were 
interfered  with  by  a  settlement  of  Swedes  on 
the  Delaware.  (See  Neiv  Sweden.)  In  1640  the 
company  established  the  doctrines  and  rituals 
of  the  “  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  Prov¬ 
inces”  as  the  only  theological  formula  to  be  al¬ 
lowed  in  public  worship  in  New  Netherland. 
The  spirit  of  popular  freedom  which  the  Dutch 
brought  with  them  from  Holland  asserted  its 
rights  under  the  tyranny  of  Kieft,  and  a  sort  of 
popular  assembly  was  organized  at  New  Am¬ 
sterdam.  (See  Kieft.)  Its  affairs  in  New  Neth¬ 
erland  were  necessarily  under  the  direct  man¬ 
agement  of  a  director-general  or  governor, 
whoso  powers,  as  in  the  case  of  Kieft  and  Stuy- 


vesant,  were  sometimes  so  arbitrarily  exercised 
that  much  popular  discontent  was  manifested, 
and  their  dealings  with  their  neighbors  were 
not  always  satisfactory  to  the  company  and  the 
States-Geueral ;  yet,  on  the  whole,  when  we  con¬ 
sider  the  spirit  of  the  age,  the  colony,  which, 
before  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish  in  1664,  was  of  a  mixed  population,  was 
managed  wisely  and  well ;  aud  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company  was  one  of  the  most  important 
instruments  in  planting  the  good  seed  from 
which  our  nation  has  sprung. 

Dutch  West  India  Company,  Government 
of  the.  The  government  was  vested  in  five 
separate  chambers  of  managers  —  one  at  Am¬ 
sterdam,  managing  four  ninth  parts ;  one  at 
Middelburg,  in  Zealand,  two  ninth  parts;  one 
at  Dordrecht,  on  the  Maese,  one  ninth  part ;  one 
in  North  Holland,  one  ninth  part ;  and  one  in 
Friesland  and  Groningen,  one  ninth  part.  Ex¬ 
ecutive  powers  for  all  jmrposes,  except  that  in 
case  of  a  declaration  of  war  the  approbation  of 
the  States-General  was  to  be  asked,  were  in¬ 
trusted  to  a  board  of  nineteen  delegates,  called 
the  “College  of  Nineteen,”  eight  of  whom  came 
from  the  chamber  at  Amsterdam,  four  from  Zea¬ 
land,  two  from  the  Maese,  two  from  North  Hol¬ 
land,  and  two  from  Friesland  aud  Groningen ; 
while  one  delegate  was  to  represent  the  States- 
General.  (See  Dutch  West  India  Company.) 

Duty  on  Negroes.  A  duty  of  £4  was  laid, 
in  1703,  upon  every  negro  imported  into  the  col¬ 
ony  of  Massachusetts. 

Duyckinck,  Evart  Augustus,  was  born  in 
New  York  city,  Nov.  23,  1816;  died  there,  Aug. 
13, 1878.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1835.  His  father  was  a  successful  publisher, 
and  Evart  early  showed  a  love  for  books  aud  a 
taste  for  literary  pursuits.  In  December,  1840, 
he  commenced  the  publication  of  Arcturus ;  a 
Journal  of  Books  and  Opinions ,  in  connection  with 
Cornelius  Matthews,  which  was  continued  about 
a  year  and  a  half.  He  contributed  to  the  early 
numbers  of  the  Neiv  York  Review.  In  1847,  in 
connection  with  his  brother  George,  he  com¬ 
menced  the  Literary  World,  a  periodical  which 
continued  (with  an  interval  of  a  year  and  five 
months)  until  the  close  of  1853.  In  1856  the 
brothers  completed  the  Cyclopaedia  of  American 
Literature,  in  two  volumes,  a  work  of  great  re¬ 
search  and  value.  To  this  Evart  added  a  sup¬ 
plement  in  1865.  His  other  important  works 
are,  Wit  and  Wisdom  of  Sidney  Smith ;  National  Por¬ 
trait-gallery  of  Eminent  Americans  ;  History  of  the 
War  for  the  Union  ;  History  of  the  World  from  the 
Earliest  Period  to  the  Present  Time;  and  Portrait- 
gallery  of  Eminent  Men  and  Women  of  Europe  and 
America  (two  volumes).  Mr.  Duyckinck’s  latest 
important  literary  labor  was  in  the  preparation, 
in  connection  with  the  late  Mr.  Bryant,  of  a 
new  and  thoroughly  annotated  edition  of  Shake¬ 
speare's  writings,  yet  (1880)  unpublished.  His 
brother,  George  Long,  was  born  in  Now  York 
city,  Oct.  17,  1823 ;  died  there,  March  30,  1863. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York  in  1843.  Besides  his  assistance  in 
the  conduct  of  the  Literary  World  and  the  prep- 


DWIGHT 


416 


EARLE 


a  rati  on  of  the  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature, 
he  published  biographies  of  George  Herbert 
(1858),  Bishop  Thomas  Ken  (1859),  Jeremy  Tay¬ 
lor  (1860),  and  Bishop  Latimer  (1861). 

Dwight,  Theodoke,  was  born  at  Northamp¬ 
ton,  Mass.,  Dec.  16, 1764  ;  died  in  New  York  city, 
Jan.  11, 1846.  He  was  a  grandson  of  the  emi¬ 
nent  theologian  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  be¬ 
came  eminent  as  a  lawyer  and  political  writer; 
was  for  many  years  in  the  Senate  of  Connecti¬ 
cut ;  and  in  1806-7  was  in  Congress,  where  he 
became  a  prominent  advocate  for  the  suppres¬ 
sion  of  the  slave-trade.  During  the  War  of 
1812-15  he  edited  the  Mirror,  at  Hartford,  the 
leading  Federal  newspaper  in  Connecticut;  and 
was  secretary  of  the  Hartford  Convention  ( which 
see)  in  1814,  the  proceedings  of  which  he  pub¬ 
lished  iu  1833.  He  published  the  Albany  Daily 
Advertiser  iu  1815,  and  was  the  founder,  in  1817, 
of  the  Neiv  York  Daily  Advertiser,  with  which  he 
was  connected  until  the  great  tire  iu  1835,  when 
he  retired,  with  his  family,  to  Hartford.  Mr. 
Dwight  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Bible  Society.  He  was  one  of  the  writers 
of  the  poetical  essays  of  the  “Echo”  iu  the 
Hartford  Mercury.  (See  Alsop.)  He  was  also 
the  author  of  a  Dictionary  of  Roots  and  Deriva¬ 
tions.  President  Dwight,  of  Yale  College,  was 
his  brother. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  was  born  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  May  14,1752;  died  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  11,  1817.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1769,  and  was  a  tutor  there  from 
1771  to  1777,  when  he  became  an  army  chaplain, 
and  served  until  October,  1778.  During  that 
time  he  wrote  many  popular  patriotic  sougs. 
He  labored  on  a  farm  for  a  few  years,  preaching 
occasionally,  and  in  1781  and  1786  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Connecticut  Legislature.  In  1783  he 
was  a  settled  minister  at  Greenfield  and  prin¬ 
cipal  of  an  academy  there;  and  from  1795  until 
his  death  he  was  President  of  Yale  College.  In 
1796  he  began  travelling  in  the  New  England 
States  and  in  New  York  during  his  college  va¬ 
cations,  and  in  1821  he  published  his  Travels  in 
New  England  and  New  York,  iu  four  volumes. 
Dr.  Dwight  wrote  some  excellent  poetry,  re¬ 
vised  Watts’s  version  of  the  Psalms,  and  pub¬ 
lished  many  occasional  sermons. 

Dyer,  Eliphalet,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Wind¬ 
ham,  Conn.,  Sept.  28,  1721;  died  there,  May  13, 
1807.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  iu  1740; 
became  a  lawyer;  aud  was  a  member  of  the 
Conuecticut  Legislature  from  1745  to  1762.  He 


commanded  a  regiment  in  the  French  and  In¬ 
dian  War;  was  made  a  member  of  the  Council 
in  1762 ;  and,  as  an  active  member  of  the  Sus¬ 
quehanna  Compauy  (which  see),  went  to  Eng¬ 
land  as  its  agent  iu  1763.  Mr.  Dyer  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  (which  see)  in 
1765,  aud  was  a  member  of  the  First  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress  iu  1774.  He  remained  in  that  body 
during  the  entire  war  excepting  iu  1779.  He 
was  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Connecti¬ 
cut  iu  1766,  aud  was  chief-justice  from  1789  to 
1793.  Colonel  Dyer  is  alluded  to  in  the  famous 
doggerel  poem  entitled  Lawyers  and  Bullfrogs, 
the  introduction  to  which  avers  that  at  Old 
Windam,  in  Conuecticut,  after  a  long  drought,  a 
frog -pond  became  almost  dry,  and  a  terrible 
battle  was  fought  one  night  by  the  frogs  to  de¬ 
cide  which  should  keep  possession  of  the  remain¬ 
ing  water.  Many  “thousands  were  defunct  in 
the  morning.”  There  was  an  uncommon  silence 
for  hours  before  the  battle  commenced,  when, 
as  if  by  a  preconcerted  agreement,  every  frog  on 
one  side  of  the  ditch  raised  the  war-cry  Colonel 
Dyer!  Colonel  Dyer!  and  at  the  same  instant, 
from  the  opposite  side,  resounded  the  adverse 
shout  of  Elderkin  too!  Elderkin  too!  Owing  to 
some  peculiarity  in  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  sounds  seemed  to  be  overhead,  and  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  Windham  were  greatly  frightened.  The 
poet  says : 

“This  terrible  night  the  parson  did  fright 
His  people  almost  iu  despair; 

For  poor  Windham  souls  among  the  bean  poles 
He  made  a  most  wonderful  prayer. 

Lawyer  Lueifer  called  up  his  crew  ; 

Dyer  and  Elderkin,  you  must  come,  too  : 

Old  Colonel  Dyer  you  know  well  enough, 

He  had  an  old  negro,  his  name  was  Cuff.” 

Dyer,  Mary,  one  of  the  early  Quaker  martyrs 
in  Massachusetts.  She  was  the  wife  of  a  lead¬ 
ing  citizen  of  Rhode  Island.  Having  embraced 
the  doctrines  and  discipline  of  the  sect  called 
Friends,  or  Quakers  (which  see),  she  became  an 
enthusiast,  and  went  to  Boston,  whence  some  of 
her  sect  had  been  bauislied,  to  give  her  “testi¬ 
mony  to  the  truth.”  In  that  colony  the  death 
penalty  menaced  those  who  should  return  after 
banishment.  Mary  was  sent  away  and  returned, 
and  was  released  while  going  to  the  gallows  with 
Marmaduke  Stevenson  with  a  rope  around  her 
neck  She  unwillingly  returned  to  her  family 
in  Rhode  Island ;  but  she  went  back  to  Boston 
again  for  the  purpose  of  offering  up  her  life  to  the 
cause  she  advocated,  and  she  was  hanged  in  1660. 
Mary  had  once  beeu  whipped  on  her  bare  back 
through  the  streets  of  Boston,  tied  behind  a  cart. 


E. 


Earle,  Pliny,  an  American  inventor,  was  born 
at  Leicester,  Mass.,  Dec.  17, 1762 ;  died  there,  Nov. 
19,  1832.  He  became  connected  with  Edward 
Snow  in  1785  in  the  manufacture  of  machine 
and  hand  cards  for  carding  wool  aud  cotton. 
Mr.  Earle  had  first  made  them  by  hand,  but  af¬ 
terwards  by  a  machine  of  his  own  invention. 
Oliver  Evans  (which  see)  had  already  invented 
a  machine  for  making  card-teeth,  which  pro¬ 


duced  three  hundred  a  minute.  In  1784  Mr. 
Crittenden,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  invented  a 
machine  which  produced  eighty-six  thousand 
card-teeth,  cut  and  bent,  in  an  hour.  These 
card-teeth  were  put  up  in  bags  and  distributed 
among  families,  in  which  the  women  aud  chil¬ 
dren  stuck  them  in  the  leather.  Leicester  was 
the  chief  seat  of  this  industry,  and  to  that  place 
Samuel  Slater  (which  see),  of  Rhode  Island, 


EARLY  FRENCH  DISCOVERIES 


417 


EARLY  MILITARY  OPERATIONS 


went  for  card  clothing  for  the  machines  in  his 
cotton-mill.  Hearing  that  Pliny  Earle  was  an 
expert  card-maker,  he  went  to  him  and  told  him 
what  he  wanted.  Mr.  Earl  invented  a  machine 
for  pricking  the  holes  in  the  leather — a  tedious 
process  by  hand — and  it  worked  admirably.  A 
few  years  afterwards  Eleazer  Smith  (see  Whitte- 
rnore,  Amos)  made  a  great  improvement  by  in¬ 
venting  a  machine  that  not  only  pricked  the 
holes,  but  set  the  teeth  more  expertly  than  hu¬ 
man  fingers  could  do.  About  1843  William  B. 
Earle,  son  of  Pliny,  improved  Smith’s  invention, 
and  the  machine  thus  produced  for  making  card 
clothing  is  now  (1876)  the  best  ever  made,  and  is 
in  exclusive  use  by  T.  K.  Earle  &,  Co.,  Worcester, 
Mass.  By  Mr.  Earle’s  first  invention  the  labor 
of  a  man  for  fifteen  hours  could  be  performed  in 
fifteen  minutes.  Mr.  Earle  possessed  extensive 
attainments  in  science  and  literature. 

Early  French  Discoveries  on  the  American 
Coast.  In  1506  John  Denys,  of  Honfleur,  ex¬ 
plored  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Two  years 
later  Thomas  Anbert,  a  pilot  of  Dieppe,  visited, 
it  is  believed,  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  ami 
gave  it  its  name.  He  carried  some  of  the  na¬ 
tives  with  him  to  France.  In  1518  the  Baron 
de  Leri,  preparatory  to  the  settlement  of  a  colo¬ 
ny  on  Sable  Island,  left  some  cattle  there,  whose 
progeny,  fourscore  years  afterwards,  gave  food 
to  unfortunate  persons  left  on  the  island  by  the 
Marquis  de  la  Roche  (which  see). 

Early  Jesuit  Missions  in  Virginia.  Menen- 
dez,  who  desolated  the  Huguenot  settlement  in 
Florida  (see  Huguenots  in  America),  believing 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  be  an  open  passage  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  wishing  to  have  that  gate 
guarded  by  the  faithful  of  his  church,  sent  a 
vessel  carrying  soldiers  in  1556,  with  a  number 
of  Jesuit  priests,  to  establish  a  post  somewhere 
on  its  shores,  or  on  one  of  its  tributary  rivers. 
This  party  was  guided  by  an  Indian  convert, 
brother  of  the  sachem  of  Axacan,  as  a  particular 
portion  of  Virginia  was  called,  whence  he  had 
been  taken  some  years  before  to  Mexico.  The 
expedition  was  unsuccessful,  but  Menendez  urged 
his  project,  and  in  1570,  the  Indian  convert,  be¬ 
ing  in  Spain,  was  sent,  under  the  direction  of 
the  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  with  a  priest 
and  two  religieux,  to  plant  a  mission  station 
near  the  Chesapeake.  At  Port  Royal  they  were 
joined  by  the  head  of  the  Jesuit  mission  in  Flor¬ 
ida,  another  priest,  and  four  Indian  boys,  nov¬ 
ices  from  the  mission-school  in  Havana.  This 
party  landed  on  the  shores  of  the  Potomac  in 
September,  1570,  and  were  left  there  in  the  wil¬ 
derness  with  a  few  stores.  They  travelled  across 
the  country  to  the  Rappahannock,  and  near  its 
banks  they  constructed  a  log-cabin  as  a  shelter 
and  chapel,  which  they  called  the  “Chapel  of 
the  Mother  of  God  at  Axacan.”  There  they  suf¬ 
fered  in  the  ensuing  winter,  and  were  chiefly 
dependent  upon  the  converted  Indian  for  a  time. 
He  soon  forgot  that  he  was  a  Christian,  and  be¬ 
came  the  most  dangerous  enemy  of  the  mission¬ 
aries.  The  expostulations  and  the  threats  of 
the  Jesuit  priest  sent  to  him  were  of  no  avail. 
The  priest,  and  two  Indian  boys  who  went  with 
I.— 27 


him,  were  killed.  Their  companions  left  behind 
waited  anxiously  in  the  chapel  for  their  return. 
On  the  fourth  day  of  their  vigils  the  Indian  con¬ 
vert,  dressed  in  the  cassock  of  the  murdered 
priest,  and  followed  by  painted  savages,  sur¬ 
rounded  the  chapel  and  slaughtered  all  the  in¬ 
mates  but  one  of  the  Indian  boys.  The  next 
spring  Menendez  sailed  up  the  Potomac  in  a 
small  vessel  to  punish  the  murderers.  He  capt¬ 
ured  a  number  of  the  Indians,  and  eight  of  them 
whom  the  saved  boy  pointed  out  as  of  the  party 
of  murderers  were  instantly  hanged  by  Menen- 
dez  to  the  yard-arm. 

Early,  Jubal  A.,  was  born  in  Virginia  about 
1818,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837.  He 
served  in  the  Florida  War,  left  the  army  in 
1838  to  study  law,  and  became  state  attorney  in 
1843.  He  served  as  major  in  a  Virginia  regi¬ 


ment  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  from  1848  to 
1852  was  again  state  attorney.  He  entered  the 
Confederate  service  as  colonel  in  1861,  command¬ 
ed  a  brigade  in  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run,  and  a 
division  at  Gettysburg.  He  was  active  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valiey  in  1864. 

Early  Martyrs  in  Virginia.  (See  Berkeley, 
Sir  William.) 

Early  Military  Operations  in  Missouri  (1861). 
General  Nathaniel  Lyon,  in  command  of  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Missouri,  moved  against  Governor 
Jackson  so  soon  as  the  latter  had  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  at  Jefferson  City.  Ho  sent 
(July  12, 1861)  a  regiment  of  Missouri  volunteers, 
under  Colonel  Franz  Sigel,  to  occupy  and  pro¬ 
tect  the  Pacific  Railway  from  St.  Louis  to  the 
Gasconade  River,  preparatory  to  a  movement 
southward  to  oppose  an  invasion  of  Ben  McCul¬ 
loch,  a  Texan  ranger,  who  had  crossed  the  Ar¬ 
kansas  frontier  with  about  eight  hundred  men, 
and  was  marching  on  Springfield.  Lyon  left 
St.  Louis  (June  13)  with  two  thousand  men,  on 
two  steamboats,  for  Jefferson  City,  todrive  Jack- 
son  and  Price  out  of  it.  The  Missouri  troops 
were  commanded  by  Colonels  Blair  and  Boern- 
stein,  the  regulars  by  Captain  Lathrop,  and 
the  artillery  by  Captain  J.  Totten.  The  insur¬ 
gents  fled  westward  to  a  point  near  Booneville. 


EARLY  NEW  ENGLAND  LAWS 


418  EARTHQUAKES  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 


Leaving  Boevnsteiu  to  hold  the  capital,  Lyon 
followed  (June  16).  He  overtook  the  fugitives 
not  far  from  Booueville.  Lyon  landed  his  men 
and  attacked  the  camp  of  the  insurgents,  com¬ 
manded  by  Colonel  Marmaduke,  of  the  state 
forces.  Some  of  his  troops  had  made  a  citadel 
of  a  brick  house.  The  camp  was  ou  an  emi¬ 
nence.  Lyon  ascended  this,  and  opened  a  battle 
by  firing  into  the  midst  of  the  insurgents.  A 
sharp  fight  ensued.  Two  of  Lyon’s  shells  en¬ 
tered  the  brick  house  and  drove  out  the  inmates. 
Finally  the  insurgents  fled.  They  lost  a  battery, 
twenty  prisoners,  several  horses,  and  a  consid¬ 
erable  amount  of  military  stores.  Leaving  a 
company  to  hold  the  deserted  camp  of  the  in¬ 
surgents,  Lyon  pushed  on  to  Booueville.  The 
fugitives  scattered,  some  going  westward  and 
some  southward.  With  the  latter  went  Gov¬ 
ernor  Jackson.  At  Warsaw,  on  the  Osage,  he 
was  joined  (June  20)  by  four  hundred  men  un¬ 
der  Colonel  O’Kane,  who  had  just  captured  and 
dispersed  about  the  same  number  of  the  loyal 
Missouri  Home  Guards.  The  governor  and  his 
followers  continued  their  flight  to  the  extreme 
southwestern  corner  of  Missouri,  where  he  was 
joined  by  General  Price,  when  the  whole  insur¬ 
gent  force  amounted  to  full  three  thousand  men. 
At  the  same  time,  General  J.  G.  Rains,  a  graduate 
of  West  Point,  was  hurrying  forward  to  join 
Jackson  with  a  considerable  force  of  insurgents, 
closely  pursued  by  Major  Sturgis  with  a  body  of 
Kansas  volunteers.  Jackson  was  now  satisfied 
that  the  whole  of  northern  Missouri  was  lost  to 
the  cause  of  secession,  and  he  endeavored  to 
concentrate  all  the  armed  disloyal  citizens,  with 
McCulloch’s  men,  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  commonwealth,  preparatory  to  “  the  speedy 
deliverance  of  the  state  from  Federal  rule.”  As¬ 
sured  by  the  aspect  of  affairs,  and  conciliatory 
and  assuring  proclamations  from  both  General 
Lyon  and  Colonel  Boernstein,  the  people  became 
quieted,  and  the  loyal  state  convention  was 
called  to  assemble  at  Jefferson  City  on  July  22, 
1861.  General  Lyon  remained  at  Booueville 
about  a  fortnight,  pi’eparing  for  a  vigorous  cam¬ 
paign  against  the  insurgents  in  the  southwest. 
He  then  held  military  control  over  the  whole 
region  northward  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  on 
July  1  there  were  at  least  ten  thousand  loyal 
troops  in  Missouri,  and  ten  thousand  more  might 
have  been  there  within  forty -eight  hours  from 
camps  in  neighboring  states.  Sigel  was  push¬ 
ing  forward  towards  the  borders  of  Kansas  and 
Arkansas  to  open  the  campaign. 

Early  New  England  Laws.  The  magis¬ 
trates  and  ministers,  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Ne'w  England  colonies,  undertook  to  regulate 
by  law  the  morals  and  manners  of  the  people, 
and  made  statutes  which  to-day  appear  absurd, 
but  were  then  regarded  as  essential  to  the  well¬ 
being  of  society.  The  Puritans  wrere  not  only 
rigid  moralists,  but  inflexible  bigots  and  absurd 
egotists.  They  must  be  judged  by  the  age  and 
the  circumstances  in  which  they  lived.  (See 
Puritans.)  Among  many  excellent  laws  were 
scattered  some  of  equivocal  utility,  like  the  fol¬ 
lowing  :  They  doomed  to  banishment,  and,  in 
case  of  return,  to  death,  Jesuits,  Romish  priests, 


and  Quakers.  All  persons  were  forbidden  to 
run,  or  even  to  walk,  “except  reverently  to  and 
from  church,”  on  Sunday,  or  to  profane  the  day 
by  sweeping  their  houses,  cooking  their  food,  or 
shaving  their  beards.  Mothers  were  commanded 
not  to  kiss  their  children  on  that  holy  day. 
Burglars  and  robbers  suffered  the  extra  punish¬ 
ment  of  having  an  ear  cut  off  if  their  crime  was 
committed  on  Sunday.  Blasphemy  and  idolatry 
were  punishable  by  death ;  so  also  were  witch¬ 
craft  and  perjury  directed  against  human  life. 
All  gaming  was  prohibited.  The  importation 
of  cards  and  dice  was  forbidden.  Assemblies 
for  dancing  were  proscribed.  A  Massachusetts 
law,  passed  in  1646,  made  kissing  a  woman  in 
the  street,  even  in  the  way  of  honest  salutation, 
punishable  by  flogging.  No  one  was  allowed  to 
keep  a  tavern  unless  possessed  of  a  good  char¬ 
acter  and  competent  estate.  Persons  wearing 
apparel  which  a  grand  jury  should  account  dis¬ 
proportionate  to  their  positions  were  to  be  first 
admonished,  and,  if  contumacious,  fined.  Every 
woman  who  should  cut  her  hair  like  a  man’s,  or 
suffer  it  to  hang  loosely  upon  her  face,  was 
fined.  Idleness,  swearing,  and  drunkenness 
were  visited  with  restraining  penalties.  In  the 
earlier  records  of  Massachusetts  it  is  revealed 
that  John  Wedgewood,  for  being  in  the  compa¬ 
ny  of  drunkards,  was  to  be  set  in  the  stocks. 
Catharine,  wife  of  Richard  Cornish,  was  sus¬ 
pected  of  incontinence,  and  seriously  admon¬ 
ished  to  take  heed.  Thomas  Petit,  on  suspicion 
of  slander,  idleness,  and  stubbornness,  was  sen¬ 
tenced  to  be  severely  whipped.  Captain  Lovell 
was  admonished  to  take  heed  of  light  carriage. 
Josias  Plaistowe,  for  stealing  four  baskets  of 
corn  from  the  Indians,  was  ordered  to  “return 
them  eight  baskets,  to  be  fined  five  pounds,  and 
thereafter  to  be  called  by  the  name  of  Josias, 
and  not  Mr.,  as  formerly  he  used  to  be.” 

Early  Non  -  importation  Acts.  In  1687  an 
excise  duty  on  tobacco  was  laid  in  England, 
which  alarmed  the  Virginia  planters,  and  they 
attempted  to  retaliate  by  procuring  acts  of  the 
Assembly  for  the  encouragement  of  domestic 
manufactures,  that  they  might  import  less  from 
the  mother  country.  King  James  disallowed 
these  acts  as  hostile  to  English  interests.  A 
similar  attempt  failed  in  Maryland. 

Earthquakes  in  North  America.  On  the 

1st  day  of  June,  1638,  between  the  hours  of  three 
and  four  P.M.,  the  weather  clear  and  warm,  and 
the  wind  westerly,  all  New  England  was  vio¬ 
lently  shaken  by  some  internal  convulsion  of 
the  earth.  It  came  on  with  a  noise  like  contin¬ 
ued  thunder,  and  the  shock  lasted  about  four 
minutes.  The  earth  shook  with  such  violence 
that  in  some  places  the  people  could  not  stand 
upright  without  difficulty,  and  many  movable 
articles  in  the  houses  were  thrown  down.  The 
earth  was  unquiet  for  twenty  days  afterwards. 
On  Jan.  26, 1663,  a  heavy  shock  of  earthquake 
was  felt  in  New  England  and  in  New  York,  and 
was  particularly  severe  in  Canada,  where  it  was 
recorded  that  “the  doors  opened  and  shut  of 
themselves  with  a  fearful  clattering.  The  bells 
rang  without  being  touched.  The  walls  were 


419 


EAST  AND  WEST  JERSEY 

split  asunder.  The  floors  separated  and  fell 
down.  The  fields  put  ou  the  appearance  of 
precipices,  and  the  mountains  seemed  to  be 
moving  out  of  their  places.”  Small  rivers  were 
dried  up  ;  some  mountains  appeared  to  be  much 
broken  and  moved,  and  half-way  between  Que¬ 
bec  and  Tadousac  two  mountains  were  shaken 
down,  and  formed  a  point  of  land  extending 
some  distance  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  On  Oct. 
29, 1727,  there  was  a  severe  earthquake  in  New 
England,  lasting  about  two  minutes.  Its  course 
seemed  to  be  from  the  River  Delaware,  in  the 
southwest,  to  the  Kennebec,  in  tbe  northeast, 
a  distance  of  about  seven  hundred  miles.  It 
occurred  at  about  twenty  minutes  before  eleven 
o’clock  in  the  morning,  and  the  sky  was  serene. 
Pewter  and  china  were  cast  from  their  shelves, 
and  stone  walls  and  chimney-tops  were  shaken 
down.  In  some  places  doors  were  burst  open, 
and  people  could  hardly  keep  their  feet.  There 
had  been  an  interval  of  fifty-seven  years  since 
the  last  earthquake  in  New  England.  On  the 
same  day  the  island  of  Martinique,  in  the  West 
Indies,  was  threatened  with  total  destruction 
by  an  earthquake  which  lasted  eleven  hours. 
Ou  the  18th  of  November,  1755,  an  earthquake 
shock  was  felt  from  Chesapeake  Bay  along  the 
coast  to  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  about  eight  hun¬ 
dred  miles ;  and  iu  the  interior  it  seems  to  have 
extended,  from  northwest  to  southeast,  more 
than  one  thousand  miles.  In  Boston  one  hun¬ 
dred  chimneys  were  levelled  with  the  roofs  of  the 
houses,  and  fifteen  hundred  more  or  less  shat¬ 
tered.  The  ends  of  several  brick  buildings  were 
thrown  down  with  the  chimneys.  The  vane  on 
the  public  market  was  thrown  to  the  earth.  At 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  the  ground  moved  like  waves 
of  the  sea;  the  houses  shook  and  cracked,  and 
many  chimneys  were  thrown  down.  It  occurred 
at  four  o’clock  in  the  morniug,  and  lasted  four 
and  a  half  minutes.  At  the  same  time  there  was 
a  great  tidal-wave  in  the  West  Indies.  Iu  April, 
the  same  year,  Quito,  in  South  America,  was  de¬ 
stroyed  by  an  earthquake ;  and  eighteen  days 
before  the  earthquake  iu  North  America  there 
was  an  awful  and  extensive  one  in  Southern  Eu¬ 
rope  that  extended  into  Africa.  The  earth  was 
violently  shaken  for  five  thousand  miles — even 
to  Scotland.  In  eight  minutes  the  city  of  Lis¬ 
bon,  with  fifty  thousand  inhabitants,  was  swal¬ 
lowed  up.  Other  cities  iu  Portugal  and  Spain 
were  partially  destroyed.  One  half  of  Fez,  in 
northern  Africa,  was  destroyed,  and  more  than 
twelve  thousand  Arabs  perished.  In  the  island 
of  Mitylene,  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  two 
thousand  houses  were  overthrown;  and  half  of 
the  island  of  Madeira,  six  hundred  and  sixty 
miles  southwest,  from  Portugal,  became  a  waste. 

East  and  West  Jersey.  Disputes  had  arisen 
between  the  purchasers  of  a  portion  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey.  Among  these  purchasers  were  John  Fen¬ 
wick  and  Edward  Billinge,  both  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  These  men  quarrelled  with  regard 
to  their  respective  rights.  The  tenets  of  their 
sect  would  not  allow  them  to  go  to  law,  so  they 
referred  the  matter  to  William  Penn,  whose  de¬ 
cision  satisfied  both  parties.  Fenwick  sailed 
for  America  to  found  a  colony,  but  Billing©  was  | 


EAST  FLORIDA,  SEIZURE  OF 

too  much  in  debt  to  come,  and  made  an  assign¬ 
ment  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors.  The  great¬ 
er  part  of  his  right  and  title  in  New  Jersey  fell 
into  the  bauds  of  Penn,  Ga  wen  Lawrie,  and  Nich¬ 
olas  Lucas.  The  matter  was  now  complicated. 
Berkeley  had  disposed  of  his  undivided  half  of 
the  colony.  Finally,  ou  the  1st  of  July,  1676 
(O.  S.),  after  much  preliminary  negotiation,  a 
deed  was  completed  and  signed  by  Carteret  on 
the  one  side,  and  Penn,  Lawrie,  Lucas,  and  Bil¬ 
linge  on  the  other,  which  divided  the  province 
of  New  Jersey  into  two  great  portions- — East 
Jersey,  including  all  that  part  lying  northeast 
of  a  liue  drawn  from  Little  Egg  Harbor  to  a 
point  on  the  most  northerly  branch  of  the  Del¬ 
aware  River,  in  north  latitude  41°  40 ';  and  West 
Jersey,  comprehending  all  the  rest  of  the  prov¬ 
ince  originally  granted  by  the  Duke  of  York. 
East  Jersey  was  the  property  of  Sir  George  Car¬ 
teret  ;  West  Jersey  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
associates  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  West  Jer¬ 
sey  was  now  divided  into  one  hundred  parts, 
setting  aside  ten  for  Fenwick,  who  had  made 
the  first  settlement,  at  Salem,  on  the  Delaware, 
and  arranged  to  dispose  of  the  other  ninety  parts 
for  the  benefit  of  Billinge’s  creditors.  (See  New 
Jersey,  Colony  of.) 

East  Florida,  Lee’s  Expedition  against.  A 
citizen  of  Georgia  visited  General  Charles  Lee 
at  Charleston  and  persuaded  him  that  St.  Augus¬ 
tine  could  be  easily  taken.  The  man  was  a 
stranger,  but,  without  further  inquiry,  Lee  an¬ 
nounced  to  the  Continental  troops  under  his 
command  that  he  had  planned  for  them  a  safe, 
sure,  and  remunerative  expedition,  of  which  the 
very  large  booty  would  be  all  their  own.  Call¬ 
ing  it  a  secret,  he  let  everybody  know  its  destina¬ 
tion.  Without  adequate  preparation — without 
a  field-piece  or  a  medicine-chest  —  he  hastily 
marched  off  the  Virginia  and  North  Carolina 
troops,  in  the  second  week  in  August  (1776),  to 
the  malarious  regions  of  Georgia.  By  his  order, 
Howe,  of  North  Carolina,  and  Moultrie,  of  South 
Carolina,  soon  followed.  About  four  hundred 
and  sixty  men  from  South  Carolina  were  sent  to 
Savannah  by  water,  with  two  field-pieces;  and 
ou  the  18tli,  Lee,  after  reviewing  the  collected 
troops,  sent  the  Virginians  and  a  portion  of  the 
South  Carolinians  to  Sunbury.  The  fever  made 
sad  havoc  among  them,  and  fourteen  or  fifteen 
men  were  buried  daily.  Then  Lee  sought  to 
shift  from  himself  to  Moultrie  the  further  con¬ 
duct  of  the  expedition,  for  he  saw  it  must  be  dis¬ 
astrous.  Moultrie  warned  him  that  no  availa¬ 
ble  resources  which  would  render  success  possi¬ 
ble  had  been  provided,  and  the  wretched  expe¬ 
dition  was  abandoned.  Fortunately  for  his  rep¬ 
utation,  Lee  was  ordered  North  early  in  Septem¬ 
ber  and  joined  Washington  on  Harlem  Heights, 
receiving  his  $30,000  from  Congress  as  lie  passed 
through  Philadelphia.  (See  Lee,  Charles.) 

East  Florida,  Seizure  oe  (1812).  Florida 
was  divided  into  two  provinces,  East  and  West, 
The  boundary-line  was  the  Perdido  River,  east 
of  Mobile  Bay.  The  Georgians  coveted  East 
Florida,  and  in  the  spring  of  1812  Brigadier-gen¬ 
eral  George  Mathews,  of  the  Georgia  militia, 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANY 


420  EAST  TENNESSEE,  BURNSIDE  IN 


who  had  been  appointed  a  commissioner,  under 
an  act  of  a  secret  session  of  Congress  in  1810-11, 
to  secure  that  province  should  it  be  offered  to 
the  United  States,  stirred  up  an  insurrection 
there.  Amelia  Island,  lying  a  little  below  the 
dividing  line  between  Georgia  and  Florida,  was 
cnosen  for  a  base  of  operations.  The  fine  har¬ 
bor  of  its  capital,  Fernandina,  was  a  place  of 
great  resort  for  smugglers  during  the  days  of 
the  embargo,  and,  as  neutral  ground,  might  be 
made  a  dangerous  place.  The  possession  of  the 
island  and  harbor  was  therefore  important  to 
the  Americans,  and  a  sought-for  pretext  for 
seizing  it  was  soon  found.  The  Florida  insur- 
gents  planted  the  standard  of  revolt  (March, 
1812)  on  the  bluff  opposite  the  town  of  St. 
Mary,  on  the  border  line.  Some  United  States 
gunboats  under  Commodore  Campbell  were  in 
the  St.  Mary’s  River,  and  Mathews  had  some 
United  States  troops  at  his  command  near.  The 
insurgents,  two  hundred  and  twenty  in  number, 
sent  a  flag  of  truce  (March  17)  to  Fernandina, 
demanding  the  surrender  of  the  town  and  isl¬ 
and.  About  the  same  time  the  American  gun¬ 
boats 'appeared  there.  The  authorities  bowed 
in  submission,  and  General  Mathews,  assuming 
the  character  of  a  protector,  took  possession  of 
the  place  in  the  name  of  the  United  States.  At 
the  same  time  the  commodore  assured  the  Span¬ 
ish  governor  that  the  gunboats  were  there  only 
for  aid  and  protection  to  a  large  portion  of 
the  population,  who  thought  proper  to  declare 
themselves  independent.  On  the  19th  the  town 
was  formally  given  up  to  the  United  States  au¬ 
thorities;  a  custom-house  was  established  ;  the 
floating  property  in  the  harbor  was  considered 
under  the  protection  of  the  United  States  flag, 
and  smuggling  ceased.  The  insurgent  band, 
swelled  to  eight  hundred  by  reinforcements 
from  Georgia,  and  accompanied  by  troops  fur¬ 
nished  by  General  Mathews,  besieged  the  Span¬ 
ish  garrison  at  St.  Augustine,  for  it  was  feared 
the  British  might  help  the  Spaniards  in  recov¬ 
ering  what  they  had  lost  in  the  territory.  The 
United  States  government  would  not  counte¬ 
nance  this  kind  of  filibustering,  and  Mathews 
was  superseded  as  commissioner  (April  10, 1812) 
by  Governor  Mitchell,  of  Georgia.  Mitchell, 
professing  to  believe  Congress  would  sanction 
Mathews’s  proceedings,  made  no  change  in  pol¬ 
icy.  The  House  of  Representatives  did  actually 
pass  a  bill,  in  secret  session  (June  21),  authoriz¬ 
ing  the  President  to  take  possession  of  East 
Florida.  The  Senate  rejected  it,  for  it  would 
have  been  unwise  to  quarrel  with  Spain  at  the 
moment  when  war  was  about  to  be  declared 
against  Great  Britain.  Not  many  years  after¬ 
wards  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  United  States 
by  Spaiu. 

East  India  Company  (English).  At  the 
close  of  the  year  1600,  Queen  Elizabeth  granted 
a  charter  to  a  company  of  London  merchants 
for  the  monopoly  of  the  trade  0Arer  a  vast  ex¬ 
panse  of  land  and  sea  in  the  region  of  the  East 
Indies,  for  fifteen  years.  The  charter  was  re¬ 
newed  from  time  to  time.  The  first  squadron 
of  the  company  (five  vessels)  sailed  from  Tor- 
bay  (Feb.  15, 1601)  and  began  to  make  footholds, 


speedily,  on  the  islands  and  continental  shores  of 
the  East,  establishing  factories  in  many  places, 
and  at  length  obtaining  a  grant  (1698)  from  a 
native  prince  of  Calcutta  and  two  adjoining  vil¬ 
lages,  with  the  privilege  of  erecting  fortifica¬ 
tions.  This  was  the  first  step  towards  the  ac¬ 
quirement  by  the  company,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  British  government,  of  vast  territorial  pos¬ 
sessions,  with  a  population  of  two  hundred  mill¬ 
ions,  over  which,  in  1877,  Queen  Victoria  was 
proclaimed  empress.  The  company  had  ruled 
supreme  in  India,  with  some  restrictions,  until 
1858,  when  the  government  of  that  Oriental 
empire  was  vested  in  the  Queen  of  England. 
Though  the  company  was  not  abolished,  it  was 
shorn  of  all  its  political  power,  as  it  had  been  of 
its  trade  monopoly.  The  East  India  Company 
first  introduced  tea  into  England,  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II. 

East  India  Company  and  a  Compromise. 

Resolved  to  retain  a  duty  on  tea  exported  to 
America,  the  British  government  proposed  to 
allow  the  East  India  Company  to  send  tea,  in 
their  ships,  free  of  export  duty,  so  as  to  en¬ 
able  the  colonists  to  get  the  tea  at  a  cheaper 
rate  than  before,  while  paying  a  small  duty. 
The  cost  of  the  tea  was  not  a  question  with  the 
Americans.  It  was  the  principle  involved  in 
the  act  of  taxing  them  without  their  consent, 
that  made  them  oppose  the  measure,  which  they 
did  most  effectually  in  all  seaports  where  the 
East  India  Company  sent  their  ships.  (See  Tea- 
ships,  Reception  of.) 

East  Tennessee,  Burnside  in  (1863).  Gen¬ 
eral  Burnside  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  Ohio,  and  was  ordered  to  take 
active  co-operation  with  the  Army  of  the  Cum¬ 
berland  in  August,  1863.  He  had  gathered 
twenty  thousand  men  near  Richmond,  Ky.,  well 
disciplined  and  equipped.  They  left  camp  Au¬ 
gust  21,  climbed  over  the  Cumberland  Moun¬ 
tains,  and  entered  the  magnificent  Valley  of 
East  Tennessee,  their  baggage  and  stores  car¬ 
ried,  in  many  places,  by  pack -mules.  On  his 
entering  the  valley  twenty  thousand  Confeder¬ 
ates,  commanded  by  General  Simon  B.  Buckner 
(see  Fort  Donelsori'),  fled  to  Georgia  and  joined 
Bragg.  General  Burnside  bad  been  joined  by 
General  Hartsuff  and  his  command.  Their 
numbers  were  swelled  by  junction  with  other 
troops.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Clinch  River  they 
first  had  communication  with  Colonel  Minty’s 
cavalry,  on  Rosecrans’s  extreme  left.  At  Lou¬ 
don  bridge  General  Shackelford  had  a  skirmish 
with  Confederates,  and  drove  them  across  the 
stream,  they  burning  the  magnificent  structure, 
two  thousand  feet  long.  Early  in  September  a 
force  of  Confederates,  under  General  Frazer, 
holding  Cumberland  Gap,  surrendered  to  the 
Nationals,  and  the  great  valley  between  the 
Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mountains  (of  which 
Knoxville  was  the  metropolis),  extending  from 
Cleveland  to  Bristol,  seemed  to  be  permanently 
rid  of  armed  Confederates.  The  loyal  inhabi¬ 
tants  of  that  region  received  the  National  troops 
with  open  arms.  Burnside  made  his  headquar¬ 
ters  at  Knoxville. 


EAST  TENNESSEE  DELIVERANCE  421 


EASTON 


East  Tennessee  waiting  for  Deliverance. 

East  Tennessee,  where  loyalty  to  the  Union  was 
strongly  predominant,  was  kept  in  submission 
to  the  Confederacy  by  the  strong  arm  of  mili¬ 
tary  power.  The  people  longed  for  deliverance, 
which  seemed,  near  at  hand  when,  in  January, 
18G2,  the  energetic  General  Mitchel  made  an  ef¬ 
fort  to  seize  Chattanooga.  His  force  was  too 
small  to  effect  it,  for  E.  Kirby  Smith  was  watch¬ 
ing  that  region  with  a  strong  Confederate  force. 
Mitchel  asked  Buell  for  reinforcements,  but  was 
denied.  Finally  General  Negley,  after  a  suc¬ 
cessful  attack  upon  Confederates  near  Jasper, 
having  made  his  way  over  the  rugged  ranges 
of  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  suddenly  appear¬ 
ed  opposite  Chattanooga  (June  7).  Towards 
evening  he  had  heavy  guns  in  position,  and  for 
two  hours  he  cannonaded  the  town  and  the  Con¬ 
federate  works  near.  The  inhabitants  and  Con¬ 
federates  fled  from  the  town.  With  a  few  more 
regiments  Negley  might  have  captured  and  held 
the  place,  and  Mitchel  could  have  marched  into 
East  Tennessee.  But  Buell  would  not  allow  it. 
The  insurgents  had  already  evacuated  Cumber¬ 
land  Gap  voluntarily,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
East  Tennessee  were  jubilant  with  hope  of  de¬ 
liverance.  But  they  were  again  disappointed 
and  compelled  to  wait.  The  cautious  Buell 
and  the  fiery  Mitchel  did  not  work  well  to¬ 
gether,  and  the  latter  was  soon  assigned  to  the 
command  of  the  Department  of  the  South. 

Eastern  Boundary  of  the  United  States. 

Jay’s  treaty  provided  for  a  commission  for  de¬ 
termining  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  United 
States.  In  the  treaty  of  peace  (1783)  it  had  been 
defined  as  at  the  St.  Croix  River.  A  question 
arose  as  to  which  stream  was  the  true  St.  Croix. 
Massachusetts  had  claimed  the  Maquadavie  as 
the  true  St.  Croix;  the  British  claimed  the  Pas- 
samaquoddy  as  the  true  St.  Croix,  and  insisted 
that  the  western  branch  of  it — the  Schoodic — 
was  the  boundary.  The  commissioners  (ap¬ 
pointed  Oct.  25,  1798)  decided  that  the  Passa- 
maqnoddy  and  its  eastern  branch  was  the  true 
St.  Croix,  by  which  the  disputed  territory  was 
divided  about  equally  between  the  two  nations. 
The. ownership  of  the  numerous  islands  in  Pas- 
samaquoddy  Bay  was  not  determined. 

Eastern  Indians,  War  with.  In  conformity 
with  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  French  had 
withdrawn  from  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  on  Cape  Breton  began  the  erection  of  the 
formidable  fortress  of  Louisbnrg,  which  would 
overlook  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law¬ 
rence  and  the  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
England.  The  French  still  claimed,  if  not  for 
themselves,  for  the  independent  Indian  tribes  in 
the  East,  the  territory  as  far  west  as  the  Kenne¬ 
bec.  In  behalf  of  this  claim  the  French  mis¬ 
sions  on  the  Penobscot  and  at  Norridgewock 
were  kept  up,  and  the  natives  were  observed  to 
be  in  bad  humor.  The  people  of  Massachuset  ts 
suspected  the  Jesuit,  missionary  at  the  latter 
place  of  stimulating  the  Indians  to  war,  and 
a  secret  expedition  was  sent  (August,  1722) 
against  it  from  Massachusetts.  (See  NorrUUje- 
wock.)  Hostilities  continued,  and  the  Indians 


attacked  points  all  along  the  New  England 
frontier  to  the  Connecticut  River.  To  cover 
the  towns  in  that  valley  Fort  Dummer  was  built 
(1724)  on  the  site  of  Brattleborough,  the  oldest 
English  settlement  in  the  State  of  Vermont. 
The  Indians  had  captured  seventeen  vessels  be¬ 
longing  to  Massachusetts  in  the  Gut  of  Canso  in 
1722;  now  (1724)  armed  schooners  which  they 
had  seized  prowled  along  the  New  England 
coast  and  captured  seven  vessels.  It  was  deemed 
necessary  to  strike  some  decisive  blow.  The  mis¬ 
sion  station  at  Norridgewock  was  destroyed,  and 
the  premium  on  scalps  was  raised  to  $500  each. 
Captain  John  Lovewell,  a  noted  partisan,  sur¬ 
prised  a  party  of  sleeping  Indians  at  Salmon 
Falls  (February,  1725),  killed  them  all,  and 
marched  to  Dover  in  triumph  with  their  scalps 
elevated  on  poles.  In  a  second  expedition  he 
fell  into  an  ambush  on  the  margin  of  a  pond, 
near  the  head  of  the  Saco,  and  was  slain  at  the 
first  fire, with  eight  of  his  men.  The  remainder 
repulsed  the  Indians  and  retreated.  The  war 
was  soon  ended  by  treaties  or  agreements  with 
the  Indians.  As  the  war  had  been  kindled 
chiefly  through  the  rascality  of  private  traders, 
measures  were  adopted  by  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  to  protect  the  Indians  from  the  ex¬ 
tortion  of  these  people. 

Eastman,  Harvey  Gridley,  commercial 
teacher,  was  born  at  Marshall,  Oneida  Co., 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  16,  1832;  died  at  Denver,  Col.,  July 
13, 1878.  After  attending  the  common  schools 
of  his  neighborhood,  he  completed  his  educa  tion 
at  the  State  Normal  School  at  Albany;  and  at 
the  age  of  twenty-three  opened  a  commercial 
school  at  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  having  been  a  teacher 
in  a  similar  school  kept  by  his  uncle  in  Roch¬ 
ester.  In  that  school  he  first  conceived  the 
plan  of  a  commercial  or  business  college.  On 
the  3d  of  November,  1859,  Mr.  Eastman  opened  a 
business  college  in  the  city  of  Poughkeepsie,  on 
the  Hudson,  and  the  first  pupil  was  Andrew 
Houston,  who,  on  Nov.  3, 1859,  placed  his  son  in 
the  college.  The  institution  began  with  three 
pupils,  and  the  number  rapidly  increased.  In 
1865  there  were  more  than  seventeen  hundred 
students  in  the  college.  It  was  the  first  insti¬ 
tution  in  which  actual  business  was  taught. 
Mr.  Eastman  was  a  very  liberal  and  enterpris¬ 
ing  citizen,  foremost  in  every  judicious  measure 
which  promised  to  benefit  the  community  in 
which  he  lived.  He  was  twice  elected  mayor 
of  the  city,  and  held  that  office  at  the  time  of 
his  death.  On  the  day  of  his  funeral  the  city 
was  draped  in  mourning  and  nearly  all  places  of 
business  were  closed,  for  he  was  eminently  re¬ 
spected  as  a  citizen  and  as  a  public  officer. 

Easton,  James,  was  born  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
and  died  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.  Mr.  Easton  was  a 
builder,  and  settled  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  in  1763. 
Active  in  business  and  strong  in  intellect,  he  be¬ 
came  a  leader  in  public  affairs  there,  and  was 
chosen  to  a  seat  in  the  Massachusetts  Assembly 
in  1774.  He  was  also  colonel  in  the  militia,  and 
held  the  position  of  leader  of  the  minute-men 
of  that  town.  When  the  expedition  to  assail 
Ticouderoga  was  organized  in  western  Massa- 


422 


EATON 


EASTON,  TREATIES  AT 

chusetts,  Colonel  Easton  joined  Allen  and  Ar¬ 
nold  in  accomplishing  the  undertaking,  and  it 
was  he  who  bore  the  first  tidings  of  success  to 
the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts. 

Easton,  Treaties  at.  Easton,  on  the  Dela¬ 
ware,  was  a  favorite  place  for  holding  councils 
with  the  Indian  chiefs  between  the  years  1754 
and  1761.  On  these  occasions  200  to  500  Indians 
were  frequently  seen.  Teedyuscung,  an  eminent 
Delaware  chief,  who  represented  several  tribes, 
was  chief  speaker  and  manager  among  the  bar¬ 
barians.  In  1756  the  relations  between  the  Eng¬ 
lish  and  the  Six  Nations,  the  Delawares,  Shaw- 
noese,  and  Mohegans  were  critical,  for  the  bar¬ 
barians,  especially  the  Delawares,  had  become 
greatly  incensed  against  the  white  people  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  Quakers  of  that  state  had 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  pagans  and  formed 
an  association  for  securing  justice  for  the  In¬ 
dians  and  friendship  between  them  and  the 
white  people.  (See  Fi'iendly  Association.)  They 
held  two  conferences  at  Easton  with  the  In¬ 
dians,  and  Sir  William  Johnson  complained  that 
the  Quakers  had  intruded  upon  his  office.  Final¬ 
ly,  in  July,  1756,  a  conference  was  held  between 
the  Delawares,  Shawnoese,  Mohegans,  the  Six 
Nations,  and  Governor  Denuy  and  his  council, 
and  George  Croghan,  an  intriguing  Indian  trad¬ 
er.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  Quakers  Teedyus¬ 
cung  invited  Charles  Thomson,  master  of  the 
Quaker  Academy  in  Philadelphia,  and  after¬ 
wards  permanent  secretary  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  to  act  as  his  secretary.  Denny  and 
Croghan  opposed  it;  Teedyuscung  persisted  in 
having  Thomson  make  minutes  of  the  proceed¬ 
ings,  so  that  garbled  and  false  reports  of  inter¬ 
ested  men  might  not  be  given  as  truth.  By  this 
arrangement  the  Indians  received  fair  play.  The 
conference  was  thinly  attended ;  but  at  another, 
begun  on  the  8th  of  November,  the  same  year, 
the  Indian  tribes  were  well  represented.  In  re¬ 
ply  to  questions  by  Governor  Denny  of  what  he 
complained,  Teedyuscung  charged  the  proprie¬ 
taries  of  Pennsylvania  with  obtaining  large  ter¬ 
ritories  by  fraud,  and  specified  well-known  in¬ 
stances  like  that  of  the  “  Indian  Walk.”  (See 
Walking  Purchase.)  At  that  conference  there 
were  many  citizens  from  Philadelphia,  chiefly 
Quakers,  and  the  result  was,  after  deliberations 
kept  up  for  nine  days,  a  satisfactory  treaty  of 
peace  was  made  between  the  Indians  and  the 
English,  the  governor  offering  to  indemnify  the 
Delawares  for  any  lands  which  had  been  fraud¬ 
ulently  taken  from  them.  That  matter  was 
deferred  until  a  council  was  held  at  Easton 
in  July,  1757,  when  Teedyuscung  was  well  plied 
with  liquor.  The  Quakers,  with  much  exer¬ 
tion,  enabled  the  old  chief  to  resist  the  in¬ 
trigues  of  Croghan  to  weaken  his  influence 
among  the  Indians.  Another  council  was  held 
there  in  the  autumn  of  1758.  The  object  was 
to  adjust  all  differences  between  the  English 
and  the  Six  Nations,  as  well  as  other  tribes 
farther  westward  and  southward.  The  gov¬ 
ernors  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  Sir 
William  Johnson,  Colonel  Croghan,  and  a  large 
number  of  the  Friendly  Association  wTere  pres¬ 
ent.  Teedyuscung  acted  as  chief  speaker,  which 


offended  the  Six  Nations,  who  regarded  the  Del¬ 
awares  as  their  vassals;  but  he  conducted  him¬ 
self  admirably,  maintained  his  position  fine¬ 
ly,  and  resisted  the  wiles  of  Colonel  Croghan 
and  the  governor.  This  great  council  contin¬ 
ued  eighteen  days.  The  land  question  was 
thoroughly  discussed.  All  causes  for  misunder¬ 
standing  between  the  English  and  the  Indians 
wrere  removed,  and  a  treaty  for  a  general  peace 
was  concluded  Oct.  26, 1758.  There  was  anoth¬ 
er  council  held  at  Easton  in  1761,  concerning  set¬ 
tlements  at  Wyoming,  in  w  hich  Teedyuscung 
took  an  active  and  eloquent  part.  A  war  party 
of  the  Six  Nations  descended  the  Susquehanna 
in  the  autumn  of  1763,  murdered  Teedyuscung 
and  burned  his  dwelling,  and  charged  the  crime 
upon  the  white  settlers  in  the  Wyoming  Valley. 
(See  Susquehanna  Company.) 

Eastport  (Me.),  Capture  of  (1814).  Early  in 
July,  1814,  Sir  Thomas  M.  Hardy  sailed  secretly 
from  Halifax  with  a  squadron,  consisting  of  the 
Ramillies  (the  flag-ship),  sloop  Martin,  brig  Borer , 
the  Bream,  the  bomb -ship  Terror,  and  several 
transports  with  troops  under  Colonel  Thomas 
Pilkington.  The  squadron  entered  Passama- 
quoddy  Bay  on  the  11th,  and  anchored  off  Fort 
Sullivan,  at  Eastport  (Moose  Island),  then  in 
command  of  Major  Perley  Putnam  with  a  gar¬ 
rison  of  fifty  men,  having  six  pieces  of  artillery. 
Hardy  demanded  an  instant  surrender,  giving 
Putnam  only  five  minutes  to  consider.  The 
latter  promptly  refused,  but  at  the  vehement 
importunities  of  the  alarmed  inhabitants,  who 
were  indisposed  to  resist,  he  surrendered  the 
post  on  condition  that,  while  the  British  should 
take  possession  of  all  public  property,  private 
property  should  be  respected.  This  was  agreed 
to,  and  one  thousand  armed  men,  with  women 
and  children,  a  battalion  of  artillery,  and  fifty 
or  sixty  pieces  of  cannon  w'ere  lauded  on  the 
main,  when  formal  possession  wras  taken  of  the 
fort,  the  town  of  Eastport,  and  all  the  islands 
and  villages  in  and  around  Passamaquoddy  Bay. 
Several  vessels  laden  with  goods  valued  at  three 
hundred  thousand  dollars,  ready  to  be  smuggled 
into  the  United  States,  wTere  seized.  Sixty  can¬ 
nons  were  mounted,  and  civil  rule  wTas  estab¬ 
lished  under  British  officials.  The  British  held 
quiet  possession  of  that  region  until  the  close 
of  the  war. 

Eaton,  Theophilus,  first  governor  of  the  New 
Haven  colony,  w  as  born  at  Stony  Stratford,  Eng¬ 
land,  in  1591;  died  at  New  Haven,  Jan.  7,  1657. 
He  was  bred  a  merchant,  and  was  for  some  years 
the  English  representative  at  the  court  of  Den¬ 
mark.  Afterw'ards  he  was  a  distinguished  Lon¬ 
don  merchant,  and  accompanied  Mr.  Davenport 
to  New  England  in  1637.  With  him,  he  assisted 
in  founding  the  New  Haven  colony,  and  was 
chosen  its  first  chief  magistrate.  Mr.  Eaton 
filled  the  chair  of  that  office  continuously  until 
his  death. 

Eaton,  William,  was  born  at  Woodstock, 
Conn.,  Feb.  23,  1764  ;  died  at  Brimfield,  Mass., 
Jan.  1, 1811.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col¬ 
lege  in  1790.  He  entered  the  Continental  army 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  was  discharged  in 


ECKFORD 


423 


EDES 


1783.  In  1797  lie  was  appointed  American  con¬ 
sul  at  Tunis,  and  arrived  there  in  1799.  He 
acted  with  so  much  boldness  and  tact  that  he 
secured  for  his  country  the  freedom  of  its  com¬ 
merce  from  attacks  by  Tunisian  cruisers.  He 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1803;  was  ap¬ 
pointed  naval  agent  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Barbary  States  (which  see);  and  accompanied 
the  American  fleet  to  the  Mediterranean  in  1804. 
He  assisted  Hamet  Caramelli,  the  rightful  ruler 
of  Tripoli,  in  an  attempt  to  recover  his  throne, 
usurped  by  his  brother.  (See  Tripoli,  War  with.) 
Soon  afterwards  Eaton  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  at 
Brimfield.  For  his  services  to  American  com¬ 
merce  the  State  of  Massachusetts  gave  him  ten 
thousand  acres  of  land.  The  King  of  Denmark 
gave  him  a  gold  box  in  acknowledgment  of  his 
services  to  commerce  in  general  and  for  the  re¬ 
lease  of  Danish  captives  at  Tunis.  Bnrr  tried 
to  enlist  General  Eaton  in  his  conspiracy,  and 
the  latter  testitied  against  him  on  his  trial.  (See 
Burr's  Mysterious  Expedition.) 

Eckford,  Henry,  naval  constructor,  was  born 
at  Irvine,  Scotland,  March  12, 1775  ;  died  in  Con¬ 
stantinople,  Nov.  12,  1832.  He  learned  his  art 
with  an  uncle  at  Quebec,  when  he  began  busi¬ 
ness  for  himself  in  New  York  in  1796,  and  soon 
took  the  lead  in  his  profession.  During  the 
War  of  1812-15  he  constructed  ships-of-war  on 
the  Lakes  with  great  expedition  and  skill ;  and 
soon  after  the  war  he  built  the  steamship  Robert 
Fulton,  in  which,  in  1822,  he  made  the  first  suc¬ 
cessful  trip  in  a  craft  of  that  kind  to  New  Or¬ 
leans  and  Havana.  Made  naval  constructor  at 
Brooklyn  in  1820,  six  sliips-of-the-line  were  built 
after  his  models.  Interference  of  the  Board  of 
Naval  Commissioners  caused  him  to  leave  the 
service  of  the  government,  but  he  afterwards 
made  ships-of-war  for  European  powers  and  for 
the  independent  states  of  South  America.  In 
1831  he  built  a  war- vessel  for  the  Sultan  of  Tur¬ 
key,  and  going  to  Constantinople,  organized  a 
navy-yard  there,  and  there  he  died. 

Econochaca,  or  Holy  Ground,  Battle  at. 
Marching  from  Fort  Deposit,  in  Butler  County, 
Ala.  (December,  1813),  General  Claiborne,  push¬ 
ing  through  the  wilderness  nearly  thirty  miles 
with  horse  and  foot  and  friendly  Choctaw  In¬ 
dians,  arrived  near  Econochaca,  or  Holy  Ground, 
a  village  built  by  Weathersford  (see  Fort  Mims) 
upon  a  bluff  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Alabama, 
just  below  Powell’s  Ferry,  Lowndes  County,  in 
an  obscure  place,  as  a  “city  of  refuge”  for  the 
wounded  and  dispersed  in  battle,  fugitives  from 
their  homes,  and  women  and  children.  No  path 
or  trail  led  to  it.  It  had  been  dedicated  to  this 
humane  purpose  by  Tecumtha  and  the  Prophet 
(which  see)  a  few  months  before,  and  the  Clier- 
okees  had  been  assured  by  them  that,  like  Aut- 
tose,  no  w  hite  man  could  tread  upon  the  ground 
and  live.  There  the  barbarian  priests  perform¬ 
ed  horrid  incantations,  and  in  the  square  in  the 
centre  of  the  town  the  most  dreadful  cruelties 
had  already  been  perpetrated.  White  prisoners 
and  Creeks  friendly  to  them  had  been  there  tort¬ 
ured  and  roasted.  On  the  morning  of  Dec.  23 


Claiborne  appeared  before  the  town.  At  that 
moment  a  number  of  friendly  half-bloods  of 
both  sexes  were  in  the  square,  surrounded  by 
pine-wood,  ready  to  be  lighted  to  consume  them, 
and  the  prophets  were  busy  in  their  mummery. 
The  troops  advanced  in  three  columus.  The 
town  was  almost  surrounded  by  swamps  and 
deep  ravines,  and  the  Indians,  regarding  the 
place  as  holy,  and  having  property  there  of 
great  value,  though  partially  surprised,  pre¬ 
pared  to  fight  desperately.  They  had  con¬ 
veyed  their  women  and  children  to  a  place  of 
safety  deep  in  the  forest.  By  a  simultaneous 
movement,  Claiborne’s  three  columus  closed 
upon  the  town  at  the  same  moment.  So  un¬ 
expected  was  the  attack  that  the  dismayed  In¬ 
dians  broke  and  fled  before  the  whole  of  the 
troops  could  get  into  action.  Weathersford  was 
there.  The  Indians  fled  in  droves  along  the 
bank  of  the  river,  and  by  swimming  and  the 
use  of  canoes  they  escaped  to  the  other  side  and 
joined  their  families  in  the  forest.  Weathers¬ 
ford,  when  he  found  himself  deserted  by  his 
warriors,  fled  swiftly  on  a  fine  gray  horse  to  a 
bluff  on  the  river  between  twro  ravines,  hotly 
pursued,  when  his  horse  made  a  mighty  bound 
from  it,  and  horse  and  rider  disappeared  under 
the  water  for  a  moment,  when  both  arose, 
Weathersford  grasping  the  mane  of  his  charger 
with  one  hand  and  his  rifle  with  the  other.  He 
escaped  in  safety.  Econochaca  was  plundered 
by  the  Choctaws  and  laid  in  ashes.  Full  two 
hundred  houses  were  destroyed,  and  thirty  In¬ 
dians  killed.  The  Tennesseeans  lost  one  killed 
and  six  wounded. 

Eden,  Sir  Robert,  the  last  royal  governor  of 
Maryland,  was  born  at  Durham,  Eng. ;  died  at 
Annapolis,  Md.,  Sept.  2, 1786.  Succeeding  Gov¬ 
ernor  Sharpe  in  1768,  he  was  more  moderate  in 
his  administration  than  his  predecessors.  He 
complied  with*  the  orders  of  Congress  to  abdi¬ 
cate  the  government.  He  went  to  England,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  war  returned  to  recover  his 
estate  in  Maryland.  He  had  married  a  sister  of 
Lord  Baltimore,  and  was  created  a  baronet  Oct. 
19, 1776. 

Edes,  Benjamin,  was  an  eminent  patriotic 
journalist  in  Boston  during  the  Revolution. 
He  was  born  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Oct.  14, 
1732;  died  in  Boston,  Dec.  11,  1803.  He  was 
captain  of  the  “Ancient  and  Honorable  Artil¬ 
lery  Company”  (which  see)  in  1760,  and  was  one 
of  the  Boston  “  Sons  of  Liberty.”  In  his  print¬ 
ing-office  many  of  the  tea-party  disguised  them¬ 
selves,  and  were  there  regaled  with  punch  after 
the  exploit  at  the  wharf  was  performed.  (See 
Boston  Tea-party.)  He  began,  with  Mr.  Gill,  in 
1755,  the  publication  of  the  Boston  Gazette  and 
Country  Journal,  which  became  a  very  popular 
newspaper,  and  did  eminent  service  in  the 
cause  of  popular  liberty.  Adams,  Hancock, 
Otis,  Quincy,  Warren,  and  other  leading  spirits 
were  constant  contributors  to  its  columns, 
while  Mr.  Edes  himself  wielded  a  caustic  pen. 
He  was  in  Watertown  during  the  siege  of  Bos¬ 
ton,  from  which  place  he  issued  the  Gazette,  the 
“mouth- piece  of  the  Whigs.”  It  was  discon- 


EDGE-TOOL  MANUFACTURES 


424 


EDWARDS 


tinned  in  1798,  after  a  life,  sustained  by  Edes, 
of  forty  years. 

Edge-tool  Manufactures.  Probably  the  first 
American  establishment  for  the  exclusive  man¬ 
ufacture  of  edge-tools  was  founded  by  Samuel 
W.  Collins,  at  Collinsville,  Conn.,  which  is  now 
one  of  the  largest  establishments  of  the  kind  in 
the  world.  It  was  begun  about  1826,  when  the 
product  of  a  day’s  labor  there  was  the  forging 
and  tempering  of  eight  broadaxes.  In  1876  there 
were  one  hundred  edge-tool  manufactories  in 
the  United  States,  employing  about  four  thou¬ 
sand  hands.  The  capital  invested  in  the  busi¬ 
ness  in  1870  was  $5,000,000,  and  the  annual  prod¬ 
uct  was  valued  at  $6,000,000.  Oliver  Hunt,  a 
blacksmith  in  the  south  part  of  Worcester  Coun¬ 
ty,  Mass.,  began  the  business  of  axe-making,  in 
connection  with  general  blacksmithing,  about 
sixty  years  ago,  or  in  1816.  Out  of  this  small 
beginning  grew  the  present  extensive  “  Doug¬ 
lass  Axe  Company,”  for  the  manufacture  of  axes. 

Edict  of  Nantes,  The,  promulgated  by  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  gave  toleration  to  the  Protestants 
in  fends,  civil  and  religious.  It  was  published 
April  13, 1598,  and  was  confirmed  by  Louis  XIII. 
in  1610,  after  the  murder  of  his  father;  also  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1652;  but  it  was  revoked  by  him 
Oct.  2!?,  1685.  It  was  a  great  state  blunder,  for 
it  deprived  France  of  five  hundred  thousand  of 
her  best  citizens,  who  fled  into  Germany,  Eng¬ 
land,  and  America,  and  gave  those  countries  the 
riches  that  flow  from  industry,  skill,  and  sobri¬ 
ety.  They  took  with  them  to  England  the  art 
of  silk-weaving,  and  so  gave  France  an  impor¬ 
tant  rival  in  that  branch  of  industry.  (See 
Huguenots  in  America.) 

Education  in  Mexico.  In  1551  a  royal  and 
pontifical  university  was  established  in  Mexico 
by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  with  the  same  priv¬ 
ileges  as  that  at  Salamanca.  There  were  in 
its  cloisters  two  hundred  and  tweuty-five  doc¬ 
tors  and  masters,  with  twenty-two  professors 
of  all  the  sciences  then  known,  and  a  good 
library.  Other  institutions  of  learning  were 
founded  in  Mexico  about  that  time,  called  col¬ 
leges  ;  some  for  the  Spanish  children,  others 
for  the  Indian  youths.  There  were  also  free 
schools  and  academies;  also  charitable  institu¬ 
tions,  and  thirteen  hospitals.  In  the  city  of 
Mexico  the  first  printing  on  the  American  con¬ 
tinent  was  done. 

Education  in  the  United  States.  Popular 
education  has  made  rapid  progress  in  our  coun¬ 
try  within  the  present  century,  and  especially 
since  the  first  quarter  thereof.  In  1776  there 
were  seven  colleges  in  the  English-American  col¬ 
onies;  in  1876  there  were  three  hundred  and 
forty -nine  colleges  proper  and  about  fifty  so 
called.  In  1776  the  common  schools  were  few 
and  very  inferior;  in  1876  they  were  numerous 
and  efficient.  The  school  population  in  1876 
was  thirteen  million,  and  of  this  number  six 
million  were  enrolled  in  the  records  of  public 
schools.  Sabbath-scliools  are  doing  much  for 
the  moral  and  intellectual  education  of  the  peo¬ 
ple.  The  first  one  in  the  country  was  opened 
by  the  Methodists,  in  Virginia,  in  1786  ;  in  1876 


they  numbered  seventy  thousand,  with  over  sev¬ 
en  hundred  and  fifty-three  thousand  teachers 
and  six  million  pupils. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  a  remarkable  metaphy¬ 
sician  and  theologian,  was  born  at  East  Wind¬ 
sor,  Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1703  ;  died  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
March  22,  1758.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1720,  having  begun  to  study  Latin  when  he 


JONATHAN  EDWARDS. 


was  six  years  of  age.  He  is  said  to  have  rea¬ 
soned  out  for  himself  his  doctrine  of  free-will 
before  he  left  college,  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 
He  began  preaching  to  a  Presbyterian  congre¬ 
gation  before  he  was  twenty  years  old,  and  be¬ 
came  assistant  to  his  grandfather,  Rev.  Mr.  Stod¬ 
dard,  minister  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  whom  he 
succeeded  as  pastor.  He  was  dismissed  in  1750, 
because  he  insisted  upon  a  purer  and  higher 
standard  of  admission  to  the  communion-table. 
Then  he  began  his  missionary  work  (1751-57) 
among  the  Sfockbridge  Indians,  and  prepared 
his  greatest  work,  on  The  Freedom  of  the  Will, 
which  was  published  in  1754.  He  was  inaugu¬ 
rated  President  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at 
Princeton,  Feb.  16,  1758,  and  died  of  small-pox 
a  little  more  than  a  month  afterwards.  He  mar¬ 
ried  Sarah  Pierrepont,  of  New  Haven,  in  1727, 
and  they  became  the  grandparents  of  Aaron 
Burr. 

Edwards,  Ninian,  was  born  in  Montgomery 
County,  Md.,  in  March,  1775;  died  of  cholera  at 
Belleville,  Ill.,  July  20,  1833.  William  Wirt  di¬ 
rected  his  early  education,  which  was  finished 
at  Dickinson  College,  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1819 
he  settled  in  the  Green  River  district  of  Ken¬ 
tucky.  Before  he  was  twenty-one  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Kentucky  Legislature;  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1798  in  Kentucky,  and  to 
that  of  Tennessee  the  next  year,  and  rose  very 
rapidly  in  his  profession.  He  went  through  the 
offices  of  circuit  judge  and  of  appeals  to  the  bench 
of  chief-justice  of  Kentucky  in  1808.  The  next 
year  he  was  appointed  the  first  governor  of  the 
Territory  of  Illinois,  and  retained  that  office 
until  its  organization  as  a  state  in  1818.  From 
1818  till  1824  he  was  United  States  Senator,  and 
from  1826  to  1830  he  was  governor  of  the  state. 
He  did  much,  by  promptness  and  activity,  to 


EDWARDS 


4-25 


ELECTORAL  COMMISSION 


restrain  Indian  hostilities  in  the  Illinois  region 
during  the  War  of  1812. 

Edwards,  Pierrepont,  son  of  the  metaphy¬ 
sician,  was  born  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  April  8, 
1750 ;  died  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  April  14,  1826. 
He  graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at 
Princeton,  in  1768.  His  youth  was  spent  among 
the  Stockbridge  Indians,  where  his  father  was 
missionary,  and  he  acquired  the  language  per¬ 
fectly.  Mr.  Edwards  became  an  eminent  law¬ 
yer;  espoused  the  cause  of  the  patriots,  and 
fought  for  liberty  in  the  army  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation  in  1787-88,  and  in  the  Connec¬ 
ticut  Convention  warmly  advocated  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  tiie  National  Constitution.  He  was  Judge 
of  the  United  States  District  Court  in  Connecti¬ 
cut  at  the  time  of  his  father’s  death.  Mr.  Ed¬ 
wards  was  the  founder  of  the  “  Toleration  Par¬ 
ty”  in  Connecticut,  which  made  him  exceed¬ 
ingly  unpopular  with  the  Calvinists. 

Election  for  President  and  Vice-President. 

Under  the  Constitution  as  originally  adopted, 
the  candidates  for  President  and  Vice-President 
were  voted  for  in  the  electoral  college  of  each 
state,  without  designating  which  the  elector  in¬ 
tended  for  the  first  and  which  for  the  second 
office.  Lists  of  these  were  transmitted  to  the 
seat  of  government,  and  the  candidate  having 
the  greatest  number  (if  a  majority  of  the  whole) 
became  President,  and  the  one  having  the  next 
greatest  number  Vice-President.  If  the  two 
highest  candidates  received  an  equal  number 
of  votes,  the  House  of  Representatives  (as  now) 
was  to  proceed  immediately  to  choose  by  ballot 
one  of  them  for  President,  voting  by  states,  each 
state  having  one  vote,  and  a  majority  of  all  the 
states  being  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  case  of  a 
tie  on  the  Vice-President,  the  Senate  was  to 
choose  between  the  equal  candidates.  The 
Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  (which 
see)  changed  the  mode  of  voting  for  the  two  of¬ 
ficers,  the  electors  beiug  required  to  vote  sepa¬ 
rately  for  President  and  Vice-President.  They 
were  to  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted 
for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  per¬ 
son  voted  for  as  Vice-President ;  distinct  lists  of 
all  persons  voted  for  as  President  and  Vice-Pres¬ 
ident,  signed  and  certified,  were  sent  to  the  seat 
of  government,  directed  to  “the  President  of 
the  Senate,”  whose  duty  it  was,  in  the  presence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  to 
open  all  the  certificates,  and  count  the  votes, 
the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
for  the  respective  offices  (if  a  majority  of  the 
whole)  to  bo  declared  elected.  Such  continues 
to  be  the  mode. 

Electoral  Colleges,  The.  The  people  do  not 
vote  directly  for  President  and  Vice-President, 
but  they  choose,  for  each  Congressional  district 
in  the  respective  states  (and  two  at  large  in  each 
state)  a  representative  in  an  electoral  college, 
which  consists  of  as  many  members  as  there  are 
congressional  districts  in  each  state.  The  theo¬ 
ry  of  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  was,  that 
by  this  means  the  best  men  of  the  country  would 
be  chosen  in  the  several  districts,  and  they  would 


better  express  the  wishes  of  the  people  concern¬ 
ing  a  choice  of  President  and  Vice-President 
than  a  vote  directly  by  the  people  for  these  of¬ 
ficers.  The  several  electors  chosen  in  the  differ¬ 
ent  states  meet  at  their  respective  state  capitals 
at  a  specified  time,  and  name  in  their  ballots  the 
persons  for  President  and  Vice-President.  Then 
each  electoral  college  makes  a  list  of  the  names 
voted  for  these  officers,  and  the  number  of  votes 
for  each,  which  lists  the  members  of  the  college 
sign  and  certify,  and  the  list  of  each  state  elec¬ 
toral  college  is  transmitted  to  the  President  of 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  (See  Election 
for  President  and  Vice-President.) 

Electoral  Commission,  The.  The  Forty- 
fourth  Congress  met  in  its  last  session  early  in 
December,  1876.  There  was  a  Democratic  ma¬ 
jority  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  On  the 
4th  a  resolution  was  adopted,  providing  for  the 
investigation  of  the  action  of  returning  boards 
in  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Louisiana.  (See 
Presidential  Election,  1876.)  There  was  much 
excitement  in  Congress  and  anxiety  among  the 
people.  Thoughtful  men  saw  much  trouble  at 
the  final  counting  of  the  votes  of  the  electoral 
colleges  by  the  President  of  the  Senate,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  prescription  of  the  Constitution,  for 
already  his  absolute  power  in  the  matter  was 
questioned.  Proctor  Knott,  of  Kentucky,  offered 
a  resolution  for  the  appointment  of  a  committee 
of  seven  members  by  the  speaker,  to  act  in  con¬ 
junction  with  a  similar  committee  that  might 
be  appointed  by  the  Senate,  to  prepare  and  re¬ 
port  a  plan  for  the  creation  of  a  tribunal  to  count 
the  electoral  votes,  whose  authority  no  one  could 
question,  and  whose  decision  all  could  accept  as 
final.  The  resolution  was  adopted.  The  Sen¬ 
ate  appointed  a  committee  ;  and  on  Jan.  18, 1877, 
the  joint  committee,  consisting  of  fourteen  mem¬ 
bers,  reported  a  bill  that  provided  for  the  meet¬ 
ing  of  both  Houses  in  the  hall  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  on  Feb.  1, 1877,  to  there  count 
the  votes  in  accordance  with  a  plan  which  the 
committee  proposed.  In  case  of  more  than  one 
return  from  a  state,  all  such  returns, having  been 
made  by  appointed  tellers,  should  be,  upon  ob¬ 
jections  being  made,  submitted  to  the  judgment 
and  decision,  as  to  which  was  the  lawful  and 
true  electoral  vote  of  the  state,  of  a  commission 
of  fifteen,  to  be  composed  of  five  members  from 
each  House,  to  be  appointed  viva  voce,  Jan.  30, 
with  four  associate-justices  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  who  should,  on  Jan.  30, 
select  another  of  the  justices  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  entire  commission  to  be  presided 
over  by  the  associate-justice  longest  in  com¬ 
mission.  After  much  debate,  the  bill  passed 
both  Houses.  It  became  a  law,  by  the  signature 
of  the  President,  Jan.  29,  1877.  The  next  day 
the  two  Houses  each  selected  five  of  its  members 
to  serve  on  the  Electoral  Commission.  Judges 
Clifford,  Miller,  Field,  and  Strong,  of  the  Su¬ 
preme  Court,  were  named  in  the  bill,  and  those 
chose  as  the  fifth  member  of  associate-justices 
Joseph  P.  Bradley.  The  Electoral  Commission 
assembled  in  the  hall  of  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives  Feb.  1, 1877.  The  legality  of  returns 
from  several  states  was  questioned,  and  was 


ELECTRIC  LAMPS 


426  ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  TELEGRAPH 


passed  upon  and  decided  by  the  commission. 
The  counting  was  completed  on  March  2d,  and 
the  commission  made  the  final  decision  iu  all 
cases.  The  President  of  the  Senate  then  an¬ 
nounced  that  Hayes  and  Wheeler  were  elected. 
The  Forty-fourth  Congress  finally  adjourned  on 
Saturday,  March  3.  The  4th  of  March,  pre¬ 
scribed  as  the  day  for  the  taking  of  the  oath 
of  office  by  the  President,  falling  on  Sunday, 
Mr.  Hayes,  to  prevent  any  technical  objections 
that  might  be  raised,  privately  took  the  oath 
of  office  on  that  day,  and  on  Monday,  the  5th, 
he  was  publicly  inaugurated,  in  the  presence  of 
a  vast  multitude  of  his  fellow-citizens. 

Electric  Lamps.  Iu  July,  1859,  Professor 
Moses  G.  Farmer  lighted  a  parlor,  at  No.  16  Pearl 
Street,  Salem,  Mass.,  with  electric  light,  subdi¬ 
vided  for  different  lamps.  It  was  used  through¬ 
out  the  whole  month  of  July,  and  was  only  aban¬ 
doned  because  the  generation  of  the  electricity 
for  use  as  an  illuminator  was  four  times  as  ex¬ 
pensive  as  an  equivalent  amount  of  gaslight. 
The  apparatus  consisted  of  a  galvanic  battery 
of  about  three  dozen  six-gallon  jars  placed  in 
the  cellar  of  the  house,  from  which  the  electric 
current  was  conveyed  by  suitable  conducting- 
wires  to  the  mantle-piece  of  the  parlor,  where 
were  located  two  electric  lamps,  either  of  which 
could  be  lighted  at  pleasure,  or  both  at  once. 

Electric  Light,  Early  History  of.  ( See 
Electric  Lamps.)  Iu  1845  John  W.  Starr,  of  Cin¬ 
cinnati,  filed  a  caveat  in  the  United  States  Pat¬ 
ent  Office  for  a  divisible  electric  light.  He  went 
to  England  to  complete  and  prove  his  experi¬ 
ment,  and  was  accompanied  by  his  agent,  Mr. 
King.  He  carried  letters  of  introduction  to 
distinguished  men  there,  and  George  Peabody, 
American  banker  in  London,  agreed  to  furnish 
him  with  all  the  money  necessary,  provided  his 
invention  should  be  sanctioned  by  scientific  men. 
He  completed  his  experiments  at  Manchester, 
and  there  the  invention  proved  highly  success¬ 
ful  in  the  presence  of  many  scientific  men,  among 
them  Professor  Faraday,  who  pronounced  it  per¬ 
fect.  The  excitement  and  overwork  of  the  brain 
by  this  triumph  caused  the.  death  of  Starr  the 
same  night,  who  was  found  dead  in  his  bed  the 
next  day.  Nothing  was  ever  done  with  the  in¬ 
vention  afterwards.  Iu  his  caveat,  Starr  said : 
“I  claim  the  method  of  heating  conductors  so 
as  to  apply  them  to  illumination,  the  current 
being  regulated  so  as  to  obtain  the  highest  de¬ 
gree  of  heat  without  fusing  the  conductor.  I 
claim  the  method  of  obtaining  an  intermitting 
light  for  the  use  of  light-houses,  in  the  manner 
set  forth,  and  for  signals.  I  claim  the  mode  of 
submarine  lighting  by  enclosing  the  apparatus 
in  a  suitable  glass  vessel,  hermetically  sealed  ; 
and  also  the  mode  of  lighting  places  containing 
combustible  or  explosive  compounds  or  materi¬ 
als,  as  set  forth.” 

Electro  -  magnetic  Telegraph.  This  inven¬ 
tion,  conceived  more  than  a  century  ago,  was 
first  brought  to  perfection  as  an  intelligent  me¬ 
dium  of  communication  between  points  distant 
from  each  other  by  Professor  Samuel  Finley 
Breese  Morse,  of  New  York,  and  was  first  pre¬ 


sented  to  public  notice  in  the  year  1838.  Iu  the 
autumn  of  1837  he  filed  a  caveat  at  the  Patent 
Office ;  and  he  gave  a  private  exhibition  of  its 
marvellous  power  in  the  New  York  University 
in  January,  1838,  when  intelligence  was  instant¬ 
ly  transmitted  by  an  alphabet  composed  of  dots 
and  lines,  invented  by  Morse,  through  a  circuit 


MORSE  APPARATUS,  CiKUUiT  AND  BATTERY. 


MORSE  REGISTER. 


of  ten  miles  of  wire,  and  plainly  recorded.  Morse 
applied  to  Congress  for  pecuniary  aid  to  enable 
him  to  construct  an  experimental  line  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore.  For  four  years  he 
waited,  for  the  action  of  the  government  was 
tardy,  in  consequence  of  doubt  and  positive  op¬ 
position.  At  the  beginning  of  March,  1842,  Con¬ 
gress  appropriated  $30,000  for  his  use ;  and  in 
May,  1844,  he  transmitted  from  Washington  to 
Baltimore,  a  distance  of  forty  miles,  the  first 
message, furnished  him  by  ayounglady — “What 
hath  God  wrought!”  The  first  public  message 
was  the  announcement  of  the  nomination  by  the 
Democratic  National  Convention  in  Baltimore 
(May,  1844)  of  James  K.  Polk  for  President  of 
the  United  States.  Professor  Morse  also  origi¬ 
nated  submarine  telegraphy.  He  publicly  sug¬ 
gested  its  feasibility  in  a  letter  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  in  1843.  So  early  as  1842  he  laid 
a  submarine  cable,  or  insulated  wire,  in  the  har¬ 
bor  of  New  York,  for  which  achievement  the 
American  Institute  awarded  him  a  small  gold 
medal.  In  1858  he  participated  in  the  labors 
and  honors  of  laying  a  cable  under  the  sea  be¬ 
tween  Europe  and  America.  (See  Atlantic  Tele¬ 
graph.)  'Monarchs  gave  him  medals  and  orders, 
Yale  College  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary 


ELIOT  .  427  ELIZABETH,  QUEEN 


degree  of  LL.D.,  and  in  1858,  at  the  instance  of 
the  emperor  of  the  French,  several  European 
governments  combined  in  the  act  of  giving  Pro¬ 
fessor  Morse  the  sum  of  $80,000  in  gold  as  a  to¬ 
ken  of  their  appreciation.  Improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  transmission  of  messages.  For 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  messages 
were  each  sent  over  a  single  wire,  only  one  way 
at  a  time.  Early  in  1871,  through  the  inventions 
of  Edisou  and  others,  messages  were  sent  both 
ways  over  the  same  wire  at  the  same  instant  of 
time.  Very  soon  four  messages  were  sent  the 
same  way.  This  number  may  possibly  be  in¬ 
creased  until  multiplex  transmission  shall  be¬ 
come  common. 

Eliot,  Jared,  was  born  Nov.  7, 1685;  died  at 
Killiugworth,  Conn.,  April  28,  1763.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Yale  College  iu  1706,  and  from  1709  until 
his  death  he  was  minister  of  the  first  church  at 
Killiugworth.  He  was  a  most  practical  and  use¬ 
ful  man,  and  did  much  for  the  advancement  of 
agriculture  aud  manufactures  in  New  England. 
He  strongly  urged  iu  essays  the  introduction 
into  the  colonies  of  a  better  breed  of  sheep.  In 
1747  he  wrote :  “  A  better  breed  of  sheep  is  what 
we  want.  The  English  breed  of  Cotswohl  sheep 
cannot  be  obtained,  or  at  least  not  without  great 
difficulty ;  for  wool  and  live  sheep  are  contra¬ 
band  goods,  which  all  strangers  are  prohibited 
from  carrying  out  on  pain  of  having  the  right 
hand  cut  off.’’  (See  Navigation  Laws.)  Iu  1761 
the  London  “  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce”  honored 
him  with  its  medal,  aud  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Loudon.  He  was  the 
first  to  introduce  the  white  mulberry  into  Con¬ 
necticut,  and  with  it  silk-worms,  and  published 
a  treatise  on  silk-culture.  Mr.  Eliot  was  also 
an  able  physician,  and  was  particularly  success¬ 
ful  in  the  treatment  of  insanity  and  chronic 
complaints. 

Eliot,  John,  commonly  known  as  the  Apostle 
to' the  Indians,  was  born  at  Nasing,  Essex,  Eng¬ 
land,  in  1603;  died  May  20,  1690.  Educated  at 
Cambridge,  he  came  to  Boston  in  1631,  and  the 
next  year  was  appointed  minister  at  Roxbury. 
Seized  with  a  passionate  longing  for  the  conver¬ 
sion  of  thelndians  and  for  improving  their  condi¬ 
tion,  he  commenced  his  labors  among  the  twenty 
tribes  within  the  English  domain  in  Massachu¬ 
setts  in  October,  1646.  He  acquired  their  lan¬ 
guage  through  an  Indian  servant  in  his  family, 
made  a  grammar  of  it,  and  translated  the  Bible 
into  the  Indian  tongue.  It  is  claimed  that  Eliot 
was  the  first  Protestant  minister  who  preached 
to  the  Indians  iu  their  native  tongue.  An  In¬ 
dian  town  called  Natick  was  erected  on  the 
Charles  River  for  the  “  praying  Indians  ”  in  1657, 
and  the  first  Indian  church  was  established  there 
in  1660.  During  King  Philip’s  War  Eliot’s  ef¬ 
forts  in  behalf  of  the  praying  Indians  saved 
them  from  destruction  by  the  white  people.  He 
travelled  extensively,  visited  many  tribes,  plant¬ 
ed  several  churches,  and  once  preached  before 
King  Philip,  who  treated  him  with  disdain.  He 
persuaded  many  to  adopt  the  customs  of  civil¬ 
ized  life,  aud  lived  to  see  twenty-four  of  them 


become  preachers  of  the  Gospel  to  their  own 
tribes.  His  influence  among  the  barbarians  was 
unbounded,  and  his  generosity  in  helping  the 
sick  and  afflicted  among  them  was  unsparing. 
Cotton  Mather  affirmed,  “  We  had  a  tradition 
that  the  country  could  never  perish  as  long  as 
Eliot  was  alive.”  He  published  many  small 
works  on  religious  subjects,  several  of  which 
were  iu  the  Indian  language.  His  greatest  work 
was  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Indian 
language  (1661-66),  and  was  the  first  Bible  ever 
printed  in  America.  It  is  much  sortght  after  by 
collectors.  A  copy  was  sold  in  New  York  in 
1868  for  $1130.  The  language  in  which  it  was 
written  has  perished. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  daughter  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn,  was  born  at 
Greenwich  Sept.  7,  1533;  died  March  24,  1603. 
Under  the  tuition  of  Roger  Ascliam  she  acquired 
much  proficiency  in  classical  learning,  aud  be¬ 
fore  she  was  seventeen  years  of  age  she  was  mis¬ 
tress  of  the  Latin,  French,  and  Italian  languages, 
and  had  read  several  woi’ks  iu  Greek.  By  ed¬ 
ucation  she  was  attached  to  the  Protestant 
Church,  and  was  persecuted  by  her  half-sister 
Mary,  who  was  a  Roman  Catholic.  Elizabeth 
never  married.  When  quite  young  her  father 
negotiated  for  her  nuptials  with  the  son  of  Fran¬ 
cis  I.  of  France,  but  it  failed.  She  flirted  awhile 
with  the  ambitious  Lord  Seymour.  In  1558  she 
declined  an  offer  of  marriage  from  Eric,  King  of 
Sweden,  aud  also  from  Philip  of  Spain.  Her 
sister  Mary  died  Nov.  17,  1558,  when  Elizabeth 
was  proclaimed  queeu  of  England.  With  cau¬ 
tion  she  proceeded  to  restore  the  Protestant  re¬ 
ligion  to  ascendency  in  her  kingdom.  Her  re¬ 
form  began  by  ordering  a  large  part  of  the  church 
service  to  be  read  iu  English,  and  forbade  the 
elevation  of  the  host  in  her  presence.  Of  the 
Romau  Catholic  bishops,  only  one  consented  to 
officiate  at  her  coronation.  In  1559  Parliament 
passed  a  bill  which  vested  iu  the  crown  the  su¬ 
premacy  claimed  by  the  pope;  the  mass  was 
abolished,  and  the  liturgy  of  Edward  VI.  re¬ 
stored.  In  one  session  the  whole  system  of  re¬ 
ligion  in  England  was  altered  by  the  will  of  a  sin¬ 
gle  young  woman.  When  Francis  II.  of  France 
assumed  the  arms  and  title  of  King  of  England  in 
right  of  his  wife,  Mary  Stuart,  Elizabeth  sent  an 
army  to  Scotland  which  drove  the  French  out  of 
the  kingdom.  She  supported  the  French  Hugue¬ 
nots  with  money  and  troops  in  their  struggle 
with  the  Roman  Catholics  in  1562.  In  1563  the 
Parliament,  in  an  address  to  the  queen,  entreated 
her  to  choose  a  husband,  so  as  to  secure  a  Prot¬ 
estant  succession  to  the  crown.  She  returned 
an  evasive  answer.  She  gave  encouragement  to 
several  suitors,  after  she  rejected  Philip,  among 
them  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria,  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  and  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester. 
The  latter  remained  her  favorite  until  his  death 
in  1588.  During  the  greater  part  of  Elizabeth’s 
reign,  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh,  was  her  prime-min¬ 
ister.  For  more  than  twenty  years  from  1564 
England  was  at  peace  with  foreign  nations,  and 
enjoyed  great  prosperity.  Because  of  the  oppo¬ 
site  interests  in  religion,  and  possibly  because 
of  matrimonial  affairs,  Elizabeth  aud  Philip  of 


ELIZABETHTOWN  CLAIMANTS  428  ELLERY 


Spain  were  mutually  hostile,  and  in  1588  the 
latter  sent  the  “Invincible  Armada”  for  the  in¬ 
vasion  of  England.  It  consisted  of  over  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  thirty  vessels  and  thirty  thousand  men. 
It  was  defeated  and  dispersed  (Aug.  8),  and  in  a 
gale  more  than  fifty  of  the  Spanish  ships  were 
wrecked.  On  the  death  of  Leicester  the  queen 
showed  decided  partiality  for  the  Earl  of  Essex. 
Her  treatment,  and  final  consent  to  the  execu¬ 
tion  by  beheading,  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  has 
left  a  stain  on  the  memory  of  Elizabeth.  She 
assisted  the  Protestant  Henry  IV.  of  France  in 
his  struggles  with  the  French  Roman  Catholics, 


QUEEN  ELIZABETH. 

whom  Philip  of  Spain  subsidized.  Her  reign 
was  vigorous,  and  is  regarded  as  exceedingly 
beneficial  to  the  British  nation.  Literature  was 
fostered,  and  it.  was  illustrated  during  her  reign 
by  such  men  as  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Sidney, 
Bacon,  and  Raleigh.  Elizabeth  was  possessed 
of  eminent  ability  and  courage,  but  her  personal 
character  was  deformed  by  selfishness,  incon¬ 
stancy,  deceit,  heartlessness,  and  other  unwom¬ 
anly  faults.  She  signified  her  will  on  her  death¬ 
bed  that  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  son  of  the  be¬ 
headed  Mary,  should  be  her  successor,  and  he 
was  accordingly  crowned  as  such. 

Elizabethtown  Claimants.  For  more  than 


a  century  the  dispute  between  the  first  settlers 
at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.  (who  came  from  Long 
Island  and  New  England),  and,  first,  the  propri¬ 
etors  of  New  Jersey,  and,  next,  the  crown,  arose 
and  continued  concerning  the  title  to  the  lands 
on  which  these  settlers  were  seated.  The  dis¬ 
pute  occurred  in  consequence  of  conflicting 
claims  to  eminent  domain,  caused  by  a  dispute 
about  the  original  title  to  the  soil.  The  Eliza¬ 
bethtown  settlers  obtained  their  land  from  the 
Indians,  with  the  consent  of  Governor  Nicolls ; 
but  already  the  Duke  of  York,  without  the 
knowledge  of  Nicolls  or  the  settlers,  had  sold 

the  domain  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey  to  Berkeley  and  Car¬ 
teret.  (See  New  Jersey.) 
The  new  proprietors  ig¬ 
nored  the  title  of  the  set¬ 
tlers,  and  made  demands 
as  absolute  proprietors 
of  the  soil,  which  the  lat¬ 
ter  continually  resisted 
themselves,  and  so  did 
their  heirs.  Frequent 
unsuccessful  attempts  at 
ejectment  were  made ; 
the  settlers  resisted  by 
force.  The  Assembly, 
called  upon  to  interfere, 
usually  declined,  for  that 
body  rather  favored  the 
Elizabethan  claimants. 
Finally,  in  1757,  Governor 
Belcher  procured  an  act 
of  Assembly, by  which  all 
past  differences  should 
be  buried.  It  was  not 
acceptable ;  and  in  1751 
the  British  government 
ordered  a  commission  of 
inquiry  to  determine  the 
law  and  equity  in  the 
case.  The  proprietors 
also  began  chancery  suits 
against  the  heirs  of  the 
Elizabethtown  settlers, 
and  these  wTere  pending 
when  the  Revolution 
broke  out  (1775)  and  set¬ 
tled  the  whole  matter. 

Ellery,  W ilij  am,  a  sign¬ 
er  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born 
at  Newqiort,  R.  I.,  Dec.  22, 
1727 ;  died  there,  Feb.  15,  1820.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1747,  became  a  merchant  in  New¬ 
port,  and  was  naval  officer  of  Rhode  Island 
in  1770.  He  afterwards  studied  and  practised 
law  at  Newport,  and  gained  a  high  reputation. 
An  active  patriot,  he  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1776  to  1785,  excepting  two  years,  and  was 
very  useful  in  matters  pertaining  to  finance  and 
diplomacy.  He  was  especially  serviceable  as  a 
member  of  the  Marine  Committee  and  of  the 
Board  of  Admiralty.  During  the  occupancy  of 
Rhode  Island  by  the  British  he  suffered  great 
loss  of  property,  but  bore  it  with  quiet  cheerful¬ 
ness  as  a  sacrifice  for  the  public  good.  He  was 


ELLET 


429 


ELLIOTT 


cluef-justice  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and,  and  in  1790  was  collector  of  the  revenue  at 
Newport.  Mr.  Ellery  was  a  strenuous  advocate 
of  the  abolition  of  slavery. 

Ellet,  Charles  L.,  engineer,  was  horn  in 
Pennsylvania,  Jan.  1,  1810  ;  died  in  Cairo,  Ill., 
June  21,  1862.  Mr.  Ellet  planned  and  built 
the  first  wire  suspension  bridge  in  the  United 
States  across  the  Schuylkill  at  Fairmount.  He 


CHARLES  ELLET. 


planned  and  constructed  the  first  suspension 
bridge  over  the  Niagara  River  below  the  Falls, 
and  other  notable  bridges.  When  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  con¬ 
struction  of  steam  “rams”  for  the  Western  riv¬ 
ers,  and  a  plan  proposed  by  him  to  the  Secretary 
of  War  (Mr.  Stanton)  was  adopted,  and  he  soon 
converted  ten  or  twelve  powerful  steamers  ou 
the  Mississippi  into  “rams,”  with  which  he  ren¬ 
dered  great  assistance  in  the  capture  of  Mem¬ 
phis  (which  see).  In  the  battle  there  he  was 
struck  by  a  musket-ball  on  the  knee,  from  the 
effects  of  which  he  died.  Mr.  Ellet  proposed  to 
General  McClellan  a  plan  for  cutting  off  the 
Confederate  army  at  Manassas,  which  the  latter 
rejected,  and  the  engineer  wrote  and  published 
severe  strictures  on  McClellan’s  mode  of  con¬ 
ducting  the  war. 

Ellicott,  Andrew,  civil  engineer,  was  born  in 
Bucks  County,  Penn.,  Jan.  24,  1754;  died  at 
West  Point,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  29, 1820.  His  father  and 
uncle  founded  the  town  of  Ellicott’s  Mills,  on 
the  Patapsco,  Md.,  in  1790.  Andrew  was  much 
engaged  in  public  surveying  for  many  years  af¬ 
ter  settling  in  Baltimore  in  1785.  In  1789  he 
made  the  first  accurate  measurement  of  Niagara 
River  from  lake  to  lake,  and  in  1790  he  was  em¬ 
ployed  by  the  United  States  government  in  lay¬ 
ing  out  the  city  of  Washington.  In  1792  he  was 
made  Surveyor-general  of  the  United  States,  and 
in  1796  he  was  a  commissioner  to  determine  the 
southern  boundary  between  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  and  Spain,  in  accordance  with  a 
treaty.  From  Sept.  1,  1813,  until  his  death,  Mr. 
Ellicott  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  civil 
engineering  at  West  Point. 

Elliot,  Mrs.,  and  Colonel  Balfour.  After  the 


martyrdom  of  Colonel  Hayne  (which  see),  the 
hatred  and  contempt  felt  for  the  British  officers 
in  Charleston  was  intense.  The  women  boldly 
showed  their  indignation.  Mrs.  Charles  Elliot, 
sister  of  Rebecca  Motte  (see  Fort  Motte),  had 
treated  Colonel  Balfour  with  much  politeness, 
and  he  was  fond  of  her  society,  for  she  was  a 
brilliant  woman.  One  day,  not  long  after  the 
execution  of  Hayne,  Balfour  was  walking  in 
the  garden  with  Mrs.  Elliot,  when  he  pointed  to 
a  chamomile-flower  and  asked  its  name.  “  The 
rebel-flower,”  answered  Mrs.  Elliot.  “  And  why 
is  it  called  the  rebel-flower?”  Balfour  inquired. 
“  Because,”  replied  the  patriotic  woman,  “it  al¬ 
ways  flourishes  most  when  trampled  upon.” 

Elliott,  Charles  Loring,  portrait-painter,  was 
born  at  Scipio,  N.  Y.,  in  December,  1812;  died  at 
Albany,  Aug.  25,  1868.  His  father  was  an  archi¬ 
tect,  and  he  prepared  him  for  that  profession. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  Trumbull,  in  New  York, 
and  afterwards  of  Quidor,  a  painter  of  fancy- 
pieces.  Having  acquired  the  technicalities  of 
the  art,  his  chief  employment  for  a  time  was 
copying  engravings  in  oil,  and  afterwards  he  at¬ 
tempted  portraits.  He  practised  portrait-paint¬ 
ing  in  the  interior  of  New  York  for  about  ten 
years,  when  he  went  to  the  city  (1845),  where 
he  soon  rose  to  the  head  of  his  profession  as  a 
portrait-painter.  It  is  said  that  he  painted  sev¬ 
en  hundred  portraits,  many  of  them  of  distin¬ 
guished  men.  His  likenesses  were  always  re¬ 
markable  for  fidelity,  and  beauty  and  vigor  of 
coloring. 

Elliott,  Jesse  Duncan,  was  horn  in  Mary¬ 
land,  July  14,  1782;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec. 
10, 1845.  He  entered  the  United  States  Navy  as 
midshipman  in  April,  1804,  and  rose  to  master 


JESSE  DUNCAN  ELLIOTT. 


July  24,  1813.  He  was  with  Barron  in  the  Tri¬ 
politan  War,  and  served  on  the  Lakes  with 
Chauncey  and  Perry  in  the  War  of  1812-15.  He 
captured  two  British  vessels  (  Detroit  and  Caledo¬ 
nia)  at  Fort  Erie,  for  which  exploit  he  was  pre- 


ELLIOTT'S  EXPLOIT  AT  PORT  ERIE  430 


ELLSWORTH 


sented  by  Congress  with  a  sword.  He  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Niagara  in  Perry’s  famous  combat 
on  Lake  Erie,  to  which  the  commodore  went 
from  the  Lawrence  during  the  action.  (See  Lake 
Erie,  Battle  on.)  He  succeeded  Perry  in  com¬ 
mand  on  Lake  Erie  in  October,  1813.  Elliott 
was  with  Decatur  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1815, 
and  was  promoted  to  captain  in  March,  1818.  He 
commanded  the  West  India  squadron  (1829-32); 
took  charge  of  the  navy-yard  at  Charleston  in 
1833 ;  and  afterwards  cruised  several  years  in 
the  Mediterranean.  On  his  return  he  was  conrt- 
martialled,  and  suspended  from  command  for 
four  years.  A  part  of  the  sentence  was  remitted, 
and  in  1844  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  navy-yard  at  Philadelphia.  For  the  part 
which  Elliott  took  in  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie 
Congress  awarded  him  the  thanks  of  the  nation 
aiid  a  gold  medal. 


boats  were  taken  to  the  mouth  of  Buffalo 
Creek,  and  in  these  the  expedition  embarked 
at  midnight.  At  one  o’clock  in  the  morning 
(Oct.  9)  they  left  the  creek,  while  scores  of  peo¬ 
ple  watched  anxiously  on  the  shore  for  the  re¬ 
sult.  The  sharp  crack  of  a  pistol,  the  roll  of 
musketry,  followed  by  silence,  and  the  moving 
of  two  dark  objects  down  the  river  proclaimed 
that  the  enterprise  had  been  successful.  Joy 
was  manifested  on  the  shores  by  shouts  and  the 
waving  of  lanterns.  The  vessels  and  their  men 
had  been  made  captives  in  less  than  ten  min¬ 
utes.  The  guns  at  Fort  Erie  were  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  vessels.  A  struggle  for  their  pos¬ 
session  ensued.  The  Detroit  was  finally  burned, 
but  the  Caledonia  was  saved,  and  afterwards  did 
good  service  in  Perry’s  fleet  on  Lake  Erie.  In 
this  brilliant  affair  the  Americans  lost  one  killed 
and  five  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  British  is 


THE  ELLIOTT  MEDAL. 


Elliott’s  Exploit  at  Fort  Erie.  Black  Rock, 
two  miles  below  Buffalo,  was  selected  as  a  place 
for  a  dock-yard  for  fitting  out  naval  vessels  for 
Lake  Erie.  Lieutenant  Jesse  D.  Elliott,  then 
only  twenty-seven  years  of  age,  while  on  duty 
there,  was  informed  of  the  arrival  at  Fort  Erie, 
opposite,  of  two  vessels  from  Detroit,  both  well 
manned  and  well  armed  and  laden  with  valua¬ 
ble  cargoes  of  peltry.  They  were  the  Caledo¬ 
nia,  a  vessel  belonging  to  the  Northwestern  Fur 
Company,  and  the  John  Adams,  taken  at  the  sur¬ 
render  of  Hull,  with  the  name  changed  to  De¬ 
troit.  They  arrived  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  8 
(1812),  and  Elliott  at  once  conceived  a  plan  for 
their  capture.  Timely  aid  offered.  The  same 
day  a  detachment  of  unarmed  seamen  arrived 
from  New  York.  Elliott  turned  to  the  military 
for  assistance.  Lieutenant  -  colonel  Scott  was 
then  at  Black  Rock,  and  entered  warmly  into 
Elliott’s  plans.  General  Smyth,  the  command¬ 
ing  officer,  favored  them.  Captain  Towson,  of 
the  artillery,  was  detailed,  with  fifty  men,  for 
the  service ;  and  sailors  under  General  Winder, 
at  Buffalo,  were  ordered  out,  well  armed.  Sev¬ 
eral  citizens  joined  the  expedition,  and  the 
w  hole  number,  rank  and  file,  was  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty -four  meu.  Two  large 


not  known.  A  shot  from  Fort  Erie  crossed  the 
river  and  instantly  killed  Major  William  Howe 
Cuyler,  aid  to  General  Hull,  of  Watertown,  N.  Y. 
The  Caledonia  was  a  rich  prize ;  her  cargo  was 
valued  at  $200,000. 

Ellsworth,  Ephraim  Elmer,  was  born  at 
Meehan  icsville,  N.  Y.,  April  23,  1837  ;  killed  at 
Alexandria,  Va.,  May  24,  1861.  He  was  first  en¬ 
gaged  in  mercantile  business  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and 
as  a  patent  solicitor  in  Chicago  he  acquired  a 
good  income.  While  studying  law  he  joined  a 
Zouave  corps  at  Chicago,  and  in  July,  1860,  vis¬ 
ited  some  of  the  Eastern  cities  of  the  Union  with 
them,  and  attracted  great  attention.  On  his  re¬ 
turn  lie  organized  a  Zouave  regiment  in  Chicago; 
and  in  April,  1861,  he  organized  another  from  the 
New  York  Fire  Department.  These  were  among 
the  earlier  troops  that  hastened  to  Washington. 
Leading  his  Zouaves  to  Alexandria,  Ellsworth 
was  shot  by  the  proprietor  of  the  Marshall 
House,  while  he  was  descending  the  stairs  with 
a  Secession  flag  which  he  had  pulled  down.  (See 
Virginia,  Invasion  of.)  His  body  was  taken  to 
Washington,  and  lay  in  state  in  the  East  Room, 
of  the  White  House.  It  was  then  taken  to  New 
York,  where  it  lay  in  state  in  the  City  Hall,  and, 
after  being  carried  in  procession  through  the 


ELLSWORTH 


431 


EL  MOLINO  DEL  REY 


streets  of  tlie  city,  it  was  conveyed  to  his  birth¬ 
place  for  burial.  He  was  young  and  handsome, 
and  his  death,  being  the  first  of  note  that  had 


EPHRAIM  ELMER  ELLSWORTH. 


occurred  in  the  opening  war,  produced  a  pro¬ 
found  sensation  throughout  the  country. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Wind¬ 
sor,  Conn.,  April  29, 1745 ;  died  Nov.  26, 1807.  He 
graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1766; 
was  admitted  to  the- bar  in  1771;  practised  in 
Hartford,  Conn. ;  and  was  made  state  attorney. 
When  the  war  for  independence  was  kindling 
he  took  the  side  of  the  patriots  in  the  Legislat¬ 
ure  of  Connecticut,  and  was  a  delegate  in  Con¬ 
gress  from  1777  to  1780.  He  became  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  State  Council,  and  in  1784  was  ap¬ 
pointed  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Judge 
Ellsworth  was  one  of  the  framers  of  the  Nation¬ 
al  Constitution,  but,  being  called  away  before 
the  adjournment  of  the  convention,  his  name 
was  not  attached  to  that  instrument.  He  was 


the  first  United  States  Senator  from  Connecti¬ 
cut  (1789-95),  and  drew  up  the  bill  for  organ¬ 
izing  the  Judiciary  Department.  In  1796  lie 
was  made  Chief-justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  and  at  the  close  of  1799  he 
was  one  of  the  envoys  to  France  (which  see). 

El  Molino  del  Rey  and  Casa  de  Mata, 

Capture  of  (1847).  Almost  within  cannon-shot 


distance  of  the  city  of  Mexico  is  Chapnltepec,  a 
hill  composed  of  porphyritic  rock,  and  known 
in  the  Aztec  language  as  “Grasshoppers’  Hill.7* 
It  rises  from  the  ancient  shore  of  Lake  Tezeuco, 
and  was  the  favorite  resort  of  the  Aztec  princes. 
It  was  also  the  site  of  the  palace  and  gardens 
of  Montezuma.  That  hill  was  crowned  with  a 
strong  castle  and  Military  College,  supported  by 
numerous  outworks,  which,  with  the  steepness 
of  the  ascent  to  it,  seemed  to  make  it  impreg¬ 
nable.  Oidy  the  slope  towards  the  city  was 
easily  ascended,  and  that  was  covered  with  a 
thick  forest..  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  was  a  stone 
building,  with  thick  high  walls,  and  towers  at 
the  end,  known  as  El  Molino  del  Rey — “The 
King’s  Mill.”  About  four  hundred  yards  from 
this  was  another  massive  stone  building,  known 
as  Casa  de  Mata.  The  former  was  used  (1847) 
as  a  eannon-foundery  by  the  Mexicans,  and  the 
latter  was  a  depository  of  gunpowder.  Both 
were  armed  and  strongly  garrisoned.  General 
Scott,  at  Tacubaya,  ascertained  that  Santa  Ana, 
while  negotiations  for  peace  were  going  on,  had 
sent  church  bells  out  of  the  city  to  be  cast  into 
cannons,  and  he  determined  to  seize  both  of 
these  strong  buildings  and  deprive  the  Mexi¬ 
cans  of  those  sources  of  strength.  He  proposed 
to  first  attack  El  Molino  del  Rey,  wdiicli  was 
commanded  by  General  Leon.  The  Mexican 
force  at  these  defences  were  about  fourteen  thou¬ 
sand  strong,  their  left  wing  resting  on  El  Moli¬ 
no  del  Rey,  their  centre  forming  a  connecting 
line  with  Casa  de  Mata  and  supported  by  a 
field-battery,  and  their  right  wing  resting  on 
the  latter.  To  the  division  of  General  Worth 
was  intrusted  the  task  of  assailing  the  works 
before  them.  At  three  o’clock  on  the  morning 
of  Sept.  8  (1847)  the  assaulting  columns  moved 
to  the  attack,  Garland’s  brigade  forming  the 
right  wing.  The  battle  began  at  dawn  by  Hu- 
ger’s  24-pounder  opening  on  El  Molino  del  Rey, 
when  Major  Wright,  of  the  Eighth  Infantry, 
fell  upon  the  centre  with  five  hundred  picked 
men.  On  the  left  was  the  second  brigade,  com¬ 
manded  by  Colonel  McIntosh,  supported  by  Dun¬ 
can’s  battery.  The  assault  of  Major  Wright  on 
the  centre  drove  back  infantry  and  artillery, 
and  the  Mexican  field -battery  was  captured. 
The  Mexicans  soon  rallied  and  regained  their 
position,  and  a  terrible  struggle  ensued.  El 
Molino  del  Rey  was  soon  assailed  and  carried 
by  Garland’s  brigade,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
battle  around  Casa  de  Mata  was  raging  fierce¬ 
ly.  For  a  moment  the  Americans  reeled,  but 
soon  recovered,  when  a  large  column  of  Mexi¬ 
cans  was  seen  filing  around  the  right  of  their 
intrenclnnents  to  fall  upon  the  Americans  who 
had  been  driven  back,  when  Duncan’s  battery 
opened  upon  them  so  destructively  that  the 
Mexican  column  was  scattered  in  confusion. 
Then  Sumner’s  dragoons  charged  upon  them, 
and  their  rout  was  complete.  The  slaughter 
had  been  dreadful.  Nearly  one  fourth  of  Worth’s 
corps  were  either  killed  or  wounded.  The  Mex¬ 
icans  had  left  one  thousand  dead  on  the  field. 
Their  best  leaders  had  been  slain,  and  eight 
hundred  men  had  been  made  prisoners.  The 
strong  buildings  were  blown  up,  and  none  of 


EMANCIPATION  OF  SLAVES 


432 


EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES 


the  defences  of  Mexico  outside  its  gates  now 
remained  to  them,  excepting  the  Castle  of  Clia- 
pultepec  and  its  supports.  (See  Chapultepec.) 

Emancipation  of  Slaves.  By  the  Presi¬ 
dent’s  Emancipation  Proclamation  (which  see), 
the  number  of  slaves  set  free  was  as  follows: 


Arkansas .  111,104 

Alabama .  435,132 

Florida. . . . 

Georgia. . . 

Mississippi 
North  Carolina ....  275,081 


South  Carolina  ....  402,541 

Texas .  180,682 

Virgitra  (part) .  450,437 


61,753 

462,232  |  Louisiana  (part)...  247,734 

436.696  |  - 

Total . 3,063.392 


The  institution  was  not  disturbed  by  the  procla¬ 
mation  in  eight  states,  which  contained  831,780 
slaves,  distributed  as  follows : 


Delaware . 1,798 

Kentucky .  225,490 

Maryland .  87,188 

Missouri .  114,465 


Tennessee .  275,784 

Louisiana  (part)  . . .  85,281 

West  Virginia.  ...  12,761 

Virgin  a  (part) .  29,013 


The  remainder  were  emancipated  by  the  Thir¬ 
teenth  Amendment  to  the  National  Constitution, 
making  the  whole  number  set  free  3,895,172. 

Emancipation  of  Slaves,  Proclamation  of 
(1863).  On  July  16,  1862,  Congress  passed  an 
act  for  the  suppression  of  shivery,  one  provision 
of  which  declared  the  absolute  “freedom  of  the 
slaves  of  rebels  ”  under  certain  ope  rat  ions  of  war 
therein  defined.  This  gave  the  President  a  wide 
field  for  the  exercise  of  executive  power,  but  he 
used  it  with  great  prudence.  The  patient  Lin¬ 
coln  hoped  the  wise  men  among  the  insurgents 
might  heed  the  threat  contained  in  the  act.  Fi¬ 
nally,  in  September,  he  issued  a  warning  procla¬ 
mation,  declaring  that  in  case  the  enemies  of 
the  government  did  not  lay  down  their  arms 
before  the  1st  of  January,  1863,  he  would  then 
issue  a  proclamation  of  the  freedom  of  the 
slaves.  This  warning  was  unheeded,  and  on 
the  day  mentioned  the  President  issued  the  fol¬ 
lowing  proclamation  : 


‘•PROCLAMATION. 

“  Whereas,  On  the  22d  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty  two,  a  proclaim 
t  on  was  issued  by  the  President  of  the  United  Stales,  contain¬ 
ing,  among  other  things,  the  following,  to  wit: 

“  ‘  That  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  all  persons  held 
as  slaves  within  any  State  or  designated  part  of  a  State,  the 
people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever  free;  and  the 
Executive  Government  of  the  United  States,  including  the  mil¬ 
itary  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain 
the  freedom  of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  re¬ 
press  such  persons,  or  any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may 
make  for  their  actual  freedom. 

“  ‘  That  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first  day  of  January  afore¬ 
said,  by  proclamation,  designate  the  States  and  parts  of  States, 
if  any,  in  which  the  people  thereof,  respectively  shall  then  be 
in  rebellion  against  the  United  States;  and  the  fact  that  any 
State,  or  the  people  thereof,  shall  on  that  day  be  in  good  faith 
represented  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  by  members 
chosen  thereto  at  elections  wherein  a  majority  of  the  qualified 
voters  of  such  State  shall  have  partic:pated,  shall,  in  the  ab¬ 
sence  of  strong  countervailing  testimony,  be  deemed  conclu¬ 
sive  evidence  that  such  State,  and  the  people  thereof,  are  not 
then  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States.’ 

“  Now,  therefore.  I,  Abraham  Lincoln.  President  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States,  by  v  rtue  of  the  power  in  me  vested  as  Command- 
er-'n  chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  LTnited  States  in  time 
of  actual  armed  rebell  on  against  the  authority  and  Govern¬ 
ment  of  the  Uu'ted  States,  and  as  a  fit  and  necessary  war 
measure  for  suppress’ng  said  rebellion,  do.  on  this  first  day  of 
January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  sixty  three,  and  in  accordance  with  my  purpose  so  to  do. 
publicly  proclaimed  for  the  full  period  of  one  hundred  days 
from  the  day  first  above  mentioned,  order  and  designate,  as 
the  States  and  parts  of  States  wherein  the  people  thereof,  re¬ 
spectively  are  th  s  day  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States, 
the  following,  to  wit: 


“  Arkansas,  Texas.  Louisiana  (except  the  par’shes  of  St.  Ber¬ 
nard.  Plaquemines,  Jefferson,  St.  John,  St.  Charles,  St.  James, 
Ascension,  Assumption,  Terre  Bonne,  Lafourche,  Ste.  Marie, 
St.  Martin,  and  Orleans,  including  the  city  of  New  Orleans), 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  North 
Carolina,  and  Virginia  (except  the  forty-eight  count  es  des  g- 
nated  as  West  Virginia  and  also  the  counties  of  Berkley,  Ac- 
comac,  Northampton.  El  zabeth  City,  York,  Princess  Anne,  and 
Norfolk,  including  the  cities  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth),  and 
which  excepted  parts  are,  for  the  present,  left  precisely  as  if 
this  proclamation  were  not  issued. 

“  And  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  for  the  purpose  aforesaid, 
I  do  order  and  declare  that  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within 
said  designated  States  and  parts  of  States  are,  and  hencefor¬ 
ward  shall  be,  free ;  and  that  the  Executive  Government  of  the 
United  States,  including  the  military  and  naval  author  ties 
thereof,  will  recognize  and  mainta  n  the  freedom  of  said  per¬ 
sons. 

“And  I  hereby  enjoin  upon  the  people  so  declared  to  be 
free  to  abstain  from  all  violence,  unless  in  necessary  self  de¬ 
fence;  and  I  recommend  to  them  that,  in  all  cases  when  al¬ 
lowed,  they  labor  faithfully  for  reasonable  wages. 

“And  I  further  declare  and  make  known  that  such  persons, 
of  suitable  condition,  will  be  received  into  the  armed  service 
of  the  United  States,  to  garrisou  forts,  positions,  stations,  and 
other  places,  and  to  man  vessels  of  all  sorts  in  said  service. 

“  And  upon  this  act.  sincerely  believed  to  be  an  act  of  jus¬ 
tice,  warranted  by  the  Constitution,  upon  military  necessity,  I 
invoke  the  considerate  judgment  of  mankind,  and  the  gra¬ 
cious  favor  of  Almighty  God. 

“  In  testimony  whereof  1  have  hereunto  set  my  name,  and 
caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed. 

“  Done  at  the  City  of  Washington,  this  first  day  of 
.  ,  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 

‘  hundred  and  sixty-three,  and  of  the  Independence  of 

the  United  States  the  eighty-seventh. 

“  Abraiiam  Lincolx. 

“  By  the  President : 

“  William  H.  Seward,  Secretary  nf  State. 

(See  fac-simile  ou  pages  433  to  436  inclusive.) 

Emancipation  of  the  Slaves  (1863).  Tbe 
second  session  of  the  Thirty-seventh  Congress 
commenced  Dec.  2,  1861.  A  civil  war  of  unpar¬ 
alleled  magnitude  was  then  raging.  The  peo¬ 
ple  and  their  representatives  were  satisfied  that 
slavery  was  the  cause  of  the  fratricidal  strife, 
and  it  was  not  long  before  they  perceived  the 
necessity  for  destroying  the  system  in  order  to 
save  the  life  of  the  Republic.  They  perceived 
that  it  nurtured,  by  the  labor  of  slaves,  the  men 
who  were  making  war  ou  the  Republic,  and  that 
very  few  of  the  white  people  need  be  kept  from 
the  Confederate  armies  to  carry  on  agricultural 
operations  at  home.  The  President  and  the  loy¬ 
al  people  therefore  resolved  to  destroy  the  sys¬ 
tem  by  some  method  of  abolition.  The  former 
kindly  proposed  to  give  pecuniary  aid  to  any 
state  government  which  might  provide  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  The  kind  proposition  test¬ 
ed  the  temper  of  the  slaveholders.  They  re¬ 
fused  to  listen,  and  a  conference  of  Congressmen 
of  the  border  slave-labor  states,  which  Mr.  Lin¬ 
coln  called,  and  to  whom  he  submitted  a  plan 
for  compensating  the  holders  of  slaves,  told  him 
plainly  that  it  was  his  “duty  to  avoid  all  inter¬ 
ference,  direct  or  indirect,  with  slavery  in  the 
Southern  States;”  and  their  constituents  gener¬ 
ally  scouted  the  proposition  with  scorn.  Any 
further  offer  of  compromise  with  the  enemies 
of  the  Republic  was  seen  to  be  useless,  and  Con¬ 
gress  proceeded  to  deal  vigorously  with  slavery, 
the  strong  right  arm  of  the  warriors  against 
the  national  government.  They  proceeded  to 
abolish  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
over  which  Congress  had  exclusive  control.  A 
bill  became  a  law  (March  13,  1862),  providing 
for  the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  rebels 
against  the  government,  which  included  the 
emancipation  of  their  slaves.  It  prohibited  all 


EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES  433  EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES 


FAC  SIMILE  OF  THE  PROCLAMATION  OF  EMANCIPATION. 


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“That  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  e:ght  hundred  and  sixty- 
three,  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  any  State  or  designated  part  of  a  State,  the  people  whereof  shall 
then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever  free;  and  the 
Executive  Government  of  the  United  States,  including  the  military  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will 
recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom  of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  repress  such  persons, 
or  any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may  make  for  their  actual  freedom. 

“  That  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first  day  of  January  aforesaid,  by  proclamation,  designate  the  States 
and  parts  of  States,  if  any,  in  which  the  people  thereof,  respectively,  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States;  and  the  fact  that  any  State,  or  the  people  thereof,  shall  on  that  day  be  in  good  faith  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  by  members  chosen  thereto  at  elections  wherein  a  majority 
of  the  qualified  voters  of  such  State  shall  have  participated,  shall,  in  the  absence  of  strong  countervailing 
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bellion  against  the  United  States.” 

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EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES  434  EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES 

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EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES 


435 


EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES 


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EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES  436 


EMANCIPATION  OF  THE  SLAVES 


officers  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
Republic  returning  alleged  fugitive  slaves  to 
their  masters.  On  July  15,  1862,  another  law 
was  perfected,  which  declared  the  absolute  free¬ 
dom  of  the  slaves  of  public  enemies  under  cer¬ 
tain  operations  of  war  therein  defined.  The 
President,  hoping  the  wiser  and  cooler  men  of 
the  Confederacy  might  heed  the  warning,  hesi¬ 
tated  to  act.  The  loyal  people  became  impa¬ 
tient,  and  he  was  hard  pressed  by  remonstrances 
and  petitions.  Finally  a  deputation  from  a  con¬ 
vention  in  Chicago  of  Christians  of  all  denomi¬ 
nations  waited  upon  him  (Sept.  13,  1862)  with  a 
memorial  requesting  him  at  once  to  issue  a  proc¬ 
lamation  of  universal  emancipation.  The  Pres¬ 
ident,  believing  the  time  had  not  yet  come  for 
an  act  so  radical,  and  especially  at  that  critical 
juncture,  when  the  National  armies  seemed  ev¬ 
erywhere  to  be  weak,  said,  “  I  do  not  wish  to  is¬ 
sue  a  document  that  the  whole  world  would  see 
must  necessarily  be  inoperative,  like  the  Pope’s 
bull  against  the  comet.”  He  said  he  was  in  sym¬ 
pathy  with  them  ;  and  when  the  committee  left 
lie  said,  “  Whatever  shall  appear  to  be  God’s 
will,  I  will  do.”  On  the  22d  he  issued  a  prelim¬ 
inary  proclamation  of  emancipation,  in  which 
he  declared  it  to  be  his  purpose,  at  the  next 
meeting  of  Congress,  to  again  recommend  pe¬ 
cuniary  compensation  in  aid  of  emancipation  in 
states  in  which  insurrection  did  not  exist.  He 
then  declared  that  on  the  1st  of  January  next 
ensuing  “the  slaves  within  every  state  or  des¬ 
ignated  part  of  a  state,  the  people  whereof 
should  then  be  in  rebellion,”  should  be  declared 
“  thenceforward  and  forever  free such  free¬ 
dom  to  be  maintained  by  the  whole  force  of  the 
government,  which  should  not,  at  the  same  time, 
repress  any  efforts  the  slaves  might  make  for 
their  actual  freedom.  Tins  warning  was  treat¬ 
ed  with  scorn,  and  was  used  to  “  fire  the  South¬ 
ern  heart”  as  evidence  that  the  war  was  waged 
for  the  liberation  of  the  slaves,  and  not  for  the 
restoration  of  the  Union.  When  the  hundred 


days  fixed  for  the  determining  of  this  momen¬ 
tous  movement  had  expired  it  was  found  that 
the  enemies  of  the  Republic  were  more  rebel¬ 
lious  than  ever.  Accordingly,  on  the  first  day 
of  January,  1863,  President  Lincoln  issued  his 
famous  “  Proclamation  of  Emancipation,”  which 
speedily  led  to  a  radical  revolution  in  the  social 
and  labor  systems  among  a  large  portion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Republic.  ( See  Emancipa¬ 
tion  of  Slaves,  Proclamation  of.)  This  proclama¬ 
tion,  considered  in  all  its  relations,  was  one  of 
the  most  important  public  documents  ever  is¬ 
sued  by  the  hand  of  man.  As  the  centuries  roll 
on,  mankind,  more  and  more  completely  eman¬ 
cipated  from  the  thraldom  of  injustice  at  the 
hands  of  the  stronger,  will  regard  it  with  ever- 
deepening  reverence  as  the  consummation  of 
the  hopes  and  labors  of  the  founders  of  the  Re¬ 
public,  who  declared  that  “  all  men  are  created 
equal.”  Unlike  the  preliminary  proclamation, 
it  was  wonderfully  potential.  The  loyal  por¬ 
tion  of  the  nation,  educated  by  the  teachings 
of  events  to  an  habitual  and  profound  sense  of 
justice  as  well  as  expediency  involved  in  such 
an  act,  were  waiting  with  impatience  for  the 
proclamation.  While  the  friends  of  the  gov- 
ment  hailed  its  appearance  with  joy,  the  con¬ 
spirators  against  the  life  of  the  Republic  were 
struck  with  dismay.  The  charming  vision  of  a 
magnificeut  empire  whose  fundamental  policy 
was  avowed  to  be  human  slavery  was  suddenly 
changed ;  and  they  clearly  saw  that  the  whole 
fabric  of  their  hopes  and  ambitious  schemes 
was  only  a  dissolving  view — a  baseless  struct¬ 
ure  of  a  dream.  The  Golden  Circle  (which  see) 
suddenly  narrowed  to  a  mere  speck  in  the  im¬ 
agination  of  its  inventors,  and  the  whole  gor¬ 
geous  group  of  dignitaries  who  were  to  admin¬ 
ister  the  public  affairs  of  the  grand  slave  em¬ 
pire  of  the  West,  stretching  from  Mason  and 
Dixon’s  Line  (which  see)  to  the  tropics,  became 
transformed  by  the  touch  of  this  spear  of  Ithu- 
real.  The  proclamation — so  calm,  so  clear,  so 


EMANCIPATION  OF  IRELAND 


437 


EMBARGO  ACT 


decided,  and  witlial  so  evidently  fraught  with 
irresistible  power — carried  joy  and  hope  to  the 
hearts  of  suffering  millions  in  the  Eastern  Hem¬ 
isphere.  It  touched  with  a  mighty  power  a 
chord  of  sympathy  in  the  bosom  of  every  gen¬ 
uine  aspirant  for  freedom  in  Europe  to  whom 
it  was  revealed,  and  elicited  a  quick  response. 
From  the  hour  when  that  proclamation  was 
promulgated  the  prayers  of  true  men  in  all 
lands  ascended  to  the  throne  of  Heaven  in  sup¬ 
plications  for  the  success  of  the  armies  of  the 
Republic  in  their  struggle  with  its  enemies. 
From  the  moment  when  that  act  of  justice  was 
proclaimed  by  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  na¬ 
tion  the  power  of  the  foes  of  the  government 
began  to  grow  more  and  more  feeble.  Already 
thousands  of  freedmen  —  made  so  by  the  deci¬ 
sion  that  they  were  “  contrabands”  (which  see) 
—  had  entered  the  public  service  in  various 
ways,  and  a  large  number  of  them  were  en¬ 
rolled  as  soldiers  in  the  National  army.  From 
that  moment  until  the  close  of  the  Civil  War 
victory  followed  victory  for  the  Union  troops 
in  quick  succession.  The  proclamation  was 
signed  by  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  by  William  H.  Seward,  Sec¬ 
retary  of  State.  The  first  tidings  by  the  mouth 
of  man  given  of  it  to  the  freedmen  was  ut¬ 
tered  to  a  regiment  of  them  in  arms,  beneath 
a  magnificent  live  -  oak  tree,  near  Beaufort, 
S.  C.,  within  bugle-sound  of  the  place  where  the 
South  Carolina  Ordinance  of  Secession  (  which 
see)  for  the  perpetuation  of  slavery  was  framed. 
It  was  announced  by  Dr.  Brisbane,  a  native  of 
South  Carolina.  By  the  adoption  afterwards 
of  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  slavery  was  abolished  from  the  domain  of 
the  Republic.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  sig¬ 
nature  of  President  Lincoln  to  the  proclamation 
is  in  a  slightly  tremulous  hand.  He  signed  it 
on  New-year’s  morning,  after  shaking  hands 
with  numerous  callers.* 

Emancipation  of  Ireland.  Ireland  had  suf¬ 
fered  even  more  than  the  United  States  from 
the  restrictive  legislation  and  colonial  monopo¬ 
ly  of  Great  Britain.  Its  volunteer  army  (see 
Ireland ),  commanded  by  officers  of  their  own 
choice,  amounted  to  about  fifty  thousand  at  the 
close  of  the  war  with  America  (1782).  They 
were  united  under  one  general-in-chief.  Feel¬ 
ing  strong  in  the  right  and  in  its  material  and 
moral  vitality  at  the  moment,  and  encouraged 
by  the  success  of  the  Americans,  Ireland  de¬ 
manded  reforms  for  herself.  The  viceroy  re¬ 
ported  that  unless  it  was  determined  that  the 
knot  which  bound  the  two  countries  should  be 
severed  forever,  the  points  required  by  the  Irish 
Parliament  must  be  conceded.  It  was  a  criti¬ 
cal  moment.  Eden,  who  was  secretary  for  Ire¬ 
land,  proposed  the  repeal  of  the  act  of  George  I. 
which  asserted  the  right  of  the  Parliament  of 


Great  Britain  to  make  laws  to  bind  the  people 
and  the  kingdom  of  Ireland — the  right  claimed 
for  Parliament  which  drove  the  Americans  to 
war — and  the  Rockingham  ministry  adopted 
and  carried  the  important  measure.  Appeals 
from  the  courts  of  Ireland  to  the  British  House 
of  Peers  were  abolished ;  the  restraints  on  inde¬ 
pendent  legislation  were  done  away  with,  and 
Ireland,  still  owing  allegiance  to  Great  Britain, 
obtained  the  independence  of  its  Parliament. 
This  was  the  fruit  of  the  war  for  independence 
in  America.  The  people  of  Ireland  owed  the 
vindication  of  their  rights  to  the  patriots  of  the 
United  States;  but  their  gratitude  took  the  di¬ 
rection  of  their  complained-of  oppressor,  and 
their  legislature  voted  $500,000  for  the  levy  of 
twenty  thousand  seamen  to  strengthen  the  royal 
navy,  whose  ships  had  not  yet  been  withdrawn 
from  American  waters,  and  which,  with  an  army, 
were  still  menacing  the  liberties  of  the  Ameri¬ 
cans. 

Embargo  Act,  First  (1794).  The  British 
Orders  in  Council  (Nov.  6,  1793)  and  a  reported 
speech  of  Lord  Dorchester  (Guy  Carleton)  to  a 
deputation  of  the  Western  Indians,  produced 
much  indignation  against  the  British  govern¬ 
ment.  Under  the  stimulus  of  this  excitement 
Congress  passed  (March  26, 1794)  a  joint  resolu¬ 
tion  laying  an  embargo  on  commerce  for  thirty 
days.  The  measure  seemed  to  have  chiefly  in 
view  the  obstructing  the  supply  of  provisions 
for  the  British  fleet  and  army  in  the  West  In¬ 
dies.  It  operated  quite  as  much  against  the 
French.  Subsequently  (April  7)  a  resolution 
was  introduced  to  discontinue  all  commercial 
intercourse  with  Great  Britain  and  her  subjects, 
as  far  as  respected  all  articles  of  the  growth  or 
manufacture  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  until 
the  surrender  of  the  Western  posts  (see  Jay’s 
Treaty),  and  ample  compensation  should  be  given 
for  all  losses  and  damages  growing  out  of  British 
aggression  on  the  neutral  rights  of  the  Ameri¬ 
cans.  It  was  evident  from  the  course  of  the  de¬ 
bate  and  the  temper  of  the  House  that  the  reso¬ 
lution  would  be  adopted.  This  measure  would 
have  led  directly  to  war.  To  avert  this  calamity 
Washington  was  inclined  to  send  a  special  min¬ 
ister  to  England.  The  appointment  of  Jay  fol¬ 
lowed.  (See  Jay’s  Treaty.) 

Embargo  Act  (1807).  On  the  receipt  of  de¬ 
spatches  from  Minister  Armstrong,  at  Paris, 
containing  information  about  the  new  interpre¬ 
tation  of  the  Berlin  Decree  and  also  of  the  British 
Orders  in  Council,  President  Jefferson,  who  had 
called  Congress  together  earlier  than  usual 
(Oct.  25,  1807),  sent  a  message  to  that  body 
communicating  facts  in  his  possession  and  rec¬ 
ommending  the  passage  of  an  embargo  act  — 
“an  inhibition  of  the  departure  of  our  vessels 
from  the  ports  of  the  United  States.”  The  Sen¬ 
ate,  after  a  session  of  four  hours,  passed  a  bill  — 


*  Tho  pen  with  which  President  Lincoln  wroto  tvs  Proclamation  of  Emancipation  was  given  to  Senator  Sumner  by  the 
President,  at  the  request  of  the  former,  and  by  him  presented  to  tho  late  George  Livermore,  of  Boston.  It  is  a  stool  pon,  of 
the  kind  culled  “The  Washington,”  in  a  common  cedar  holder— all  us  plain  and  unostentatious  us  wus  tho  President  himself. 


EMBARGO  ACT 


438 


twenty-two  to  six — laying  an  embargo  on  all 
shipping,  foreign  and  domestic,  in  the  ports  of 
the  United  States,  with  specified  exceptions,  and 
ordering  all  vessels  abroad  to  return  home  forth¬ 
with.  This  was  done  in  secret  session.  The 
House,  also  with  closed  doors,  debated  the  bill 
three  days  and  nights,  and  it  was  passed  by  a 
vote  of  eighty-two  to  forty-four,  and  became  a 
law  Dec.  22,  1807.  Unlimited  in  its  duration 
and  universal  in  its  application,  the  embargo 
was  an  experiment  never  before  tried  by  any 
nation  —  an  attempt  to  compel  two  belligerent 
powers  to  respect  the  rights  of  neutrals  by  with¬ 
holding  intercourse  with  all  the  world.  It  ac¬ 
complished  nothing,  or  worse  than  nothing.  It 
aroused  against  the  United  States  whatever 
spirit  of  honor  and  pride  existed  in  both  na¬ 
tions.  Opposition  to  the  measure,  in  and  out 
of  Congress,  was  violent  and  incessant,  and  on 
March  1,  1809,  it  was  repealed.  At  the  same 
time  Congress  passed  a  law  forbidding  all  com¬ 
mercial  intercourse  with  France  and  England 
until  the  Orders  in  Council  and  the  decrees 
should  be  repealed. 

Embargo  Act  (preliminary  to  war,  1812). 
The  continued  aggressions  of  the  British  upon 
American  commerce  created  a  powerful  war 
party  in  the  United  States  in  1811,  and  a  stirring 
report  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations, 
submitted  to  Congress  in  November,  intensified 
that  feeling.  Bills  were  speedily 
passed  for  augmenting  the  army, 
and  other  preparations  for  war 
were  made  soon  after  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  year  1812.  The  Presi¬ 
dent  was  averse  to  war,  but  his 
party  urged  and  threatened  him 
so  pertinaciously  that  he  con¬ 
sented  to  declare  war  against 
Great  Britain.  As  a  preliminary 
measure  he  sent  a  confidential 
message  to  Congress  (April  1, 

1812)  recommending  the  passage 
of  an  act  laying  an  embargo  for 
sixty  days.  A  bill  was  intro¬ 
duced  to  that  effect  by  Mr.  Cal¬ 
houn,  of  South  Carolina,  which 
prohibited  the  sailing  of  any 
vessel  for  any  foreign  port,  ex¬ 
cept  foreign  ships  with  such 
cargoes  as  they  might  have  on 
board  when  notified  of  the  act. 

The  bill  was  passed  (April  6),  and  was  speedily 
followed  by  a  supplementary  act  (April  14)  pro¬ 
hibiting  exportations  by  land,  whether  of  goods 
or  specie.  The  latter  measure  was  called  the  land 
embargo.  It  was  vehemently  denounced,  for  it 
suddenly  suppressed  an  active  and  lucrative 
trade  between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Embargo  Act  (1813).  It  was  ascertained  that 
the  British  blockading  squadron  in  American 
waters  was  constantly  supplied  with  provi¬ 
sions  from  American  ports  by  unpatriotic  men  ; 
also  that  British  manufactures  were  being  in¬ 
troduced  on  professedly  neutral  vessels.  Such 
traffic  was  extensively  carried  on,  especially  in 
New  England  ports,  where  magistrates  were 
often  leniently  disposed  towards  such  violators 


EMBARGO,  PROPOSITIONS 

of  law.  In  a  confidential  message  (Dec.  9,  1813) 
the  President  recommended  the  passage  of  an 
embargo  act  to  suppress  the  traffic,  and  one 
passed  both  Houses  on  the  17th,  to  remain  in 
force  until  Jan.  1,  1815,  unless  the  war  should 
sooner  cease.  It  prohibited,  under  severe  penal¬ 
ties,  the  exportation,  or  attempt  at  exportation, 
by  land  or  water,  of  any  goods,  produce,  spe¬ 
cie,  or  live  stock ;  and  to  guard  against  eva¬ 
sions  even  the  coast  trade  was  entirely  prohib¬ 
ited.  This  bore  heavily  on  the  business  of  some 
of  the  New  Englaud  sea-coast  towns.  No  trans¬ 
portation  was  allowed,  even  on  inland  waters, 
without  special  permission  from  the  President. 
While  the  act  bore  so  heavily  on  honest  trad¬ 
ers,  it  pretty  effectually  stopped  the  illicit  busi¬ 
ness  of  “  speculators,  knaves,  and  traders,  who 
enriched  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  com¬ 
munity.”  This  act,  like  all  similar  ones,  was 
called  a  “  terrapin  policy  and  illustrative  of  it 
was  a  caricature  representing  a  British  vessel  in 
the  offing,  some  men  embarking  goods  in  a  boat 
on  the  shore,  and  a  stout  man  carrying  a  barrel  of 
flour  towards  the  boat,  impeded  by  being  seized 
by  the  seat  of  his  pantaloons  by  an  enormous 
terrapin,  urged  on  by  a  man  who  cries  out, 
“  D — n  it,  how  be  nicks  ’em.”  The  victim  ex¬ 
claims, “  Oh !  this  eui’sed  Ograbme!  ” — the  letters 
of  the  last  word,  transposed,  spell  embargo.  This 
act  was  repealed  in  April,  1814. 


Embargo,  Propositions  to  Great  Britain 
concerning  the.  Feeling  the  pressure  of  the 
opposition  to  the  embargo  at  home,  Pinckney  was 
authorized  to  propose  to  the  British  ministry  a 
repeal  of  the  Embargo  Act,  as  to  Great  Britain, 
on  condition  of  the  recall  of  her  Orders  in  Council. 
Not  wishing  to  encounter  a  refusal,  Pinckney 
sounded  Canning,  the  Secretary  for  Foreign  Af¬ 
fairs,  who  gradually  led  the  American  minister 
into  making  a  formal  proposition.  To  this  Can¬ 
ning  made  a  reply  (Sept.  28, 1808)  in  writing,  un¬ 
surpassed  in  diplomatic  cunning  and  partially 
concealed  sarcasm.  It  also  contained  sound 
views  on  the  whole  subject  of  the  orders  and  de¬ 
crees.  Canning  insisted  that  as  France  was  the 
original  aggressor,  by  the  issuing  of  the  Berlin 


439 


EMEESON 


EMBARGO,  RECEPTION  OF  THE 

Decree,  retaliation  (the  claimed  cause  of  the  em¬ 
bargo)  ought,  in  the  first  instance,  to  have  been 
directed  against  that  power  alone;  and  England 
could  not  consent  to  buy  off  a  hostile  procedure, 
of  which  she  ought  never  to  have  been  made  the 
object,  at  the  expense  of  a  concession  made,  not 
to  the  United  States,  upon  whom  the  operation 
of  the  British  orders  was  merely  incidental,  but 
to  France,  against  which  country,  in  a  spirit  of 
just  retaliation,  they  had  been  originally  aimed. 
The  Berliu  Decree  had  been  the  beginning  of  an 
attempt  to  overthrow  the  political  power  of 
Great  Britain  by  destroying  her  commerce,  and 
almost  all  Europe  had  been  compelled  to  join  in 
that  attempt;  and  the  American  embargo  had, 
in  fact,  come  in  aid  of  Napoleon’s  continental 
system.  This  attempt,  Canning  said,  was  not 
likely  to  succeed,  yet  it  was  important  to  the 
reputation  of  Great  Britain  not  to  show  the 
least  sign  of  yielding  while  the  slightest  doubt 
existed  of  its  unequivocal  failure,  or  the  smallest 
link  in  the  confederacy  against  her  remained  un¬ 
dissolved.  The  disconcerted  American  ambas¬ 
sador,  evidently  piqued  at  the  result  of  his  prop¬ 
osition,  advised  his  government  to  persevere  in 
the  embargo.  The  embargo  was  far  less  effect¬ 
ual  abroad  than  it  was  supposed  it  would  be, 
and  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  it  strictly 
at  home  caused  its  repeal  in  March, 

1809. 

Embargo,  Public  Reception  of 
the.  The  decided  support  of  the  em¬ 
bargo  (which  see)  given  by  both 
Houses  of  Congress  was  supplemented 
by  resolutions  of  the  Legislatures  of 
Georgia,  the  Carolinas,  Virginia,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  and  New  Hampshire. 

An  Enforcement  Act  was  passed  (Janu¬ 
ary,  1809),  and,  to  make  it  efficient,  the 
employment  of  twelve  additional  rev¬ 
enue  cutters  was  authorized  ;  also  the 
fitting  out  for  service  of  all  the  ships 
of  war  and  gunboats.  This  Enforce¬ 
ment  Act  was  despotic,  and  would 
not  have  been  tolerated  except  as  a 
temporary  expedient,  for  the  Orders 
in  Couucil  were  mild  in  their  effects 
upon  American  trade  and  commerce 
compared  with  that  of  this  Embargo  Act.  It 
pretty  effectually  suppressed  extensive  smug¬ 
gling,  which  was  carried  on  between  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  and  Canada,  and  at  many  sea-ports, 
especially  in  New  England.  But  the  opposi¬ 
tion  clamored  for  its  repeal.  At  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  year  1814  there  were  expectations, 
speedily  realized,  of  peace  near;  also  of  a  gen¬ 
eral  pacification  of  Europe.  These  signs  were 
pointed  to  by  the  opposition  as  cogent  reasons 
for  the  repeal.  These  considerations  had  weight, 
added  to  which  was  the  necessity  for  increasing 
the  revenue.  Finally,  on  the  19th  of  January 
(1814),  the  President  recommended  the  repeal  of 
the  Embargo  Act,  and  it  was  done  by  Congress 
on  the  14th  of  April.  There  were  great  rejoic¬ 
ings  throughout  the  country,  and  the  demise  of 
the  Terrapin  was  hailed  as  a  good  omen  of  com¬ 
mercial  prosperity.  The  “Death  of  the  Em¬ 
bargo”  was  celebrated  in  verses  published  in 


the  Federal  Republican  newspaper  of  George¬ 
town,  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  These  were 
reproduced  in  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  with 
an  illustration  designed  by  John  Wesley  Jarvis, 
the  painter,  and  drawn  and  engraved  on  wood 
by  Dr.  Alexander  Anderson.  Tbe  picture  was 
redrawn  and  engraved  by  Dr.  Anderson  (which 
see),  on  a  reduced  scale,  for  the  author  in  1864, 
after  a  lapse  of  exactly  fifty  years.  The  lines 
which  it  illustrates  are  as  follows: 

terrapin’s  address. 

“Reflect,  my  friend,  as  you  pass  by, 

As  you  are  now ,  so  once  was  I : 

As  /  am  now ,  so  you  may  be — 

Laid  on  your  back  to  die  like  me ! 

I  was,  indeed,  true  sailor  born; 

To  quit  my  friend  in  death  I  scorn. 

Once  Jemmy  seemed  to  be  my  friend, 

But  basely  brought  me  to  my  end! 

Of  head  bereft,  and  light,  and  breath, 

I  hold  Fidelity  in  death: 

For  ‘Sailors’  Rights  ’  I  still  will  tug; 

And  Madison  to  death  I’ll  hug, 

For  his  perfidious  zeal  displayed 

For  ‘  Sailors’  Rights  and  for  Free-trade.  ’ 

This  small  atonement  I  will  have — 

I’ll  lug  down  Jemmy  to  the  grave. 

Then  trade  and  commerce  shall  be  free, 

And  sailors  have  their  liberty. 

Of  head  bereft,  and  light,  and  breath, 

The  Terrapin,  still  true  in  death, 

Will  punish  Jemmy’s  perfidy — 

Leave  trade  and  brother  sailors  free.” 


DEATH  OP  THE  TERRAPIN,  OR  THE  EMBARGO. 

PASSENGER’S  REPLY. 

“Yes,  Terrapin,  bereft  of  breath, 

We  see  thee  faithful  still  in  death. 

Stick  to’t — ‘Free-trade  and  Sailors’  Rights.’ 

Hug  Jemmy— press  him — hold  him — bite. 

Never  mind  thy  head — thou’lt  live  without  it; 
Spunk  will  preserve  thy  life— don’t  doubt  it. 

Down  to  the  grave,  t’  atone  for  sin, 

Jemmy  must  go  with  Terrapin. 

Bear  him  but  off,  and  we  shall  see 
Commerce  restored  and  sailors  free.  1 
Hug,  Terrapin,  with  all  thy  might— 

Now  for  ‘Free-trade  and  Sailors’  Right.’ 

St  ck  to  him,  Terrapin!  to  thee  the  nation 
Now  eager  looks — then  die  for  her  salvation. 

“  Florcat  Respublica. 

“Banks  op  Goose  Creek,  City  op  Washington, 

15 th  April ,  1814.”' 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  was  the  leader  of 
the  transcendental  school  of  New  England,  and 
was  born  in  Boston,  May  25, 1803.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1821 ;  taught  school  live  years,  and 
in  1826  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Middlesex 
(Unitarian)  Association.  In  the  winter  of  1833- 


EMIGRATION  FROM  MARYLAND  440 


EMMETT 


34.  after  returning  from  Europe,  he  began  the 
career  of  a  lecturer  and  essayist.  Marrying  in 
1835,  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Concord,  Mass., 
and  was  a  contributor  to,  and  finally  editor  of, 
The  Dial ,  a  quarterly  magazine,  and  organ  of 
the  New  England  transcendentalists.  He  lived 
the  quiet  life  of  a  literary  man  and  philosopher, 
with  the  reputation,  for  more  than  forty  years, 
of  a  profound  thinker  aud  elegant  writer.  He 
published  essays,  poems,  and  lectures.  (See 
Transcendentalism.)  Died  April  27, 1882. 

Emigration  from  Maryland  proposed.  In 

cousequence  of  an  annoying  social  ostracism  to 
which  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Maryland  were 
subjected,  an  application  (1751)  was  made  to  the 
French  court  in  their  behalf  for  a  grant  of  land 
in  Louisiana,  to  which  they  proposed  to  emi¬ 
grate.  This  application  was  made  by  Charles 
Carroll  (a  wealthy  landed  proprietor  and  hered- 
i  tarv  agent  of  the  Baltimore  family),  one  of  whose 
family  was  afterwards  a  signer  of  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Independence,  and  another  the  first  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  bishop  in  the  United  States.  The 
application  was  not  successful,  probably  because 
the  French  court  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  in¬ 
troduce  an  English  colony  into  Louisiana. 

Emigration  to  America  regulated.  In  April, 
1637,  King  Charles  I.  issued  a  proclamation  to 
restrain  what  was  called  the  “disorderly  trans¬ 
portation  of  his  subjects  to  the  American  colo¬ 
nies.”  It  commanded  that  no  license  be  given 
them  without  a  certificate  that  they  had  taken 
the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance,  and  con¬ 
formed  to  the  discipline  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land.  On  complaint  of  several  disorders  in  New 
England,  especially  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  the 
king,  in  July  (1637),  appointed  Sir  Ferdinando 
Gorges  governor-general  of  that  domain  ;  but 
Archbishop  Laud,  the  enemy  of  religious  liber¬ 
ty,  aud  other  lords  of  council,  having  lost  their 
authority,  this  last-named  arrangement  was  nev¬ 
er  carried  out.  In  May,  1638,  the  Privy  Coun¬ 
cil  of  England  issued  au  order  for  the  Lord  Treas¬ 
urer  to  take  immediate  and  effective  measures 
for  procuring  the  stay  of  eight  ships  then  lying  in 
the  Thames,  prepared  to  sail  for  New  England. 
It  is  said  that  in  these  Oliver  Cromwell,  Sir  Ar¬ 
thur  Hazlering,  John  Hampden,  and  others  of 
republican  proclivities,  were  about  to  sail  for 
America.  These  were  the  men  w  ho  were  large¬ 
ly  influential  iu  bringing  the  kiug  to  the  scaffold 
in  less  than  a  dozen  years  afterwards. 

Emigration  to  New  England  in  1630.  A 

fleet  of  fourteen  sail,  filled  with  men,  women,  and 
children,  with  provisions,  sailed  from  England 
for  America  early  in  1630,  twelve  of  them  arriv¬ 
ing  at  Charlestown  (w'hich  see)  early  in  July. 
These  ships  contained  eight  hundred  and  forty 
passengers,  among  them  John  Winthrop,  the 
appointed  governor  of  the  colony.  There  were, 
also,  Deputy-governor  Dudley  aud  several  gen¬ 
tlemen  of  wealth  and  distinction.  The  expense 
of  the  whole  equipment  aud  transportation  was 
more  than  $100,000.  Some  of  them  went  up  the 
Charles  River  until  it  became  shallow"  and  nar¬ 
row,  and  landed  at  a  well- watered  place  which 
was  afterwards  called  Watertown.  It  became  a 


great  hive  of  population,  out  of  which  swarmed 
many  people  to  settle  wild  districts  of  country. 
After  the  arrival  of  this  fleet,  a  day  of  thanks¬ 
giving  was  observed  iu  all  the  plantations  in 
New  England. 

Emigration  to  South  Carolina  (1764).  After 
the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Paris,  and 
when  there  seemed  to  be  a  promise  of  a  long  cessa¬ 
tion  of  war  in  America,  emigration  from  Europe 
began  to  flow  in  copiously.  The  Assembly  of 
South  Carolina,  to  encourage  emigration,  ap¬ 
propriated  (1764)  a  large  fund  for  bounties  to 
foreign  Protestants  and  such  industrious  poor 
people  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  as  should 
resort  to  the  province  within  three  years  and 
settle  in  the  inland  regions.  Two  townships, 
each  containing  forty-eight  thousand  acres,  were 
laid  out  —  one  on  the  Savannah  River,  called 
Mecklenburg,  and  the  other  -  on  the  Santee, 
called  Londonderry— for  the  use  of  emigrants. 
Soon  afterwards  five  or  six  hundred  poor  Ger¬ 
mans,  who  had  been  enticed  into  England  un¬ 
der  deceitful  promises,  were  assisted  by  the  cit¬ 
izens  of  London  and  by  the  government  in  mak¬ 
ing  their  way  to  Carolina.  Ships  for  their  con¬ 
veyance  and  provisions  for  the  voyage  were  fur¬ 
nished.  The  king  gave  them  one  hundred  and 
fifty  stand  of  arms  out  of  the  Tower:  and  on 
their  arrival  at  Charleston  ( April,  1764 )  the 
assembly  of  the  province  voted  $2500  to  be  dis¬ 
tributed  among  them,  and  one  of  the  two  town¬ 
ships  was  allotted  to  them.  At  about  the  same 
time  two  hundred  and  twelve  French  Protes¬ 
tants  settled  in  South  Carolina,  and  were  given 
vacant  lands ;  and  multitudes  of  individuals 
came  to  that  province  from  Ireland,  England, 
and  Scotland.  In  the  course  of  that  year  about 
one  thousand  families  went  to  South  Carolina 
from  the  northern  colonies. 

Emigration  to  the  United  States.  The 

number  of  emigrants  who  came  to  our  shores 
in  1873  was  greater  than  ever  before  or  since. 
It  reached  in  that  year  473,000!  These  add¬ 
ed  vastly  to  the  material  wealth  of  the  Re¬ 
public  ;  for  it  has  been  computed  that  the 
average  value  of  each  emigrant  who  comes 
here  as  a  producer  is  $800,  not  counting  the 
money  the  emigrant  brings  with  him,  which  it 
is  calculated  is  spent  by  him  in  preparing  to  be¬ 
come  a  producer.  The  Chinese,  about  whom 
so  much  has  been  said,  have  never  formed  more 
than  four  per  cent,  of  our  total  emigration. 
The  “  panic,”  or  great  revulsion  in  the  business 
of  the  country,  which  began  in  1873,  caused  a 
great  reflux  tide  of  emigration.  In  1874  the 
number  of  emigrants  who  returned  to  Europe 
was  over  seventy-two  thousand,  aud  the  next 
year  nearly  ninety-three  thousand. 

Emmett,  Thomas  Addis,  an  Irish  adopted 
American  citizen,  was  born  at  Cork,  Ireland, 
April  24, 1763  ;  died  iu  New  York,  Nov.  14,  1827. 
He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin ;  first 
studied  medicine,  and  then  law,  and  was  admit¬ 
ted  to  the  Dublin  bar  in  1791.  He  became  a 
leader  of  the  Association  of  United  Irishmen, 
and  was  one  of  a  general  committee  whose  ulti¬ 
mate  object  was  to  secure  the  freedom  of  Ireland 


EMORY 


441 


ENDICOTT 


from  British  rule.  With  many  ofliis  associates, 
he  was  arrested  iu  1798,  and  for  more  than  two 
years  was  confined  in  Fort  George,  Scotland. 
His  brother  Robert,  afterwards  engaged  in  the 
same  cause,  was  hanged  in  Dublin  in  1803. 
Thomas  was  liberated  and.  banished  to  France 
after  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  the  severest  pen¬ 
alties  being  pronounced  against  him  if  he 
should  return  to  Great  Britain.  His  wife 
was  permitted  to  join  him,  on  condition  that 
she  should  never  again  set  foot  on  British  soil. 
He  came  to  America  in  1804,  and  became  very 
eminent  in  his  profession  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  He  was  made  attorney-general  of  the 
state  in  1812.  A  monument — an  obelisk — was 
erected  to  his  memory  iu  a  portion  of  St.  Paul’s 
church-yard,  New  York,  near  Broadway. 

Emory,  William  Helmsley,  United  States 
Army,  was  born  in  Queen  Anne’s  County,  Md., 
about  1812,  aud  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1831.  He  was  appointed  lieutenant  of  the  topo¬ 
graphical  engineers  July  7,1833;  was  aid  to 
General  Kearney  in  California  in  1846-47,  and 
was  made  lieutenant-colonel  Sept.  30, 1847.  He 
was  astronomer  to  the  commission  to  determine 
the  boundary  between  the  United  States  aud 
Mexico  (which  see).  He  was  serving  as  cap¬ 
tain  of  cavalry  in  Mexico  when  the  Civil  War 
broke  out,  and  brought  his  command  into  Kan¬ 
sas  in  good  order.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  made 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Sixth  Cavalry  ;  served 
in  the  campaign  of  1862  in  the  Army  of  the  Po¬ 
tomac,  aud  was  made  brigadier-general  of  vol¬ 
unteers  in  March  of  that  year.  He  did  good 
service  under  Banks  iu  Louisiana,  and  under 
Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  He  was 
made  colonel  of  the  Fifth  Cavalry  in  the  fall 
of  1863,  and  in  March,  1865,  was  breveted  brig¬ 
adier-  and  major-general  of  the  United  States 
Army. 

Emott,  James,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Poughkeep¬ 
sie,  N.  Y.,  March  14,  1771 ;  died  there,  April  10, 
1850.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1800, 
and  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Ballston  Cen¬ 
tre,  but  soon  removed  to  Albany.  He  repre¬ 
sented  that  district  in  the  Legislature  in  1804. 
He  practised  law  awhile  in  New  York  city,  and 
then  returned  to  Poughkeepsie.  He  was  in 
Congress  from  1809  to  1813,  and  was  a  leader 
of  the  Federal  party  therein.  He  was  again  in 
the  Legislature  (1814-17),  and  was  speaker  of 
that  body.  From  1817  to  1823  he  was  first  judge 
of  Duchess  County,  and  was  judge  of  the  second 
circuit  from  1827  to  1831,  when,  in  compliance 
with  the  then  absurd  law  of  the  state,  that  pro¬ 
hibited  the  holding  of  a  judicial  office  by  a  citi¬ 
zen  over  sixty  years  of  age,  he  retired  from  pub¬ 
lic  life  with  his  intellect  in  full  vigor. 

Empire  State,  a  popular  name  given  to  the 
State  of  New  York  because  it  is  the  most  popu¬ 
lous,  wealthy,  and  politically  powerful  state  in 
the  Union.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  “Excel¬ 
sior  State,”  from  the  motto  Excelsiok— “  high¬ 
er” — on  its  seal  and  coat  of  arms.  The  city  of 
New  York,  its  commercial  metropolis  and  the 
largest  city  in  the  Union,  is  sometimes  called 
the  “  Empire  City.” 


Emucfau,  Battle  of.  On  a  bend  in  the  Tal¬ 
lapoosa  River,  Alabama,  was  a  Creek  village 
called  Emucfau.  Jackson,  with  a  considerable 
force,  approaching  the  place  (Jan.  21, 1814),  saw 
a  well-beaten  trail  and  some  prowling  Indians, 
and  prepared  his  camp  that  night  for  an  attack. 
At  six  o’clock  the  next  morning  a  party  of  Creek 
warriors  fell  upon  him  with  great  fury.  At 
dawn  a  vigorous  cavalry  charge  was  made  upon 
the  foe  by  General  Coffee,  and  they  were  dis¬ 
persed.  Coffee  pursued  the  barbarians  for  two 
miles  with  much  slaughter.  Then  a  party  was 
despatched  to  destroy  the  Indian  encampment 
at  Emucfau,  but  it  was  found  to  be  too  strongly 
fortified  to  be  taken  without  artillery.  When 
Coffee  fell  back  to  guard  approaching  cannon, 
the  Indians,  thinking  it  was  a  retreat,  again  fell 
upon  Jackson,  but,  after  a  severe  struggle,  were 
repulsed.  Jackson  made  no  further  attempt  to 
destroy  the  encampment  at  Emucfau.  He  was 
astonished  at  the  prowess  of  the  Creek  warriors. 
In  their  retrograde  movement  (Jan.  24),  the  Ten- 
1  nesseeans  were  again  threatened  by  the  Indians 
near  Enotochopco  Creek.  A  severe  engagement 
soon  ensued ;  but  the  Tennesseeans,  having 
i  planted  a  six-pound  cannon  on  an  eminence, 

!  poured  a  storm  of  grape-shot  on  the  Indians, 
i  which  sent  them  yelling  in  all' directions.  The 
|  slaughter  among  the  Indians  was  heavy,  while 
that  among  the  white  troops  was  comparatively 
light.  In  the  two  engagements  (Emucfau  and 
Enotochopco),  Jackson  lost  twenty  killed  aud 
seventy-five  wounded. 

End  of  Indian  Wars  in  the  East.  New-Eng- 
landers  greatly  rejoiced  because  of  the  conquest 
of  Canada,  as  it  promised  a  deliverance  of  their 
;  northern  and  eastern  frontiers  from  the  scourge 
|  of  Indian  forays  with  wdiich  they  had  been  af- 
j  flicted  six  times  within  eighty-five  years.  By 
these  successive  conflicts, the  Indians  themselves 
had  been  almost  annihilated.  Most  of  the  hos¬ 
tile  remnants  had  emigrated  to  Canada.  Only  a 
small  body  of  Penobscots  remained  on  a  reser¬ 
vation  in  Maine  which  is  still  possessed  by  their 
descendants. 

End  of  Quaker  Political  Rule  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  (See  Quaker  Rule  in  Pennsylvania.') 

End  of  the  Colonial  System.  On  April  6, 
1776,  the  Continental  Congress,  by  resolution, 
threw  open  their  ports  to  the  commerce  of 
the  world  “  not  subject  to  the  King  of  Great 
Britain.”  This  resolution  was  the  broom  that 
swept  away  the  colonial  system  within  the  pres¬ 
ent  bounds  of  the  Republic,  and  the  flag  of  ev¬ 
ery  nation  save  one  was  invited  to  our  harbors. 
Absolute  free-trade  was  established.  The  act 
was  a  virtual  declaration  of  independence. 

Endicott,  John,  born  at  Dorchester,  Eng.,  in 
1589;  died  in  Boston, Mass., March  15, 1665.  Sent 
by  the  “Massachusetts  Company”  to  superin¬ 
tend  the  plantation  at  Nanmkeag,  he  arrived 
there  Sept.  6  (N.  S.),  and  in  April  next  year  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  colony,  but  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  John  Winthrop.  In  1636  lie  was  sent 
with  Captain  Underhill,  with  about  ninety  men, 
on  an  expedition  against  Indians  on  Block  Isl¬ 
and  and  the  Pecpiods,  (See  Pequod  fTar.)  Mr. 


ENFORCING  AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  442  ENGLISH  AMBASSADOR  AT  MOSCOW 


Eiulicott  was  deputy-governor  of  Massachusetts 
several  years,  and  also  governor,  in  which  office 
he  died.  Bold,  energetic,  sincere,  and  bigoted, 
he  was  the  strongest  of  the  Puritans,  and  was 
severe  in  the  execution  of  laws  against  those 
who  differed  from  the  prevailing  theology  of 
the  colony.  He  was  one  of  the  most  persistent 
persecutors  of  the  Quakers,  and  stood  hy  un¬ 
moved,  as  governor,  when  they  were  hanged  in 
Boston  ;  and  so  violent  were  his  feelings  against 
the  Roman  Catholics,  and  anything  that  savor¬ 
ed  of  “  popery,”  that  he  caused  the  red  cross  of 
St.  George  to  be  cut  out  of  the  military  stand¬ 
ard.  He  opposed  long  hair  on  men,  and  insist¬ 
ed  that  the  women  should  use  veils  in  public 
assemblies.  During  his  several  administrations 
many  were  punished  for  the  slightest  offences, 
and  four  Quakers  were  hanged  in  Boston. 

Enforcing  the  “American  Association.” 

Immediately  after  the  adjournment  of  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress  (1774),  measures  were  taken  in 
various  colonies  for  enforcing  the  observance  of 
the  American  Association,  by  the  appointment 
of  committees  of  inspection.  Philadelphia  set 
the  example  (Nov.  22).  New  York  followed,  by 
appointing  (Nov.  23)  a  Committee  of  Sixty,  with 
full  powers.  Other  provinces  took  measures  to 
the  same  effect,  aud  there  was  a  general  observ¬ 
ance  of  the  requirements  of  the  association  for 
a  while.  (See  American  Association.) 

England  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Seven¬ 
teenth  Century.  At  about  the  time  when  the 
English  colonists  began  to  make  permanent  set¬ 
tlements  in  America,  there  had  been  great  im¬ 
provements  in  the  agricultural  industry  of  Eng¬ 
land.  The  methods  of  agriculture  had  been 
improved,  and  its  boundaries  enlarged.  Imple¬ 
ments  were  better,  and  tillage  was  more  pro¬ 
ductive.  The  farmers  generally  had  an  abun¬ 
dance  of  food ;  lived  in  better  houses ;  pewter 
dishes  had  taken  the  place  of  wooden  ones  ; 
feather-beds  those  of  straw  and  coarse  wool ; 
clover  had  been  introduced  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  and  increased  the  food  for  sheep  and  cat¬ 
tle,  and  gardens  began  to  be  more  generally  cul¬ 
tivated.  From  the  Netherlands  had  come  the 
hop ;  also  the  cabbage,  lettuce,  apricot,  goose¬ 
berry,  muskmelou,  and  apple.  Cherries  had 
come  from  France,  currants  from  Greece,  and 
plums  from  Italy.  From  Flanders  the  Flem¬ 
ings  had  brought  the  rose  and  other  fragrant 
plants,  natives  of  the  East.  Of  these  improve¬ 
ments  in  the  rural  economy  of  the  kingdom  the 
early  English  settlers  in  America  availed  them¬ 
selves. 

England  seeks  Indian  Allies  to  enslave  her 
Colonies.  During  the  war  for  independence 
the  British  were  in  constant  alliance  with  the 
barbarians  of  the  forest  in  the  effort  to  crush 
freedom  in  America.  Such  an  alliance  was  au¬ 
thorized  before  the  war  broke  out.  So  united 
were  the  people  in  Massachusetts  in  resistance 
to  the  Regulation  Act  (which  see),  that  Gates 
called  for  more  troops.  He  had  then  (August, 
1774)  at  Boston  five  regiments,  one  at  Castle 
William,  one  at  Salem,  and  hastily  summoned 
two  more  from  Quebec.  He  also  sent  transports 


to  bring  another  regiment  from  New  York,  and 
asked  for  reinforcements  from  England.  He 
also  resolved  to  raise  “  irregulars  of  one  sort  or 
another  in  America.”  He  wrote  to  Carleton  at 
Quebec:  “I  ask  your  opinion  what  measures 
would  be  most  efficacious  to  raise  a  body  of  Ca¬ 
nadians  and  Indians,  and  for  them  to  form  a 
junction  with  the  king’s  forces  in  this  province.” 
Carleton’s  commission  authorized  him  to  employ 
Indians  in  the  military  service  if  thought  neces¬ 
sary,  to  be  drawn  from  “  the  Indian  tribes  from 
the  coast  of  Labrador  to  the  Ohio  ;  and  to  march 
them  against  rebels  into  any  of  the  plantations 
in  America.”  This  willingness  of  the  British 
king  to  employ  barbarians  against  his  American 
subjects  justified  the  charge  in  the  Declaration 
of  Independence — “  He  has  endeavored  to  bring 
on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless 
Indian  savages.”  Chatham  and  Burke  uttered 
indignant  protests  in  Parliament  against  such 
an  alliance,  and  it  smothered  the  last  spark  of 
loyalty  in  the  bosom  of  every  patriotic  Ameri¬ 
can. 

English  Ambassador  at  Moscow.  Mr.  Gun¬ 
ning,  England’s  diplomatic  agent  at  the  court 
of  Catharine  II.  of  Russia,  deceived  by  the  Rus¬ 
sian  minister,  assured  the  British  ministry  that 
the  empress  would  favorably  receive  a  proposi¬ 
tion  to  loan  troops  for  crushing  rebellion  in 
America.  (See  Russian  Troops  for  A merica. ) 
Then  the  king  wrote  an  autograph  letter  to 
Catharine  soliciting  her  good  offices  in  the  mat¬ 
ter,  and  Gunning  was  ordered  to  ask  for  twrenty 
thousand  men.  The  project  of  a  treaty  for  tak¬ 
ing  a  body  of  Russian  troops  into  the  British 
pay  and  service,  to  continue  for  two  years,  was 
sent  to  Gunning,  with  the  assurance  that  the 
force  was  so  necessary  that  “  expense  was  not 
so  much  an  object  as  in  ordinary  cases.”  Gun¬ 
ning  was  politely  but  coolly  received  by  the 
empress.  When  second  instructions  were  re¬ 
ceived  from  England  the  empress  was  in  relig¬ 
ious  seclusion,  and  he  applied  to  her  chief  min¬ 
ister,  who  graciously  promised  to  forward  Gun¬ 
ning’s  request  to  her.  On  her  return  the  Eng¬ 
lish  agent  sought  an  audience  of  Catharine,  but 
was  refused.  He  asked,  through  the  minister, 
for  fifteen  thousand  troops,  and  finally  for  ten 
thousand.  Deluded  by  the  cordial  manner  with 
which  he  wuis  alw-ays  treated  by  the  Russian 
minister,  Gunning  persisted.  Catharine  an¬ 
swered  the  letter  of  the  king,  and  by  her  rebuke 
of  the  nefarious  proposition  to  employ  foreign 
troops  to  enslave  his  subjects  she  offended  the 
British  monarch.  The  proposition  was  con¬ 
demned  by  every  court  iu  Europe  which  was 
aware  of  Guuning’s  efforts  at  negotiation.  “  I 
cannot  reconcile  Catharine’s  elevation  of  soul 
with  the  dishonorable  idea  of  trafficking  in  the 
blood  of  her  subjects,”  wrote  Yergennes  to  the 
French  envoy  at  Moscow.  Finally,  the  Russian 
court  determined  to  get  rid  of  Gunning’s  per¬ 
sistent  importunities.  The  minister  declined 
any  further  discussion  of  the  subject ;  and  wThen 
asked  by  the  French  envoy  whether  such  a 
proposition  had  ever  been  seriously  entertained 
by  Russia,  t  he  minister  replied,  “  People  have 
said  so,  but  it  is  physically  impossible ;  besides, 


ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  COLONISTS  443  ENGLISH  REVOLUTION,  THE 


it  is  not  consistent  with  the  dignity  of  Eugland 
to  employ  foreign  troops  against  its  own  sub¬ 
jects.”  (See  Russian  Troops  for  America.)  Some 
of  the  opposition  in  Parliament  strongly  pro¬ 
tested  against  the  employment  of  German  troops. 
“We  conceive,”  they  said,  “the  calling  in  for¬ 
eign  forces  to  decide  domestic  quarrels  to  be  a 
measure  both  disgraceful  and  dangerous.” 

English  and  French  American  Colonists, 

First  Hostilities  between.  Madame  de  Guer- 
cheville,  a  pious  lady  in  France,  zealous  for  the 
conversion  of  the  American  Indians,  persuaded 
De  Monts  (which  see)  to  surrender  his  patent, 
and  then  obtained  a  charter  for  “  all  the  lands 
of  New  France.”  She  sent  out  missionaries  in 
1613.  They  sailed  from  Honfleur  March  12,  and 
arrived  in  Acadia,  where  the  arms  of  Madame 
Guercheville  were  set  up  in  token  of  possession. 
Her  agent  proceeded  to  Port  Royal  (now  An¬ 
napolis), 'where  he  found  only  five  persons,  two 
of  whom  were  Jesuit  missionaries  previously 
sent  over.  The  Jesuits  went  with  other  per¬ 
sons  to  Mount  Desert  Island.  Just  as  they  had 
begun  to  provide  themselves  with  comforts,  they 
were  attacked  by  Samuel  Argali,  of  Virginia. 
The  French  made  some  resistance,  but  were  com¬ 
pelled  to  surrender  to  superior  numbers.  One  of 
the  Jesuits  was  killed,  several  were  wounded, 
and  the  remainder  made  prisoners.  Argali  took 
fifteen  of  the  Frenchmen,  besides  the  Jesuits,  to 
Virginia;  the  remainder  sailed  for  France.  This 
success  induced  the  governor  of  Virginia  to  send 
an  expedition  to  crush  the  power  of  the  French 
in  Acadia,  under  the  pretext  that  they  were  en¬ 
croaching  upon  the  rights  of  the  English.  Ar¬ 
gali  sailed  with  three  ships  for  the  purpose.  On 
his  arrival  he  broke  in  pieces,  at  St.  Saviour,  a 
cross  which  the  Jesuits  had  set  up,  and  raised 
another,  on  which  he  inscribed  the  name  of 
King  James.  He  sailed  to  St.  Croix  and  de¬ 
stroyed  the  remains  of  De  Mont’s  settlement 
there  ;  and  then  he  went  to  Port  Royal  and  laid 
that  deserted  town  in  ashes.  The  English  gov¬ 
ernment  did  not  approve  the  act,  nor  did  the 
French  government  resent  it. 

English  Colonial  Governments  in  North 
America.  Royal  Governments :  Nova  Scotia,  St. 
Johns,  Newfoundland,  New  Hampshire,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Geor¬ 
gia,  and  the  Floridas.  Charter  Governments  : 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  partly  Massa¬ 
chusetts  and  the  Carolinas.  Proprietary  Govern¬ 
ments :  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland. 

English  Colonies  in  the  West  proposed. 
When,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (which  see),  the 
British  obtained  possession  of  the  French  do¬ 
main  in  America,  Colonel  Croglian,  a  deputy 
Indian  agent,  who  knew  the  value  of  lands  in 
the  Northwest  from  personal  observation,  urged 
their  immediate  colonization.  Several  distin¬ 
guished  men  —  Sir  William  Johnson,  Governor 
Franklin,  of  New  Jersey,  and  General  Gage — 
with  some  fur-traders  of  Philadelphia,  engaged 
in  a  project  for  founding  settlements  there 
which  promised  them  a  return  of  great  wealth. 1 
Dr.  Franklin  favored  the  enterprise,  for  it  prom- 1 
ised  some  new  security  for  the  existing  colonies. 


The  domain  designed  for  this  colonization  em¬ 
braced  the  whole  territory  bounded  by  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mississippi  rivers,  a  line  along  the  Wa¬ 
bash  and  Maumee  to  Lake  Erie,  and  thence 
across  Michigan,  the  lake,  Green  Bay,  and  Fox 
River  to  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin.  It  was 
estimated  that  the  tract  contained  about  sixty- 
three  million  acres.  Lord  Shelburne  favored 
the  project,  but  the  narrow  Hillsborough,  at  the 
head  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations,  op¬ 
posed  the  scheme,  because  “  emigrants  to  so  re¬ 
mote  regions  would  establish  manufactures  for 
themselves,  and  in  the  very  heart  of  America 
might  form  a  power  which  distance  must  eman¬ 
cipate.”  The  project  was  abandoned,  and  the 
Alleghanies  continued  to  be  the  frontier  of  Brit¬ 
ish  settlements  for  several  years  longer. 

English  Constitution,  The,  is  not  a  perma¬ 
nent  instrument  embodying  the  foundation  of 
all  laws,  like  that  of  the  United  States,  but  com¬ 
prehends  the  whole  body  of  English  laws  en¬ 
acted  by  Parliament,  and  by  which  the  British 
people  are  governed.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  is  superior  to  the  Congress  or  Na¬ 
tional  Legislature  ;  the  Parliament  or  National 
Legislature  of  England  is  superior  to  the  Con¬ 
stitution.  What  Parliament  declares  to  be  the 
Constitution  of  Eugland  is  the  Constitution  of 
England ;  what  the  Parliament  enacts  the  mon¬ 
arch  must  be  governed  by,  and  the  courts  can¬ 
not  adjudge  to  be  unconstitutional  and  void. 
Sheridan  comprehensively  said:  “The  king  of 
England  is  not  seated  on  a  solitary  eminence  of 
power;  on  the  contrary,  he  sees  his  equals  in 
the  coexisting  branches  of  the  Legislature,  and 
he  recognizes  his  superior  in  the  law.” 

English  Expedition  against  New  Nether- 
land.  Believing  a  story  that  the  Dutch  and 
Indians  were  conspiring  against  the  New  Eng¬ 
land  colonists,  some  men  of  the  latter  induced 
Cromwell  to  furnish  two  ships  and  a  small  body 
of  troops  to  join  New-Englanders,  under  Robert 
Sedgwick  and  John  Leverett,  in  an  expedition 
against  New  Netherland.  The  latter  was  then 
major-general  of  the  Massachusetts  forces. 
Through  the  influence  of  Roger  Williams,  then 
in  England,  Cromwell’s  vessels  were  delayed. 
When  the  armament  arrived  in  New  England 
the  war  with  the  Dutch  was  over,  and  news  of 
peace  soon  reached  Boston.  Then  the  expedi¬ 
tion  proceeded  against  Acadia,  Cromwell  alleg¬ 
ing  that  a  sum  of  money  promised  by  France  on 
the  cession  of  that  country  had  never  been  paid. 
Acadia  was  taken  possession  of  by  Sedgwick 
and  Leverett,  and  two  years  afterwards  Crom¬ 
well  made  a  new  grant  of  Nova  Scotia  to  La 
Tour  and  others.  (See  La  Tour.) 

English  Revolution,  The.  When  James  II. 
attempted  to  establish  despotism  in  England  by 
destroying  the  constitution  in  Church  and  State, 
he  arrayed  against  himself  the  united  Church, 
the  aristocracy,  and  the  intelligent  people  of 
the  realm.  He  also  resolved  to  make  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  the  religious  system  of  the  King¬ 
dom,  and  sought  to  destroy  all  forms  of  Protes¬ 
tantism.  He  prorogued  Parliament,  and  ruled 
despotically  as  an  autocrat  without  it.  So  uni- 


ENGLISH  SETTLEMENT  IN  LOUISIANA  444  ENLARGEMENT  OF  THE  CAPITOL 


versa!  were  the  alarm  and  indignation  caused 
by  his  conduct  that  there  was  a  general  longing 
for  relief;  and  the  fires  of  revolution  burned 
intensely  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  before  they 
burst  into  a  flame.  The  king’s  daughter  Mary, 
who  had  married  her  cousin  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  was  heir  to  the  throne  of  England  in 
the  absence  of  a  male  heir.  When  the  people 
were  ripe  for  revolution  it  was  announced  that 
James’s  second  wife  had  given  birth  to  a  son 
(June  10,  1688).  The  hopes  of  the  nation,  which 
were  centred  on  Mary,  were  grievously  disap¬ 
pointed.  The  opinion  was  general  that  the  al¬ 
leged  heir  just  born  was  a  supposititious  one, 
and  not  the  child  of  the  queen.  The  volcano 
Avas  instantly  uncapped,  and  on  the  30th  of  J line 
(1688)  leading  men  of  the  kingdom  sent  an  in¬ 
vitation  to  William  of  Orange  to  invade  Eng¬ 
land  and  place  his  wife  on  its  throne.  He 
came,  landed  at  Torbay  (Nov.  5)  with  fifteen 
thousand  men,  and  penetrated  the  country.  The 
people  flocked  to  his  standard,  King  James  fled 
to  France,  and  all  England  was  speedily  in  the 
hands  of  the  welcome  invader.  On  the  13th  of 
February  the  Convention  Parliament  conferred 
the  crown  of  England  on  William  and  Mary  as 
joint  sovereigns.  Bancroft  says  of  the  political 
theory  of  the  revolution  :  “  The  old  idea  of  a 
Christian  monarchy  resting  on  the  law  of  God 
was  exploded,  and  political  power  sought  its  or¬ 
igin  in  compact.  Absolute  monarchy  was  de¬ 
nied  to  be  a  form  of  civil  government.  Nothing, 
it  was  held,  can  bind  freemen  to  obey  any  gov¬ 
ernment  save  their  own  agreement.  Political 
power  is  a  trust,  and  a  breach  of  the  trust  dis¬ 
solves  the  obligation  to  allegiance.  The  su¬ 
preme  power  is  the  legislature,  to  whose  guar¬ 
dianship  it  has  been  sacredly  and  unalterably 
delegated.  By  the  fundamental  law  of  property 
no  taxes  may  be  levied  on  the  people  but  by  its 
own  consent  or  that  of  its  authorized  agents. 
These  were  the  doctrines  of  the  revolution,  dan¬ 
gerous  to  European  institutions  and  dear  to  the 
colonies;  menacing  the  Old  World  with  con¬ 
vulsive  struggles  and  reforms,  and  establishing 
for  America  the  sanctity  of  its  own  legislative 
bodies.  Thi’oughout  the  English  world  the  right 
to  representation  could  never  again  be  separated 
from  the  power  of  taxation.  The  theory  gave 
to  vested  rights  iu  England  a  bulwark  against 
the  monarch ;  it  encouraged  the  colonists  to  as¬ 
sert  their  privileges,  as  possessing  a  sanctity 
which  tyranny  only  could  disregard,  and  which 
could  perish  only  by  destroying  allegiance  it¬ 
self.” 

English  Settlement  in  Louisiana  projected. 

In  October,  1698,  King  William  sent  three  ships 
to  take  possession  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
prepare  for  planting  a  colony  of  French  Protes¬ 
tants  on  its  borders.  Nothing  came  of  it.  In 
the  same  month  Iberville  (which  see)  and  oth¬ 
ers  sailed  for  the  same  river,  and  planted  the 
seeds  of  French  dominion  there. 

English  Settlement  on  Long  Island.  Some 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Lynn,  Mass.,  finding  them¬ 
selves  straitened  for  land,  went  to  Long  Island 
iu  search  of  a  plantation.  They  bargained  for 


a  tract  near  the  west  end  with  Lord  Stirling’s 
agent  and  with  the  natives.  The  jealous  Dutch 
sent  a  force  to  take  possession  of  the  land,  and 
set.  up  the  arms  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Soon 
afterwards  a  dozen  of  the  English  company  be¬ 
gan  to  erect  buildings  there,  and  took  down  the 
Dutch  arms  and  placed  the  effigy  of  an  ugly  In¬ 
dian  in  its  place.  The  Dutch,  provoked,  sent 
some  soldiers,  who  brought  off  the  Englishmen 
and  imprisoned  them  ;  but  they  were  released 
after  a  few  days,  having  taken  an  oath  of  alle¬ 
giance  to  the  stadtholder.  The  adventurers 
now  moved  to  the  east  end  of  the  island,  and,  to 
the  number  of  forty  families,  settled  the  town 
of  Southampton.  Rev.  Mr.  Pierson,  with  sev¬ 
eral  of  the  company  at  Lynn,  formed  a  church, 
and  all  went  to  Southampton,  where  he  be¬ 
came  their  pastor.  There  they  formed  a  civil 
government  in  1640.  The  same  year  a  large 
tract  of  land  on  Long  Island  was  purchased 
of  the  Indians  for  the  Connecticut  colony, 
and  settlements  were  begun  there.  The  tract 
was  on  the  north  part  of  the  island,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Oyster  Bay.  Connecticut  colonists 
began  to  settle  there,  but  were  driven  back  by 
Kieft,  the  Dutch  governor,'  because  they  ap¬ 


peared  within  sight  of  his  residence.  The  in¬ 


habitants  of  Connecticut  immediately  seized  the 
fort  just  below  Hartford,  and  obliged  the  Dutch 
to  recede  within  ten  miles  of  the  Hudson  River. 

English  Turn,  in  the  Mississippi.  A  Lon¬ 
don  physician  named  Coxe  purchased  the  old 
patent  for  Carolina  granted  to  Sir  Robert  Heath 
(see  North  Carolina )  in  1630,  and  put  forward  pre¬ 
tensions  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  which 
two  armed  English  vessels  were  sent  to  explore. 
Bienville  (which  see),  exploring  the  Mississippi 
at  a  reach  some  fifty  miles  from  its  mouth,  un¬ 
expectedly  encountered  one  of  Coxe’s  vessels 
|  coming  up.  Assured  that  this  was  not  the  Mis- 
j  sissippi,  but  a  dependency  of  Canada,  already 
i  occupied  by  the  French,  the  English  commander 
turned  about  and  left  the  river ;  and  that  reach 
*  has  ever  since  been  known  as  “  the  English 
Turn.” 

Enlargement  of  the  Capitol.  The  extin¬ 
guishment  of  Indian  titles  to  vast  tracts  of 
land  in  the  northwest  during  Fillmore’s  admin¬ 
istration  had  induced  a  vast  influx  of  popula¬ 
tion  into  those  regions  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
Many  million  acres  were  purchased  from  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Sioux  tribes,  who  removed  to 
other  reservations.  Emigration  in  large  vol¬ 
umes  was  also  flowing  into  the  Republic  from 
Europe,  and  there  was  unwonted  activity  every- 
|  where.  States  and  territories  were  increasing 
rapidly  in  numbers  and  population,  and  addi- 
I  tional  representatives  were  crowding  the  halls 
of  legislation.  These  were  becoming  too  nar¬ 
row,  and  Congress  made  provision  for  enlarging 
them.  That  enlargement  was  begun  in  1851, 
when  (July  4)  the  corner-stone  of  the  addition 
was  laid,  with  imposing  ceremonies,  by  Presi¬ 
dent  Fillmore.  (S ee  National  Capitol.)  An  ora¬ 
tion  was  delivered  by  Daniel  Webster  on  that 
occasion,  in  the  course  of  which  he  said,  “If, 
therefore,  it  shall  hereafter  be  the  will  of  God 


ENTAILS  ABOLISHED  IN  VIRGINIA  445 


ENVOYS  TO  FRANCE 


that  this  structure  shall  fall  from  its  base, 
that  its  foundatious  be  upturned  and  the  de¬ 
posit  beneath  this  stone  brought  to  the  eyes  of 
men,  be  it  then  known  that  ou  this  day  the 
Union  of  the  United  States  of  America  stands 
firm ;  that  their  Constitution  still  exists  unim¬ 
paired,  and  with  all  its  usefulness  and  glory 
growing  every  day  stronger  in  the  affections  of 
the  great  body  of  the  American  people,  and  at¬ 
tracting  more  and  more  the  admiration  of  the 
world.”  All  through  the  Civil  War  (1861-65) 
the  work  on  the  extension  went  ou,  with  per¬ 
fect  faith  on  the  part  of  the  government  that 
the  insurrection  would  be  suppressed,  the  Union 
saved,  and  that  the  increase  of  states  and  terri¬ 
tories  would  go  steadily  on,  demanding  the  use 
of  enlarged  halls  of  legislation.  The  extension 
was  completed  in  1867. 

Entails  abolished  in  Virginia.  A  commit¬ 
tee  of  the  Virginia  Legislature,  the  active  mem¬ 
bers  of  which  were  Jeffer¬ 
son,  Wythe,  and  Pendle¬ 
ton,  were  charged  (1776) 
with  a  revision  of  the 
common  law,  the  British 
statutes  (valid  in  that 
state),  and  the  criminal 
statutes.  Mr.  Jefferson 
framed  the  new  law  of 
descent,  which  abolished 
primogeniture,  and  di¬ 
rected  property  “ into  the 
channels  which  the  head 
and  heart  of  every  sane 
man  would  be  prone  to 
choose.”  By  this  law 
the  lands  of  an  intestate 
might  be  equally  divided 
among  his  representa¬ 
tives. 

Enterprise  and  Box¬ 
er.  The  Enterprise,  14 
guns,  was  an  Ameri¬ 
can  brig  that  acquired 
the  reputation  of  being 
“  lucky.”  She  cruised 
for  a  long  time  off  the  New  England  coast,  the 
terror  of  British  provincial  privateers,  under 
Captain  Johnston  Blakeley,  until  he  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  command  of  the  new  sloop-of-war 
Wasp,  when  Lieutenant  William  Burrows  be¬ 
came  her  commander.  On  the  morning  of  Sept. 
1,1813,  she  sailed  from  Portsmouth,  N.H.,  in  quest 
of  British  cruisers.  On  the  morning  of  the  5th 
she  discovered  a  British  brig  in  a  bay  near  Pem- 
aquid  Point,  which,  observing  the  Enterprise,  bore 
down  upon  her  in  menacing  attitude.  Burrows 
accepted  the  challenge,  cleared  his  ship  for  ac¬ 
tion,  and,  after  getting  a  proper  distance  from 
land  to  have  ample  sea -room  for  conflict,  he 
edged  towards  the  stranger,  which  proved  to  be 
the  British  brig  Boxer,  14  guns,  Captain  Samuel 
Blyth.  At  twenty  minutes  past  three  o’clock 
in  the  afternoon  the  brigs  closed  within  half 
pistol-shot  of  each  other,  and  both  vessels  opened 
lire  at  the  same  time.  The  wind  was  light, 
with  very  little  sea,  and  the  cannonading  was 
destructive.  Ten  minutes  later  the  Enterprise 


ranged  ahead  of  the  Boxer,  and,  taking  advan¬ 
tage  of  her  position,  she  steered  across  the  bows 
of  her  antagonist,  and  delivered  her  fire  with 
such  precision  and  destructive  energy  that,  at 
four  o’clock,  the  British  officer  in  command 
shouted  through  his  trumpet  that  he  had  sur¬ 
rendered;  but  his  flag  being  nailed  to  the  mast, 
it  could  not  be  lowered  until  the  Americans 
should  cease  firing.  It  was  found  that  Captain 
Blyth  had  been  cut  nearly  in  two  by  an  18-pouud 
cannon-ball.  Almost  at  the  same  moment  when 
Blyth  fell  on  the  Boxer,  Burrows,  of  the  Enter¬ 
prise,  was  mortally  wounded.  So  also  was  Mid¬ 
shipman  Kervin  Waters.  Blyth  was  killed  in¬ 
stantly;  Burrows  lived  eight  hours.  The  latter 
refused  to  be  carried  below  until  the  sword  of 
the  commander  of  the  Boxer  was  delivered  to 
him,  when  he  grasped  it  and  said,  “  Now  I  am 
satisfied;  I  die  contented.”  The  command  of 
the  Enterprise  devolved  upon  Lieutenant  E.  R. 


McCall,  of  South  Carolina,  who  conducted  his 
part  of  the  engagement  to  its  close  with  skill. 
He  took  both  vessels  into  Portland  Harbor  on 
the  morning  of  the  7th.  The  two  young  com¬ 
manders  were  buried  side  by  side  in  a  cemetery 
at  Portland.  Congress  presented  a  gold  medal 
to  the  nearest  masculine  representative  of  Lieu¬ 
tenant  Burrows;  and  another  was  presented  to 
Lieutenant  McCall. 

Envoys  to  France.  Monroe  was  recalled 
from  France  in  1796,  and  Charles  Cotesworth 
Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  was  appointed  to 
till  his  place.  On  his  arrival  in  France,  late  in 
the  year,  with  the  letter  of  recall  and  his  own 
credentials,  the  Directory  refused  to  receive  him. 
Not  only  so,  but,  after  treating  him  with  great 
discourtesy,  the  Directory  peremptorily  ordered 
him  to  leave  France.  He  withdrew  to  Holland 
(February,  1797),  and  there  awaited  further  or¬ 
ders  from  home.  When  Mr.  Adams  took  the 
chair  of  State,  the  United  States  had  no  diplo¬ 
matic  agent  in  France.  The  “  French  party,” 


GRAVES  OP  BURROWS,  BLYTH,  AND  WATERS. 


EPISCOPACY  IN  AMERICA 


446 


EPISCOPACY  IN  AMERICA 


or  Republicans,  having  failed  to  elect  Jefferson 
President,  the  insolent  Directory  (which  see) 
determined  to  punish  a  people  who  dared  to 
thwart  their  plans.  In  May,  1797,  they  issued  a 
decree  which  was  tantamount  to  a  declaration 
of  war  against  the  United  States.  At  about  the 
same  time  President  Adams,  observing  the  per¬ 
ilous  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
France,  called  an  extraordinary  session  of  Con¬ 
gress  to  consider  the  matter.  There  had  been 


fetters  for  the  English-American  colonists.  The 
Church  of  England  was  early  made  a  State 
establishment  in  the  colony  of  Virginia,  but 
elsewhere  the  free  spirit  of  the  people  kept 
episcopacy  at  bay,  for  they  remembered  how 
much  they  had  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the 
Church  of  England.  On  the  accession  of  George 
III.  and  the  administration  of  the  Earl  of  Bute, 
among  the  reforms  in  the  colonies  contemplated 
and  proposed  by  the  ministry  was  the  curtail- 


a  reaction  among  the  people,  and  many  leading 
Democrats  favored  war  with  France.  A  major¬ 
ity  of  the  cabinet  advised  further  negotiations, 
and  John  Marshall,  a  Federalist,  and  Elbridge 
Gerry,  a  Democrat,  were  appointed  envoys  ex¬ 
traordinary  to  join  Pinckney  and  attempt  to 
settle  all  matters  in  dispute.  They  reached 
France  in  October  (1797),  and  sought  an  audi¬ 
ence  with  the  Directory.  Tlieir  request  was 
met  by  a  haughty  refusal,  unless  the  envoys 
would  first  agree  to  pay  into  the  exhausted 
French  treasury  a  large  sum  of  money,  in  the 
form  of  a  loan,  by  the  purchase  of  Dutch  bonds 
wrung  from  that  nation  by  the  French,  and  a 
bribe  to  the  amount  of  $240,000  for  the  private 
use  of  the  five  members  of  the  Directory.  The 
proposition  came  semi  -  officially  from  Talley¬ 
rand,  one  of  the  most  unscrupulous  political 
trimmers  of  the  age.  It  was  accompanied  by  a 
covert  threat  that  if  the  proposition  was  not 
complied  with  the  envoys  might  be  ordered  to 
leave  France  in  twenty -four  hours,  and  the 
coasts  of  the  United  States  be  ravaged  by 
French  cruisers  from  St.  Domingo.  Tliey  per¬ 
emptorily  refused,  and  Pinckney  uttered,  in  sub¬ 
stance,  the  noble  words,  “  Millious  for  defence, 
but  not  one  cent  for  tribute !”  The  envoys 
asked  for  their  passports.  They  were  given  to 
the  two  Federalists  under  circumstances  that 
amounted  to  their  virtual  expulsion,  but  Gerry, 
the  Democrat,  was  induced  to  remain.  He,  too, 
was  soon  treated  with  contempt  by  Talleyrand 
and  his  associates,  and  he  returned  home  in  dis¬ 
gust. 

Episcopacy  in  America.  The  Church  and 
State  in  England  worked  in  concert  in  forging 


meut  or  destruction  of  the  Puritan  and  Dissent¬ 
ing  influence  in  the  provinces,  which  seemed  in¬ 
imical  to  monarchy,  and  to  make  the  ritual  of 
the  Anglican  Church  the  State  mode  of  worship. 
So  early  as  1748  Dr.  Seeker,  Archbishop  of  Can¬ 
terbury,  had  proposed  the  establishment  of  epis¬ 
copacy  in  America,  and  overtures  were  made  to 
several  eminent  Puritan  divines  to  accept  the 
mitre,  but  they  all  declined  it.  A  royalist  church¬ 
man  in  Connecticut,  in  1760,  in  a  letter  to  Di\ 
Seeker,  and  to  the  Earl  of  Halifax,  then  at  the 
head  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations, 
urged  the  necessity  of  providing  two  or  three 
bishops  for  the  colonies,  the  support  of  the 
Church,  and  a  method  for  repressing  the  ram¬ 
pant  republicanism  of  the  people.  “The  rights 
of  the  clergy  and  the  authority  of  the  king,” 
said  the  Bishop  of  London,  “must  stand  or  fall 
together.”  The  Anglican  Church  now  had  many 
adherents  in  all  the  colonies,  who  naturally  de¬ 
sired  its  ascendency ;  but  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  looked  upon  that  Church  as  an  ally  of 
the  State  in  acts  of  oppression,  and  earnestly  op¬ 
posed  it.  They  well  knew  that  if  Parliament 
could  create  dioceses  and  appoint  bishops,  they 
would  establish  tithes  and  crush  out  dissent  as 
heresy.  For  years  controversy  in  our  country 
on  this  topic  was  warm,  and  sometimes  acrimo¬ 
nious.  Essays  for  and  against  episcopacy  ap¬ 
peared  in  abundance.  The  Bishop  of  Llandaff, 
in  a  sermon  preached  before  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts 
( which  see ),  in  which  he  advocated  the  ne¬ 
cessity  of  establishing  episcopacy  in  America, 
heaped  abuse  without  stint  upon  the  colonists. 
“  Upon  the  adventurers  themselves,”  he  said, 


EPISCOPACY  IN  MASSACHUSETTS  447 


ERIC  THE  RED 


*'  what  reproach  could  he  cast  heavier  than  they 
deserve  ?  who,  with  their  native  soil,  abandoned 
their  native  manners  and  religion,  and  ere  long 
were  found,  in  many  parts,  living  without  re¬ 
membrance  or  knowledge  of  God,  without  any 
divine  worship,  in  dissolute  wickedness  and  the 
most  brutal  profligacy  of  manners.”  He  charged 
them  with  having  become  “  infidels  and  barba¬ 
rians  and  the  prelate  concluded  that  the  only 
remedy  for  the  great  evil  was  to  be  found  in  a 
Church  establishment.  His  recommendations 
were  urged  with  zeal  by  churchmen  in  the  col¬ 
onies.  The  Dissenters  were  aroused.  They 
observed  in  the  bishop’s  sermon,  the  old  perse¬ 
cuting  spirit  of  the  Church,  and  visions  of  Laud 
and  the  Star-chamber  disturbed  them.  Emi¬ 
nent  writers  in  America  entered  the  lists  in  op¬ 
position  to  him.  Among  others,  William  Liv¬ 
ingston,  whose  famous  letter  to  the  bishop,  is¬ 
sued  in  pamphlet  form,  refuted  the  charges  of 
that  dignitary  so  completely  that  they  were  not 
repeated.  The  theological  controversy  ceased 
when  the  vital  question  of  resistance  to  the  op¬ 
pressive  power  of  both  Church  and  State  was 
brought  to  a  final  issue.  The  first  English 
bishop  within  the  domains  of  our  Republic  was 
Samuel  Seabury,  of  Couuecticut,  who  was  con¬ 
secrated  by  three  bishops  of  the  Scottish  Epis¬ 
copal  Church,  Nov.  14,  1784.  (See  Seabury,  Sam¬ 
uel.) 

Episcopacy  in  Massachusetts.  (See  Hig- 
ginson  and  the  Brownes.) 

Episcopacy  in  New  England,  Growth  of. 
Puritan  austerity  had  extended  to  a  large  class 
of  intelligent  free-thinkers  and  doubters  in  New 
England,  and  they  felt  inclined  to  turn  towards 
the  freer,  more  orderly,  and  dignified  Church  of 
England.  The  rich  and  polite  preferred  a  mode 
of  worship  which  seemed  to  bring  them  into 
sympathy  with  the  English  aristocracy,  and 
there  were  many  who  delighted  in  the  modest 
ceremonies  of  the  church.  Nor  were  these  in¬ 
fluences  confined  to  laymen.  There  were  stu¬ 
dious  and  aspiring  men  among  the  ministers 
to  whom  the  idea  of  apostolic  succession  had 
charms ;  and  they  yearned  for  freedom  from 
the  obstinate  turbulence  of  stiff-necked  church 
members  who,  in  theory,  were  the  spiritual 
equals  of  the  pastors,  whom,  to  manage,  it  was 
necessary  to  humor  and  to  suit.  These  ideas 
found  expression  in  an  unexpected  quarter. 
Timothy  Cutler,  a  minister  of  learning  and 
great  ability,  was  rector  of  Yale  College  in 
1719.  To  the  surprise  and  alarm  of  the  people 
of  New  England,  Mr.  Cutler,  with  the  tutor  of 
the  college  and  two  ministers  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood,  took  occasion,  on  commencement  day, 
1722,  to  avow  their  conversion  to  episcopacy. 
Cutler  was  at  once  “excused”  from  all  further 
service  in  the  college,  and  provision  was  made 
for  all  future  rectors  to  give  satisfactory  evi¬ 
dence  of  “the  soundness  of  their  faith  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  Armiuian  and  prelatical  corruptions.” 
Weaker  ones  engaged  in  the  revolt  halted,  but 
others  persisted.  Cutler  became  rector  of  a 
new  Episcopal  Church  in  Boston,  and  the  dis¬ 
missed  ministers  were  maintained  as  mission¬ 


aries  by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  ol  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  (which  see).  This  se¬ 
cession  from  the  Church  resting  on  the  Say- 
brook  Platform  (which  see),  made  the  ministers 
of  Massachusetts  keen-eyed  in  the  detection  of 
signs  of  defection.  John  Checkly  (afterwards 
ordained  an  Episcopal  missionary)  published 
Leslie’s  Short  and  Easy  Method  with  Deists,  with 
an  appendix  by  himself,  in  which  Episcopal  or¬ 
dination  was  insisted  upon  as  necessary  to  con¬ 
stitute  a  Christian  minister.  The  authorities 
in  Boston  were  offended.  Checkly  was  tried  on 
a  charge  that  the  publication  tended  “  to  bring 
into  contempt  and  infamy  the  ministers  of  the 
holy  Gospel  established  by  law  within  his  maj¬ 
esty’s  province  of  Massachusetts.”  For  this  of¬ 
fence  Checkly  was  found  guilty  and  fined  £50. 
(See  Higginson  and  the  Brownes.) 

Episcopal  Churches,  First,  in  the  Colo¬ 
nies.  The  Episcopal  Church  service  was  first 
established  iu  New  York.  Governor  Fletcher 
proposed,  in  1693,  levying  a  tax  for  building 
churches  and  supporting  Episcopal  ministers  in 
that  province.  The  Provincial  Assembly  passed 
an  act  accordingly.  It  was  nearly  four  years  af¬ 
ter  the  passage  of  the  act  before  anything  was 
done  in  pursuance  of  it.  The  Episcopalians 
built  a  church,  and  by  the  Legislature  in  1697  a 
royal  grant  and  confirmation  was  made  of  the 
church  and  parcel  of  land  adjoining.  (See  Trin¬ 
ity  Church.)  The  first  Episcopal  Church  formed 
in  New  Jersey  was  organized  in  1702,  and  at  the 
same  time  one  was  formed  in  Rhode  Island. 
The  latter  built  their  first  place  of  worship  at 
Providence  in  1722.  In  1752  Bishop  Compton 
sent  the  Rev.  Mr.  Evans  from  England  to  Phila¬ 
delphia  to  perforin  the  services  of  the  church 
there.  A  numerous  congregation  soon  attended 
the  public  worship  in  accordance  with  the  rit¬ 
ual  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  was  largely 
composed  of  persons  who  had  separated  from 
the  Friends  or  Quakers,  and  who  now  became 
permanently  attached  to  the  Episcopal  Church. 

( See  Episcopacy  in  America  and  Episcopacy  in  New 
England.) 

Equal  Rights  Party.  In  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  1835,  there  arose  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Democratic  party  a  combination  of  men  op¬ 
posed  to  all  banking  institutions  and  monopo¬ 
lies  of  every  sort.  A  “  Workingmen’s  party  ” 
had  been  formed  in  1829,  but  had  become  de¬ 
funct,  and  the  “Equal  Rights  party”  was  its 
successor.  Th6y  acted  with  much  caution  and 
secrecy  in  their  opposition  to  the  powerful 
Democratic  party,  but  never  rose  above  the 
dignity  of  a  faction.  They  made  their  first  de¬ 
cided  demonstration  at  Tammany  Hall  at  the 
close  of  October,  1835,  when  an  event  occurred 
which  caused  them  afterwards  to  be  known  as 
Loco-focos  (which  see),  a  name  applied  by  the 
Whigs  to  the  whole  Democratic  party.  The 
faction  soon  became  formidable,  and  the  regu¬ 
lars  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  irregulars  by 
nominating  their  favorite  for  the  Presidency 
(Richard  M.  Johnson)  for  Vice-President  with 
Mr.  Van  Buren. 

Eric  the  Red  (see  Northmen )  was  a  Scamli- 


ERICSSON 


n avian  navigator,  who  emigrated  to  Ireland 
about  the  year  982,  after  which  he  discovered 
Greenland,  where  he  planted  a  colony.  He 
sent  out  an  exploring  party  under  his  sou  Lief, 
about  the  year  1000,  who  seems  to  have  discov¬ 
ered  the  continent  of  America,  and  landed  some¬ 
where  on  the  shores  of  Massachusetts  or  the 
southern  portion  of  New  Euglaud. 

Ericsson,  John,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Verme- 
land,  Sweden,  in  1803.  He  became  an  eminent 
engineer  in  his  own  country,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  captain  in  the  Swedish  army.  In  1826 
he  visited  England  with  a  view  to  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  his  invention  of  a  flame  engine.  He  en¬ 
gaged  actively  in  mechanical  pursuits,  and  made 
numerous  inventions,  notably  that  of  artificial 
draft,  which  is  still  used  in  locomotive  engines. 
He  won  the  prize  offered  by  the  Manchester  and 
Liverpool  Railway  for  the  best  locomotive,  mak¬ 
ing  one  that  attained  the  then  astonishing  speed 
of  fifty  miles  an  hour.  He  invented  the  screw 
propeller  for  navigation,  but  the  British  admi¬ 
ralty  being  unwilling  to  believe  in  its  capacity 
and  success,  Ericsson  came  to  America  in  1839,' 
and  has  resided  in  the  city  of  New  York  or  its 
immediate  vicinity  ever  since.  In  1841  he  was 
engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  United  States 
ship-of-war  Princeton ,  to  which  he  applied  his 
propeller.  She  was  the  first  steamship  ever 
built  with  the  propelling  machinery  under  the 
water-line  and  out  of  reach  of  shot.  In  1840  he 
received  the  gold  medal  of  the  Mechanics’  Insti¬ 
tute  of  New  York  for  the  best  model  of  a  steam 
fire-engine,  and  constructed  the  first  one  seen 
in  America.  King  Oscar  of  Sweden  made  him 
Knight  of  the  Order  of  Vasa  in  1852.  He  has  ac¬ 
complished  many  things  in  mechanical  science 
since  he  came  to  this  country.  He  invented 
and  constructed  the  Monitor,  which  fought  the 
Merrimac  (see  Monitor  and  Merrimac),  and  in  that 
brought  Theodore  R.  Timby’s  invention  of  the 
revolving  turret  into  thoroughly  practical  use. 

Erie  Canal,  The.  The  greatest  work  of  in¬ 
ternal  improvement  (which  see)  constructed  in 
the  United  States  previous  to  the  Pacific  Rail¬ 
way  was  the  Erie  Canal,  which  connects  the  wa¬ 
ters  of  the  great  lakes  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
by  way  of  the  Hudson  River.  It  was  contem¬ 
plated  by  General  Schuyler  and  Elkanah  Wat¬ 
son,  but  was  first  definitely  proposed  by  Gou- 
verneur  Morris,  at  about  the  beginning  of  this 
century.  Various  writers  put  forth  essays  upon 
the  subject,  among  them  De  Witt  Clinton,  who 
became  its  most  notable  champion.  The  project 
took  such  shape  that,  in  1810,  canal  commission¬ 
ers  were  appointed,  with  Gouverneur  Morris  at 
their  head.  In  1812  Clinton,  with  others,  was 
appointed  to  lay  the  project  before  the  national 
Congress,  and  solicit  the  aid  of  the  national 
government.  Fortunately,  the  latter  declined 
to  extend  its  patronage  to  the  great  undertak¬ 
ing.  The  War  of  1812-15  put  the  matter  at  rest 
for  a  while.  That  war  made  the  transportation 
of  merchandise  along  our  sea-coasts  perilous,  and 
the  commercial  intercourse  between  seaboard 
cities  was  .carried  on  in  a  large  degree  by  wheel¬ 
ed  vehicles.  For  this  purpose  Conestoga  wag- 


448  ERSKINE,  NEGOTIATIONS  WITH 

[1  ons  were  used  between  New  York  and  Phila- 
il  delphia,  and  when  one  of  these  made  the  jour- 
e  ney  of  ninety  miles  iu  three  days,  with  passen- 
f,  gers,  it  was  called  “  the  flying-macliiue.”  It 

-  has  been  estimated  that  the  amount  of  increased 
expense  by  this  method  of  transportation  of 

e  merchandise  for  the  coast  region  alone  would 
have  paid  the  cost  of  a  system  of  internal  nav¬ 
igation  from  Maine  to  Georgia.  The  want  of 
^  such  a  system  was  made  clear  to  the  public 
e  mind,  especially  to  the  population  then  gather- 
g  ing  in  the  Western  States.  Then  Mr.  Clintou, 
more  vigorously  than  ever,  pressed  upon  the 
public  attention  the  importance  of  constructing 
the  projected  canal.  He  devoted  his  wonderful 
I  energies  to  the  subject,  and  in  a  memorial  of  the 
citizens  of  New  York,  prepared  by  him,  he  pro- 
j  duced  such  a  powerful  argument  in  its  favor 
that  not  only  the  people  of  his  native  state,  but 
.  of  other  states,  approved  it.  The  national  gov¬ 
ernment  would  do  nothing  in  the  matter,  and 
the  State  of  New  York  resolved  to  construct  the 
canal.  Clinton  was  made  governor  in  1816,  and 
i  .  used  all  his  official  and  private  influence  in  favor 
^  of  the  Erie  Canal.  He  saw  it  begun  during  his 
first  administration.  The  first  excavation  was 

5 

made  July  4,  1817,  and  it  was  completed  and 
formally  opened  by  him,  as  chief  magistrate  of 
the  state,  in  1825,  when  a  grand  aquatic  proces¬ 
sion  from  Albany  proceeded  to  the  sea,  and  the 
governor  poured  a  keg  of  t  he  water  of  Lake  Erie 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  was  a  nuptial  cer- 
^  emony  far  more  beneficent  and  grand  in  its  idea 
than  the  ancient  wedding  of  the  Doge  of  Venice 
with  the  Adriatic.  The  canal  was  constructed 
1  at  a  cost  of  $7,602,000.  Untold  wealth  has  been 

won  for  the  state  and  the  citv  of  New  York  by 

6  *  ** 
j  its  operations,  directly  and  indirectly.  Over  its 

^  bosom  have  floated  the  products  of  the  North- 
^  western  states  and  territories,  valued  at  billions 
of  dollars.  In  the  year  1872  the  value  of  prop¬ 
erty  transported  on  that  canal  (notwithstanding 
a  three-track  railway  runs  parallel  with  it)  was 

-  about  $168,000,000.  The  value  of  all  freight  that 
i  had  passed  over  it  from  1837  to  1872 — a  period 

-  of  thirty-five  years — was  $4,795,215,078.  Other 
i-  canals  were  afterwards  constructed  by  the  State 
i  of  New  York,  at  a  total  cost  of  little  more  than 

-  $89,000,000.  In  November,  1882,  the  people  of 

-  the  state  voted  to  ratify  an  amendment  to  the 

-  Constitution  making  the  canals  free  of  tolls. 

s  Erskine,  Negotiations  with.  David  Mou- 
a  tague  Erskine  was  the  British  minister  in  the 
o  United  States  at  the  time  of  Madisou’s  accession 
t  to  the  presidency.  He  found  the  new  President 

-  so  exceedingly  anxious  for  peace  and  good  feeling 
t  between  the  two  countries  that  he  had  written 
s  to  Canning,  the  British  minister,  such  letters  on 
,1  the  subject  that  he  was  instructed  to  propose  to 
,1  the  Americans  a  reciprocal  repeal  of  all  the  pro- 
I  hibitory  laws  upon  certain  conditions.  Those 

-  conditions  were  so  partial  towards  Great  Brit- 
t  ain — requiring  the  Americans  to  submit  to  the 
u  Rule  of  1756  (which  see) — that  they  were  reject- 
d  ed.  Very  soon,  however,  arrangements  were 
d  made  by  which,  upon  the  Orders  of  Council  be- 

-  ing  repealed,  the  President  should  issue  a  proc- 
;-  lamation  declaring  a  restoration  of  commercial 


ESOPUS  WAR,  THE  449  ESSEX,  CRUISE  OF  THE 

intercourse  with  Great  Britain,  but  leaving  all  pus  War”  continued  until  1664  iutermittingly. 


restrictive  laws  as  against  France  in  full  force. 
Mr.  Er  Ski  lie  also  offered  reparation  for  the  insult 
and  injury  in  the  case  of  the  Chesapeake  (see 
Chesapeake  and  Leopard ),  and  also  assured  the 
government  of  the  United  States  that  Great 
Britain  would  immediately  send  over  an  envoy 
extraordinary,  vested  with  power  to  conclude  a 
treaty  that  should  settle  all  points  of  dispute 
between  the  two  governments.  This  arrange¬ 
ment  was  completed  April  18,  1809.  The  next 
day  the  Secretary  of  State  received  a  note  from 
Erskine,  saying  he  was  authorized  to  declare 
that  his  majesty’s  Orders  in  Council  of  January 
and  November,  1807,  would  be  withdrawn  on 
the  10th  of  June  next  ensuing.  On  the  same 
day  (April  19)  the  President  issued  a  proclama¬ 
tion  declaring  that  trade  with  Great  Britain 
might  be  resumed  after  June  10th.  This  proc¬ 
lamation  gave  great  joy  in  the  United  States. 
Partisan  strife  was  hushed,  and  the  President 
was  toasted  and  feasted  by  leading  Federalists, 
as  a  Washingtonian  worthy  of  all  confidence. 
In  the  House  of  Representatives,  John  Ran¬ 
dolph,  who  lauded  England  for  her  magnanim¬ 
ity,  offered  (May  3, 1809)  a  resolution  which  de¬ 
clared  “that  the  promptitude  and  frankness 
with  which  the  President  of  the  United  States 
has  met  the  overtures  of  the  government  of 
Great  Britain  towards  a  restoration  of  harmony 
and  freer  commercial  intercourse  betweeu  the 
two  nations  meet  the  approval  of  this  House.” 
The  joy  was  of  brief  duration.  Mr.  Erskine  was 
soon  afterwards  compelled  to  communicate  to 
the  President  (July  31)  that  his  government  had 
refused  to  sanction  his  arrangement,  ostensibly 
because  the  minister  had  exceeded  his  instruc¬ 
tions,  and  was  not  authorized  to  make  any  such 
arrangement.  Mr.  Erskine  was  recalled.  The 
true  reason  for  the  rejection  by  the  British  au¬ 
thorities  of  the  arrangement  made  by  Erskine 
probably  was,  that,  counting  upon  the  fatal  ef¬ 
fects  of  sectional  strife  in  the  Union,  already  so 
rampant  in  some  places,  the  British  government 
was  encouraged  to  believe  that  the  bond  of  union 
would  be  so  weakened  that  a  scheme  then  per¬ 
fecting  by  the  British  ministry  for  destroying 
that  u n ion  would  be  successful.  (See Henry ,  John, 
Mission  of.)  England  having  spurned  the  olive- 
branch  so  confidingly  offered,  the  President  of 
the  United  States  issued  another  proclamation 
(Aug.  9, 1809),  declaring  the  Non-intercourse  Act 
to  be  again  in  full  force  in  regard  to  Great  Brit¬ 
ain. 

Esopus  War,  The.  There  had  been  a  mas¬ 
sacre  by  the  Indians  of  Dutch  settlers  at  Eso¬ 
pus  (now  Kingston)  in  1655.  The  settlers  had 
fled  to  Manhattan  for  security,  hut  had  been  per¬ 
suaded  by  Stuyvesant  to  return  to  their  farms, 
Avliere  they  built  a  compact  village  for  mutual 
protection.  Unfortunately,  some  Indians,  who 
had  been  helping  the  Dutch  in  their  harvests  in 
the  summer  of  1658,  became  noisy  in  a  drunken 
rout,  and  were  fired  upon  by  the  villagers.  This 
outrage  caused  fearful  retaliation.  The  Indians 
desolated  the  farms,  and  murdered  the  people 
in  isolated  houses.  The  Dutch  put  forth  their 
strength  to  oppose  the  barbarians,  and  the  “Eso- 
I.— 29 


Some  Indians,  takeu  prisoners,  were  sent  to  Cu- 
ra§oa  and  sold  as  slaves.  The  anger  of  the  Eso¬ 
pus  Indians  was  aroused,  and,  in  1663,  the  vil¬ 
lage  of  Wiltwyck,  as  the  Esopus  village  was 
called,  was  almost  totally  destroyed.  Stuyve¬ 
sant  was  there  at  the  time,  holding  a  conference 
with  the  Indians  in  the  open  fields  when  the 
destructive  blow  fell.  The  houses  were  plun¬ 
dered  and  burned,  and  men,  hurrying  from  the 
fields  to  protect  their  families  and  property, 
were  either  shot  down  or  carried  away  captive. 
The  struggle  was  desperate,  but  the  white  peo¬ 
ple  were  victorious.  When  the  assailants  were 
driven  away,  they  carried  off  full  forty  women 
and  children  ;  and  in  the  heap  of  ruins  which 
they  left  behind  them  were  found  the  charred 
remains  of  twenty-one  murdered  villagers.  It 
was  the  final  event  of  violence  of  that  war. 

Essex  and  Alert,  The.  Captain  David  Por¬ 
ter,  commanding  the  Essex,  thirty-two  guns,  dis¬ 
played  a  flag  at  her  mast-head,  as  he  left  Sandy 
Hook  (June  26,  1812)  on  a  cruise,  hearing  the 
significant  words,  “  Free-trade  and  Sailors’ 
Rights.”  He  soon  captured  several  English 
merchaut  vessels,  making  trophy  bonfires  of 
most  of  them  on  the  ocean,  and  their  crews  his 
prisoners.  After  cruisiug  southward  several 
weeks  in  disguise,  capturing  a  prize  now  and 
then,  he  turned  northward,  and  chased  a  fleet  of 
English  transports  bearing  one  thousand  troops 
to  Halifax,  couvoyed  by  a  frigate  and  a  bomb- 
vessel.  He  captured  one  of  the  transports,  and 
a  few  days  afterwards  (Aug.  13)  fell  in  with  the 
British  armed  ship  Alert,  Captain  T.  L.  P.  Laug- 
harne,  mounting  twenty  18 -pound  carronades 
and  six  smaller  guns.  The  Essex  was  disguised 
as  a  merchantman.  The  Alert  followed  her 
for  some  time,  and  at  length  opened  fire  with 
three  cheers  from  her  people.  Porter  caused 
his  ports  to  be  knocked  out  in  an  instaut,  when 
his  guns  responded  with  terrible  effect.  It  was 
a  complete  surprise.  The  Alert  was  so  badly 
injured  and  her  people  were  so  panic-stricken 
that  the  conflict  was  short.  In  spite  of  the  ef¬ 
forts  of  the  officers,  the  men  of  the  Alert  ran  be¬ 
low  for  safety.  She  was  surrendered  in  a  sink¬ 
ing  condition.  She  was  the  first  British  na¬ 
tional  vessel  captured  in  the  war.  Nobody  was 
killed  on  either  vessel. 

Essex,  Cruise  of  the.  When  Commodore 
Bainbridge  was  about  to  sail  from  Boston  with 
the  Constitution  and  Hornet  (see  Constitution  and 
Java),  orders  were  sent  to  Captain  Porter,  of  the 
Essex,  then  lying  in  the  Delaware,  to  cruise  in 
the  track  of  the  West  Indiamen,  and  at  a  speci¬ 
fied  time  to  rendezvous  at  certain  ports,  when, 
if  he  should  not  fall  in  with  the  flag-ship  of  the 
squadron,  he  would  be  at  liberty  to  follow  the 
dictates  of  his  own  judgment.  Having  failed 
to  find  the  Constitution  at  any  appointed  rendez¬ 
vous,  and  having  provided  himself  with  funds 
by  taking  $55,000  from  a  British  packet,  Porter 
made  sail  for  the  Pacific  Ocean  around  Cape 
•Horn.  While  in  these  waters,  Porter  seized 
twelve  armed  British  whale-ships,  with  an  ag- 
itre irate  of  three  hundred  and  two  men  and  one 

o  o 


450 


ESSEX,  CRUISE  OF  THE 


ESSEX,  CRUISE  OF  THE 


hundred  and  seven  guns.  These  were  what  bo 
entered  the  Pacific  Ocean  for.  He  armed  some 
of  them,  and  at  one  time  he  had  a  fleet  of  nine 
vessels.  He  sent  paroled  prisoners  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  and  cargoes  of  whale-oil  to  the  United 
States.  On  the  15th  of  September,  1813,  while 
among  the  Galapagos  Islands,  he  fell  in  with  a 
British  whaling-vessel  armed  with  twelve  guns 
and  manned  by  thirty-nine  men.  He  captured 
her,  and  found  her  laden  with  beef,  pork,  bread, 
wood,  and  water,  articles  which  Porter  stood 
greatly  in  need  of  at  that  time.  The  exploits 
of  the  Essex  in  the  Pacific  produced  great  excite¬ 
ment  iu  the  British  navy,  and  the  government 
sent  out  the  frigate  Phoebe,  with  one  or  two  con¬ 
sorts,  to  attempt  her  capture.  Porter  heard  of 
this  from  an  officer  who  was  sent,  into  the  har¬ 
bor  of  Valparaiso,  Chili,  -with  prizes.  He  also 
learned  that  the  Chilian  authorities  were  be¬ 
coming  more  friendly  to  the  English  than  to 
the  Americans.  Iu  consequence  of  this  infor¬ 
mation,  Porter  resolved  to  go  to  the  Marquesas 
Islands,  refit  his  vessel,  and  return  to  the  United 


down  their  cheeks.”  When  the  Essex  was  thor¬ 
oughly  fitted  for  her  long  voyage  and  for  en¬ 
countering  enemies,  she  sailed  (Dec.  12)  with 
her  prizes  from  Nooaheevah  Island  (which  he  had 
named  Madison),  and  on  Feb.  3,  1814,  entered 
the  harbor  of  Valparaiso.  One  of  the  captured 
vessels,  which  he  had  armed  and  named  Essex 
Junior,  cruised  oil’  the  harbor  as  a  scout,  to  give 
warning  of  the  approach  of  any  man-of-war. 
Very  soon  two  English  men-of-war  were  report¬ 
ed  in  the  oiling.  They  sailed  into  the  harbor, 
and  proved  to  be  the  Phoebe,  thirty-six  guns, 
Captain  Hillyar,  and  her  consort,  the  Cherub, 
twenty-two  guns,  Captain  Tucker.  The  former 
mounted  thirty  long  18-pounders,  sixteen  32- 
pound  carronades,  and  one  howitzer;  also  six 
3-pounders  in  her  tops.  Her  crew  consisted  of 
three  hundred  and  twenty  men  and  boys.  The 
Cherub  mounted  eighteen  32-pound  carronades 
below,  with  eight  24-pound  carronades  and  two 
long  nines  above,  making  a  total  of  twenty-eight 
guns.  Her  crew  numbered  one  hundred  and 
eighty.  The  Essex  at  that  time  could  muster 


THE  ESSEX  AND  HER  PRIZES  IN  MASSACHUSETTS  BAY,  NOOAHEEVAH. 


States.  He  had  captured  almost  every  English 
w bale-ship  known  to  be  off  the  coasts  of  Peru 
and  Chili,  and  had  deprived  the  enemy  of  prop¬ 
erty  to  the  amount  of  $2,500,000  and  three  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixty  seamen.  He  had  also  released 
the  American  whalers  from  peril,  and  inspired 
the  Peruvians  and  Chilians  with  the  most  pro¬ 
found  respect  for  the  American  navy.  Among 
the  Marquesas  Islands  (at  Nooaheevah)  Porter 
became  involved  in  hostilities  with  the  warring 
natives.  He  had  allowed  his  men  great  indul¬ 
gence  in  port,  and  some  of  them  formed  strong 
attachments  to  the  native  women.  They  were 
so  dissatisfied  when  he  left,  that  they  became 
almost  mutinous.  He  had  kept  his  men  from 
going  on  shore  for  three  days  before  he  weighed 
anchor.  “  The  girls,”  says  Porter  in  his  Journal, 
“  lined  the  beach  from  morning  until  night,  and 
every  moment  importuned  me  to  take  the  taboos 
off  the  men,  and  laughingly  expressed  their  grief 
by  dipping  their  fingers  into  the  sea  and  touch¬ 
ing  their  eyes,  so  as  to  let  the  salt-water  trickle 


only  two  hundred  and  twenty-five,  and  the  Es¬ 
sex  Junior  only  sixty.  The  Essex  had  forty  32- 
pound  carronades  and  six  long  12 -pounders; 
and  the  Essex  Junior  had  only  ten  18-pound  car¬ 
ronades  and  ten  short  sixes.  The  British  ves¬ 
sels  blockaded  Porter’s  ships.  At  length  he  de¬ 
termined  to  escape.  The  sails  of  his  vessels 
were  spread  for  the  purpose  (March  28,  1814), 
and  both  vessels  started  for  the  open  sea,  when 
a  squall  partially  disabled  the  flag-ship,  and  both 
took  shelter  in  a  bay.  There  they  were  attacked 
by  the  Phoebe  and  Cherub,  and  one  of  the  most 
desperate  and  sanguinary  battles  of  the  war  en¬ 
sued.  When,  at  last,  the  Essex  was  a  helpless 
wreck  and  on  fire,  and  his  magazine  was  threat¬ 
ened — when  every  officer  but  one  was  slain  or 
disabled  ;  when,  of  the  two  hundred  and  twen¬ 
ty-five  brave  men  who  went  into  the  fight  on 
board  of  her  only  seventy-five  effective  ones  re¬ 
mained — Porter  hauled  down  his  flag.  So  end¬ 
ed  the  long  and  brilliant  cruise  of  the  Essex. 
Her  gallant  commander  wrote  to  the  Secretary 


ESSEX  JUNTA  PLOT 


451 


of  War  from  Valparaiso,  “  We  have  been  unfort¬ 
unate,  but  not  disgraced.”  He  and  bis  compan¬ 
ions  were  sent  borne  in  the  Essex  Junior,  which 
was  made  a  cartel-ship,  and  Porter  was  honored 
as  the  Hero  of  the  Pacific.  Municipal  honors 
were  lavished  upon  him,  aud  several  state  leg¬ 
islatures  and  the  national  Congress  gave  him 
thanks. 

Essex  Junta  Plot.  Early  in  1809,  John  Quin¬ 
cy  Adams,  being  in  Washington  attending  the 
Supreme  Court,  in  a  confidential  interview  with 
President  Jefferson,  assured  him  that  a  contin¬ 
uation  of  the  Embargo  (which  see)  much  longer 
would  certainly  be  met  by  forcible  resistance  in 
Massachusetts,  supported  by  the  Legislature, 
and  probably  by  the  judiciary  of  the  state  ;  that 
if  force  should  be  resorted  to  to  quell  that  re¬ 
sistance,  it  would  produce  a  civil  war,  and  in 
that  event  he  had  no  doubt  the  leaders  of  the 
Federal  party  (referring  to  those  of  the  old  Es¬ 
sex  Junta,  which  see)  would  secure  the  co-op¬ 
eration  of  Great  Britain.  He  declared  that  the 
object  was,  and  had  been  for  several  years,  a 
dissolution  of  the  Union  and  the  establishment 
of  a  separate  confederacy.  He  knew  from  une¬ 
quivocal  evidence,  not  provable  in  a  court  of 
law,  that  in  case  of  a  civil  war  the  aid  of  Great 
Britain  to  effect  that  purpose  would  be  as  surely 
resorted  to  as  it  would  be  indispensably  neces¬ 
sary  to  the  design.  A  rumor  of  such  a  design 
was  alluded  to,  at  about  the  same  time,  by  De 
Witt  Clinton,  in  New  York,  and  in  the  Boston 
Patriot,  a  new  administration  paper,  to  which 
the  Adamses,  father  aud  son,  were  contributors. 
Such  a  plot,  if  it  ever  existed,  was  confined  to  a 
few  Federal  members  of  Congress,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  They  had 
proposed  to  have  a  meeting  in  Boston,  to  which 
Hamilton  was  iuvited,  though  it  was  known 
that  he  was  opposed  to  the  scheme.  The  meet¬ 
ing  was  prevented  by  Hamilton’s  sudden  and  vi¬ 
olent  death.  A  series  of  articles  signed  “Falk¬ 
land”  had  appeared  in  New  England  papers,  in 
which  it  was  argued  that  if  Virginia,  finding 
herself  no  longer  able  to  control  the  national 
government,  should  secede  and  dissolve  it,  the 
Northern  States,  though  thus  deserted,  might 
nevertheless  be  able  to  take  care  of  themselves. 
There  seem  to  have  been  no  more  treasonable 
designs  amoug  the  members  of  the  Essex  Junta 
than  in  the  Hartford  Convention  (which  see), 
and  the  designs  of  that  body  were  known  to 
have  been  patriotic. 

Essex  Junta,  The.  The  injudicious  course 
of  President  John  Adams,  who  was  anxious  for 
a  renomination  and  election,  caused  a  fatal 
schism  in  the  Federal  party.  He  looked  to  the 
Southern  States  as  his  chief  hope  in  the  coming 
election ;  and  believing  McHenry  and  Pickering, 
of  his  cabinet,  to  be  unpopular  there,  he  abrupt¬ 
ly  called  upon  them  to  resign.  McHenry  in¬ 
stantly  complied,  but  Pickering  refused,  when 
Adams  dismissed  him  with  little  ceremony. 
This  event  produced  much  excitement.  Bitter 
animosities  were  engendered,  and  criminations 
ami  recriminations  ensued.  The  open  war  in 
the  Federal  party  was  waged  by  a  few  leaders, 


ESTAING,  D’ 

several  of  whom  lived  in  the  maritime  county 
of  Essex,  Mass.,  the  early  home  of  Pickering,  and 
on  that  account  the  irritated  President  called 
his  assailants  aud  opposers  the  “  Essex  Junta.” 
He  denounced  them  as  slaves  to  British  influ¬ 
ence- —  some  lured  by  monarchical  proclivities 
aud  others  by  British  gold.  A  pamphlet  from 
the  pen  of  Hamilton,  whom  Adams,  in  conver¬ 
sation,  had  denounced  as  a  “British  sympathiz¬ 
er,”  damaged  the  President’s  political  prospects 
materially.  The  Republicans  rejoiced  at  the 
charge  of  British  influence,  aud  said,  in  effect, 
“  We  thank  thee,  Jew,  for  that  word.”  Adams’s 
course  caused  a  great  diminution  of  the  Federal 
vote,  and  Jeffersou  was  elected.  The  opposition 
chanted : 

“The  Federalists  are  down  at  Inst, 

The  Monarchists  completely  cast! 

The  Aristocrats  are  stripped  of  power — 

Storms  o’er  the  British  faction  iower. 

Soon  we  Republicans  shall  see 
Columbia’s  sons  from  bondage  free. 

Lord,  how  the  Federalists  will  stare— 

A  Jefferson  in  Adams’  chair!” — The  Echo. 

Estaing,  D’,  Ciiaules  Henky  Theodat,  was 
born  at  Auvergne,  France,  in  1729;  guillotined 
in  Paris,  April  28,  1794.  He  was  colonel  of  a 
French  regiment  in  1748,  brigadier-general  in 
1756,  aud  served  in  the  French  fleet  after 


CHARLES  HENRY  TIIEODAT  D’ESTAING. 

1757,  joining  the  East  India  squadron  under 
Count  Lally.  Made  lieutenant-general  in  1765 
and  vice-admiral  in  1778,  he  was  sent  to  Amer¬ 
ica  with  a  strong  naval  force  to  assist  the 
patriots,  arriving  in  Delaware  Bay  in  July, 
1778.  In  a  battle  with  the  British  fleet  and  in 
a  storm  oft’  Rhode  Island,  in  August,  his  vessels 
were  so  shattered  that  he  withdrew  to  Boston 
for  their  repair.  He  made  a  cruise  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1779,  and  in  the  fall  of  that  year  he 
engaged  jointly  with  the  American  army  in  the 
siege  of  Savannah,  but  abandoned  the  contest 
before  a  promised  victory  for  the  allies  was 
won.  He  returned  to  Franco  in  1780,  and  in 
1783  he  commanded  the  combined  fleets  of 
France  and  Spain,  and  was  made  a  Spanish 
grandee.  He  favored  the  French  Revolution, 
and  commanded  the  National  Guards  at  Ver- 


ETCHEMINS 


452  EUTAW  SPRING,  BATTLE  NEAR 


sailles,  but  falling  under  the  suspicion  of  the 
Terrorists,  he  was  beheaded. 

Etchemins.  This  Algonquin  family,  occupy¬ 
ing  the  eastern  part  of  Maine,  lived,  at  an  early 
period,  on  the  Penobscot  River,  between  the 
Abenakes  proper  and  the  Micmacs.  They  are 
now  represented  by  the  remnants  of  the  Penob- 
scots  and  Passamaquoddies.  Their  number  is 
now  about  oue  thousand.  About  one  half  of 
them  (the  Penobscots)  live  on  islands  in  the 
Penobscot  River,  and  the  remainder  (Passama¬ 
quoddies)  on  the  western  shore  of  Passamaquod- 
dy  Bay  and  on  the  Schoodic  lakes.  These  rem¬ 
nants  are  mostly  Roman  Catholics,  and  have 
churches  and  schools.  Their  blood  remains  pure, 
for  the  laws  of  Maine  will  not  allow  them  to 
intermarry  with  the  white  people,  and  they  are 
declining  in  strength. 

Eustis,  William,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  Mass.,  June  10, 1753;  died  in  Boston,  Feb. 
6, 1825.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1772,  and 
studied  the  healing  art  under  Dr.  Joseph  War¬ 
ren.  As  a  surgeon  he  served  throughout  the 
war  for  independence,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  Legislature  from  1788  to  1794. 
He  was  in  the  govenior’s  council  two  years,  and 
was  in  Congress  from  1800  to  1805,  and  from 
1820  to  1823.  Secretary  of  War  from  1809  until 
Hull’s  Surrender  (which  see)  in  1812,  he  then  re¬ 
signed,  for  there  was  much  fault  found  "with  his 
administration.  In  1815  he  was  sent  as  minis¬ 
ter  to  Holland,  and  was  governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  in  1824,  dying  while  in  office. 

Eutaw  Spring,  Battle  near.  This  spring, 
near  Nelson’s  Ferry,  on  the  Santee,  is  a  first 
and  second  apparition  of  a  subterranean  stream. 
It  first  bubbles  up  from  a  bed  of  rock  marl, 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in 
height,  and,  after  flowing  less  than  sixty  yards, 


EUTAW  SPRING. 


descends,  rushing  and  foaming,  into  a  cavern 
beneath  a  high  ridge  of  marl,  covered  with 
alluvium  and  forest  trees.  After  traversing 
its  subterranean  way  some  thirty  rods,  it  re¬ 


appears  on  the  other  side,  where  it  is  a  broader 
stream,  of  sufficient  volume  to  turn  a  mill-wheel. 
It  flows  over  a  smooth,  rocky  bed,  shaded  by  cy¬ 
press-trees,  about  two  miles,  when  it  enters  the 
Santee.  It  was  near  this  spring  that  a  severe 
battle  was  fought,  Sept.  8,  1781.  Early  in  Au¬ 
gust,  General  Greene,  on  the  High  Hills  of  San¬ 
tee  (which  see),  was  reinforced  by  North  Caro¬ 
lina  troops  under  General  Sumner ;  and  at  the 
close  of  that  month  he  crossed  the  Wateree  and 
Congaree  and  marched  against  the  British  camp 
at  Oraugeburg,  commanded  by  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Stuart.  Rawdou  had  left  these  troops 
in  Stuart’s  charge  and  returned  to  England. 
Stuart,  who  had  been  joined  by  the  garrison 
of  Fort  Ninety-six,  immediately  retreated  on 
the  approach  of  Greene  to  Eutaw  Spring,  forty 
miles  eastward,  and  there  encamped.  Greene 
pursued  so  stealthily  that  Stuart  was  not  fully 
aware  that  the  republicans  were  after  him  until 
they  were  close  upon  him,  at  dawn  on  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  Sept.  8, 1781.  Greene  moved  in  two  col¬ 
umns,  the  centre  of  the  first  composed  of  North 
Carolina  militia,  with  a  battalion  of  South  Car¬ 
olina  militia  on  each  flank,  commanded  respec¬ 
tively  by  Marion  and  Pickens.  The  second  con¬ 
sisted  of  North  Carolina  regulars,  led  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Sumner,  on  the  right;  an  equal  number  of 
Virginians,  under  Lieutenant-colonel  Campbell, 
in  the  centre;  and  Marylanders,  commanded  by 
Colonel  O.  H.  Williams,  on  the  left,  Lee’s 
Legion  covered  the  right  flank,  and  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Henderson’s  troops  covered  the  left. 
Washington’s  cavalry  and  Kirkwood’s  Delaware 
troops  formed  a  reserve,  and  each  line  had  artil¬ 
lery  in  front.  Skirmishing  commenced  at  eight 
o’clock  in  the  morning,  and  very  soon  the  conflict 
became  general  and  severe.  The  British  were 
defeated  and  driven  from  the  field  with  much 
loss.  The  victory  was  complete,  and  the  win¬ 
ners  spread  over  the  British  camp,  eating,  drink¬ 
ing,  and  plundering.  Suddenly  and  unexpect¬ 
edly  the  fugitives  rallied  and  renewed  the  bat¬ 
tle,  and  after  a  terrible  conflict  of  about  five 
hours  the  Americans,  who  had  lost  heavily,  were 
compelled  to  give  way.  But  Stuart,  knowing 
that  partisan  legions  were  not  far  away,  felt  in¬ 
secure,  and  that  night,  after  breaking  up  one 
thousand  muskets  and  destroying  stores,  he  re¬ 
treated  towards  Charleston,  pursued  early  the 
next  morning  (Sept.  9)  by  parties  who  chased 
them  far  towards  the  sea.  Although  the  battle¬ 
field  remained  with  the  Americans,  neither  party 
could  fairly  claim  a  victory.  During  the  day 
and  the  pursuit  the  Americans  lost  in  killed  and 
wounded  about  five  hundred  and  fifty  men  ;  the 
British  loss,  including  prisoners,  was  full  eight 
hundred.  Lieutenant-colonel  Washington  was 
severely  wounded  in  the  second  battle,  and  was 
made  prisoner.  For  his  good  conduct  on  that  oc¬ 
casion  Congress  presented  to  Greene  their  thanks, 
a  gold  medal,  and  a  British  standard  taken  in  the 
flight.  A  few  days  after  the  battle,  with  a  large 
number  of  sick  soldiers,  he  retired  with  his  troops 
to  the  Santee  hills  and  encamped.  There  his 
militia  left  him.  He  remained  until  the  middle 
of  November,  when  he  marched  his  army  into 
the  low  country,  where  he  might  obtain  an 


EVACUATION  OF  BOSTON 


453 


EVACUATION  OF  BOSTON 


abundance  of  food.  The  necessities  of  Greene’s 
army  had  compelled  him  to  go  to  the  Hills.  The 
troops  were  too  much  exhausted  to  continue  ac¬ 
tive  operations.  They  were  barefooted  and 
half  naked.  He  had  no  army  hospital  stores, 
very  little  salt,  and  his  ammunition  was  very 
low. 


GOLD  MEDAL 


the  provincials.  That  was  on  March  2,  and  was 
repeated  two  other  succeeding  days.  At  seven 
o’clock  on  the  evening  of  March  4,  General  Thom¬ 
as,  with  two  thousand  men,  provided  with  in¬ 
trenching  tools,  proceeded  to  take  possession  of 
Dorchester  Heights.  A  train  of  three  hundred 
carts  and  wagons,  filled  with  fascines  and  bun- 


TO  GREENE. 


Evacuation  of  Boston  (1776).  When  General 
Howe  comprehended  the  real  peril  of  his  situa¬ 
tion  in  Boston,  after  the  fortification  of  Dor¬ 
chester  Heights  by  Washington,  he  began  to 
devise  means  for  securing  the  safety  of  his  ar¬ 
my.  (See  Siege  of  Boston.)  Less  than  three 
thousand  New  England  farmers — meanly  clad, 
poorly  fed,  and  inadequately  disciplined — had 
created  the  peril  by  their  vast  labors  in  a  sin¬ 
gle  night.  When  the  fortifying  of  Dorchester 


dies  of  pressed  hay,  followed,  all  moving  in  per¬ 
fect  silence.  Within  an  hour  they  were  all  on 
the  heights,  undiscovered  by  the  enemy  in  the 
city,  where  every  ear  was  filled  with  the  noise 
of  the  cannonade  and  bombardment,  which  the 
Americans  kept  up  from  seven  o’clock  in  the 
evening  until  dawn.  A  relief  party  appeared 
on  the  heights  at  three  o’clock,  and  at  daylight 
on  March  5  —  the  anniversary  of  the  Boston 
massacre — the  astonished  Britons  saw  two  re- 


VI EW  OP  BOSTON  FROM  DORCITEHTHIt  HEIGHTS  IN  177-1. 


Heights  was  undertaken,  a  severe  cannonade 
and°  bombardment  from  batteries  along  the 
American  line,  from  Roxbury  to  the  extreme 
left,  was  opened  on  the  town  to  divert  the  at¬ 
tention  of  the  British  from  the  secret  labors  of 


doubts  on  Dorchester  Heights,  armed  with  can¬ 
nons  that  commanded  the  town  of  Boston,  and 
manned  by  resolute  men.  On  the  summit  of 
the  steep  hills  were  barrels  filled  with  stones  to 
be  rolled  down  upon  ascending  assailants,  and  a 


EVACUATION  OF  HARPER’S  FERRY  454 


EVACUATION  OF  NEW  YORK 


strong  abatis,  formed  of  tlie  trees  of  adjacent  or¬ 
chards,  protected  the  foot  of  the  heights.  Howe 
was  overwhelmed  with  astonishment,  and  ex¬ 
claimed,  “I  know  not  what  I  shall  do!  The 
rebels  have  done  more  in  one  night  than  my 
whole  army  would  have  done  in  a  month.”  Ad¬ 
miral  Shuldham  said :  “If  they  retain  possession 
of  the  heights,  I  cannot  keep  a  ship  in  the  har¬ 
bor.”  It  was  determined  to  drive  the  Americans 
away  by  a  direct  assault,  and  two  thousand  four 
hundred  picked  soldiers — the  flower  of  the  army 
— were  placed  under  the  command  of  Lord  Per¬ 
cy,  with  orders  to  drive  the  Americans  from  the 
heights.  Percy  embarked  his  men  and  awaited 
the  darkness  of  night.  A  storm  suddenly  arose  ; 
at  midnight  it  was  a  gale  that  drove  several 
British  ships  ashore,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
6th  the  rain  fell  so  copiously  that  the  troops 
could  not  move.  Howe,  in  dismay,  called  a 
council  of  war.  The  terrified  loyalists  demand¬ 
ed  of  the  general  the  sure  protection  which  he 
had  promised  them.  Washington  was  preparing 
to  bombard  and  attack  Boston  at  two  points, 
when  the  council  determined  to  evacuate  it. 
The  resolution  spread  dismay  among  the  loyal¬ 
ists,  or  Tories.  They,  too,  determined  to  leave, 
and  endure  the  perils  and  discomforts  of  a  sea 
voyage,  and  privations  in  a  strange  land,  rather 
than  brave  the  resentment  of  the  Whigs  whom 
they  had  helped  to  oppress.  Howe  offered  to 
leave  Boston  in  the  fleet  if  Washington  would 
let  him  do  so  unmolested.  A  tacit  consent  was 
given,  but  the  American  commander  did  not  re¬ 
lax  his  vigilance.  He  planted  a  new  battery, 
and  was  ready  to  attack  the  British  at  any  mo¬ 
ment.  The  embarkation  was  delayed  until  Sun¬ 
day  morning,  March  17,  Howe  hoping  for  the 
arrival  of  reinforcements.  At  four  o’clock  in 
the  morning  the  troops  and  loyalists  began  their 
embarkation.  The  latter  could  not  carry  much 
of  their  goods  with  them,  the  war-ships  and 
transports  were  so  few.  What  they  could  not 
take  with  them  they  destroyed.  The  soldiers 
broke  open  and  pillaged  many  of  the  stores,  and 
a  sycophantic  New  York  Tory  was  authorized 
by  Howe  to  seize  dry-goods  and  clothing  be¬ 
longing  to  Whig  merchants  and  place  them  in 
the  vessels.  The  soldiers  wantonly  defaced 
handsome  furniture,  and  valuable  goods  were 
cast  into  the  sea.  At  sunset  on  that  beautiful 
Sabbath  day  the  great  fleet  had  left  Boston  for 
Halifax,  bearing  away  eleven  hundred  loyalists 
with  the  army  to  Nova  Scotia.  The  nation, 
through  Congress,  thanked  Washington  for  the 
great  deliverance,  and  gave  him  a  beautiful 
gold  medal.  (See  Gold  Medal  awarded  to  Wash¬ 
ington.) 

Evacuation  of  Harper’s  Ferry  (1861).  Joseph 
E.  Johnston,  of  the  United  States  Topographical 
Engineers,  had  abandoned  his  flag  and  been  com¬ 
missioned  a  brigadier-general  by  the  Confeder¬ 
ate  government,  and  was  charged  with  the  duty 
of  holding  Harper’s  Ferry,  the  key  to  the  Shen¬ 
andoah  Valley  in  its  relation  to  the  free-labor 
states.  General  McClellan  was  throwing  Ohio 
troops  into  Western  Virginia,  and  General  Rob¬ 
ert  Patterson,  in  command  of  the  Department 
of  Pennsylvania,  was  rapidly  gathering  a  force 


at  Chambersburg,  Penn.,  under  General  W.  H. 
Keim.  A  part  of  the  insurgents  at  the  ferry 
were  on  Maryland  Heights,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Potomac,  and  against  these  Patterson 
marched  from  Chambersburg  with  about  fifteen 
thousand  men.  Just  at  this  moment  commenced 
Wallace’s  dash  on  Romney  (see  llomney),  which 
frightened  Johnston,  and  he  abandoned  Harper’s 
Ferry,  and  moved  up  the  valley  to  Winchester. 
Before  leaving  he  destroyed  the  great  bridge  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway  at  the  ferry 
with  fire  and  gunpowder.  It  was  one  thousand 
feet  long.  Then  he  spiked  the  heavy  guns  that 
could  not  be  taken  away,  and  encamped  a  few 
miles  up  the  valley.  Patterson,  who  was  at 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  pushed  on,  and  on  June  16 
and  17  about  nine  thousand  of  his  troops  crossed 
the  Potomac  by  fording  it  at  Williamsport. 
These  were  led  by  Brigadier-general  George  Cad- 
walader,  at  the  head  of  five  companies  of  cav¬ 
alry.  At  that  moment  Patterson  received  or¬ 
ders  by  telegraph  from  General  Scott,  at  Wash¬ 
ington,  to  send  to  him  all  the  regulars,  horse 
and  foot,  under  his  (Patterson’s)  command,  and 
a  Rhode  Island  regiment.  Patterson  was  em¬ 
barrassed,  and  requested  the  general  to  leave 
the  regulars  with  him,  for  he  expected  to  hold 
the  position  and  to  keep  open  a  free  communi¬ 
cation  with  the  great  West  by  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railway.  Scott  refused,  saying,  “We 
are  pressed  here;  send  the  troops  without  de¬ 
lay.”  The  order  was  obeyed,  and  Patterson  was 
left  without  a  single  piece  of  available  artillery, 
with  only  one  troop  of  raw  cavalry,  and  a  total 
force  of  not  more  than  ten  thousand  men,  most¬ 
ly  undisciplined,  to  confront  Johnston  with  full 
fifteen  thousand  drilled  troops.  Patterson  pru¬ 
dently  recrossed  the  Potomac,  and  remained 
on  the  Maryland  side  until  the  beginning  of 
July. 

Evacuation  of  Manassas  (1862).  On  receiving 
information  of  this  evacuation  by  the  Confeder¬ 
ates,  General  McClellan  ordered  (March  9,  1862) 
the  immediate  advance  of  his  whole  army  in 
that  direction  simply  to  give  his  troops  some 
experience  on  the  march  and  bivouac,  prepara¬ 
tory  to  undertaking  the  spring  campaign.  Gen¬ 
eral  Stoneman  pursued  the  retiring  Confederates 
beyoud  the  Rappahannock,  but  did  not  molest 
them,  and  the  whole  army  returned  to  Alexan¬ 
dria  on  the  14th.  In  its  retrograde  movement, 
Stoneman’s  cavalry  was  followed  by  that  of 
Stuart  and  Ewell,  and  even  by  artillery,  for  some 
distance.  This  movement  one  of  the  French 
aids  of  McClellan  called  a  “promenade  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.”  It  greatly  disappointed 
the  loyal  people,  for  they  supposed  it  was  going 
“  on  to  Richmond.” 

Evacuation  of  New  York  (1783).  Washing¬ 
ton,  Governor  Clinton,  and  Sir  Guy  Carleton  held 
a  conference  at  Dobbs’s  Ferry,  and  made  arrange¬ 
ments  for  the  British  troops  to  evacuate  the  city 
of  New  York  on  Nov.  25, 1783.  On  that  morning 
the  American  troops,  under  General  Knox,  who 
had  come  down  from  West  Point  and  encamped 
at  Harlem,  marched  to  the  “  Bowery  Laue,”  and 
halted  at  the  present  junction  of  the  Third  Av- 


EVACUATION  OF  PHILADELPHIA  455 


EVACUATION  OF  SUMTER 


enne  and  the  Bowery.  There  they  remained 
until  about  one  o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  the 
British  claiming  the  right  of  possession  until 
meridian.  At  that  hour  the  British  had  em¬ 
barked  at  Whitehall,  and  before  three  o’clock 
General  Knox  took  formal  possession  of  the  city 
and  of  Fort  George,  amid  the  acclamations  of 
thousands  of  citizens  and  the  roar  of  artillery 
at  the  Battery.  Washington  repaired  to  his 
quarters  at  Fraunce’s  Tavern,  and  there,  dur¬ 
ing  the  afternoon,  Governor  Clinton  gave  a 
public  dinner  to  the  officers  of  the  army.  In 
the  evening  the  town  was  brilliantly  illuminat¬ 
ed,  rockets  shot  up  from  many  private  dwell¬ 
ings,  and  bonfires  blazed  at  every  corner.  The 
British,  on  leaviug,  had  nailed  their  flag  to  the 
staff  in  Fort  George  and  slushed  the  pole ;  but 
a  boy  soon  took  it  down,  and  put  the  stripes 
and  stars  in  its  place.  At  sunset  on  that  clear, 
frosty  day  the  last  vessel  of  the  retiring  British 
transports  disappeared  beyond  the  Narrows. 

Evacuation  of  Philadelphia  (1778).  The 
danger  of  being  blockaded  by  a  French  fleet  in 
the  Delaware  caused  the  British  fleet  to  leave 
those  waters,  and  the  British  army  to  evacuate 
Philadelphia  and  flee  towards  New  York.  That 
movement  was  begun  on  June  18,  1778.  The 
baggage  and  stores,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  loyalists,  were  sent  around  to  New  York  in 
the  fleet.  The  British  army,  seventeen  thousand 
strong,  having  crossed  the  Delaware,  took  up 
its  march  across  New  Jersey,  and  was  pursued 
by  Washington,  who  broke  up  his  encampment 
at  Valley  Forge  so  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  evac¬ 
uation  of  Philadelphia.  (See  Monmouth  Court¬ 
house ,  Battle  of.) 

Evacuation  of  Sumter  (1861).  After  defend¬ 
ing  Fort  Sumter  until  his  supplies  were  ex¬ 
hausted,  and  the  fortress  was  almost  a  ruin,  Ma¬ 
jor  Anderson  consented  to  evacuate  it  on  hon¬ 
orable  terms.  (See  Fall  of  Fort  Sumter.)  The 


ering  off  the  bar  to  make  arrangements  for  the 
departure  of  the  inmates  of  Sumter.  The  mili¬ 
tary  authorities  at  Charleston  furnished  a  steam¬ 
er  to  take  the  garrison  to  the  Baltic,  where  Mr. 
Fox  (see  Relief  of  Fort  Sumter)  was  waiting  to 
receive  them.  After  the  flag  of  Sumter  was  sa¬ 
luted  by  the  garrison,  it  was  lowered,  and  the 
soldiers,  in  full  dress,  left  the  battered  fortress, 
Major  Anderson  carrying  with  him  the  flag,  and 
the  band  playiug  “  Yankee  Doodle.”  When  Ma¬ 
jor  Anderson  and  his  staff  left  the  sally-port, 
it  struck  up  “  Hail  to  the  Chief.”  Soon  after 
they  left,  Governor  Pickens  and  suite,  his  exec¬ 
utive  council,  General  Beauregard,  and  others, 


i 


GOLD  BOX  PRESENTED  TO  ANDERSON. 


went  to  the  fort  in  a  steamer,  took  formal  pos¬ 
session,  and  raised  over  it  the  Confederate  and 
South  Carolina  flags.  The  fort  had  been  evacu¬ 
ated,  not  surrendered.  The  flag  had  been  lowered, 
but  not  given  up  —  dishonored,  but  not  capt¬ 
ured.  The  sovereignty  of  the  Republic,  sym¬ 
bolized  in  the  flag,  had  not  been  yielded  to  the 


FORT  SUMTER  MEDAL. 


act  was  performed  on  Sunday,  April  14,  1861. 
Lieutenant  Snyder,  of  the  garrison,  and  Lieu¬ 
tenant  Hartstene,  who  had  joined  the  insur¬ 
gents,  had  been  Bent  out  to  the  relief-ship  liov- 


insurgents.  So  soon  as  the  garrison  were  on 
board  the  Baltic,  the  flag  of  Sumter  was  raised 
to  the  mast-head  and  saluted  with  cheers  and 
firing  of  great  guns  from  the  other  vessels.  The 


EVANS 


456 


EVERETT 


vessel  (the  Isabel)  that  conveyed  the  garrison  to 
the  Baltic  did  not  leave  Fort  Sumter,  on  account 
of  the  tide,  until  Monday  morning,  April  15. 
The  Baltic  sailed  for  New  York.  The  praises  of 
Major  Anderson  and  his  little  band  were  upon 
every  lip,  while  the  people  of  the  country  were 
deeply  moved  by  the  outrage  in  Charleston  har¬ 
bor.  Before  the  evacuation,  the  citizens  of 
Taunton,  Mass.,  impressed  with  his  prowess  and 
patriotism,  had  voted  him  an  elegant  sword;  the 
authorities  of  New  York  gave  him  the  freedom 
of  the  city  in  an  elegant  gold  box.  The  citizens 
also  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal,  suitably 
inscribed.  The  citizens  of  Philadelphia  gave 
him  an  elegant  sword,  and  societies  and  legisla¬ 
tive  bodies  presented  him  with  tokens  of  the 
good-will  of  his  countrymen.  Finally,  the  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Commerce  of  New  York  ordered  (June  6, 
1861)  the  execution  of  a  series  of  medals  to  be 
presented  to  Major  Anderson  and  to  each  man 
of  the  garrison.  (See  Fort  Sumter,  First  Rein¬ 
forcement  of.) 

Evans,  Oliver,  inventor,  was  born  at  New¬ 
port,  Del.,  in  1775;  died  in  New  York,  April  21, 
1819.  He  was  of  Welsh  descent,  and  was  grand¬ 
son  of  Evan  Evans,  D.D.,  the  first  Episcopal 
minister  in  Philadelphia.  Apprenticed  to  a 
wheelwright,  he  early  displayed  his  inventive 
genius.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  years  he  had 
invented  a  most  useful  machine  for  making 
card-teeth.  In  1786-87  he  obtained  from  the 
Legislatures  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  the 
exclusive  right  to  use  his  improvements  in  flour¬ 
mills.  He  constructed  a  steam-carriage  in  1799, 
which  led  to  the  invention  of  the  locomotive 
engine.  His  steam-engine  was  the  first  con¬ 
structed  on  the  high  -  pressure  principle.  In 
1803-4  he  made  the  first  steam  dredging- ma¬ 
chine  used  in  America,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  “Oracter  Amphibolis,”  arranged  for 
propulsion  either  on  land  or  water.  This  is  be¬ 
lieved  to  have  been  the  first  instauce  in  America 
of  the  application  of  steam  power  to  the  propel¬ 
ling  of  a  land  carriage.  Evans  foresaw  and 
prophesied  the  near  era  of  railway  communica¬ 
tion  and  travel.  He  proposed  the  construction 
of  a  railway  between  Philadelphia  and  New 
York,  but  his  limited  means  would  not  allow 
him  to  convince  the  sceptics  by  a  successful  ex¬ 
periment. 

Evans,  Sir  de  Lacy,  was  a  distinguished 
British  general.  He  was  born  in  Ireland  in 
1787  ;  died  in  London,  Jan.  2, 1870.  He  entered 
the  British  army  at  the  age  of  twenty  years, 
served  in  the  East  Indies,  and  early  in  1814 
came  to  America  with  the  rank  of  brevet-colo¬ 
nel.  He  was  engaged  in  the  Battle  of  Bladens- 
burg  (which  see)  in  August,  and  led  the  troops 
that  entered  Washington  city  and  destroyed 
the  public  buildings  there.  He  was  with  Gen¬ 
eral  Ross  in  the  expedition  against  Baltimore  in 
September,  and  was  near  that  general  when  he 
fell.  Evans  was  also  with  Pakenham  in  the  at¬ 
tempt  to  capture  New  Orleans.  He  was  wound¬ 
ed  in  the  battle  that  occurred  below  that  city. 
Returning  to  Europe,  he  served  under  Welling¬ 
ton.  Afterwards  he  was  elected  to  Parliament, 


and  was  subsequently  promoted  to  lieutenant- 
general.  In  the  latter  capacity  he  served  in  the 
war  in  the  Crimea  in  1854. 


SIR  DE  LACY  EVANS. 


Everett,  Alexander  Hill,  LL.D.,  was  born 
in  Boston,  March  19, 1790;  died  in  Canton,  Chi¬ 
na,  June  29,  1847.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1806,  studied  law  with  J.  Q.  Adams,  and  in  1809 
accompanied  him  to  St.  Petersburg  as  attache  to 
his  legation,  to  which  he  became  secretary  in 
1815.  He  became  charge  d'affaires  at  Brussels  in 
1818,  in  1825-29  was  minister  to  Spain,  and  from 
1845  until  his  death  was  American  commissioner 
in  China. 

Everett,  Edward,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  was  born  at 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  April  11, 1794  ;  died  in  Boston, 
Jan.  15, 1865.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1811, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Brattle  Street 

(Boston)  Unitarian 
Church  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  1814.  He  was 
chosen  professor  of 
Greek  in  Harvard 
University  in  1815, 
and  took  the  chair 
on  his  return  from 
Europe  in  1819.  Mr. 
Everett  was  in  Con¬ 
gress  from  1825  to 
1835 ;  governor  of 
Massachusettsfiom 
1836  to  1840;  minis¬ 
ter  t  o  En  gland  from 
1841  to  1845 ;  Presi¬ 
dent  of  Harvard 
from  1846  to  1849 ; 
andsucceeded  Dan¬ 
iel  Webster  as  Secretarv  of  State  in  November, 
1852.  Mr.  Everett  was  in  the  United  States  Sen¬ 
ate  from  March,  1853, until  May, 1854, when  he  re- 


EWELL 


457  EXCISE  LAW,  VIOLENT  OPPOSITION  TO 


tired  to  private  life  on  account,  of  feeble  health. 
He  took  great  interest  in  the  efforts  of  the  women 
of  the  United  States  to  raise  money  to  purchase 
Mount  Vernon.  He  wrote  and  spoke  much,  and 
by  his  efforts  procured  a  large  amount  of  money, 
and  the  estate  was  purchased.  He  was  nomi¬ 
nated  for  the  Vice  -  Presidency  of  the  United 
States  in  1860  by  the  Constitutional  Union  Par¬ 
ty.”  Mr.  Everett  was  a  rare  scholar  and  finished 
orator.  He  was  one  of  the  early  editors  of  the 
North  A  merican  Review. 

Ewell,  Richard  Stoddard,  was  born  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  in  1820 ;  died  at  Spring 
Hill,  Tenn.,  Jan.  25,1872.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1840,  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and 
received  the  brevet  of  captain.  He  joined  the 


Confederates  in  their  war  against  the  Union  in 
1861 ;  was  promoted  to  major-general  in  1862, 
and  was  conspicuous  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley, 
in  the  battles  near  Richmond,  Malvern  Hills, 
Cedar  Mountain,  Gettysburg,  the  Wilderness, 
Spottsylvania  Court-house,  and  during  the  siege 
of  Petersburg.  In  the  Battle  of  Groveton  ( which 
see)  he  lost  a  leg,  and  was  made  lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral  in  May,  1863.  He  was  engaged  in  stock- 
raising  in  Tennessee  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Exchange  of  Prisoners  in  the  Revolution. 

For  some  time  after  the  war  for  independence 
was  begun  the  British  authorities  refused  to  ex¬ 
change  prisoners,  because  they  would  not  “  treat 
with  rebels but  after  Howe’s  arrival  in  New 
York,  when  the  British  had  five  thousand  pris¬ 
oners  and  the  Americans  three  thousand,  nego¬ 
tiations  for  exchange  were  opened.  Obstruc¬ 
tions  arose,  at  first,  on  account  of  the  refusal  of 
Congress  to  ratify  the  agreement  made  by  Ar¬ 
nold  concerning  the  prisoners  taken  at  the  Ce¬ 
dars.  Six  Hessian  officers  wrere  offered  in  ex¬ 
change  for  General  Lee.  Howe  refused,  for  he 
held  Lee  as  a  deserter  from  the  British  army. 
(See  Lee.  Treason  of.)  Congress  put  the  six  offi¬ 
cers  and  Lieutenant-colonel  Campbell,  a  British 
officer,  in  close  confinement,  to  sntfer  whatever 
extremities  might  be  indicted  on  Lee.  The  lat¬ 
ter  was  exchanged  in  1778.  There  was  another 
difficulty.  The  Americans  captured  on  Long 


Island  and  at  Fort  Washington,  and  confined  in 
New  York  prisons  and  prison-ships,  had  suffered 
extremely;  and  those  sent  out  for  exchange  in 
the  spring  of  1777  were  generally  very  feeble  and 
emaciated.  On  this  account  Washington  refused 
to  make  an  even  exchange  of  healthy  British 
and  German  soldiers  for  the  mere  wrecks  of 
American  soldiers.  Besides,  the  term  of  enlist¬ 
ment  of  all  the  American  prisoners  had  expired, 
and  they  were  no  longer  soldiers,  while  every 
British  prisoner  sent  in  was  a  recruit  to  the 
army  of  the  enemy.  These  disputes  delayed  ex¬ 
changes.  Humanity  alone  caused  Congress  to 
consent  to  any  exchange.  At  length  all  things 
were  adjusted,  and  Elias  Boudiuot,  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey,  a  Huguenot  by  descent,  was  appointed  Amer¬ 
ican  commissary  of  prisoners. 

Excise  Law,  The  First.  The  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  (Hamilton)  recommended  a  tax  on 
liquors.  A  bill  to  that  effect  was  introduced 
into  Congress  at  the  beginning  of  1791.  As 
finally  passed,  it  imposed  upon  all  imported 
spirits  a  duty  varying  from  twenty-five  to  forty 
cents  per  gallon,  according  to  strength.  The 
excise  to  be  collected  on  domestic  spirits  varied 
with  their  strength  from  nine  to  twenty- five 
cents  per  gallon  on  those  distilled  from  grain, 
and  from  eleven  to  thirty  cents  when  the  mate¬ 
rial  was  molasses  or  other  imported  product ; 
thus  allowing,  especially  when  the  duty  on  mo¬ 
lasses  was  taken  into  account,  a  considerable 
discrimination  in  favor  of  the  exclusively  home 
product.  There  was  much  opposition  to  this 
law  in  and  out  of  Congress.  The  details  of  the 
working  of  the  law  for  securing  a  revenue  from 
this  source  were  very  stringent,  yet  very  just. 
It  was  opposition  to  this  law  in  western  Penn¬ 
sylvania  which  produced  the  “  Whiskey  Iusur- 
rection”  (which  see). 

Excise  Law,  Violent  Opposition  to  the, 
appeared  in  western  Pennsylvania  soou  after 
its  enactment,  and  when  steps  were  taken  for 
its  enforcement.  The  lawr  was  disregarded,  in¬ 
dictments  were  found  against  a  number  of  dis¬ 
tillers,  and  thirty  warrants  were  issued,  which 
the  marshal  of  the  district  undertook  to  serve. 
He  had  served  twenty- nine  of  them,  when  he 
and  the  inspector  of  the  district  were  fired  upon 
by  some  armed  men  and  compelled  to  fly  for 
their  lives.  They  assailed  the  inspector’s  (Ne¬ 
ville’s)  house,  and  an  appeal  to  the  militia  was 
in  vain.  A  small  detachment  of  soldiers  was 
obtained  from  the  neighboring  garrison  of  Fort 
Pitt  (Pittsburgh).  The  next  morning  (July  17, 
1794)  five  hundred  assailants  appeared.  One 
man  was  killed,  the  buildings  were  burned,  and 
the  officers  of  the  law  were  driven  out  of  Pitts¬ 
burgh  and  compelled  to  flee  for  their  lives  down 
the  Ohio  River.  The  mob  were  led  by  John 
Holcroft,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Tom  the 
Tinker.  Leading  politicians  took  part  in  a 
public  meeting  at  Mingo  Creek  Meeting-house 
(July  23),  who  were  disposed  to  make  common 
cause  with  the  rioters.  They  finally  agreed  to 
call  a  convention  of  delegates  from  all  the  town¬ 
ships  west  of  the  mountains,  and  from  the  ad¬ 
joining  counties  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  to 


EXECUTION  OF  QUAKERS 


458 


EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENTS 


meet  in  three  weeks  at  Parkinson’s  Ferry,  on 
the  Monongahela.  A  few  days  afterwards  the 
mail  from  Pittsburgh  to  Philadelphia  was  inter¬ 
cepted  and  robbed.  Two  leading  politicians — 
Bradford  and  Marshall — concerned  in  this  rob¬ 
bery  forthwith  addressed  a  circular  letter  to 
the  officers  of  the  militia  of  tbe  western  conn- 
ties,  stating  that  letters  in  the  rilled  mail  re¬ 
vealed  important  secrets,  which  made  it  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  military  to  act,  and  called  upon  the 
militia  to  muster,  on  Aug.  1,  at  Braddock’s  Field, 
with  arms  and  accoutrements  and  provisions  for 
four  days.  Full  seven  thousand  men  appeared 
lat  the  appointed  rendezvous.  The  leaders  in 
the  insurrection  were  elated.  The  meeting  at 
Parkinson’s  Ferry  was  an  armed  convention. 
Colonel  Cook,  one  of  the  judges  of  Fayette 
County,  presided,  and  Albert  Gallatin  (after¬ 
wards  Secretary  of  the  Navy)  acted  as  secre¬ 
tary.  Bradford  assumed  the  office  of  major- 
general  and  reviewed  the  troops.  It  was  his 
desigu  to  get  possession  of  Fort  Pitt  and  the 
arms  and  ammunition  therein,  but  finding  most 
of  the  militia  officers  unwilling  to  co-operate, 
he  abandoned  the  project.  The  excise-officers 
were  expelled  from  the  district,  and  many  out¬ 
rages  were  committed.  The  insurrectionary 
spirit  spread  into  the  neighboring  counties  of 
Virginia.  The  reign  of  terror  was  extended 
and  complete,  when  President  Washington,  act¬ 
ing  with  energy,  sent  an  armed  force  and  quell¬ 
ed  the  insurrection.  (See  Whiskey  Insurrection, 
The.) 

Execution  of  Quakers  in  Philadelphia. 

While  the  British  army  was  in  Philadelphia 
in  1778,  Joseph  Galloway,  an  active  Tory,  and 
others  employed  John  Roberts  and  Abraham 
Carlisle,  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  as 
secret  agents  in  detecting  foes  to  the  British 
government.  Carlisle  was  a  sort  of  inquisitor- 
general,  watching  at  the  entrances  to  the  city, 
pointing  out  and  causing  the  arrest  of  Whigs, 
who  were  first  cast  into  prison  and  then  granted 
permissions  to  pass  the  lines.  Both  Roberts  and 
Carlisle  acted  as  guides  to  British  expeditions 
when  they  went  out  of  Philadelphia  to  fall  upon 
and  massacre  their  countrymen.  These  facts 
being  laid  before  Congress,  that  body  caused  the 
arrest  of  Roberts  and  Carlisle.  They  were  tried, 
found  guilty,  and  hanged. 

Executive  Departments.  When  the  Con¬ 
gress  under  the  National  Constitution  was  first 
organized  (April,  1789)  the  executive  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  old  Congress  were  still  in  opera¬ 
tion.  Having  made  provision  for  a  revenue, 
the  Congress  directed  their  attention  to  the  re¬ 
organization  of  these  departments,  as  follows: 
The  State  Department  is  managed  by  the  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  and  two  assistant  secretaries.  It 
was  created  in  1781,  as  the  Department  of  For¬ 
eign  Affairs.  It  has  a  diplomatic  branch,  a  con¬ 
sular  branch,  a  disbursing  agent,  a  translator,  a 
clerk  of  appointments  and  commissions,  a  clerk 
of  the  rolls  and  archives,  of  territorial  business, 
and  of  pardons  and  passports,  and  a  superinten¬ 
dent  of  statistics.  The  Treasury  Department  is 
in  charge  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  j 


two  assistant  secretaries,  and  is  composed  of  the 
following  bureaus:  Of  the  Secretary,  first,  sec¬ 
ond,  and  third  comptroller;  of  Commissioner  of 


Customs,  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  auditors ;  of  the  Treasurer,  of  the  Regis¬ 
ter,  of  the  Solicitor,  of  the  Light-house  Board, 
of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  of  Internal 
Revenue,  of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency, 


and  of  the  Bureau  of  Construction.  It  also  has 
the  control  of  the  United  States  Mint ;  and  also 
of  a  Special  Commission  of  Internal  Revenue,  a 
Director  of  Statistics,  and  a  Supervising  Archi¬ 
tect.  The  War  Department  is  in  charge  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  and  one  regular  assistant. 
The  following  bureaus  are  attached  to  this  de¬ 
partment:  Of  the  Commanding-general,  Adju¬ 
tant-general,  Quartermaster-general,  Paymaster- 
general,  Commissary- general,  Surgeon -general, 
of  Engineers,  Topographical  and  Ordnance,  and, 
at  one  time,  of  Refugees  and  Freedmen.  (For 
seal  of  this  department,  see  Board  of  War.)  The 
Navy  Department  is  in  charge  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  and  its  functions  are  discharged  by 
the  Secretary  and  one  assistant  secretary  and 
eight  bureaus,  as  follows:  Of  Yards  and  Docks, 
Navigation,  Ordnance,  Construction  and  Re¬ 
pairs,  Equipment  and  Recruiting,  Provisions 


EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENTS 


459 


and  Clothing,  Steam  Engineering,  and  of  Medi¬ 
cine  and  Surgery.  A  Marine  Corps  is  attached 
to  the  navy,  and  the  entire  supervision  of  it  is 


vested  in  a  colonel- commandant,  whose  orders 
for  duty  are  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  The  Interior  Department  is  in  charge  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  one  assistant 
secretary,  who  have  the  supervision  and  man¬ 


agement  of  the  following  branches  of  the  pub¬ 
lic  service  :  The  public  lands,  pensions,  Indians, 
Patent -office,  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
Bureau  of  Education.  The  latter  is  an  inde¬ 
pendent  bureau,  with  a  commissioner.  The 
Post-office  Department  is  under  the  direction  and 
management  of  the  Postmaster  -  general  and 
three  assistant  postmaster-generals.  Its  man¬ 
agement  is  distributed  among  several  bureaus, 
as  follows :  Of  Appointments,  in  charge  of  the 
First  Assistant  Postmaster-general ;  Contracts, 
in  charge  of  the  Second  Assistant ;  Finance,  in 
charge  of  the  Third  Assistant ;  Money  Order,  in 
charge  of  a  Superintendent;  Inspection  and  Di¬ 
vision,  Topographical  Division,  and  an  Auditor’s 
Department.  The  Attorney-genm'aV s  Department, 
or  Department  of  Justice,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  United  States  Attorney-general.  The  ordi- 


EXETER,  N.  H.,  FOUNDED 

nary  duties  of  the  office  are,  1.  To  give  legal 
opinions  when  called  for  by  the  President  or 
heads  of  departments ;  2.  To  examine  the  titles 


of  all  lands  purchased  by  the  government  ;  3. 
To  receive  all  applications  for  pardons ;  4.  To 
receive  all  applications  for  judicial  appoint¬ 
ments;  5.  To  conduct  the  suits  of  the  United 
States  government  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 


SEAL  OP  ATTORNEY-GENERAL’S  DEPARTMENT. 


United  States ;  6.  To  have  supervision  of  all 
suits  arising  in  any  of  the  departments,  when 
referred  by  the  head  thereof  to  the  Attorney- 
general.  The  head  of  this  department  was  first 
made  a  cabinet  officer  in  1849,  when  the  De¬ 
partment  of  the  Interior  was  created  and  its 
Secretary  made  a  cabinet  minister. 

Exeter,  N.  H.,  Founded.  When  Rev.  John 
Wheelwright,  a  kinsman  of  Anne  Hutchinson, 
was  driven  from  Boston  in  1638,  he  founded  a 
church  at  Squamscot  Falls,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  a  body  politic  upon  a  purely  democratic 
model,  and  called  the  settlement  Exeter.  Every 
man,  without  regard  to  his  theological  views, 
had  a  voice  in  choosing  rulers  annually,  and 
two  assistants  to  each  ruler.  When,  in  1641, 
New  Hampshire  came  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
Massachusetts,  Wheelwright’s  political  policy 


EXMOUTH 


430  EXPEDITION  DOWN  THE  ST.  LAWRENCE 


was  respected ;  and  he  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  the  rights  of  his  freemen  allowed,  with¬ 
out  regard  to  their  religion,  by  the  colony  which 
had  banished  him. 

Exmouth  (Edward  Pellew),  Viscount,  Eng¬ 
lish  admiral,  was  born  at  Dover,  England,  April 
19, 1757  ;  died  at  Teignmouth,  Jan.  23, 1833.  He 
entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years, 
first  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  on 
Lake  Champlain  in  1776,  and  rendered  great 
assistance  to  Burgoyue  in  his  invasion  of  New 
York.  He  became  a  post-captain  in  1782.  For 
the  first  capture  of  a  vessel  of  the  French  navy 
(  1792 )  iu  the  war  with  France,  Pellew  was 
knighted  and  employed  in  blockading  the 
French  coast.  For  bravery  in  saving  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  a  wrecked  ship  at  Plymouth  in  1796  he 
was  made  a  baronet.  Pellew  was  in  Parlia¬ 
ment  in  1802,  but  in  1804  was  again  in  the  na¬ 
val  service ;  was  promoted  to  rear-admiral,  and 
made  commander-in-chief  in  the  East  Indies, 
when  he  annihilated  the  Dutch  naval  force 
there.  He  was  created  Baron  Exmouth  in  1814, 
made  a  full  Admiral  of  the  Blue,  and  allowed  a 
pension  of  $10,000  a  year.  With  a  fleet  of  nine¬ 
teen  ships,  he  brought  the  Dey  of  Algiers  to 
terms  in  1816,  and  liberated  about  twelve  hun¬ 
dred  prisoners. 

Expedition  against  Acadia  (  1755  ).  Gov¬ 
ernor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Governor 
Laurence,  of  Nova  Scotia,  had  arranged  an  ex¬ 
pedition,  in  the  campaign  of  1755  (see  French 
and  Indian  War),  to  drive  the  French  out  of  the 
latter  province.  There  was  much  enthusiasm 
excited  in  New  England  in  favor  of  this  expe¬ 
dition,  for  there  was  still  a  dread  of  forays  on 
the  frontiers  by  the  French  and  Indians  in  the 
East.  Three  thousand  men,  under  General  John 
Winslow,  sailed  from  Boston  (May  20),  and  land¬ 
ed  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  There 
they  were  joined  by  Colonel  Moncktou  with 
three  hundred  British  regulars  from  a  neigh¬ 
boring  garrison,  and  that  officer,  having  official 
precedence  of  Winslow,  took  command.  They 
captured  the  forts  there  iu  possession  of  the 
French  (in  June),  and  placed  the  whole  country 
under  martial  rule..  Then  the  English  proceed¬ 
ed  to  commit  a  most  flagrant  crime  in  driving 
the  French  inhabitants  out  of  their  country, 
dispersing  them,  without  resources,  among  the 
English  colonies,  and  confiscating  all  their  prop¬ 
erty,  which  they  did  not  allow  them  to  take 
away.  (See  Acadians,  Expulsion  of  the.) 

Expedition  against  Florida  (1778).  Tory 
refugees  from  Georgia  acquired  considerable  in¬ 
fluence  over  the  Creek  Indians,  and  from  east 
Florida,  especially  from  St.  Augustine,  made 
predatory  excursions  among  their  former  neigh¬ 
bors.  General  Robert  Howe,  then  command¬ 
ing  the  Southern  Department,  was  ordered  from 
Charleston  to  Savannah  to  protect  the  Geor¬ 
gians  and  attack  St.  Augustine.  A  considera¬ 
ble  body  of  troops  led  by  Howe,  and  accompa¬ 
nied  by  General  Houstoun,  of  Georgia,  penetrat¬ 
ed  as  far  as  the  St.  Mary’s  River,  where  sick¬ 
ness,  loss  of  draught-horses,  and  disputes  about 
command  checked  the  expedition  and  caused  it 


to  be  abandoned.  The  refugees  in  Florida  re¬ 
taliated  by  an  invasion  iu  their  turn. 

Expedition  down  the  St.  Lawrence  (1813). 
General  Armstrong,  Secretary  of  War,  planned 
another  invasion  of  Canada  in  the  autumn  of 
1813.  There  had  been  a  change  in  the  military 
command  on  the  northern  frontier.  For  some 
time  the  infirmities  of  General  Dearborn,  the 
commander- iu- chief,  had  disqualified  him  for 
active  service,  and  in  June  (1813)  he  was  super¬ 
seded  by  General  James  Wilkinson,  who,  like 
Dearborn,  had  been  an  active  young  officer  in 
the  Revolution.  Leaving  Flournoy  in  command 
at  New  Orleans,  Wilkinson  hastened  to  Wash¬ 
ington  city,  w’hen  Armstrong  assured  him  he 
would  find  fifteen  thousand  troops  at  his  com¬ 
mand  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Ontario.  On 
reaching  Sackett’s  Harbor  (Aug.  20),  he  found 
one  third  of  the  troops  sick,  no  means  for  trans¬ 
portation,  officers  few  in  number,  and  both  of¬ 
ficers  and  men  raw  and  undisciplined.  After 
some  movements  on  the  lake,  Wilkinson  found 
himself  at  Sackett’s  Harbor  iu  October,  sick 
with  lake-fever.  Armstrong  was  there  to  take 
personal  charge  of  preparations  for  an  attack 
upon  Kingston  or  Montreal.  Knowing  the  per¬ 
sonal  enmity  between  Wilkinson  and  Wade 
Hampton,  Armstrong,  accompanied  by  the  ad¬ 
jutant-general,  had  established  the  headquar¬ 
ters  of  the  War  Department  at  Sackett’s  Har¬ 
bor  to  promote  harmony  between  these  two  old 
officers,  and  to  add  efficiency  to  the  projected 
movements.  Wilkinson,  not  liking  this  inter¬ 
ference  of  Armstrong,  wished  to  resign  ;  but  the 
latter  would  not  consent,  for  he  had  no  other 
officer  of  experience  to  take  his  place.  After 
much  discussion,  it  was  determined  to  pass 
Kingston  and  make  a  descent  upon  Montreal. 
For  weeks  the  bustle  of  preparation  was  great, 
and  many  armed  boats  and  transports  had  been 
built  at  the  Harbor.  On  Oct.  17  orders  were 
given  for  the  embarkation  of  the  troops  at 
Sackett’s  Harbor,  and  General  Hampton,  then 
halting  on  the  banks  of  the  Chateaugay  River, 
was  ordered  to  move  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  the 
mouth  of  that  stream.  The  troops  at  the  Har¬ 
bor  were  packed  in  scows,  bateaux,  Durham 
boats,  and  common  lake  sail-boats,  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  a  dark  night,  with  an  impending  storm 
hovering  over  the  lake.  Before  morning  there 
was  a  furious  gale,  with  rain  and  sleet,  and  the 
boats  were  scattered  in  every  direction.  The 
shores  of  the  little  islands  in  that  region  were 
strewn  with  wrecks,  and  fifteen  large  boats  were 
totally  lost.  On  the  20th  a  large  number  of  the 
troops  and  saved  boats  arrived  at  Grenadier 
Island,  near  the  entrance  to  the  St.  Lawrence. 
There  they  were  finally  all  gathered.  The  dam¬ 
age  and  loss  of  stores,  etc.,  was  immense.  The 
troops  remained  encamped  until  Nov.  1.  The 
snow  had  fallen  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches. 
Delay  would  be  dangerous,  and  on  Nov.  9  Gen¬ 
eral  Brown  and  his  division  pushed  forward,  in 
the  face  of  a  tempest,  to  French  Creek,  at  the 
(present)  village  of  Clayton,  on  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence.  Chauncey  at  the  same  time  made  an 
ineffectual  attempt  to  blockade  the  British  ves¬ 
sels  in  the  harbor  of  Kingston.  British  marine 


EXPEDITION  OF  CAPTAIN  WILLING  461  EXPRESS  BUSINESS.  THE 


scouts  were  out  among  the  Thousand  Islands. 
They  discovered  the  Americans  at  French  Creek, 
where,  ou  the  afternoon  of  Nov.  1,  there  was  a 
sharp  tight  between  the  troops  and  British 
schooners  and  gunboats  filled  with  infantry. 
The  remainder  of  the  troops,  with  Wilkinson, 
came  down  from  Grenadier  Island,  and  on  the 
clear  and  cold  morning  of  the  5th  the  whole 
flotilla,  comprising  three  hundred  bateaux,  pre¬ 
ceded  by  gunboats,  filled  with  seven  thousand 
troops,  went  down  the  St.  Lawrence,  pursued  by 
British  troops  in  a  galley  and  gunboats,  through 
the  sinuous  channels  of  the  Thousand  Islands. 
The  same  evening  the  belligerents  had  a  fight 
by  moonlight  iu  Alexandria  Bay,  and  laud  troops 
from  Kingston  reached  Prescott,  opposite  Og¬ 
den  sburg,  at  the  same  time.  Wilkinson  disem¬ 
barked  his  army  just  above  Ogdensburg,  and 
marched  to  some  distance  below  to  avoid  the 
batteries  at  Prescott.  Brown,  meanwhile,  suc¬ 
cessfully  took  the  flotilla  past  Prescott  on  the 
night  of  the  6th,  and  the  forces  were  reunited 
four  miles  below  Ogdensburg.  There  Wilkin¬ 
son  was  informed  that  the  Canada  shores  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  were  lined  with  posts  of  musketry 
and  artillery  to  dispute  the  passage  of  the  flotil¬ 
la.  To  meet  this  emergency,  Colonel  Alexander 
McComb  was  detached  with  twelve  hundred  of 
the  best  troops  of  the  army,  and  on  the  7th  laud¬ 
ed  ou  the  Canada  shore.  He  was  followed  by 
Lieutenant -colonel  Forsyth  with  his  riflemen. 
On  the  8th  a  council  of  war  was  held,  and,  after 
receiving  a  report  from  Colonel  J.  G.  Swift,  the 
active  chief-engineer,  concerning  the  strength 
of  the  army,  the  question  “  Shall  the  army  pro¬ 
ceed  with  all  possible  rapidity  to  the  attack  of 
Montreal  ?”  was  considered,  and  was  answered 
in  the  affirmative.  General  Brown  at  once 
crossed  the  river  with  his  brigade.  Meanwhile 
a  large  reinforcement  had  come  down  from 
Kingston  to  Prescott,  and  were  marching  rap¬ 
idly  forward  to  meet  the  American  invaders.  A 
severe  engagement  ensued  at  Chrysler’s  Field,  a 
few  miles  below  Williamsburg  (Nov.  11,  1813). 
The  flotilla  was  then  at  the  head  of  the  Long 
Rapids,  twenty  miles  below  Ogdensburg.  The 
Americans  were  beaten  in  the  fight  and  driven 
from  the  field  (see  Chri/sler’s  Field,  Battle  at),  and 
that  night  they  withdrew  to  the  boats.  The 
following  morning  the  flotilla  passed  the  Long 
Rapids  safely.  General  Wilkinson  was  ill,  and 
word  came  from  Hampton  that  he  would  not 
form  a  junction  with  Wilkinson’s  troops  at  St. 
Regis.  The  officers  were  unwilling  to  serve 
longer  under  the  incompetent  Wilkinson,  and  it 
was  determined,  at  a  council  of  war,  to  abandon 
the  expedition  against  Montreal.  The  troops 
went  into  winter  quarters  at  French  Mills  (now 
Covington),  on  the  Salmon  River. 

Expedition  of  Captain  Willing.  Pittsburgh 
was  made  the  headquarters  of  a  western  mili¬ 
tary  department,  and  with  it  communication 
had  been  opened  with  New  Orleans.  From  that 
city,  with  the  countenance,  if  not  the  aid,  of  the 
Spanish  governor,  Captain  Willing,  command¬ 
ing  the  post  at  Pittsburgh,  had  obtained  a  sup¬ 
ply  of  arms  and  ammunition.  While  in  the 
Southwest,  ho  had  invited  the  English  settlers 


in  west  Florida  to  join  the  American  Union,  but 
without  success ;  and  when,  early  iu  1778,  he  de¬ 
scended  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  for  another 
supply  of  arms  and  munitions,  obtaining  crews 
to  row  his  boats  back  to  Pittsburgh,  he  remained 
behind  with  his  followers,  seized  an  English  ves¬ 
sel  ou  the  river,  and,  proceeding  to  Baton  Rouge 
and  Natchez, burned  the  houses  and  abducted  the 
slaves  of  English  planters.  He  was  captured  by 
a  British  force  sent  from  Pensacola,  who  built 
forts  at  Maushac,  Baton  Rouge,  and  Natchez. 

Expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clarke  (1778). 
It  was  ascertained  in  the  spring  of  1778  that  the 
English  governor  of  Detroit  (Hamilton)  was  in¬ 
citing  the  Western  Indians  to  make  war  on  the 
American  frontiers.  Under  the  authority  of  the 
State  of  Virginia,  and  writh  some  aid  from  it  in 
money  and  supplies,  George  Rogers  Clarke,  a 
pioneer,  enlisted  two  hundred  men  for  three 
months,  with  whom  he  embarked  at  Pittsburgh 
and  descended  to  the  site  of  Louisville,  where 
thirteen  families,  following  in  his  train,  seated 
themselves  ou  an  island  in  the  Ohio  (June,  1778). 
There  Clarke  was  joined  by  some  Kentuckians, 
and,  descending  the  river  some  distance  farther, 
hid  his  boats  and  marched  to  attack  Kaskaskia 
(now  in  Illinois),  one  of  the  old  French  settle¬ 
ments  near  the  Mississippi.  The  expedition¬ 
ists  were  nearly  starved  when  they  reached  the 
town.  Taken  entirely  by  surprise,  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  submitted  (July  4,  1778)  without  resist¬ 
ance.  Cahokia  and  two  other  posts  near  also 
submitted.  In  the  possession  of  the  comman¬ 
dant  of  Kaskaskia  were  found  letters  directing 
him  to  stimulate  the  Indians  to  hostilities. 
Clarke  established  friendly  relations  with  the 
Spanish  commander  at  St.  Louis,  across  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi.  The  French  inhabitants  in  that  re¬ 
gion,  being  told  of  the  alliance  between  France 
and  the  United  States,  became  friendly  to  the 
Americans.  The  Kaskaskians,  and  also  those 
of  Vincennes,  on  the  Wabash,  took  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Virginia,  and  Clarke  built  a  fort 
at  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio,  the  germ  of  Louisville. 
The  Virginia  Assembly  erected  the  conquered 
country,  embracing  all  the  territory  north  of 
the  Ohio  claimed  as  within  their  limits,  into 
the  country  of  Illinois,  and  ordered  five  hundred 
men  to  be  raised  for  its  defence. 

Expenditures  of  the  United  States  for  the 
War  for  Independence.  The  annual  expendi¬ 
tures  of  the  United  States,  in  the  aggregate, 
for  the  war  had  been  at  the  rate  of  $•20,000,000 
in  specie.  The  estimates  for  1782  were  for 
$8,000,000.  Yet  so  tardy  were  the  several  states 
in  raising  sums  for  the  current  expenditures  of 
the  general  government,  that  in  the  first  five 
months  the  aggregate  amount  received  from 
them  was  less  than  $20,000,  or  less  than  the 
estimated  expense  for  a  single  day.  Of  this 
amount  not  a  dollar  had  been  received  from  the 
Eastern  or  the  Southern  States. 

Express  Business,  The,  originated  in  the 
United  States  about  the  year  1837.  James  W. 
Halo,  yet  (1880)  living,  conducted  a  news-room 
in  the  old  Tontine  Coffee-house,  at  the  corner 
of  Wall  and  Water  Streets,  New  York  city. 


EXPRESS  BUSINESS.  THE  462  FAIRFAX  COURT-HOUSE.  SKIRMISH  AT 


One  day  a  young  man  (William  F.  Hamden) 
called  on  Hale  and  asked  bis  advice  concerning 
business.  It  was  a  season  of  great  business  de¬ 
pression.  Hale  bad  daily  inquiries  about  per¬ 
sons  travelling  between  New  York  and  Boston 
wlio  miglit  carry  small  packages.  He  found  that 
means  for  sending  small  packages  between  cities 
was  a  growing  want,  and  be  said  to  tbe  young 
man,  “  I  think  that  if  you  will  travel  between 
New  York  and  Boston  on  tbe  steamboat  (there 
was  then  no  railway),  and  do  errands  for  busi- 


1  ness  men  in  both  places,  charging  a  fair  remu¬ 
neration  for  j  our  services,  it  will  pay  you  well.” 
Young  Hamden  tried  it  successfully7,  and  such 
was  tbe  origin  of  “Hamden’s  Express  Compa¬ 
ny,”  tbe  first  of  tbe  great  companies  which  have 
amassed  large  fortunes  bjrthe  business,  and  been 
of  incalculable  benefit  to  tbe  public.  But  Mr. 
Harnden,  tbe  fouuder  of  tbe  express  system,  by 
I  engaging  in  a  gigantic  emigration  scheme,  im¬ 
poverished  himself  and  died  a  poor  man  in  1845, 
[  at  tbe  age  of  thirtj’-three  years. 


F. 


Fair  Messenger,  The.  While  General  Greene 
was  pursuing  Lord  Rawdou  towards  Orangeburg, 
be  wished  to  send  a  message  to  General  Sumter, 
then  on  tbe  Santee,  to  take  a  position  in  front 
of  tbe  enemy  and  impede  bis  flight.  Tbe  er¬ 
rand  was  a  most  perilous  one,  and  no  man  in 
tbe  army  was  bold  enough  to  undertake  it,  for 
tbe  Tories  were  everywhere  on  tbe  alert.  Em¬ 
ily  Geiger,  a  brave  maiden  eighteen  years  of 
age,  volunteered  to  carry7  tbe  letter  to  Sumter. 
Greene  told  her  its  contents,  so  that  in  case  she 
found  it  necessary  to  destroy  it  the  message 
might  be  delivered  orally7.  Tbe  girl  mount¬ 
ed  a  fleet  horse,  crossed  tbe  Wateree  at  tbe 
Camden  Ferry,  and  while  passing  through  a 
drjT  swamp  was  arrested  bjr  some  Tory  scouts. 


on  to  Sumter’s  camp,  and  very  soon  be  and 
Marion  were  co-operating  with  Greene.  Emily 
Geiger  afterwards  married  a  rich  planter  on  tbe 
Congaree. 

Fairfax  Court-house,  Skirmish  at  ( 1861 ). 
Rumors  prevailed  that  tbe  insurgents  were  at 
Fairfax  Court-house.  Lieutenant  C.H. Tompkins, 
with  seventy-five  cavalry,  was  sent  from  Arling¬ 
ton  Heights  on  a  scout  in  that  direction.  He  left 
late  iu  tbe  evening  of  May  31,  and  reached  tbe 
village  of  Fairfax  Court-house  at  three  o’clock 
the  next  morning,  where  Colonel  Ewell,  late 
of  the  United  States  Army7,  was  stationed  w  ith 
several  hundred  insurgents.  Tompkins  capt¬ 
ured  tbe  pickets  and  dashed  into  tbe  town, 
driving  tbe  insurgents  before  him.  There  they 


ARREST  OP  EMILY  GEIGER. 


As  she  came  from  tbe  direction  of  Greene’s 
army7  her  errand  was  suspected.  She  was  tak¬ 
en  to  ,a  house  at  tbe  edge  of  a  swamp,  and  a 
woman  employed  to  search  her.  When  left 
alone  she  ate  up  Greene’s  letter  piece  by  piece, 
and  no  evidence  being  found  against  her  she 
was  released  with  many  apologies.  She  passed 


were  reinforced,  and  a  severe  skirmish  occurred 
in  tbe  streets.  Shots  were  fired  upon  the 
Union  troops  from  windows.  Finding  him¬ 
self  greatly  outnumbered  by  the  Confederates, 
Tompkins  retreated,  taking  with  him  five  fully 
armed  prisoners  and  two  horses.  He  lost  one 
man  killed,  four  wounded,  and  one  missing.  He 


FAIRFAX 


463 


FALL  OF  BRITISH  POSTS 


also  lost  twelve  horses  and  their  equipments. 
About  twenty  of  the  insurgents  were  killed  or 
wounded. 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  sixth  Lord  and  Baron  of 
Cameron,  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  Washing¬ 
ton  in  his  youth.  He  was  born  in  England  in 
1691,  and  died  at  his  lodge,  Greenway  Court,  in 
Frederick  County,  Va.,  Dec.  12,  1781.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford ;  was  a  contributor  to  Ad¬ 
dison’s  Spectator,  and  finally,  soured  by  disap¬ 
pointments,  quitted  England  forever,  and  set¬ 
tled  on  the  vast  landed  estate  in  Virginia  which 
he  had  inherited  from  his  mother,  daughter  of 
Lord  Culpepper.  (See  Culpepper.)  He  built  a 
lodge  in  the  midst  of  ten  thousand  acres  of 
laud,  some  of  it  arable  and  excellent  for  graz¬ 
ing,  where  he  resolved  to  build  a  fine  mansion 
and  live  a  sort  of  hermit  lord  of  a  vast  do¬ 
main.  He  was  at  middle  age  when  he  came 
to  America.  He  never  built  the  great  man¬ 
sion,  but  lived  a  solitary  life  in  the  lodge  he 
had  built,  which  he  called  Greenway  Court. 


sure,”  he  said,  “  it  is  time  for  me  to  die.”  A  bal¬ 
lad  gives  the  sequel  as  follows  : 

“  Then  up  rose  Joe,  all  at  the  word. 

And  took  his  master’s  arm, 

And  to  his  bed  he  softly  led 
The  lord  of  Greenway  farm. 

Then  thrice  he  called  on  Britain’s  name, 

And  thrice  he  wept  full  sore, 

Then  sighed,  ‘0  Lord,  thy  will  he  done!’ 

And  word  spoke  never  more.” 

Falkland  Islands,  Affair  at  the  (1831). 
The  policy  of  President  Jackson  towards  for¬ 
eign  nations  was  intimated  in  his  instructions 
to  Louis  McLaue,  his  first  minister  to  England, 
in  which  he  said,  “  Ask  nothing  but  what  is 
right;  submit  to  nothing  that  is  wrong.”  In 
this  spirit  he  dealt  with  the  lessee  of  the  Falk¬ 
land  Islands,  lying  east  of  Patagonia,  South 
America.  These  islauds  were  under  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  had  been  leased  to 
Don  Louis  Vernet,  who  undertook  to  compel 
sailing  vessels  to  take  out  license  to  catch  seals 
under  his  authority.  Having  captured  three 
American  vessels,  when  the  news  of  this  and 


GREENWAY  COURT. 


There  young  Washington  first  met  him  and  be¬ 
came  a  frequent  visitor,  for  Fairfax  found  him 
a  bright  young  man,  a  good  hunter,  in  which 
sport  he  himself  loved  to  engage,  and  useful 
to  him  as  a  surveyor  of  his  lands.  He  became 
very  fond  of  the  young  surveyor,  who  was  a 
loved  companion  of  George  William  Fairfax,  a 
kinsman  of  Lord  Fairfax.  Many  visitors  went 
to  Greenway  Court,  and  the  hospitable  owner 
always  treated  everybody  kindly.  There  Lord 
Fairfax  lived  during  the  storms  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  and  of  the  Revolution,  taking 
no  part  in  public  affairs,  but  always  a  stanch 
loyalist.  When  the  news  came  that  his  young 
friend  Washington  had  captured  Cornwallis, 
he  was  ninety  years  of  age.  He  was  over¬ 
come  with  emotion,  and  he  called  to  his  body- 
servant,  Joe,  to  carry  him  to  his  bed,  “  for  I  am 


other  outrages  reached  the  United  States,  the 
President,  always  prompt  in  the  vindication  of 
the  rights  of  his  countrymen  against  foreign 
aggressors,  sent  Captain  Duncan,  in  the  ship- 
of-war  Lexington,  to  protect  American  sealers  in 
that  region.  In  December,  1831,  he  broke  up 
Vernet’s  establishment,  restored  the  captured 
property  to  the  owners,  and  sent  seven  of  the 
most  prominent  actors  to  Buenos  Ayres  for 
trial.  The  authorities  of  that  republic  were 
indignant  at  this  treatment  of  Vernet,  as  he 
was  under  the  protection  of  their  flag,  but  they 
did  not  think  it  proper  to  pursue  the  affair  be¬ 
yond  a  vigorous  protest. 

Fall  of  British  Posts.  In  the  course  of  one 
week  (in  1781)  four  British  posts  on  the  verge 
of  the  upper  country  of  South  Carolina  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Americans.  These  posts  formed 


FALL  OF  FORT  SUMTER 


464 


FALL  OF  FORT  SUMTER 


part  of  a  line  of  military  connection  between 
Charleston  and  Camden,  and  so  on  to  Ninety- 
six.  Greene  sent  out  Marion  and  Lee  to  at¬ 
tempt  their  capture,  and  they  were  successful. 
Orangeburg  was  taken  May  11 ;  Fort  Motte,  May 
12;  the  post  at  Nelson’s  Ferry,  May  14 ;  and  Fort 
Granby,  May  16.  Nelson’s  Ferry  is  ou  the  San¬ 
tee,  at  the  mouth  of  Eutaw  Creek,  about  fifty 
miles  from  Charleston.  Fort  Nelson,  situated  a 
few  miles  above,  was  captured  on  April  16.  Fort 
Motte  was  near  the  junction  of  the  Wateree  and 
Congaree  rivers,  and  was  the  most  important 
of  all  these  minor  posts. 

Fall  of  Fort  Sumter.  For  three  months  af¬ 
ter  the  expulsion  of  the  Star  of  the  West  from 
Charleston  harbor,  Major  Anderson  and  his  lit¬ 
tle  garrison  in  Fort  Sumter  suffered  and  toiled 
until  their  provisions  were  exhausted,  and  a 
formidable  army  and  forts  and  batteries,  all  pre¬ 
pared  for  the  reduction  of  that  fort,  had  grown 
up  around  them.  The  Charleston  newspapers 
and  politicians  at  public  gatherings  had  been 
constantly  inflaming  the  public  mind  with  po¬ 
litical  excitement,  calling  the  fort  the  “  Bastile 
of  the  Federal  Union,”  and  declared  that  “the 
fate  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  hung  by  the 
ensign  halyards  of  Fort  Sumter.”  The  Legis¬ 
lature  of  South  Carolina  authorized  the  organ¬ 
ization  of  ten  thousand  men,  and  M.  L.  Bonham, 
late  member  of  Congress,  was  appointed  major- 
general  of  the  state  forces.  Volunteers  from  ev¬ 
ery  part  of  the  Confederacy  flocked  into  Charles¬ 
ton,  and  at  the  close  of  March  not  less  than  sev¬ 
en  thousand  armed  men  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty  pieces  of  cannon,  mounted  on  logs  and 
earthworks,  were  menacing  Major  Anderson  and 
his  little  gai’rison.  These  were  uuder  the  gen¬ 
eral  command  of  P.  G.  T.  Beauregard,  a  Louisi¬ 
ana  Creole,  who  had  deserted  his  flag,  and  been 
commissioned  a  brigadier -general  by  Jefferson 
Davis.  He  had  arrived  at  Charleston  on  March 
4.  Fort  Sumter  had  been  built  for  defence 
against  external,  not  internal  foes.  Its  strong¬ 
est  sides  were  towards  the  sea ;  its  weakest 
side  was  towards  Morris  Island,  three  fourths 
of  a  mile  distant.  On  that  side  were  its  sally¬ 
port  and  docks.  On  that  island  the  insurgents 
erected  a  formidable  battery,  shielded  by  rail¬ 
road  iron,  making  it  bomb-proof.  Two  other 
batteries  were  erected  ou  the  same  island,  and 
armed  with  Columbiads  and  mortars.  They 
were  all  fully  manned.  At  Fort  Moultrie  and 
other  points  were  batteries  bearing  on  Sum¬ 
ter.  The  insurgents  had  also  created  a  curious 
monster  for  the  water,  in  the  form  of  a  huge  float¬ 
ing-battery,  made  of  pine  and  palmetto  logs,  and 
plated  with  railway  -  iron.  Major  Anderson’s 
bearing  had  won  for  him  the  most  cordial  es¬ 
teem  of  the  civil  authorities  in  Charleston.  The 
faithful  Peter  Hart  was  his  judicious  messenger 
on  all  occasions  (see  Fort  Sumter ,  First  Reinforce¬ 
ment  of),  and  his  trusted  caterer  for  the  garrison 
in  fresh  provisions  in  the  Charleston  market.  A 
source^of  great  anxiety  had  been  removed  when, 
on  Feb.  3,  the  women  and  children  (twenty  in 
number)  were  removed  from  the  fort  and  taken 
to  New  York.  During  March  rumors  were  ev¬ 
erywhere  afloat  that  the  government  was  about 


to  give  up  Fort  Sumter  to  the  Carolinians.  An¬ 
derson  was  perplexed  by  these  rumors,  but  held 
firmly  to  his  determination  to  defend  it.  Beau¬ 
regard  made  (March  25)  a  proposition  for  its 
surrender  ou  degrading  terms,  to  which  the  ma¬ 
jor  replied  with  warmth,  “If  I  can  only  be  per¬ 
mitted  to  leave  on  the  pledge  you  mention,  I 
shall  never,  so  help  me  God,  leave  this  fort  alive.” 
Beauregard  apologized.  The  message  of  the 
President  to  Governor  Pickens  (see  Relief  of  Fort 
Sumter )  produced  a  crisis.  It  caused  intense  ex¬ 
citement  throughout  the  Confederacy,  and  espe¬ 
cially  at  Charleston.  Beauregard  received  a 
despatch  from  the  government  at  Montgomery 
(April  10),  conditionally  authorizing  him  to  de¬ 
mand  the  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter.  He  deter¬ 
mined  to  make  the  demand  at  twelve  o’clock 
the  next  day.  All  the  military  and  the  batte¬ 
ries  around  Charleston  harbor  were  made  ready 
for  action.  Politicians  had  been  urging  this  blow 
for  some  time.  Roger  A.  Pryor,  lately  a  member 
of  Congress  from  Virginia,  and  a  venerable  man 
from  the  same  state  named  Edmund  Ruffin  were 
among  the  foremost  in  urging  an  attack  upon 
Fort  Sumter.  They  wished  it  for  its  effect  on 
the  politics  of  the  state.  The  Virginia  Conven¬ 
tion  was  yet  full  of  Unionists.  (See  Virginia 
Secession  Ordinance.)  On  the  night  of  the  10th, 
while  Charleston  was  rocked  with  excitement, 
Pryor  harangued  the  multitude  on  the  occasion 
of  his  being  serenaded.  He  thanked  the  Carolin¬ 
ians  for  having  “annihilated  this  cursed  Union, 
reeking  with  corruption,  and  insolent  with  ex¬ 
cess  of  tyranny.  Thank  God,”  he  said,  “  it  is  at 
last  blasted  and  riven  by  the  lightning  wrath, 
of  an  outraged  and  indignant  people.”  Refer¬ 
ring  to  the  doubtful  position  of  Virginia,  he  said : 
“  Do  not  distrust  Virginia.  As  sure  as  to-mor¬ 
row’s  sun  will  rise  upon  us,  just  so  sure  will  Vir¬ 
ginia  be  a  member  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 
And  I  will  tell  you,  gentlemen,  what  will  put 
her  in  the  Southern  Confederacy  in  less  than 
an  hour  by  Shrewsbury  clock  —  Strike  a  Mow! 
The  very  moment  that  blood  is  shed,  Old  Virginia 
will  make  common  cause  with  her  sisters  of  the 
South.”  This  cry  for  blood,  sent  to  Montgom¬ 
ery  by  telegraph,  was  repeated  at  the  capital  of 
the  Confederacy.  Mr.  Gilchrist,  a  member  of  the 
Alabama  Legislature,  said  to  Davis  and  his  com¬ 
peers,  “  Gentlemen,  unless  you  sprinkle  blood  in 
the  faces  of  the  people  of  Alabama,  they  will  be 
back  in  the  old  Union  in  less  thau  ten  days.” 
The  order  went  to  Beauregard  to  strike  the 
blow.  At  noon,  on  April  11,  he  sent  messengers 
to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  fort.  Anderson 
promptly  refused,  but  told  the  messengers  that, 
unless  his  government  sent  him  relief  before  the 
15th,  he  would  be  compelled  to  evacuate  the  fort 
for  want  of  supplies.  Towards  midnight,  after 
communicating  with  Montgomery,  Beauregard 
sent  the  same  messengers  to  Anderson,  telling 
him  if  he  would  agree  to  evacuate  the  fort  on 
the  15th  it  should  not  be  attacked.  He  prom¬ 
ised  to  do  so,  unless  he  should  be  relieved.  This 
answer  was  given  at  two  o’clock  ou  the  morning 
of  the  12th.  Anderson  did  not  know  what  his 
government  was  doing  for  him,  for  a  messenger 
from  Washington  had  been  detained  in  Charles- 


FALL  OF  FORT  SUMTER 


465 


FALL  OF  FORT  SUMTER 


ton.  The  insurgents  did  know.  On  the  previ¬ 
ous  evening,  scouts  had  discovered  the  Pawnee 
and  Harriet  Lane  outside  Charleston  bar,  bat¬ 
tling  with  the  storm.  Their  report  startled  the 
Charleston  authorities.  No  time  was  to  be  lost, 
for  relief  for  Anderson  was  nigh.  At  midnight 
the  discharge  of  seven  heavy  guns  had  given 
a  signal  for  all  the  reserves  to  congregate.  The 
people  rushed  to  the  streets,  and  were  scarcely 
in  repose  again,  when  they  were  awakened  by 
another  alarm.  Word  had  been  sent  to  Ander¬ 
son  that  a  bombardment  of  the  fort  was  about 
to  commence.  Suddenly  the  dull  booming  of  a 
mortar  at  Fort  Johnson  was  heard,  and  a  fiery 
shell  went  flying  through  the  black  night.  Then 


the  great  guns  on  Morris  Island  opened  upon 
Fort  Sumter,  and  a  furious  attack  began.  At 
his  own  request,  the  venerable  Virginian  Ed¬ 
mund  Ruffin  fired  the  first  shot  at  Sumter. 
Other  batteries  opened.  Fort  Sumter  remained 
silent.  The  men  were  in  the  bomb-proofs,  for 
there  were  not  enough  to  man  the  guns  prop¬ 
erly.  The  officers  and  men  were  arranged  in 
three  reliefs.  The  first  was  commanded  by  Cap¬ 
tain  Doubleday,  the  second  by  Surgeon  Craw¬ 
ford,  and  the  third  by  Lieutenant  Snyder.  Thus 
prepared,  Anderson  ordered,  at  seven  o’clock  in 
the  morning,  a  reply  to  the  attack.  The  first 
shot  was  sent  by  Captain  Doubleday,  at  the 
strong  battery  on  Morris  Island,  when  all  the 
other  batteries  were  assailed  by  shots  from  Fort 
Sumter.  The  first  shot  sent  against  Fort  Moul¬ 
trie  was  fired  by  Surgeon  (afterwards  Major- 
general)  Crawford.  It  was  caught  in  the  sand¬ 
bags,  and  afterwards  sent  as  a  present  to  George 
P.  Kane,  chief  of  Police  of  Baltimore,  one  of  the 
most  active  disunionists  there.  For  four  hours 
this  combat  lasted,  when  the  firing  from  the 
batteries  became  more  concentrated,  and  told 
fearfully  upon  the  walls  and  parapets.  Some 
of  the  barbette  guns  were  dismounted  and  oth¬ 
erwise  disabled,  and  the  barracks  were  set  on 
tire.  The  garrison  had  heard  rumors  of  ap¬ 
proaching  relief,  and  when  the  storm  of  shot 
I.— 30 


and  shell  beat  hardest,  Surgeon  Crawford  as- 
scended  to  the  parapet,  and  beheld  the  relief- 
vessels  through  the  misty  air.  They  could  not 
get  over  the  bar,  for  its  sinuous  channel  was  un¬ 
certain.  The  workmen  at  the  guns  in  the  fort 
received  food  and  drink  while  at  their  posts,  and 
they  toiled  on  wearily  until  dark,  when  the  port¬ 
holes  were  closed.  The  ensuing  night  was  dark 
and  stormy,  with  high  wind  aud  tide.  A  slow 
bombardmeut  of  the  fort  was  kept  up  all  night. 
The  storm  ceased  before  the  dawn.  The  sun  rose 
in  splendor.  The  cannonade  aud  bombardmeut 
was  fiercely  renewed.  Red-hot  shot  were  hurl¬ 
ed  into  the  fort.  The  barracks  and  officers’ 
quarters  were  consumed.  The  powder-maga¬ 
zine  was  shielded  as  well  as 
possible.  On  the  morning  of 
the  13th  no  food  was  left  for 
the  garrison  to  eat  but  salted 
pork.  The  flames  spread,  and 
the  sally-port  was  consumed. 
To  prevent  explosion,  ninety 
barrels  of  gunpowder  were 
rolled  into  the  water.  The  heat 
aud  vapor  became  stifling  in 
the  fort,  yet  the  exhausted  gar¬ 
rison  kept  the  old  flag  flying. 
Eight  times  its  staff  had  been 
hit  without  serious  injury  ;  but 
at  near  two  o’clock  that  day 
the  staff  was  shot  off  near  the 
peak,  and,  with  the  flag,  fell 
among  the  gleaming  cinders. 
Lieutenant  Hall  rescued  the 
precious  bunting  before  it  took 
fire.  Peter  Hart  (see  Fort  Sum¬ 
ter,  First  Reinforcement  of),  car¬ 
ried  it,  with  thepiece  of  the  staff, 
and  fastened  it,  where  the  soiled 
banner  was  kept  flying  defiantly.  Not  far  off, 
eighty-five  years  before,  a  flag  had  been  plant¬ 
ed  by  Sergeant  Jasper,  battling  for  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  American  nationality ;  now  defend¬ 
ers  of  the  flag  were  battling  for  its  mainte¬ 
nance.  At  about  this  hour  Senator  Wigfall 
appeared  at  the  fort,  to  persuade  Anderson  to 
surrender,  but  failed.  (See  Wigfall  at  Fort 
Sumter.)  Soon  afterwards  aids  came  from 
Beauregard  for  the  same  purpose ;  and  theu 
other  deputations  appeared ;  but  Anderson  re¬ 
fused  to  surrender  the  fort.  Finally,  when 
shot  and  shell  and  flame  and  lack  of  food  had 
rendered  the  garrison  helpless,  he  agreed  to 
evacuate  the  fort,  the  garrison  departing  with 
company  arms  and  property  and  all  private 
property,  and  the  privilege  of  saluting  and 
retaining  the  old  flag.  Not  one  of  the  gar¬ 
rison  had  been  killed  or  seriously  injured. 
That  night  they  enjoyed  undisturbed  repose. 
The  bombardment  had  lasted  thirty-six  hours, 
and  over  three  thousand  shot  and  shell  had 
been  hurled  at  the  fort.  The  evacuation  took 
place  the  following  day  —  the  Sabbath  (April 
14,  1861)  —  and  the  garrison  was  carried  in 
a  small  steamboat  out  to  the  Baltic,  and  all 
sailed  for  New  York.  The  fort  had  been 
evacuated,  not  surrendered.  Anderson  bore 
away  the  flag  of  Sumter,  which  was  used 


4G6  FALLEN  TIMBERS,  BATTLE  OF 


FALL  OF  MACKINAW 

as  his  winding  -  sheet,  and  was  buried  with 
him. 

Fall  of  Mackinaw  (1812).  Fort  Holmes,  on 
the  Island  of  Mackinaw  (which  see),  was  garri¬ 
soned,  in  1812,  hy  fifty -seven  American  sol¬ 
diers,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  Porter 
Haucks,  of  the  United  States  Artillery.  It  was 


Important  as  a  defence  of  the  fur-traders  and 
a  check  upon  the  neighboring  Indians.  The 
fort  was  on  a  bluff  overlooking  the  tine  harbor, 
and  with  an  uninterrupted  view  of  Lake  Hu¬ 
ron  on  the  northwest  and  Lake  Michigan  on  the 
west.  It  was  commanded  hy  the  higher  ground 
in  the  rear,  on  which  was  a  stockade,  defended 
by  two  block -houses,  each  mounting  a  brass 
6-pounder.  It  was  isolated  from 
the  haunts  of  men  more  than 
half  the  year  by  harriers  of  ice 
and  snow,  and  exposed  to  at¬ 
tacks  by  the  British  and  Indians 
at  Fort  St.  Joseph,  on  an  island 
forty  miles  northeast  from  Mack¬ 
inaw,  then  commanded  by  Cap¬ 
tain  Charles  Roberts.  When  Sir 
Isaac  Brock,  governor  of  Upper 
Canada,  received  at  Fort  George, 
on  the  Niagara  River,  from  Brit¬ 
ish  spies,  notice  of  the  declara¬ 
tion  of  war,  he  despatched  an 
express  to  Roberts,  ordering  him 
to  attack  Mackinaw  immediate¬ 
ly.  He  was  directed  to  summon 
to  his  assistance  the  neighbor¬ 
ing  Indians,  and  to  ask  the  aid 
of  the  employes  of  the  North¬ 
western  Fur  Company.  On  the 
morning  of  July  16,  Roberts  em¬ 
barked  with  a  strong  motley 
force,  civilized  and  barbarian,  in 
boats,  bateaux,  and  canoes,  with 
two  6-pounders,  and  convoyed  by  the  brig  Cale¬ 
donia,  belonging  to  the  Northwestern  Fur  Com¬ 
pany,  loaded  with  provisions  and  stores.  Haucks, 


suspicious  of  mischief,  sent  Captain  Danrman  to 
St.  Joseph,  to  observe  the  temper  and  disposition 
of  the  British  there.  On  his  way  he  met  the  hos¬ 
tile  flotilla,  and  was  made  a  prisouer.  News  of 
the  declaration  of  war  had  not  reached  the  far- 
off  post  of  Mackinaw.  The  overwhelming  force 
under  Roberts  landed,  and  took  possession  of 
the  fort  and  island.  The  sum¬ 
mons  to  surrender  was  the  first 
intimation  that  Hancks  had  of 
the  declaration  of  war.  The  In¬ 
dians  were  ready  to  massacre 
the  whole  garrison  if  any  re¬ 
sistance  were  made.  Fortu¬ 
nately,  it  was  surrendered  with¬ 
out  firing  a  gun. 

Fallen  Timbers,  Battle  of. 
On  the  morning  of  Aug.  20, 1794, 
General  Wayne,  on  his  campaign 
in  the  Indian  wilderness  (see 
Wayne's  Indian  Campaign),  ad¬ 
vanced  with  his  whole  army 
from  his  camp  at  Roche  de  Bout, 
at  the  head  of  the  Maumee 
Rapids,  according  to  a  plan  of 
march  prepared  by  his  young 
aide-de-camp,  Lieuteuant  Will¬ 
iam  Henry  Harrison.  He  had 
proceeded  about  five  miles,  when 
they  were  smitten  with  a  ter¬ 
rible  volley  of  bullets  from  a 
concealed  foe,  and  compelled  to 
fall  back.  They  were  on  the  borders  of  a  vast 
prairie,  at.  a  dense  wood,  in  'which  a  tornado  had 
prostrated  many  trees,  making  the  movements 
of  mounted  men  very  difficult,  and  forming  an 
excellent  cover  for  the  foe,  who  were  composed 
of  Canadians  and  Indians,  two  thousand  in  num¬ 
ber,  posted  on  their  lines  within  supporting  dis¬ 
tance  of  each  other.  But  Wayne’s  troops  fell 


upon  them  with  fearful  energy,  and  made  them 
flee  towards  the  British  Fort  Miami,  below,  like  a 
herd  of  frightened  deer  for  cover.  In  one  hour  the 


FORT  MACKINACK,  OR  MACKINAW. 


TURKEY-FOOT’S  ROCK. 


FANNING 


FALLING  WATERS,  SKIRMISH  NEAR  467 


victory  was  complete.  The  fugitives  left  forty  of 
their  number  dead  in  the  pathway  of  their  flight. 
By  the  side  of  each  dead  body  lay  a  musket  and 
bayonet  from  British  armories.  Wayne  lost  in 
killed  and  wounded  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  men ;  the  loss  of  his  foes  was  not  ascer¬ 
tained.  On  the  battle-ground,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Maumee  Rapids,  is  a  limestone  rock,  on  which 
are  numerous  carvings  of  birds’  feet.  It  is  a 
stone  upon  which  Me-sa-sa,  or  Turkey  -  foot,  a 
renowned  chief,  leaped  when  he  saw  his  line  of 
dusky  warriors  giving  way,  and  by  voice  and 
gesture  endeavored  to  make  them  stand  firm. 
He  fell,  pierced  by  a  musket-ball,  and  died  by 
the  side  of  the  rock.  Members  of  his  tribe  carved 
turkeys’  feet  upon  the  stone  in  commemoration 
of  him,  and  for  many  years  men,  women,  and 
children,  passing  there,  would  linger  at  the 
stone,  place  dried  beef,  parched  corn,  and  pease, 
or  some  cheap  trinket  upon  it,  and,  calling  upon 
the  name  of  Me-sa-sa,  weep  piteously.  The  carv¬ 
ings  perpetuate  the  English  name  of  the  chief. 

Falling  Waters,  Skirmish  near.  Embar¬ 
rassing  telegraphic  despatches  were  received  by 
General  Patterson  near  Harper’s  Ferry  (see  Evac¬ 
uation  of  Harper's  Ferry )  late  in  June.  He  was 
eager  to  advance,  though  Johnston  had  a  greatly 
superior  force.  He  made  a  reconuoissance  on  the 
1st  of  July,  and  on  the  2d,  with  the  permission 
of  Scott,  he  put  the  whole  army  across  the  river 
at  Williamsport,  and  pushed  on  in  the  direction 
of  the  camp  of  the  insurgents.  Near  Falling  Wa¬ 
ters,  five  miles  from  the  ford  they  had  crossed, 
the  advanced  guard,  under  Colonel  John  J.  Ab¬ 
ercrombie,  which  had  arrived  at  four  o’clock 
A.  M.,  fell  in  with  Johnston’s  advance,  consisting 
of  three  thousand  five  hundred  infantry,  with 
Pendleton’s  battery  of  field-artillery,  and  a  large 
force  of  cavalry,  under  Colonel  J.  E.  B.  Stuart, 
the  whole  commanded  by  the  leader  afterwards 
known  as  “  Stonewall”  Jackson.  Abercrombie, 
with  a  section  of  Perkins’s  battery,  under  Lieu¬ 
tenant  Hudson,  supported  by  the  first  troop  of 
Philadelphia  cavalry,  advanced  to  attack  the 
foe  with  a  warm  fire  of  musketry.  A  severe 
conflict  ensued,  in  which  McMullen’s  Philadel¬ 
phia  Independent  Rangers  participated.  In  less 
than  half  an  hour,  when  Hudson’s  cannons  had 
silenced  those  of  the  insurgents,  and  Colonel 
George  H.  Thomas  was  coming  up  to  the  sup¬ 
port  of  Abercrombie,  Jackson,  perceiving  his 
peril,  fled,  and  was  hotly  pursued  for  about  five 
miles,  when,  the  insurgents  being  reinforced,  the 
pursuit  ceased.  This  event  occurred  July  2, 1861, 

Falmouth  (now  Portland)  Burned.  British 
cruisers  hovered  along  the  New  England  coast 
in  1775,  and  landed  men  occasionally  in  quest  of 
supplies.  They  were  sometimes  rudely  handled 
by  the  people.  One  of  their  cruisers,  command¬ 
ed  by  Lieutenant  Mowatt,  was  sent  to  Falmouth, 
where  the  loading  of  a  royal  mast  ship  had  been 
obstructed,  and  Mowatt  himself  had  been  arrest¬ 
ed  and  treated  somewhat  rudely  a  short  time 
before.  On  the  refusal  of  the  inhabitants  to 
give  up  their  arms,  and  after  allowing  two  hours 
for  the  removal  of  the  women  and  children,  he 
bombarded  the  town,  and  five  hundred  houses 


were  presently  in  flames.  The  courageous  towns¬ 
people  defeated  Mowatt’s  attempt  to  land. 

Falmouth,  Treaty  at.  The  Penobscot  and 
Norridgewock  Indians  sent  delegates  to  a  con¬ 
ference  at  Boston  (June  23, 1749),  and  there  pro¬ 
posed  to  treat  for  peace  and  friendship  with  the 
New-Euglanders.  A  treaty  was  soou  afterwards 
made  at  Falmouth,  N.  H.,  between  them  and  the 
St.  Francis  Indians,  by  which  peace  was  estab¬ 
lished.  At  a  conference  held  at  St.  George’s,  in 
York  County,  Me.  (Sept.  20,  1753),  the  treaty  at 
Falmouth  was  ratified  by  more  than  thirty  of 
the  Penobscot  chiefs;  but  the  next  year,  when 
hostilities  between  France  and  England  began 
anew,  these  eastern  Indians  showed  signs  of  en¬ 
mity  to  the  English.  With  five  hundred  men, 
the  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  accompanied  by 
Colonel  Mascarene,  a  commissioner  from  Nova 
Scotia,  Major-general  Winslow,  commander  of 
the  forces,  and  other  persons  of  rank,  embarked 
at  Boston  to  hold  another  conference  with  these 
Indians  at  Falmouth.  There,  at  the  last  of  June 
(1754),  former  treaties  were  ratified. 

Family  Compact.  On  Aug.  15,  1761,  Choi- 
seul,  the  able  French  minister,  brought  about, 
by  treaty,  a  firm  alliance  between  France  and 
Spain — a  family  compact  that  eventually  proved 
beneficial  to  the  English-American  colonies.  It 
was  designed  to  unite  all  the  branches  of  the 
House  of  Bourbon  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  mari- 
,  time  ascendency  of  England.  It  was  agreed 
that  at  the  conclusion  of  the  then  existiug  war 
Frauce  and  Spain,  in  the  whole  extent  of  their 
dominions,  were  to  stand  as  one  State  towards 
foreign  powers.  This  treaty  secured  to  the 
American  colonies,  in  advance,  the  aid  of  Charles 
III.  of  Spain.  A  special  convention  was  con¬ 
cluded  the  same  day  between  Frauce  and  Spain, 
by  which  the  latter  agreed  to  declare  war  agaiust 
England  unless  peace  between  Frauce  and  Eng¬ 
land  should  be  concluded  before  May,  1762. 
Choiseul  covenanted  with  Spain  that  Portugal 
should  be  compelled,  and  Savoy,  Holland,  and 
Denmark  should  be  invited,  to  join  in  a  federa¬ 
tive  union  11  for  the  common  advantage  of  all 
maritime  powers.”  Pitt  proposed  to  declare  war 
against  Spain,  but  was  outvoted,  and  resigned 
(Oct,  5,  1761). 

Fanning,  David,  one  of  the  most  desperate 
of  the  North  Carolina  Tories  during  the  war  for 
independence,  was  born  in  Wake  County,  N.  C., 
about  1756;  died  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1825.  He 
was  a  carpenter  by  trade,  and  led  a  vagabond 
life,  sometimes  trading  with  Indians.  Late  in 
the  Revolution  he  joined  the  Tories  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  revenge  for  injuries  inflicted  upon  him. 
He  gathered  a  small  band  of  desperadoes  like 
himself,  and  laid  waste  whole  settlements  and 
committed  fearful  atrocities.  For  these  services 
ho  received  the  commission  of  lieutenant  from 
the  British  commander  at  Wilmington  (Craig, 
which  see).  So  encouraged,  he  captured  many 
leading  Whigs,  and  hanged  those  against  whom 
he  held  personal  resentment.  At  one  time  he 
captured  a  whole  court  in  session,  and  carried 
off  judges,  lawyers,  clients,  officers,  and  some  of 
the  citizens.  Three  weeks  later  he  captured 


FANNING 


468 


FARRAGUT 


Colonel  Alston  and  thirty  men  in  his  own 
house,  and  soon  afterwards,  dashing  into  Hills¬ 
borough,  he  captured  Governor  Burke  and  his 
suite,  and  some  of  the  principal  inhabitants. 
The  name  of  Fanning  became  a  terror  to  the 
country,  and  he  was  outlawed.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  fled  to  New  Brunswick,  where  he  be¬ 
came  a  member  of  the  Legislature.  About  1800 
he  was  sentenced  to  be  hanged  for  rape,  hut  es¬ 
caped.  (See  Model  North  Carolina  Tory.) 

Fanning,  Edmund,  LL.D.,  was  horn  on  L6ng 
Island,  N.  Y.,  in  1737 ;  died  in  Loudon,  Feb.  28, 
1818.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1757, 
and  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Hillsborough,  N.  C., 
where  he  became  popular,  and  was  made  colonel 


EDMUND  PANNING. 


of  Orange  County  (1763)  and  clerk  of  the  Su¬ 
preme  Court  (1765).  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Legislature,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
Governor  Tryou.  He  became  rapacious,  aud  by 
his  exorbitant  legal  fees  made  himself  very  ob¬ 
noxious  to  the  people.  Their  hatred  was  increased 
by  his  energetic  exertions  in  suppressing  the 
Regulator  movement.  (See  Regulators.)  He  fled 
to  New  York  with  Governor  Tryou  to  avoid  the 
consequences  of  popular  indignation.  He  was 
appointed  surveyor-general  of  North  Carolina  in 
1774.  In  1776  he  raised  and  led  a  force  called 
“the  King’s  American  Regiment  of  Foot.”  After 
the  Revolution  he  went  to  Nova  Scotia,  where 
he  bechme  a  councillor  and  lieutenant-governor 
in  September,  1783,  and  from  1786  to  1805  he 
was  Governor  of  Prince  Edward’s  Island.  He 
rose  to  the  rank  of  general  in  the  British  army 
in  1808.  Fanning  was  an  able  jurist,  and  .al¬ 
ways  regretted  his  later  career  in  North  Caro¬ 
lina.  He  was  greatly  influenced  by  his  father- 
in-law. 

Farewell  Address  of  Washington.  It  was 

the  wish  of  a  majority  of  the  American  people 
that  Washington  should  hold  the  office  of  chief 
magistrate  for  a  third  time.  He  yearned  for  the 
happiness  of  private  life,  and  he  would  not  con¬ 
sent;  and  in  the  fall  of  1796  John  Adams  was 
elected  President  of  the  United  States.  Before 
the  election  took  place,  Washington  issued 
(Sept.  17)  a  farewell  address  to  the  people.  It 
was  an  earnest  appeal  to  them  to  preserve  the 
Union  of  the  States  as  the  only  sure  hope  for  the 
continuance  of  their  liberties,  and  of  the  na¬ 
tional  life  and  prosperity.  Wheu  the  President 


had  written  out  his  address,  he  submitted  it  to 
Hamilton,  Jay,  and  Madison  for  their  criticism 
and  suggestions.  This  was  done.  Several  sug¬ 
gestions  were  made  aud  a  few  verbal  alterations. 
Unwilling  to  mar  the  draught  which  Washing¬ 
ton  had  submitted  to  them,  Hamilton  made  a 
copy,  introducing  a  few  grafts  and  making  few¬ 
er  primings,  and  returned  it  to  the  President. 
The  latter  adopted  most  of  the  suggestions,  and, 
making  a  fair  copy  in  his  own  handwriting,  sent 
it  to  the  printer  (C.  Claypoole,  of  Philadelphia), 
who  published  a  daily  paper,  and  in  that  it  was 
first  printed.  The  original  MS.  of  this  address 
was  in  the  possession  of  the  late  Robert  Len¬ 
nox,  of  New  York.  It  was  also  published  on  a 
handsomely  printed  broadside,  with  a  portrait 
of  Washington  at  the  head,  drawn  by  Joseph 
Wright,  and  engraved  by  David  Edwin. 

Farmington  (Miss.),  Skirmish  at.  While 
the  National  troops  were  pressing  on  Corinth 
(see  Corinth,  Evacuation  of),  General  Pope  sent 
Generals  Paine  and  Palmer  towards  the  hamlet 
of  Farmington,  five  miles  from  Corinth,  then  oc¬ 
cupied  by  Missouri  troops,  under  Marmaduke, 
about  4500  in  number.  They  were  in  the  woods 
around  a  little  log  meeting-house.  The  Na¬ 
tionals  attacked  Marmaduke  (May  23, 1862),  and, 
after  a  sharp  skirmish,  Marmaduke  fled  to  the 
lines  at  Corinth,  leaving  of  his  command  about 
thirty  men  slain  and  one  hundred  wounded,  also 
his  camp  with  all  his  supplies,  and  two  hundred 
prisoners.  The  National  loss  was  two  killed  and 
eleven  wounded. 

Farms.  The  number  of  acres  included  in  ac¬ 
tually  surveyed  farms  in  the  United  States  in 
1870  was  nearly  408,000,000.  Of  this  amount 
about  189,000,000  acres  were  unimproved.  The 
average  size  of  the  farms  was  153  acres.  The 
total  value  of  these  lands  was  $9,263,000,000. 
The  total  value  of  the  products,  including  the 
betterments  and  additions  to  live  stock,  was 
$2,500,000,000 ;  and  animals  slaughtered,  home 
manufactures,  forest,  market  -  garden,  and  or¬ 
chard  products,  increased  the  value  of  the  entire 
agricultural  products  to  $3,028,500,000,  or  equal 
to  the  entire  amount  of  the  national  debt  at 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  The  total  amount  of 
wages  paid  in  one  year  in  this  production  was  a 
little  more  than  $310,000,000. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow,  was  born  near 
Knoxville,  Teun.,  July  5,  1801;  died  at  Ports¬ 
mouth,  N.  H.,  Aug.  14,  1870.  His  father,  George 
Farragut,  was  a  native  of  Minorca;  came  to 
America  in  1776 ;  entered  the  Continental  Army  ; 
was  a  bugler,  it  is  supposed,  at  the  age  of  seven¬ 
teen,  in  the  battle  of  the  Cowpens,  where,  it  is 
erroneously  supposed,  he  saved  the  life  of  Col¬ 
onel  Washington  ;  attained  the  rank  of  major; 
settled  in  Tennessee ;  and  was  master  in  the 
United  States  Navy,  serving  under  Patterson  in 
the  defence  of  New  Orleans.  (See  Borgne,  Lake.) 
David  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  wheu 
between  nine  and  ten  years  of  age,  first  serving 
under  Porter,  and  was  with  him  in  the  terrible 
fight  at  Valparaiso.  He  was  raised  to  command¬ 
er  in  1841,  having  served  faithfully  up  to  that 
time.  Still  persevering  in  duty,  he  was  placed 


FAST  AND  FESTIVAL  IN  VIRGINIA  469 


FAY 


in  very  responsible  positions  afloat  and  ashore, 
and  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  was  in 
command  of  the  Brooklyn,  steam  sloop -of- war. 
He  commanded  the  naval  expedition  against 
New  Orleans  in  the  spring  of  1862,  having  the 
Hartford  as  his  flag-ship.  He  organized  the 


DAVID  GLASGOW  FARRAGUT. 


Western  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron  on  his  ar¬ 
rival  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  by  boldness  and 
skill,  with  admirable  assistants,  he  went  up  to 
New  Orleans  triumphantly.  (See  New  Orleans, 
Capture  of.)  He  operated  with  great  vigor  on 
the  Mississippi  River,  afterwards,  between  New 
Orleans  and  Vicksburg;  aud  on  July  16,  1862, 
he  was  placed  first  on  the  list  of  proposed  ad¬ 
mirals.  In  1863  he  co-operated  in  the  capture 
of  Port  Hudson,  and  in  August,  1864,  defeated 
the  Confederate  forces  in  Mobile  Bay.  His  ex¬ 
ploits  in  the  Gulf  region  gave  him  great  fame, 
and  in  December,  1864,  he  received  the  thanks 
of  Congress,  and  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  was 
created  expressly  on  his  account.  In  July,  1866, 
he  was  made  admiral.  He  visited  Europe,  Asia, 
aud  Africa  in  the  steamship  Franklin,  in  1867- 
68,  and  was  received  with  the  highest  honors. 

Fast  and  Festival  in  Virginia.  Acts  were 
passed  by  the  Virginia  Assembly  in  1662  mak¬ 
ing  the  30th  of  January — the  day  of  the  behead¬ 
ing  of  Charles  I.— a  yearly  fast;  and  the  29th 
of  May — the  birthday  and  anniversary  of  the 
restoration  to  the  throue  of  England  of  Charles 
II. — a  holiday. 

Fast-day  in  the  Southern  Confederacy 

(1861).  On  May  21, 1861,  the  Confederate  Con¬ 
gress  authorized  President  Davis  to  proclaim  a 
fast-day,  which  he  did  on  the  25th,  appointing 
June  13.  In  that  proclamation  he  said,  “  Know¬ 
ing  that  none  but  a  just  and  righteous  cause 
can  gain  the  divine  favor,  we  would  implore 
the  Lord  of  Hosts  to  guide  and  direct  our  policy 
in  the  paths  of  right,  duty,  justice,  and  mercy  ; 
to  unite  our  hearts  and  our  efforts  for  the  de¬ 
fence  of  our  dearest  rights ;  to  strengthen  our 
weakness,  crown  our  cause  with  success,  and 
enable  us  to  secure  a  speedy,  just,  and  honora¬ 
ble  peace.” 

Fast-day  in  Virginia  (1774).  The  inhabi¬ 


tants  of  the  Old  Dominion  were  profoundly 
moved  by  the  Boston  Port  Bill  (which  see),  and 
its  House  of  Burgesses,  on  May  24,  1774,  on  mo¬ 
tion  of  Robert  Carter  Nicholas,  adopted  a  reso¬ 
lution  recommending  to  the  people  of  the  colony 
that  the  day  on  which  the  Port  Bill  was  to  go 
into  operation  should  be  a  “  day  of  fasting  and 
prayer,  devoutly  to  implore  the  divine  interpo¬ 
sition  for  averting  the  dreadful  calamity  which 
threatened  destruction  to  their  civil  rights  and 
the  evils  of  civil  war ;  and  to  give  to  the  Amer¬ 
ican  people  one  heart  and  one  mind  firmly  to 
oppose,  by  all  just  and  proper  means,  every  in¬ 
jury  to  American  rights.”  George  Mason  (which 
see)  sent  word  for  his  whole  household  to  keep 
the  day  strictly,  and  to  attend  church  clad  in 
mourning. 

Father  of  his  Country.  An  endearing  name 
given  to  Washington  by  his  countrymen  early 
in  the  history  of  the  Republic,  and  still  used 
affectionately  by  them.  This  name  was  first 
given  to  Cicero  by  the  Roman  Senate  because 
of  his  zeal  and  courage  in  exposing  the  conspir¬ 
acy  of  Catiline.  It  was  afterwards  given  to 
several  of  the  Roman  Csesars.  The  authorities 
of  Florence  conferred  the  same  title  upon  the 
powerful  and  influential  Cosmo  de’  Medici,  aud 
it  is  inscribed  upon  his  tomb. 

Father  of  Waters.  A  popular  title  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  an  Indian  name  which  signi¬ 
fies  “great  water.”  This  significant  title  was 
given  because  of  the  great  length  (three  thou¬ 
sand  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles)  aud  volume  of 
the  river,  it  receiving  as  tributaries  eight  large 
streams,  besides  hundreds  of  smaller  ones,  that 
drain  an  immense  basin,  comprising  more  than 
one  million  two  hundred  thousand  square  miles. 

Fay,  Jonas,  was  born  at  Hardwick,  Mass., 
Jan.  17, 1737  ;  died  at  Beunington,  Vt.,  March  6, 
1818.  He  received  a  good  English  education, 
and  was  with  a  Massachusetts  regiment  at  Fort 
Edward  in  1756.  He  settled  at  Bennington  in 
1766,  and  became  prominent  in  the  disputes  be¬ 
tween  New  York  and  the  New  Hampshire  Grants 
(which  see).  He  was  the  agent  of  the  “  Grants  ” 
sent  to  New  York  in  1772  to  inform  Governor 
Tryon  of  the  grounds  of  their  complaint.  Mr. 
Fay  was  clerk  to  the  convention  (1774)  that  re¬ 
solved  to  defend  Ethan  Allen  and  other  leaders 
who  were  outlawed  by  the  New  Yoik  Assembly, 
by  force  if  necessary.  Being  a  physician,  he 
was  made  surgeon  of  the  expedition  against  Ti- 
coiuleroga  in  May,  1775,  and  was  afterwards  in 
Colonel  Warner’s  regiment.  He  was  also  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  convention  in  1777  that  declared  the 
independence  of  Vermont,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  declaration  then  adopted,  and  of  the  com¬ 
munication  announcing  the  fact  to  Congress. 
Dr.  Fay  was  secretary  of  the  convention  that 
formed  the  new  state  constitution  in  1777,  and 
one  of  the  Council  of  Safety  that  first  adminis¬ 
tered  the  government.  In  1782  he  was  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  state ;  agent  of  the 
state  to  Congress  at  different  times ;  and,  in 
conjunction  with  Ethan  Allen,  he  published  an 
account  of  the  New  York  and  New  Hampshire 
controversy. 


I 


FEBIGER  470  FEDERAL  CONVENTION 


Febiger,  Christian,  a  Dane,  and  a  soldier 
in  the  war  for  independence.  He  was  born  in 
Denmark  in  1747 ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
20,  1796.  He  had  seen  military  service  before 
entering  the  army  in  April,  1775.  He  was  in  the 
battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill,  where  he  led  a  portion 
of  a  regiment  of  which  he  was  adjutant ;  accom¬ 
panied  Arnold  to  Quebec  a  few  mouths  after¬ 
wards,  where  he  was  made  a  prisoner,  and  served 
with  great  fidelity  throughout  the  war.  He  was 
conspicuous  in  the  assault  on  Stony  Point  (July, 
1779),  leading  one  of  the  attacking  columns ; 
also  at  Yorktown,  where  he  commanded  the  Sec¬ 
ond  Virginia  Regiment,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel.  From  1789  till  his  death  Colo¬ 
nel  Febiger  was  treasurer  of  the  State  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania. 

Federal  Celebrations.  The  ratification  of 
the  National  Constitution  was  celebrated  at 
Philadelphia  (July  4,  1788)  with  imposing  cere¬ 
monies.  The  ten  ratifying  states  were  repre¬ 
sented  by  as  many  ships  moored  at  intervals  in 
the  Delaware,  along  the  front  of  the  city,  each 
displaying  at  her  mast-head  a  white  flag  bearing 
the  name  of  the  state  represented  in  golden  let¬ 
ters.  All  the  river  craft  were  embellished  with 
flags  and  streamers.  A  large  procession  paraded 
the  streets,  in  which  several  of  the  principal  cit¬ 
izens  personated,  in  appropriate  dresses,  some 
event,  such  as  “  Independence,”  the  “  French 
Alliance,”  the  “  Definitive  Treaty  of  Peace,” 
“Washington,”  the  “New  Era,”  the  “Federal 
Constitution,”  the  “  Ten  Ratifying  States.”  In 
a  car  in  the  form  of  an  eagle,  lofty  and  orna¬ 
mental,  sat  Chief-justice  McKean  and  two  of  his 
bench  associates,  bearing  a  framed  copy  of  the 
Constitution  on  a  staff.  The  car  and  its  con¬ 
tents  personified  the  new  Constitution.  On  the 
staff  was  a  cap  of  Liberty,  bearing  in  golden 
letters  the  legend  “  The  People.”  A  citizen  and 
an  Indian  chief  rode  together,  smoking  a  pipe 
of  peace,  personifying  peace  on  the  frontiers. 
Various  trades  were  represented  ;  also  the  ship¬ 
ping  interest,  and  different  associations  in  Phil¬ 
adelphia.  Altogether  there  were  about  five 
thousand  in  the  procession,  which  ended  at 
Union  Square,  where  seventeen  thousand  per¬ 
sons  were  addressed  by  James  Wilson,  who  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  framing  the  Constitution. 
The  oration  was  followed  by  a  collation.  About 
three  weeks  afterwards  a  similar  celebration  oc¬ 
curred  in  the  city  of  New  York,  where  a  large 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  were  in  favor  of  the 
Constitution.  Greenleafs  Political  Register  — 
auti-Federal  in  its  politics — contained  a  dispar¬ 
aging  account  of  the  celebration  ;  and  when,  a 
night  or  two  afterwards,  news  came  of  the  rati¬ 
fication  of  the  Constitution  by  the  convention 
in  session  at  Poughkeepsie,  a  mob  attacked  the 
printing-office,  broke  in  the  doors,  and  destroyed 
the  type.  The  people  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  were 
in  favor  of  the  Constitution,  and  were  preparing 
to  celebrate  its  ratification  on  the  4th  of  July, 
with  other  ceremonies  appropriate  to  the  day, 
when  one  thousand  men,  some  of  them  armed, 
headed  by  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court,  came 
iu  from  the  country,  and  compelled  the  citizens 
to  omit  in  the  celebration  anything  favorable  to 


the  Constitution.  A  more  violent  collision  took 
place  in  Albany.  The  friends  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tion  celebrated  its  ratification  on  the  3d  of  July, 
the  opponents  at  the  same  time  burning  it. 
Both  parties  united  in  celebrating  the  4th,  but 
dined  at  different  places.  After  dinner  the  Fed¬ 
eralists  formed  a  new  procession,  and  when  they 
were  passing  the  headquarters  of  the  auti-Fed- 
eral  party  a  quarrel  occurred,  followed  by  a 
fight,  in  which  clubs  and  stones,  swords  and 
bayonets,  were  freely  used,  to  the  injury  of  sev¬ 
eral  persons.  There  was  much  asperity  of  feel¬ 
ing  everywhere  exhibited.  A  new  convention 
to  amend  the  Constitution  was  proposed,  but 
was  never  held. 

Federal  Cities.  The  Congress  having  deter¬ 
mined  to  have  two  Federal  cities,  one  on  the 
Delaware  and  one  on  the  Potomac,  it  was  re¬ 
solved  at  the  annual  session  opened  at  Trenton, 
Nov.  1,  1784,  to  appoint  commissioners  to  lay 
out  one  of  these  projected  cities  near  the  falls 
of  the  Delaware,  and  erect  public  buildings 
there.  The  sum  of  $100,000  was  appropriated 
for  the  purpose.  It  was  also  voted  that  it  was 
then  inexpedient  to  erect  public  buildings  iu 
more  than  one  place.  In  January  following 
Congress  was  adjourned  to  New  York,  and  there 
it  continued  to  meet  for  several  years,  the  want 
of  funds  and  differences  of  opinion  preventing 
anything  being  done  towards  the  establishment 
of  a  permanent  seat  of  government. 

Federal  Convention,  Leading  Men  in  the. 
The  representatives  of  twelve  states  were  as¬ 
sembled  in  convention  at  Philadelphia  in  the 
summer  of  1787  to  prepare  a  constitution  of  gov¬ 
ernment  for  the  United  States  of  a  national 
character.  George  Washington,  a  delegate  from 
Virginia,  was  chosen  President,  and  William 
Jackson,  Secretary.  The  convention  was  com¬ 
posed  of  some  of  the  most  illustrious  citizens  of 
the  new  Republic.  There  was  the  aged  Frank¬ 
lin,  past  eighty-one  years  of  age,  ivlio  had  sat  in 
a  similar  convention  at  Albany  in  1754.  (See 
Albany,  Fourth  Colonial  Convention  at.)  John 
Dickinson,  of  Pennsylvania,  W.  S.  Johnson,  of 
Connecticut,  and  John  Rutledge,  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  had  been  members  of  the  Stamp  Act  Con¬ 
gress  at  New  York  iu  1765  (which  see).  Wash¬ 
ington,  Dickinson,  and  Rutledge  had  been  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Continental  Congress  of  1774.  From 
that  body  also  were  Roger  Sherman,  of  Connec¬ 
ticut,  William  Livingston,  Governor  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey, George  Read,  of  Delaware,  and  George  Wythe, 
of  Virginia.  From  among  the  siguers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  besides  Franklin, 
Read,  Wythe,  and  Sherman,  had  come  Elbridge 
Gerry,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Robert  Morris, 
George  Clymer,  and  James  Wilson,  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  Eighteen  members  had,  at  the  same  time, 
been  delegates  to  the  Continental  Congress ;  aud 
among  the  whole  number  there  were  ouly  twelve 
who  had  not  at  some  time  sat  in  that  body.  The 
officers  of  the  Revolution  were  represented  by 
Washington,  Mifflin,  Hamilton,  and  C.  C.  Pinck¬ 
ney.  Of  the  members  who  had  taken  conspic¬ 
uous  positions  since  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence,  the  most  prominent  were  Hamilton, 


FEDERAL  CONVENTION 


471 


FEDERALISTS 


Madison,  and  Edmund  Randolph,  then  the  suc¬ 
cessor  of  Patrick  Henry  as  governor  of  Virginia. 
The  members  who  took  the  leading  part  in  the 
debates  were  Gerry,  Gorham,  and  King,  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts;  Johnson,  Sherman,  and  Ellsworth, 
of  Connecticut;  Hamilton  and  Lansing,  of  New 
York ;  Paterson,  of  New  Jersey ;  Wilson,  Gou- 
verueur  Morris,  and  Franklin,  of  Pennsylvania ; 
Dickinson,  of  Delaware ;  Martin,  of  Maryland  ; 
Williamson,  of  North  Carolina  ;  and  Charles 
Cotesworth  Pinckney  and  Charles  Pinckney,  of 
South  Carolina.  Rhode  Island  had  refused  to 
elect  delegates  to  the  convention. 

Federal  Convention,  Members  of  the  (1787). 
The  following  are  the  names  of  the  members 
that  formed  the  National  Convention.  From 
New  Hampshire — JolinLangdon,  John  Pickering, 
Nicholas  Gilman,  and  Benjamin  West.  Massa¬ 
chusetts — Francis  Dana,  Elbridge  Gerry,  Nathan¬ 
iel  Gorham,  Rufus  King,  and  Caleb  Strong.  Con¬ 
necticut — William  Samuel  Johnson,  Roger  Sher¬ 
man,  and  Oliver  Ellsworth.  New  York — Robert 
Yates,  John  Lansing,  Jr., and  Alexander  Hamilton. 
New  Jersey  —  David  Brearley,  William  Church¬ 
ill  Houston,  William  Paterson,  John  Neilson, 
William  Livingston,  Abraham  Clark,  and  Jona¬ 
than  Dayton.  Pennsylvania  —  Thomas  Mifflin, 
Robert  Morris,  George  Clymer,  Jared  Inger- 
soll,  Thomas  Fitzsimons,  James  Wilson,  Gouver- 
neur  Morris,  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  Delaware 
— George  Read,  Gunning  Bedford,  Jr.,  John 
Dickinson,  Richard  Bassett,  and  Jacob  Broom. 
Maryland — James  McHenry,  Daniel  of  St.  Thom¬ 
as  Jenifer,  Daniel  Carroll,  John  Francis  Mercer, 
and  Luther  Martin.  Virginia  — -George  Wash¬ 
ington,  Patrick  Henry,  Edmund  Randolph,  John 
Blair,  James  Madison,  Jr.,  George  Mason,  and 
George  Wythe.  Patrick  Henry  having  declined 
the  appointment,  George  McClure  was  nomi¬ 
nated  to  supply  his  place.  North  Carolina— 
Richard  Caswell,  Alexander  Martin,  William 
Richardson  Davie,  Richard  Dobbs  Spaight,  and 
Willie  Jones.  Richard  Caswell  having  re¬ 
signed,  William  Blount  was  appointed  a  deputy 
in  his  place.  Willie  Jones  having  also  de¬ 
clined  his  appointment,  his  place  was  supplied 
by  Hugh  Williamson.  South  Carolina  —  John 
Rutledge,  Charles  Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth 
Pinckney,  and  Pierce  Butler.  Georgia — William 
Few,  Abraham  Baldwin,  William  Pierce,  George 
Walton,  William  Houston,  and  Nathaniel  Pen¬ 
dleton.  Fac- similes  of  the  signatures  of  the 
signers  of  the  Constitution,  copied  from  the 
original  in  the  archives  of  the  national  govern¬ 
ment,  are  given  on  pages  472  -  474.  William 
Jackson  was  secretary. 

Federal  Convention,  Rules  for  the.  A 
committee  was  appointed  to  report  rules  of  pro¬ 
ceeding  by  the  convention.  They  copied  them 
chielly  from  those  of  Congress,  and  their  report 
was  adopted.  Each  state  was  to  have  one  vote ; 
seven  states  were  to  constitute  a  quorum;  all 
committees  were  to  be  appointed  by  ballot;  the 
doors  were  to  be  closed,  and  an  injunction  of 
secrecy  was  placed  on  the  debates.  The  mem¬ 
bers  were  not  even  allowed  to  take  copies  of  the 
entries  on  the  journal.  (See  National  Constitution. ) 


Federal  Hall.  The  Continental  Congress, 
when  sitting  in  New  York,  had  been  accommo¬ 
dated  in  the  old  City  Hall,  northeast  corner  of 
Wall  and  Nassau  streets.  This  building  had 
fallen  into  decay  when  the  first  national  Con¬ 
gress  was  about  to  meet  there.  Desirous  of 
permanently  retaining  the  seat  of  the  national 
government  at  New  York,  and  to  provide  the 
national  Legislature  with  suitable  accommoda¬ 
tions,  several  wealthy  citizens  advanced  to  the 
city  treasury  (then  empty)  $32,500,  with  which 
the  old  buildiug  was  remodelled  and  extensively 
repaired.  The  name  of  “Federal  Hall”  was 


FEDERAL  HALL. 


given  to  it,  and  the  city  councils  placed  it  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Congress.  New  York  re¬ 
tained  the  national  capitol  only  a  short  time,  as 
it  was  removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1790,  and  re¬ 
mained  there  until  it  occupied  its  present  seat 
in  the  District  of  Columbia  (which  see)  in  1801. 

Federalists.  While  the  National  Constitution 
was  under  discussion  throughout  the  Union,  in 
1788,  and  it  was  passing  the  ordeal  of  state  con¬ 
ventions,  its  advocates  were  called  Federalists, 
because  the  effect  of  the  Constitution  would 
be  to  bind  the  several  states  more  closely  as 
a  so-called  confederation.  They  formed  a  dis¬ 
tinct  party  that  year,  and  held  supreme  polit¬ 
ical  power  in  the  Republic  until  the  close  of  the 
century.  The  leading  members  of  the  party 
were  Washington,  Hamilton,  Adams,  Jay,  and 
many  of  the  less  distinguished  patriots  of  the 
Revolution.  Their  opponents  were  called  Anti- 
Federalists.  (See  Republicans.)  In  the  contests 
of  the  French  Revolution,  which  had  influence 
upon  public  opinion  in  the  United  States,  the 
Federalists  leaned  towards  England,  and  the 
Anti-Federalists  or  Republicans  towards  France. 
In  the  presidential  election  in  1800,  the  Feder¬ 
alists  were  defeated  and  Jefferson  was  elected. 
The  party  became  unpopular  because  of  its  op¬ 
position  to  the  War  of  1812 ;  and  it  fell  into 
fatal  disrepute  because  of  the  Hartford  Conven¬ 
tion,  whose  proceedings,  done  in  secret,  were 
supposed  to  be  treasonable.  The  party  had 
become  so  weak  in  1816  that  Monroe,  the  Re¬ 
publican  candidate  for  President,  received  the 
electoral  votes  of  all  the  states  but  two.  At  his 
re-election,  in  1820,  the  vote  of  the  states  was 
unanimous  for  him.  Then  the  party  was  dis¬ 
banded. 


FEDERAL  CONVENTION 


472 


FEDERAL  CONVENTION 


signatures  to  the  constitution.  (See  Federal  Convention.) 


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FELLOWS 


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FfiNELON  IN  CANADA 


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Fellows,  John,  was  born  at  Pomfret,  Conn.,  in 
1733;  died  at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  Any.  1,  1808.  He 
was  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  (which  see)  ; 
•was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Provincial 
Congress  in  1775 ;  led  a  company  of  minute-men 
to  Cambridge  after  the  skirmish  at  Lexington, 
and  was  made  brigadier  of  militia  in  June,  1776. 


He  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  battles  of  Long 
Island,  White  Plains,  and  Bemis’s  Heights,  and 
was  very  active  in  the  capture  of  Burgoyne,  Oc¬ 
tober,  1777.  General  Fellows  was  high  sheriff 
of  Berkshire  County  after  the  war. 

Fenelon  in  Canada.  Francois  Salignac  F6n- 
elon,  the  famous  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  and  au- 


“  FENIANS  ”  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  474 


FENWICK 


t.hor  of  The  Adventures  of  Telemachus ,  while  yet 
an  inferior  in  orders,  was  sent  to  Canada  as  a 
missionary.  There,  as  afterwards  in  France,  he 
boldly  admonished  the  public  authorities  for 
their  shortcomings.  Frontenac  (which  see)  im¬ 
prisoned  F^nelon,  then  attached  to  the  Semi¬ 
nary  of  St.  Sulpice,  on  a  charge  of  having 
preached  against  him.  After  having  been  a 
missionary  in  Canada  two  years,  he  returned 
to  France.  He  probably  received  in  that  re¬ 
gion  some  hints  for  Telemachus. 

“Fenians"  in  the  United  States.  Notwith¬ 
standing  the  unfriendliness  and  positive  en¬ 
mity  of  the  government  of  Great  Britain  to  the 


United  States  during  the  Civil  War,  the  lat¬ 
ter  was  ever  faithful  to  its  treaty  stipulations. 
When,  in  the  spring  of  1866,  a  military  organi¬ 
zation  of  Irish  residents  in  the  United  States, 
known  as  “The  Fenian  Brotherhood,” associated 
for  the  avowed  purpose  of  freeing  Ireland  from 
British  domination,  made  a  movement  (May  and 
June)  for  a  formidable  invasion  of  the  neigh¬ 
boring  British  province  of  Canada,  the  United 
States  government,  instead  of  investing  them 
with  “  belligerent  rights,”  true  to  its  pledges 
concerning  neutrality  laws,  interfered,  and  sup¬ 
pressed  the  warlike  movement. 

Fenwick,  George,  proprietor  of  a  part  of 


FENWICK 


475 


FIELD 


Connecticut,  died  in  England  in  1657.  He  came 
to  America  in  1636  to  take  charge  of  the  infant 
colony  of  Saybrook  (which  see).  He  returned 
to  England,  and  came  back  in  1639,  and  from 
that  time  governed  Saybrook  till  December, 
1644,  when  its  jurisdiction  and  territory  were 
sold  to  the  Connecticut  colony  at  Hartford. 
Fenwick  was  appointed  one  of  the  judges  who 
tried  and  condemned  Charles  I. 

Fenwick,  John,  a  Friend  or  Quaker,  was  a 
founder  of  the  colony  of  West  Jersey.  He  was 
horn  in  England  in  1618;  died  in  1683,  after 
he  had  conveyed  his  claim  to  West  Jersey  to 
William  Penn.  (See  New  Jersey  Colony.)  Fen¬ 
wick  emigrated  to  West  Jersey  in  1675,  and  set¬ 
tled  at  Salem.  His  claim  was  resisted  by  Gov¬ 
ernor  Andros  of  New  York,  and  he  was  arrest¬ 
ed  and  cast  iuto  jail,  where  he  remained  about 
two  years.  He  lost  his  estate  and  died  poor. 

Ferguson,  Elizabeth  Gileme,  daughter  of 
Dr.  Graeme,  of  Graeme  Park,  near  Philadelphia, 
became  famous  during  the  Revolution  by  a  fu¬ 
tile  mission  which  she  good-naturedly  under¬ 
took.  She  was  a  cultivated  woman,  and  en¬ 
joyed  the  personal  friendship  of  many  eminent 
persons.  Her  husband  was  in  the  British  army, 
yet  she  possessed  the  esteem  and  confidence  of 
both  Whigs  aud  Tories.  Johnstone,  one  of  the 
Peace  Commissioners  sent  over  here  in  1778,  find¬ 
ing  they  could  do  nothing  with  the  Congress, 
employed  Mrs.  Ferguson  to  sound  General  Joseph 
Reed  as  to  his  disposition  to  aid  the  imperial 
government  in  bringing  about  a  reconciliation 
between  it  and  the  revolted  colonies.  She  was 
patriotic  aud  judicious.  Johnstone  instructed 
her  as  to  what  she  should  say  to  Reed,  aud  she 
performed  the  errand  without  losing  the  esteem 
of  any  one.  (See  Peace  Commissioners.)  Her  hus¬ 
band  never  joined  her  after  the  war.  His  es¬ 
tate  was  confiscated,  but  the  State  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  returned  a  part  of  it  to  her  in  1781.  She 
died  on  her  farm  in  Montgomery  County,  Penn., 
Feb.  23, 1801,  aged  sixty-one  years. 

Ferguson,  Patrick,  entered  the  British  army 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  came  to  America  in 
the  spring  of  1777,  serving  under  Cornwallis, 
first  in  the  North  and  then  in  the  South.  After 
the  siege  of  Charleston  in  1780,  he  was  promoted 
to  major,  and  was  detached  by  Cornwallis  to 
embody  the  Tories  in  Western  Carolina.  He 
was  killed  in  the  battle  of  King’s  Mountain 
(which  see). 

Ferrera,  Edward,  was  born  of  Italian  par¬ 
ents  in  Granada,  Spain,  Jan.  10,  1832,  and  was 
brought  to  the  United  States  while  an  infant. 
His  parents  taught  dancing,  and  that  became  his 
profession,  and  lie  taught  that  accomplishment 
at  the  West  Point  Military  Academy.  When 
the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  raised  a  regiment 
(Shepard  Rifles),  and  as  its  colonel  accompanied 
Burnside  in  his  expedition  to  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina  early  in  1862.  Ho  commanded  a  bri¬ 
gade  under  General  Reno,  and  served  in  the 
Army  of  Virginia,  under  General  Pope,  in  the 
summer  of  1862.  He  was  made  brigadier-gen¬ 
eral  in  September,  and  was  in  the  battles  of 
South  Mountain,  Antietam,  and  Fredericksburg. 


AXEL  FERSEN. 


He  served  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  (1863),  and 
commanded  a  division  at  the  siege  of  Knoxville 
(which  see),  in  defence  of  Fort  Sanders.  In  the 
operations  against  Petersburg,  he  led  a  division 
of  colored  troops,  and  in  December,  1864,  was 
breveted  major-general  of  volunteers. 

Fersen,  Axel,  count,  was  born  in  Stockholm 
in  1755;  died  there  June  20,  1810.  He  came  to 
America  on  the  staff  of  Rochambeau,  fought 
under  Lafayette,  and  received  from  Washing¬ 
ton  the  Order  of  the 
Society  of  the  Cincin¬ 
nati  (which  see).  Re¬ 
turning  to  France,  he 
became  a  favorite  at 
court,  aud  was  the  dis¬ 
guised  coachman  in 
the  fiight  of  the  royal 
family  from  Versailles 
during  the  Revolu¬ 
tion.  He  returned  to 
Sweden,  and  was  in¬ 
vested  with  dignities 
and  honors,  and  in 
1801  was  made  grand 
marshal  of  Sweden. 
On  suspicion  of  com¬ 
plicity  in  the  death 
of  Prince  Christian 
of  Sweden,  he  was 
seized  by  a  mob,  while  marshalling  the  funeral 
procession,  and  tortured  to  death. 

Fessenden,  William  Pitt,  was  born  at  Bos- 
cawen,  N.  H.,  Oct.  6, 1806 ;  died  at  Portland,  Me., 
Sept.  8,  1869.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoiu  Col¬ 
lege  in  1823;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827 ; 
was  member  of  the  Maine  Legislature  two 
terms ;  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1841. 
From  Feb.  24, 1854,  till  his  death  he  was  United 
States  Senator,  excepting  when  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  from  July,  1864,  to  March,  1865.  Mr. 
Fessenden  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Re¬ 
publican  party  in  1856,  and  throughout  the  Civil 
War  did  eminent  service  as  chairman  of  the 
Finance  Committee  of  the  Senate. 

Few,  William,  was  born  in  Baltimore  Coun¬ 
ty,  Md.,  June  8,  1748;  died  at  Fishkill,  N.  Y., 
July  16,  1828.  His  ancestors  came  to  America 
with  William  Penn.  His  family  went  to  North 
Carolina  in  1758,  and  in  1776  William  settled  in 
Georgia,  where  he  became  a  councillor,  and  as¬ 
sisted  in  framing  the  state  constitution.  He 
was  in  the  military  service,  and  in  1778  was 
made  state  surveyor-general.  In  1780-83  and 
1786  ho  was  in  Congress,  and  in  1787  assisted 
in  framing  the  National  Constitution.  He  was 
United  States  Senator  (1789-93),  and  was  a 
judge  on  the  bench  of  Georgia  three  years.  In 
the  summer  of  1799  he  removed  to  New  York, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  Legislature  and  a 
commissioner  of  loans. 

Field,  Cyrus  West,  was  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Mass.,  Nov.  13, 1819 ;  went  to  New  York  in  1835  ; 
and  became  an  enterprising  and  prosperous  mer¬ 
chant.  Mr.  Field  is  universally  known  and  hon¬ 
ored  as  the  chief  founder  of  the  practical  system 
of  submarine  telegraphy.  (S  ee  Atlantic  'Telegraph.) 


FIFTEENTH  AMENDMENT 


476 


FILLMORE 


Fifteenth  Amendment.  On  Feb.  26,  1869, 
Congress  adopted  a  joint-resolution  recommend¬ 
ing  the  following  as  a  fifteenth  amendment  to 
the  National  Constitution  :  “  Article  XV.,  Sec¬ 
tion  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the 
United  States,  or  by  any  state,  on  account  of 
race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 
Section  2.  The  Congress,  by  appropriate  legisla¬ 
tion,  may  enforce  the  provisions  of  this  article.” 
This  amendment  was  soon  ratified  by  the  req¬ 
uisite  number  of  states. 

Figure-head  of  the  Constitution.  In  1833 
Captain  Jesse  D.  Elliott,  commanding  the  frig¬ 
ate  Constitution,  who  had  been  stationed  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  to  suppress  insurrection  (see 
Nullifies),  was  ordered  to  the  navy -yard  at 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  with  his  ship.  He  found 
public  feeling  there  almost  unanimous  in  favor 
of  President  Jackson,  because  of  his  course  tow¬ 
ards  the  Nullitiers.  The  ship  was  hauled  up 
for  repairs.  A  new  figure-head  was  needed,  and, 
in  accordance  with  ample  precedents  (and  at 
the  request  of  citizens  of  Boston,  it  was  said), 
Elliott  ordered  an  image  of  President  Jackson 
to  be  carved  for  the  purpose.  Because  of  Jack¬ 
son’s  course  towards  the  United  States  Bank  (see 
National  Bank),  there  soon  afterwards  occurred 
a  great  revulsion  of  feeling  in  Massachusetts 
towards  him.  The  placing  of  his  image  on 
the  bow  of  the  favorite  ship  of  the  Bostonians 
was  regarded  as  an  insult ;  aud  when  it  was 
finally  put  upon  the  vessel  by  Elliott,  he  was 
denounced  and  abused  in  the  opposition  news¬ 
papers,  by  handbills,  and  by  anonymous  letters. 
A  great  clamor  was  raised  all  over  the  country. 
Indignation  meetings  were  held;  aud,  finally, 
on  a  dark  and  stormy  night  (summer  of  1834), 
some  then  unknown  person  sawed  off  the  fig¬ 
ure  -  head  undiscovered  aud  carried  it  away. 
The  act  produced  intense  excitement  among  the 
friends  of  the  administration.  The  perpetrator 
of  the  deed  was  diligently  sought,  but  not  dis¬ 
covered.  He  is  now  (1887)  an  old  man.  Then 
he  was  young,  enthusiastic,  and  fond  of  advent¬ 
ure.  He  was  at  a  “Whig”  meeting,  and  heard 
the  wish  expressed,  at  the  beginning  of  the  ses¬ 
sion,  that  the  “  detestable  figure-head ”  might  be 
destroyed.  He  immediately  left  the  meeting, 
in  a  storm,  proceeded  to  the  Constitution  in  a 
boat,  climbed  up  the  rigging  of  the  bowsprit, 
and,  while  the  wind  and  thunder  roared,  sawed 
off  the  figure-head  at  the  neck,  unheard  by  the 
sentinels  on  deck.  Lowering  it  into  his  boat 
with  a  rope,  he  bore  it  away  to  a  place  of  con¬ 
cealment.  After  a  while  suspicion  pointed  to 
him  as  the  perpetrator.  He  went  to  Washing¬ 
ton,  called  on  President  Jackson,  and  told  him 
the  whole  story  of  his  prank  ;  when  Jackson, 
delighted  with  the  heroism  of  the  frank  young 
man,  promised  to  keep  his  secret  and  to  pardon 
him  if  he  should  be  arrested  and  found  guilty 
of  the  act.  Full  tweuty  years  afterwards  his 
visiting-card  contained  the  device  of  a  hand¬ 
saw,  with  Caesar’s  despatch  as  a  motto — “I 
came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.”  This  narrative  the 
writer  had  from  his  lips  about  the  year  1840. 
The  young  man  who  performed  that  mad  prank 


was  Samuel  W.  Dewey,  for  a  long  time  connect¬ 
ed  with  the  shipping  interest  in  the  city  of  New 
York. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  thirteenth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Locke  (now  Sum¬ 
mer  Hill),  Cayuga  Co.,  N.Y.,  June  7, 1800;  died  at 
Buffalo,  March  8, 1874.  At  the  time  of  his  birth 
Cayuga  Couuty  was  a  wilderness,  with  few  set- 


MILLARD  FILLMORE. 


tlements,  the  nearest  house  to  that  of  the  Fill- 
mores  being  four  miles  distant.  Mr.  Fillmore’s 
early  education  was  limited,  and  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  years  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  fuller. 
He  became  fond  of  reading,  and  at  the  age  of 
nineteen  years  he  conceived  the  desigu  of  study¬ 
ing  law.  He  made  an  arrangement  with  his 
master  to  pay  him  thirty  dollars  for  the  two 
years  of  the  unexpired  term  of  his  apprentice¬ 
ship,  and  studied  law  with  Walter  Wood,  who 
gave  him  his  board  for  his  services  in  his  office. 
Iu  1821  he  went  on  foot  to  Buffalo,  where  he  ar¬ 
rived,  an  entire  stranger,  with  four  dollars  in  his 
pocket.  There  he  continued  to  study  law,  pay¬ 
ing  his  expenses  by  teaching  school  and  assist¬ 
ing  in  the  post-office.  In  1823,  although  he  had 
not  completed  the  requisite  period  of  study  to 
be  admitted  to  the  bar,  he  wTas  admitted,  and 
commenced  practice  at  Aurora,  Cayuga  County, 
where  his  father  then  resided.  In  a  few  years 
he  stood  in  the  rank  of  the  foremost  lawyers  iu 
the  state.  He  was  admitted  to  practice  in  the 
highest  courts  of  the  state  in  1829 ;  aud  the  next 
year  he  moved  to  Buffalo,  where  he  practised 
his  profession  until  1847,  wffien  he  was  chosen 
controller  of  the  state.  Then  be  retired  from 
the  profession.  His  political  life  began  in  1828, 
when  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  of  New 
York  by  the  Anti -Masonic  party  (which  see). 
He  served  three  successive  terms,  retiring  iu 
the  spring  of  1831.  Mr.  Fillmore  wTas  particu¬ 
larly  active  in  procuring  the  passage  of  a  law 
abolishiug  imprisonment  for  debt.  It  was  most¬ 
ly  drafted  by  himself,  and  passed  in  1831.  In 
1832  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  an  opponent 
of  Jackson’s  administration.  He  was  re-elected 
as  a  Whig  in  1836,  and  retained  his  seat,  by  suc¬ 
cessive  re-elections,  until  1842,  when  he  declined 
a  renomination.  His  career  in  Congress  was 
marked  by  ability,  integrity,  and  industry.  He 
acted  in  Congress  with  Mr.  Adams  iu  favor  of 


FILLMORE’S  CABINET 


477 


FINANCIAL  EMBARRASSMENT 


receiving  petitions  for  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
He  was  opposed  to  the  annexation  of  Texas, 
and  in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  the  interstate 
slave-trade.  In  September,  1844,  Mr.  Fillmore 
was  nominated  by  the  Whigs  for  governor  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  but  was  defeated  by 
Silas  Wright,  the  Democratic  candidate.  Elect¬ 
ed  controller  of  his  state  in  1847,  Mr.  Fillmore 
tilled  that  responsible  office  with  rare  ability 
and  fidelity.  In  June,  1848,  he  was  nominated 
by  the  Whig  National  Convention  for  the  office 
of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  and  was 
elected,  with  General  Taylor  for  President.  He 
resigued  the  office  of  controller  in  February  fol¬ 
lowing  ;  and  on  the  death  of  the  President  (July, 
1850),  Mr.  Fillmore  was  inducted  into  that  high 
office.  During  his  admiuistration  the  slavery 
question  was  vehemently  discussed,  and  was 
finally  set  at  rest,  it  was  hoped,  by  the  passage 
of  various  acts  which  were  parts  of  compromises 
proposed  in  the  Omnibus  Bill  (which  see)  of  Mr. 
Clay  in  the  summer  of  1850.  It  was  during  his 
administration  that  difficulties  with  Cuba  oc¬ 
curred,  diplomatic  communications  with  Japan 
were  opened,  measures  were  adopted  looking 
towards  the  construction  of  a  railway  from 
the  Mississippi  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  oth¬ 
er  matters  of  great  public  interest  occurred. 
Mr.  Fillmore  retired  from  office  March  4,  1853, 
leaving  the  country  in  a  state  of  peace  within 
and  without,  and  every  department  of  indus¬ 
try  flourishing.  In  1852  he  was  a  candidate 
in  the  Whig  convention  for  President  of  the 
United  States,  but  did  not  get  the  nomina¬ 
tion.  During  the  spring  and  summer  of  1854 
he  made  an  extensive  tour  through  the  South¬ 
ern  and  Western  States ;  and  in  the  spring  of 
1855,  after  an  excursion  in  New  England,  he 
sailed  for  Europe,  where  he  remained  until 
Juue,  1856.  While  at  Rome  he  received  the 
news  of  his  nomination  for  the  Presidency  by 
the  “  Native  American  Party  ”  (which  see).  He 
accepted  it,  but  Maryland  alone  gave  him  its 
electoral  vote.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  Buffalo,  where  he  indulged  his  taste 
for  historical  studies. 

Fillmore’s  Cabinet.  On  the  death  of  Pres¬ 
ident  Taylor  (July  9,  1850),  Vice-President  Fill¬ 
more  became,  by  a  provision  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  President  of  the  United  States.  He  took 
the  oath  of  office  on  the  10th,  when  President 
Taylor’s  cabinet  resigned.  Fillmore  declined 
to  consider  their  resignations  until  after  the 
funeral  of  the  late  President,  when  he  appoint¬ 
ed  the  following  named  gentlemen  :  Daniel 
Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  Secretary  of  State; 
Thomas  Corwin,  of  Ohio,  Secretary  of  War ;  Al¬ 
exander  H.  H.  Stuart,  of  Virginia,  Secretary  of 
the  Interior;  William  A.  Graham,  of  North  Car¬ 
olina,  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  Nathan  K.  Hall, 
of  New  York,  Postmaster  -  general ;  and  John 
J.  Crittenden,  of  Kentucky,  Attorney  -  general. 
These  names  impressed  the  people  with  confi¬ 
dence  in  Fillmore’s  administration. 

Financial  Condition  of  the  United  States 

(1861).  When  Howell  Cobb  became  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  in  1857  the  coffers  of  the  gov¬ 


ernment  were  so  overflowing  that  the  Treasury 
notes  next  due  were  bought  in ;  but  in  prepara¬ 
tions  for  disunion  he  had  so  adroitly  managed 
his  department  to  weaken  it,  and  so  paralyze 
one  strong  arm  of  the  government,  that  the 
Treasury  was  empty  in  1860.  In  the  fall  of 
that  year  the  secretary  was  in  the  market  as  a 
borrower  to  carry  on  the  ordinary  operations  of 
the  government  and  to  pay  interest  on  its  loans. 
His  management  had  created  distrust  in  finan¬ 
cial  circles,  and  he  was  compelled  to  pay  ruinous 
premiums,  when  money  was  never  more  abun¬ 
dant.  When  he  left  (in  December)  the  Treas¬ 
ury  wras  greatly  embarrassed.  But  the  country 
was  never  richer.  The  cereal  crop  and,  indeed, 
all  others  were  enormous,  but  capital  had  hid¬ 
den  in  fear  of  threatened  danger.  Fortunately 
for  the-  Republic,  never  were  the  people  gener¬ 
ally  in  such  easy  circumstances.  The  exports 
had  greatly  exceeded  the  imports,  and  the  tide 
of  trade  and  exchange  was  running  so  heavily 
in  favor  of  the  Americans  at  the  close  of  Novem¬ 
ber  that  coin  came  flowing  into  the  country 
from  Europe  in  immense  volumes.  The  bauks 
in  the  North  were  in  a  healthy  condition.  When 
John  A.  Dix  entered  Buchanan’s  cabinet  (Jan. 
11, 1861)  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  that 
cabinet  was  purged  of  Floyd  and  Thompson,  and 
strengthened  by  loyal  men,  confidence  in  the 
government  quickly  grew,  and  there  was  soon 
an  equipoise  in  the  public  mind  in  the  free- 
labor  states,  in  view  of  their  financial  condi¬ 
tion,  that  made  them  strong  and  hopeful,  and 
there  was  a  disposition  to  lend  to  the  govern¬ 
ment.  They  were  sensible  of  the  existence  of 
sufficient  virtue  to  save  the  Republic.  The  ut¬ 
terances  of  the  supposed  organ  of  the  President¬ 
elect  (» Sprinyfield  Journal ,  Ill.)  also  inspired  con¬ 
fidence.  “If  South  Carolina,”  it  said,  “  violates 
the  law,  then  comes  the  tug  of  war.  The  Pres¬ 
ident  of  the  United  States,  in  such  an  emer¬ 
gency,  has  a  plain  duty  to  perform.  Mr.  Bu¬ 
chanan  may  shirk  it,  or  the  emergency  may  not 
exist  during  his  administration.  If  not,  then 
the  Union  w  ill  last  through  his  term  of  office. 
If  the  overt  act  on  the  part  of  South  Carolina 
takes  place  on  or  after  the  4th  of  March,  1861, 
then  the  duty  of  executing  the  laws  will  de¬ 
volve  upon  Mr.  Lincoln.” 

Financial  Embarrassment  (1815).  In  Jan¬ 
uary,  1815,  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  in  a  report  to  Congress,  laid  bare  the 
poverty  of  the  national  Treasury.  The  year 
had  closed  with  $19,000,000  unpaid  debts,  to 
meet  wdiich  there  was  a  nominal  balance  in 
the  Treasury  of  less  than  $2,000,000  and  about 
$4,500,000  of  uncollected  taxes.  For  the  next 
year’s  services  $50,000,000  would  be  required. 
The  total  revenue,  including  the  produce  of  the 
new  taxes,  was  estimated  at  about  $1 1,000,000 — 
$10,000,000  from  taxes,  and  only  $1,000,000  from 
duties  on  imports,  to  such  a  low  ebb  had  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States  been  reduced. 
Various  schemes  for  raising  money  were  de¬ 
vised,  but  the  prospect  was  particularly  gloomy. 
The  government  was  without  money  or  credit ; 
the  regular  military  force  was  decreasing;  the 
war  party  wrere  at  variance,  Great  Britain  re- 


FINANCIAL  POLICY,  AN  HONEST  478  FIREMEN’S  AMBULANCE  SYSTEM 


fusing  to  treat,  on  admissible  terms ;  a  victori¬ 
ous  British  army  threatening  the  Northern  fron¬ 
tier  ;  Cockburn  in  possession  of  Cumberland 
Island,  oft-  the  coast  of  Georgia;  the  Southern 
States  threatened  with  servile  insurrection  ;  a 
formidable  British  armament  preparing  to  in¬ 
vade  the  Gulf  region  ;  and  the  treasonable  peace 
faction  doing  all  in  their  power  to  embarrass 
the  government.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that 
the  complaints  of  the  Hartford  Convention 
(which  see)  and  a  commission  from  the  Legis¬ 
lature  of  Massachusetts  appeared  before  the 
government.  Fortunately,  the  news  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  and  the  victory  at  New  Orleans 
went  over  the  country  in  February  and  saved 
the  people  from  utter  discouragement.  The 
government  took  heart  and  authorized  a  loan 
of  $18,400,000,  the  amount  of  Treasury  notes 
then  outstanding ;  and  as  an  immediate  means 
to  go  on  with,  a  new  issue  of  Treasury  notes  to 
the  amount  of  $25,000,000  (part  of  them  in  sums 
under  $100,  payable  to  bearer,  and  without  in¬ 
terest)  was  authorized.  The  small  notes  were 
intended  for  currency ;  those  over  $100  hore  an 
interest  of  five  and  two -fifths  per  cent.,  or  a 
cent  and  a  half  a  day  for  every  $100.  All  acts 
imposing  discriminating  duties  on  foreign  ves¬ 
sels  of  reciprocity  nations,  and  embargo,  non¬ 
importation,  and  non  -  intercourse  laws,  were 
repealed  ;  and  so  commerce  was  immediately 
revived  and  the  revenue  increased. 

Financial  Policy,  An  Honest.  Before  the 
close  of  the  session  of  Congress  in  March,  1869, 
a  bill  wras  passed  defining  the  financial  policy 
of  the  country.  Its  chief  provision  was  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  “  The  faith  of  the  United  States  is  sol¬ 
emnly  pledged  to  the  payment,  in  coin  or  its 
equivalent,  of  all  the  interest-bearing  obliga¬ 
tions  of  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  where 
the  law  authorizing  the  issue  of  any  such  obli¬ 
gations  has  expressly  provided  that  the  same 
may  be  paid  in  lawful  money  or  other  currency 
than  gold  and  silver.”  This  law  gave  great 
financial  credit  and  strength  to  the  nation. 

Fine  Arts,  First  School  of,  projected  in 
America.  (See  School  of  Fine  Arts.) 

Fined  for  Refusing  Honors.  In  1632  the 
General  Court  of  the  Plymouth  Colony  passed 
an  act  that  whoever  should  refuse  the  office  of 
governor  should  pay  a  fine  of  one  hundred  dol¬ 
lars,  unless  he  was  chosen  two  years  successive¬ 
ly ;  aud  that  whoever  refused  the  office  of  coun¬ 
cillor  or  magistrate  should  pay  a  fine  of  fifty  dol¬ 
lars.  These  offices  required  so  much  labor  and 
expense  of  time  aud  money  in  the  early  colonial 
days  that  they  had  no  allurements  sufficient  to 
make  men  aspire  to  them.  There  were  no  dem¬ 
agogues  then.  Governor  Bradford,  who  had 
served  ten  years,  “  now  by  importunity  got  off.” 

Fire,  Great,  in  New  York  (1776).  The  Brit¬ 
ish  anticipated  snug  winter  quarters  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  when,  at  a  little  past  midnight, 
Sept.  21, 1776,  a  fire  broke  out  in  a  low  drinking- 
place  and  brothel — a  wooden  building  on  the 
wharf,  near  Whitehall  Slip.  The  wind  was  brisk 
from  the  southwest,  and  the  flames  spread  rap¬ 
idly,  unchecked,  for  there  were  few  inhabitants 


in  the  city.  Every  building  between  Whitehall 
and  Broad  Streets  up  to  Beaver  Street  was  con¬ 
sumed,  when  the  wind  veered  to  the  southeast 
aud  drove  the  flames  towards  Broadway.  The 
buildings  on  each  side  of  Beaver  Street  to  the 
Bowling  Green  were  burned.  The  fire  crossed 
Broadway  and  swept  all  the  buildings  on  each 
side  as  far  as  Exchange  Street,  and  on  the 
west  side  to  Partition  (Fulton)  Street,  destroy¬ 
ing  Trinity  Church.  Every  building  westward 
towards  the  Hudson  River  perished.  The  To¬ 
ries  and  British  writers  of  the  day  charged  the 
destruction  of  the  city  to  Whig  incendiaries. 
Some  of  these  citizens  who  came  out  of  the 
gloom  to  save  their  property  were  murdered  by 
British  bayonets  or  cast  into  the  flames.  Even 
General  Howe  in  his  report  made  the  charge, 
without  a  shadow  of  truth,  that  the  accideut 
was  the  work  of  Whig  conspirators.  About 
five  hundred  buildings  (almost  a  third  part  of 
the  city)  were  laid  in  ashes. 

Fire  in  Boston  (1760).  Nearly  a  tenth  part 
of  Boston  was  consumed  by  fire  on  March  20, 
1760,  in  about  four  hours.  It  began,  by  acci¬ 
dent,  at  Cornhill.  There  were  consumed  one 
hundred  and  seventy-four  dwelling-houses,  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  warehouses  and  other 
buildings,  with  merchandise,  furniture,  aud  va¬ 
rious  articles,  to  the  value  of  $355,000;  and  two 
hundred  and  twenty  families  were  compelled  to 
look  to  their  neighbors  for  shelter.  The  dona¬ 
tions  from  every  quarter  for  the  relief  of  the  suf¬ 
ferers  amounted  to  about  $87,000. 

Fire  Lands.  After  the  close  of  the  old  war 
for  independence  a  committee  was  appointed 
by  the  Connecticut  Legislature  to  ascertain  the 
value  of  the  property  destroyed  in  that  state  by 
the  torches  of  British  and  Hessian  marauders. 
In  1793  the  Assembly  granted  to  the  sufferers 
five  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land  lying  within 
the  limits  of  the  Western  Reserves  (which  see) 
in  Ohio,  and  now  included  in  the  counties  of 
Huron  and  Erie  and  a  small  part  of  Ottawa. 
This  tract  is  still  known  as  the  “Fire  Lands.” 

Firemen’s  Ambulance  System  (1861  -  65). 
The  benevolent  work  of  the  Volunteer  Refresh¬ 
ment  Saloons  of  Philadelphia  ( which  see)  was  sup¬ 
plemented  by  a  good  work  carried  on  wholly  by 
the  firemen  of  that  city.  When  sick  and  wounded 


PHILADELPHIA  FIREMEN’S  AMBULANCE. 


soldiers  began  to  be  brought  to  the  hospitals 
in  Philadelphia,  the  medical  department  found 
it  difficult  to  procure  proper  vehicles  to  convey 
them  from  the  wharves  to  their  destination. 
The  distress  caused  by  delays  and  inconvenient 
conveyances  the  sympathetic  firemen  attempted 


FIRES,  RECENT  GREAT  479  FIRST  AMERICAN  VESSEL  IN  RUSSIA 


to  alleviate.  An  arrangement  was  made  for  the 
chief  of  the  department  to  aunonnce  the  arrival 
of  a  transport  by  a  given  signal,  when  the  fire¬ 
men  would  hasten  to  the  landing-place  with 
spring-wagons.  Finally,  the  “Northern  Liber¬ 
ties  Engine  Company”  had  a  fine  ambulance 
constructed.  More  than  thirty  other  engine  and 
hose  companies  followed  their  example,  and  the 
suffering  soldiers  were  conveyed  from  ship  to 
hospital  with  the  greatest  tenderness.  These 
ambulances  cost  in  the  aggregate  over  $30,000, 
all  of  which  was  contributed  by  the  firemen. 
The  number  of  disabled  soldiers  who  were  con¬ 
veyed  on  these  ambulances  during  the  war  was 
estimated  at  more  than  oue  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand. 

Fires,  Recent  Great.  In  October,  1871,  one 
of  the  most  destructive  fires  on  record  occurred 
in  Chicago,  when  a  large  portion  of  the  business 
part  of  the  city  was  destroyed.  It  raged  about 
twenty-eight  hours,  spread  over  two  thousand 
acres  of  ground,  laid  two  thousand  five  huudred 
buildings  in  ruins,  and  consumed  property,  real 
and  personal,  to  the  amount  of  about  $200,000,000. 
Of  this  amount,  $90,000,000  was  insured.  In 
November,  the  following  year,  a  fire  in  the  heart 
of  Boston  swept  over  sixty  acres  of  ground,  de¬ 
stroying  property  to  the  amount  of  $75,000,000, 
on  which  was  an  insurance  of  $50,000,000. 

Firmness  of  Franklin.  After  the  attack  by 
Wedderburne  when  before  the  Privy  Council, 
and  his  dismissal  from  the  office  of  postmaster- 
general  for  the  colonies,  he  was  subjected  to  the 
danger  of  arrest,  and  possibly  a  trial,  for  trea¬ 
son  ;  for  the  ministry,  angry  because  he  had 
exposed  Hutchinson’s  Letters  (which  see),  made 
serious  threats.  Conscious  of  rectitude,  he  nei¬ 
ther  left  England  then  nor  swerved  a  line  from 
his  course  of  duty.  When,  in  February,  1776, 
Lord  North  endeavored  to  find  out  from  him 
what  the  Americans  wanted,  “We  desire  noth¬ 
ing,”  said  Franklin,  “but  what  is  necessary  to 
our  security  and  well-being.”  After  statiug  that 
some  of  the  obnoxious  acts  would  probably  be 
repealed,  Lord  North  said  the  Massachusetts  acts 
must  be  continued,  both  “as  real  amendments” 
of  the  constitution  of  that  province,  and  “  as  a 
standing  example  of  the  power  of  Parliament.” 
Franklin  briefly  replied:  “While  Parliament 
claims  the  right  of  altering  American  constitu¬ 
tions  at  pleasure  there  can  be  no  agreement,  for 
we  are  rendered  unsafe  in  every  privilege.” 
North  answered:  “An  agreement  is  necessary 
for  America  ;  it  is  so  easy  for  Britain  to  burn  all 
your  seaport  towns.”  Franklin  coolly  answered : 
“  My  little  property  consists  in  houses  in  those 
towns;  yon  may  make  bonfires  of  them  when¬ 
ever  you  please;  the  fear  of  losing  them  will 
never  alter  my  resolution  to  resist  to  the  last 
the  claim  of  Parliament.” 

First  “Abolition”  Newspaper  in  the  United 
States.  In  1815  Mr.  Lundy,  of  St.  Clairsville, 
Ohio,  called  a  meeting  of  his  neighbors  to  or¬ 
ganize  an  anti-slavery  society.  Six  persons  at¬ 
tended  and  formed  the  “  Union  Humane  Society.” 
In  a  few  weeks  Lundy’s  house  was  too  small  to 
hold  the  members,  and  in  six  months  they  num¬ 


bered  over  four  hundred.  Mr.  Lundy  wrote  ar¬ 
ticles  against  slavery,  and  in  January,  1816,  he 
issued  a  newspaper  called  The  Appeal,  devoted 
to  the  cause  of  abolition. 

First  American  Diplomat  in  France.  In 

1776  Silas  Deane,  of  Connecticut,  was  sent  by 
the  Secret  Committee  of  Correspondence  of  the 
Continental  Congress  as  minister,  or  secret  dip¬ 
lomatic  agent,  to  the  court  of  France,  intima¬ 
tions  having  been  given  that  such  an  agent 
would  be  kindly  received  there.  Mr.  Deane 
went  in  the  character  of  a  Bermuda  merchant; 
and,  the  better  to  cover  his  designs,  he  did  not 
take  any  considerable  sum  of  money  or  bills  of 
exchange  with  him  for  his  support.  The  Secret 
Committee  was  to  send  them  after  him  by  way 
of  London,  to  arrive  in  Paris  nearly  as  soon  as 
himself,  lest  a  capture  should  betray  his  secret. 
On  his  arrival  in  Paris  he  sought  an  interview 
with  the  Count  de  Vergenues,  the  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  but  no  notice  was  taken  of  him. 
He  repeated  his  applicatiou  in  vaiu.  His  remit¬ 
tances  were  all  captured  or  lost.  He  soon  ex¬ 
pended  the  cash  he  took  with  him,  and  was  in 
great  distress.  His  landlady  became  importu¬ 
nate,  and  he  was  threatened  with  ejectment  into 
the  street.  He  again  repeated  his  application 
for  an  interview  with  Yergennes,  but  was  de¬ 
nied.  Which  way  to  turn  he  knew  not.  He 
walked  in  the  fields  in  the  suburbs  in  despair. 
There  he  met  a  citizen  who  resided  in  the  sub¬ 
urbs,  to  whom  he  revealed  his  distressed  con¬ 
dition.  The  citizen  invited  him  to  make  his 
house  his  home  until  remittances  should  arrive. 
Losing  hope  of  either  funds  or  an  interview  with 
the  minister,  he  resolved  to  return  to  America, 
and  w7as  actually  packing  his  wardrobe  when 
two  letters  reached  him,  announcing  the  Decla¬ 
ration  of  Independence  by  Congress  and  the  ac¬ 
tion  of  Arnold  with  the  British  fleet  on  Lake 
Champlain.  Two  hours  later  he  received  a  card 
from  Vergennes,  requesting  his  company  imme¬ 
diately.  Deane,  indignant  at  the  treatment  he 
had  l'eceived,  refused  to  go.  The  next  morning, 
as  he  was  rising  from  his  bed,  an  under  secretary 
called,  inviting  him  to  breakfast  w  ith  the  count. 
He  again  refused;  hut,  on  the  secretary’s  press¬ 
ing  him  to  go,  he  consented,  and  was  received 
very  cordially  by  Yergennes.  A  long  conversa¬ 
tion  on  American  affairs  took  place,  w  hen  Deane 
acquainted  the  minister  with  the  nature  of  his 
mission.  So  began  the  diplomatic  relations  be¬ 
tween  France  and  the  United  States  which  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty  of  amity 
and  alliance  between  the  two  nations.  (See 
Treaties  with  France.) 

First  American  Vessel  in  a  Russian  Port. 

Francis  Dana  was  appointed  envoy  of  the  United 
States  to  the  Russian  court,  Dec.  19,  1780,  but 
was  not  received  in  his  public  character,  as  the 
empress  (Catharine  II.)  had  been  chosen  to  me¬ 
diate,  with  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  between 
France,  Spain,  and  England.  His  presence, 
however,  was  agreeable  to  the  empress,  and  she 
gave  him  assurance  of  the  friendly  disposition 
of  Russia  towards  the  United  States.  She  prom¬ 
ised  that  they  should,  in  the  prosecution  of  com- 


FIRST  AND  LAST  EXECUTION 


480 


FIRST  BLOOD  SHED 


tnerce,  have  all  the  advantages  in  Russian  ports 
of  the  most  favored  nations.  This  was  late  in 
the  spring  of  1783.  On  June  1  a  Massachusetts 
vessel  of  live  hundred  tons’  burden,  commanded 
he  Captain  McNeal,  arrived  at  Riga,  and  dis¬ 
played  the  flag  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Dana 
wrote :  “  This  is  the  first  and  only  arrival  of  an 
American  vessel  in  any  Russian  port.  The  im¬ 
pression  it  has  made  here  is  favorable.” 

First  and  Last  Execution  for  Treason  in  the 
United  States.  When  Admiral  Farragut  ar¬ 
rived  before  New  Orleans  (April  28,  1862),  he 
sent  Captain  Bailey  ashore  wfith  a  flag  to  de¬ 
mand  the  surrender  of  the  city.  The  military 
commander  (Lovell)  turned  over  the  whole  mat¬ 
ter  to  the  civil  authorities.  The  demand  was 
refused.  Meanwhile  a  force  had  landed  from 
one  of  the  vessels  and  hoisted  the  national  flag 
over  the  Mint.  As  soon  as  they  retired  a  gam¬ 
bler,  named  William  B.  Mumford,  with  some 
young  men,  tore  down  the  flag  and  dragged  it 
through  the  streets  in  derision.  This  act  was 
hailed  with  acclamations  of  approval  by  the  se¬ 
cessionists  of  the  city,  and  paragraphs  of  praise 
and  exultation  appeared  in  the  New  Orleans 
journals.  General  Butler  arrived  with  two  thou¬ 
sand  troops  (May  1),  and  took  possession  of  the 
city.  His  headquarters  were  at  the  St.  Charles 
Hotel,  before  which  a  threatening  crowd  gath¬ 
ered.  Among  them  was  Mumford,  who  openly 
boasted  of  his  exploit  in  humbling  the  “old  rag 
of  the  United  States.”  He  became  so  dangerous 
to  good  order  as  the  leader  of  the  turbulent  spir¬ 
its  in  New  Orleans  that  Butler  had  him  arrested 
and  tried  for  treason.  He  was  found  guilty  and 
executed — the  only  man  who,  up  to  this  time 
(1880),  has  bteen  tried,  found  guilty,  and  suffered 
death  for  that  crime  since  the  foundations  of  the 
national  government  were  laid. 

First  Attempt  to  Favor  the  Loyalists.  New 

York  took  the  first  step.  The  treaty  of  peace 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
in  1783,  made  no  provision  for  the  American 
Loyalists  (which  see),  who  were  quite  numerous. 
Some  of  them,  who  had  become  refugees  in  Can¬ 
ada  or  Nova  Scotia,  had  been  sustained  by  pen¬ 
sions  from  the  British  crown  during  the  war. 
They,  with  multitudes  who  remained  in  the 
States,  had  been  impoverished  by  confiscations 
or  by  the  ravages  of  war,  and  now  saw  absolute 
poverty  before  them.  Those  who  remained  were 
not  only  impoverished,  but  were  tortured  with 
an  undetinable  dread  of  harsher  treatment  at 
the  hands  of  their  indignant  fellow  -  citizens, 
whom,  in  many  instances,  these  Tories  had  fear¬ 
fully  oppressed.  It  was  this  dread  that  caused 
more  than  a  thousand  Loyalists  at  New  York  to 
follow  the  example  of  their  Tory  brethren  in 
Boston  in  1776,  and  become  refugees  in  Nova 
Scotia  by  leaving  their  native  land  when  the 
British  forces  departed.  It  was  a  sad  sight  to 
see  persons  of  refinement  and  wealth  before  the 
war  flying  for  refuge — they  scarcely  knew  to 
w  hat  protection — from  the  just  wrath  of  their 
countrymen  and  former  friends  and  neighbors. 
Triumph  and  success,  and  the  sight  of  misery, 
softened  the  asperities  of  feeling  among  the 


Americans  towards  the  great  body  of  the  Loyal* 
ists,  and  sentiments  of  compassion  took  the 
place  of  resentment  soon  after  the  Revolution. 
Many  refugees  were  allowed  to  return  to  Amer¬ 
ica.  Their  property  was  restored.  New  York 
was  the  first  state  that  repealed  its  confiscation 
acts.  Other  states  followed  its  example,  and  in 
time  society,  disrupted  by  the  Revolution,  was 
readjusted. 

First  Bible  printed  in  America.  Christo¬ 
pher  Saner,  at  Germantown,  Penn.,  printed  a  Bi¬ 
ble  there  in  the  German  language  in  1743.  At 
the  same  time  a  German  newspaper  was  printed 
weekly  at  Philadelphia. 

First  Bishop  for  New  France,  The,  was 
Francis  de  Laval,  abbot  of  Montigny,  a  prelate 
who  came  over  in  1659,  bringing  with  him  for  the 
first  time  monks  of  other  orders  besides  Jesuits. 

First  Blood  shed  in  the  Civil  War  (1861- 
65).  When  the  Washington  Artillery — one  of  the 
Pennsylvania  companies  which  hastened  to  the 
relief  of  Washington  city — were  passing  through 
Baltimore  (April  18,  1861)  they  were  followed 
by  an  excited  mob,  who  assailed  them  w  ith  in¬ 
sulting  words  and  a  few  missiles.  A  colored 
man,  sixty  years  of  age,  supposed  to  have  been 
a  runaw  ay  slave,  was  attached  to  the  company, 
and  was  in  military  dress.  His  appearance 
greatly  excited  the  ire  of  the  mob,  who  raised 
the  cry  of  “  Nigger  in  uniform !”  Stones  and 
bricks  were  hurled  at  him,  and  he  received  a 
severe  wound  in  the  face  from  which  the  blood 
flowed  freely.  His  excursion  through  Baltimore 
wras  never  a  pleasant  memory  for  him;  and  he 
was  heard  to  say  that  he  would  go  through  the 
infernal  regions  with  the  Washington  Artillery, 
but  never  again  through  Baltimore. 

First  Blood  shed  in  the  Second  War  for 
Independence.  While  the  army  of  General 
Hull  wTas  lying  in  camp  below  Sandwich,  in 
Canada,  he  was  absent  at  Detroit  twro  or  three 
days.  There  had  been  some  skirmishing  with 
detachments  of  his  army,  under  Colonels  Cass 
and  McArthur,  near  the  Tarontee  (see  Skirmish 
at  the  Tarontee) ;  and  the  apparent  snpineness 
of  the  general  made  the  younger  officers  and  the 
men  suspect  him  of  incapacity,  if  not  of  treach¬ 
ery.  While  Hull  was  absent  at  Detroit  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  American  troops  in  Canada  de¬ 
volved  on  Colonel  McArthur,  and  he  resolved  to 
attack  Fort  Malden.  He  detached  some  rangers 
to  seek  a  convenient  passage  of  the  Tarontee  or 
the  Canards  above  the  bridge,  so  as  to  avoid 
the  guns  of  the  British  armed  vessel  Queen  Char¬ 
lotte,  lying  in  the  river.  This  was  impractica¬ 
ble.  A  scouting  party  was  sent  under  Major 
Denny  to  reconnoitre,  who  found  an  Indian  am¬ 
buscade  between  Turkey  Creek  and  the  Ta¬ 
rontee,  in  the  Petit  C6te  settlement.  There 
Denny  had  a  sharp  skirmish  with  the  barba¬ 
rians,  when  a  part  of  his  line  gave  way,  and  he 
w  as  compelled  to  retreat  in  confusion,  pursued 
nearly  three  miles  by  the  victorious  Indians. 
He  tried  to  rally  his  men,  but  in  vain.  In  the 
skirmish  he  lost  six  men  killed  and  two  wound¬ 
ed.  This  w  as  the  first  blood  shed  in  the  war 
of  1812-15.  (See  Ta-ron-tee,  Skirmish  at.) 


FIRST  BLOOD  SHED 


481  FIRST  ENGLISH  COLONY  PLANTED 


First  Blood  shed  in  the  War  with  Mexico. 

General  Taylor,  informed  that  the  Mexicans  had 
crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  and  were  between  Fort 
Brown  and  Point  Isabel,  endeavoring  to  cnt  off 
all  communication  with  his  stores  at  the  latter 
place,  and  that  other  armed  parties  were  en¬ 
deavoring  to  cross,  sent  a  party  under  Captain 
Thornton  to  reconuoitre.  Nearly  his  whole  com¬ 
mand  were  surprised  and  captured.  Lieutenant 
Mason  was  killed.  Thornton  escaped  only  by 
an  extraordinary  leap  of  his  horse  over  a  thick 
hedge,  followed  by  harmless  bullets.  The  blood 
of  Mason  was  the  first  shed  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  April  24, 1846.  (See  Mexico,  War  with.) 

First  Christian  Marriage  in  Virginia.  Cap¬ 
tain  Newport  arrived  at  Jamestown, Va.,  in  1608, 
with  a  second  supply  for  the  colony,  bringing 
seventy  passengers,  many  of  whom  were  per¬ 
sons  of  some  distinction  at  home.  Among  them 
was  John  Langdon,  who  soon  afterwards  mar¬ 
ried  Ann  Burras,  who  had  come  to  the  colony  as 
the  maid  of  Mrs.  Forrest.  These  were  the  first 
white  women  seen  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia 
proper.  The  daughter  of  John  White  (Mrs. 
Dare),  and  eighteen  other  women  with  her,  were 
in  the  colony  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  in 
1587,  when  that  region  was  called  Virginia. 
This  was  the  first  Christian  marriage  in  Virginia. 

First  Church  in  Boston.  In  August,  1632, 
the  inhabitants  of  Charlestown  and  Boston  be¬ 
gan  the  erection  of  a  church  edifice  at  the  latter 
place.  There  were  then  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
one  church  members  at  the  two  settlements. 
They  amicably  divided,  the  church  in  Boston 
retaining  Mr.  Wilson  as  its  pastor,  and  that  in 
Charlestown  invited  Rev.  Thomas  James  to  its 
pulpit.  The  Boston  church  edifice  had  mud 
walls  and  a  thatched  roof,  and  stood  on  the 
south  side  of  State  Street,  near  where  the  old 
state-house  afterwards  stood.  Mr.  Wilson,  who 
had  been  a  teacher  only,  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  first  church  in  Boston,  Nov.  22, 1632. 

First  Code  of  Laws  in  Massachusetts.  At 

the  request  of  the  General  Court,  the  Rev.  John 
Cotton  drew  up  the  first  code  of  laws  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts.  They  were  taken  entirely  from 
the  Old -Testament  Scripture.  It  was  found 
that  they  were  not  adapted  to  a  state  of  society 
so  different  from  that  of  the  Hebrews  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  and  Rev.  Nathaniel  Ward,  who 
was  familiar  with  the  Roman  as  well  as  the 
Jewish  laws,  drew  up  a  code  which  was  substi¬ 
tuted  for  Cotton’s  in  1641.  The  first  article  of 
this  code  provided  that  the  rights  of  person  and 
property  vested  in  the  citizen  should  be  invio¬ 
late,  except  by  express  law,  or,  in  default  of 
that,  by  the  “Word  of  God.”  Governor  Win- 
throp  did  not  approve  of  Mr.  Ward’s  adaptation 
of  Greek  and  Roman  laws.  He  thought  it  bet¬ 
ter  that  the  laws  should  be  taken  from  the 
Scriptures  rather  than  “on  the  authority  of  the 
wisdom  and  justice  of  those  heathen  common¬ 
wealths.”  The  “Body  of  Liberties”  compiled 
by  Mr.  Ward  was  really  the  first  constitution  of 
Massachusetts  Bay. 

First  Colonial  Copyright  Law.  The  Geu- 
I.— 31 


eral  Court  of  Massachusetts  in  1672  gave  leave 
to  John  Usher,  an  opulent  Boston  bookseller, 
the  exclusive  right  of  printing,  on  his  own  ac¬ 
count,  a  revised  edition  of  the  laws  of  that  colo¬ 
ny,  which  had  been  first  printed  at  Cambridge 
in  1634. 

First  Copyright  and  Patent  Law  in  the 
United  States.  South  Carolina’s  Legislature 
passed  a  law  in  1784  for  the  encouragement  of 
the  arts  and  sciences.  It  provided  for  the  se¬ 
curity  of  the  copyright  of  books  to  the  authors, 
and  a  like  privilege  to  the  inventors  of  useful 
machines.  (See  Copyright  Law). 

First  Court  of  Chancery  in  New  York,  The, 
was  established  in  the  year  1701,  agreeably  to 
the  special  directions  of  the  Lords  of  Trade 
(which  see).  This  court  was  directed  to  sit  on 
the  first  Tuesday  in  every  month. 

First  Democratic  Government  in  America. 

When  the  Mayflower  entered  Cape  Cod  Bay,  off 
the  shores  of  (present)  Massachusetts,  and  cast 
anchor,  it  w7as  perceived  that  they  were  out  of 
the  northern  limits  of  the  South  Virginia  or 
London  Company,  and  their  then  charter  re¬ 
ceived  from  that  company  was  useless.  Already 
symptoms  of  faction  had  appeared  among  the 
emigrants  on  board,  who  imagined  that  when 
on  shore  they  would  be  under  no  government; 
it  was  therefore  judged  expedient  by  the  wise 
ones  of  the  company  that,  before  disembarka¬ 
tion,  they  should  combine  themselves  into  a 
body  politic,  to  be  governed  by  the  majority. 
A  written  instrument  was  drawn  up,  and,  after 
solemn  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  it  was  sub¬ 
scribed  (Nov.  11,  O.  S.)  by  every  man  on  board, 
forty-one  in  number.  It  was  on  the  lid  of  Elder 
Brewster’s  chest  that  this  constitution  of  govern¬ 
ment  was  signed.  They  then  proceeded  to  elect 
John  Carver  for  governor.  Thus  was  erected  the 
first  republic — a  pure  democracy  —  in  America. 

First  Duel  between  Congressmen.  Barent 
Gardinior  was  an  able  opponent  of  the  adminis¬ 
tration  in  Congress  in  1808.  In  a  speech  on  a 
bill  supplementary  to  the  Embargo  Act,  he  as¬ 
sailed  the  administration  with  great  violence 
of  language,  accusing  it  of  being  under  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  France,  having  secret  motives  of  mis¬ 
chief  hidden  under  a  cover  of  patriotism,  and 
declaring  that  he  believed  there  was  a  dark 
conspiracy  in  operation.  The  administration 
members  were  greatly  excited.  He  was  fre¬ 
quently  called  to  order,  and  even  threats  were 
made  to  expel  Gardinier  from  the  House.  He 
was  assailed  with  a  torrent  of  personal  abuse, 
especially  by  Campbell,  of  Maryland.  Gardi¬ 
nier  challenged  him  to  mortal  combat.  They 
fought,  and  Campbell  shot  Gardinier  through 
the  body.  He  barely  escaped  with  his  life; 
and  when  he  returned  to  his  seat  ho  assailed  his 
opponents  with  more  violence  than  ever. 

First  English  Colony  planted  in  America. 

In  1585  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  sent  out  from  Eng¬ 
land  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  with  seven  ships 
and  many  people,  to  form  a  colony  in  Virginia, 
with  Ralph  Lane  as  their  governor.  At  Roanoke 
Island  Grenville  left  one  hundred  aud  seven 


FIRST  EPISCOPAL  SOCIETY 


482 


FIRST  FRENCH  MISSIONARIES 


men  under  Lane  to  plant  a  colony,  the  first  ever 
founded  by  English  men  in  America.  (See  Gren¬ 
ville  and  Lane.)  This  colony  became  much  strait¬ 
ened  for  want  of  provisions  next  year,  and,  fort¬ 
unately  for  them,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  sailing  up 
the  American  coast  with  a  squadron,  visited  the 
colony  and  found  them  in  great  distress.  He 
generously  proposed  to  furnish  them  with  sup¬ 
plies,  a  ship,  a  pinnace,  and  small  boats,  with 
sufficient  seamen  to  stay  and  make  a  further  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  country;  or  sufficient  provisions 
to  carry  them  to  England,  or  to  give  them  a  pas¬ 
sage  home  in  his  fleet.  The  first  proposal  was 
accepted  ;  but  a  storm  having  shattered  his  ves¬ 
sels,  the  discouraged  colonists  concluded  to  take 
passage  for  home  with  Drake,  which  they  did. 
The  whole  colony  (one  hundred  and  three  per¬ 
sons)  sailed  from  Virginia  June  18,  1586,  and  ar¬ 
rived  at  Portsmouth,  England,  July  28. 

First  Episcopal  Society  in  New  England. 

This  society  was  formed  in  Boston  in  1686,  when 
the  service  of  the  Prayer-book  was  first  intro¬ 
duced  into  New  England.  When  Governor  An¬ 
dros  arrived  he  applied  to  one  of  the  Boston 
churches  for  the  celebration  of  the  Episcopal 
ritual  iu  worship.  The  ministers  refused  his 
request.  Iu  the  following  spring  he  took  pos¬ 
session  of  the  Old  South  Church  and  used  it  for 
prayers  and  other  divine  services.  In  1688  an 
Episcopal  church  was  erected  in  Tremout  Street, 
Boston,  and  called  King’s  Chapel. 

First  Execution  in  the  Plymouth  Colony. 
John  Billington,  a  profane  man  from  London, 
was  found  guilty  of  murder,  and  was  executed 
at  Plymouth  in  1630.  His  conduct  had  been 
bad  from  the  beginning.  Governor  Bradford, 
writing  to  Rev.  Mr.  Cushman  in  1625,  said  :  “  He 
is  a  knave,  and  so  will  live  and  die.” 

First  Exports  from  the  Mississippi  River. 

Two  French  ships  sailed  for  France  from  the 
Mississippi,  richly  laden,  in  1716.  These  were 
the  first  to  carry  merchandise  over  the  sea  from 
Louisiana. 

First  French  Minister  to  the  United  States, 

Reception  of.  On  the  ratification  of  the  treaty 
bet  ween  France  and  the  United  States  of  Feb.  6, 
1778,  diplomatic  relations  were  fully  established 
between  the  two  governments  by  the  French 
sending  M.  Gerard  (who  had  been  an  active  par¬ 
ticipator  in  the  ne¬ 
gotiations)  as  min¬ 
ister  plenipotenti¬ 
ary  totheyoungre- 
public.  He  sailed 
for  America  in 
D’Estaing’s  flag- 
si  i ip,  in  company 
with  Silas  Deane, 
and  arrived  at 
Philadelphia  early 
in  July.  There  be- 
ingno  traditionary 
rules  of  etiquette  suitable  for  the  occasion,  the 
ceremonials  which  took  place  at  his  reception  by 
Congress,  on  August  6,  were  entirely  new.  Rich¬ 
ard  Henry  Lee  and  Samuel  Adams,  delegates  in 
Congress,  in  a  coach  drawn  by  six  horses,  pro¬ 


vided  by  that  body,  waited  upon  the  minister 
at  his  lodgings.  A  few  minutes  afterwards  the 
two  delegates  and  M.  Gerard  entered  the  coach  ; 
the  minister’s  chariot  being  behind,  received  his 
secretary.  The  carriages  arrived  at  the  state- 
house  a  little  before  one  o’clock,  when  the  min¬ 
ister  was  conducted  by  Messrs.  Lee  and  Adams 
to  a  chair  in  the  Congress  chamber,  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  that  body  and  the  President  sitting;  M. 
Gerard,  being  seated,  presented  his  credentials 
into  the  hands  of  his  secretary,  who  advanced 
and  delivered  them  to  the  President  of  Con¬ 
gress.  The  secretary  of  Congress  then  read  and 
translated  them,  which  being  done,  Mr.  Lee  in¬ 
troduced  the  minister  to  Cougress,  at  the  same 
moment  the  minister  and  Cougress  rising.  M. 
Gerard  bowed  to  the  President  (Henry  Laurens) 
and  Congress,  and  they  bowed  to  him,  where¬ 
upon  the  whole  seated  themselves.  In  a  mo¬ 
ment  the  minister  arose,  made  a  speech  to  Con¬ 
gress  (they  sitting),  and  then,  seating  himself, 
he  gave  a  copy  of  his  speech  to  his  secretary, 
who  presented  it  to  the  President.  The  Presi¬ 
dent  and  Congress  then  rose,  when  the  former 
made  a  reply  to  the  speech  of  the  minister,  the 
latter  standing.  Then  all  were  again  seated, 
when  the  President  gave  a  copy  of  his  answer 
to  the  secretary  of  Cougress,  who  presented  it  to 
the  minister.  The  President,  the  Congress,  and 
the  minister  then  arose  again  together.  The 
minister  bowed  to  the  President,  who  returned 
the  salute,  and  then  to  the  Congress,  who 
bowed  iu  return ;  and  the  minister,  having 
bowed  to  the  President  and  received  his  bow 
in  return,  withdrew,  and  was  attended  home  in 
the  same  manner  in  which  he  had  been  con¬ 
ducted  to  the  audieuce.  Within  the  bar  of  the 
House,  the  Congress  formed  a  semicircle  on 
each  side  of  the  President  and  the  minister,  the 
President  sitting  at  one  extremity  of  the  semi¬ 
circle,  at  a  table  upon  a  platform  elevated  two 
steps,  the  minister  sitting  at  the  opposite  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  semicircle,  iu  an  arm-chair,  upon 
the  same  level  with  the  Congress.  The  door 
of  the  Congress  chamber  being  thrown  open  be¬ 
low  the  bar,  about  two  hundred  gentlemen  were 
admitted  to  the  audience,  among  whom  w'ere 
the  vice-president  of  the  Supreme  Executive 
Council  of  Pennsylvania,  the  Supreme  Execu¬ 
tive  Council,  the  speaker  and  members  of  the 
Assembly,  several  foreigners  of  distinction,  and 
officers  of  the  army.  The  audience  being  over, 
the  Congress  and  the  minister  at  a  proper  hour 
repaired  to  an  entertainment  given  by  the  Con¬ 
gress  to  the  minister,  at  which  were  present,  by 
invitation,  several  foreigners  of  distinction  and 
gentlemen  of  public  character.  Such  was  the 
unostentatious  manner  in  which  the  first  for¬ 
eign  minister  of  the  United  States  was  received, 
and  he  from  the  gayest  court  in  Europe. 

First  French  Missionaries  in  America. 
Zealous  for  the  extension  of  the  dominion  of 
France  in  America,  Champlain  (which  see)  was 
equally  zealous  in  the  promotion  and  spread  of 
the  Christian  faith.  To  aid  him  in  the  latter 
task  he  brought  from  France  (1615),  with  a  com¬ 
pany  of  colonists,  four  R^collet.  friars,  the  first 
of  a  band  of  heroic  missionaries  who  strove  to 


M.  GERARD. 


FIRST  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY 


483  FIRST  MASS  CELEBRATED  IN  BOSTON 


convert  the  dnslcy  pagans  of  our  continent  to  the 
Christian  faith.  Clad  in  coarse  garments,  held 
by  a  knotted  cord,  with  wooden  sandals  on  their 
feet,  they  held  their  first  mass  in  the  open  air  at 
Quebec,  while  cannons  on  the  fort  and  ship  were 
thundering.  At  that  moment  a  large  council  of 
Algonquin  and  Huron  Indiana  was  assembled  at 
Hochelaga  (Montreal),  and  with  the  latter  one 
of  the  priests  (Father  Le  Caron)  and  twelve 
Frenchmen  went  to  the  Huron  country,  on  the 
border  of  the  lake  hearing  that  name.  Chain- 
plain  had  followed  with  an  exploring  party, 
and,  near  the  site  of  the  (present)  village  of 
Oi  illa,  he  and  Father  Le  Caron  met.  There  were 
present  two  thousand  warriors,  painted  and 
plumed,  and  in  their  presence,  in  the  solitude  of 
the  primeval  forest,  this  devoted  R6collet  friar 
chanted  the  Te  Deum  and  offered  the  “  sacri¬ 
fice  of  the  mass”  —  the  administration  of  the 
holy  communion.  So  began  the  wonderful  se¬ 
ries  of  missions  by  the  French,  prosecuted  chief¬ 
ly  by  the  Jesuits,  in  America. 

First  General  Assembly  in  Plymouth  Col¬ 
ony.  In  1639  the  towns  in  Plymouth  Colony 
sent  deputies  for  legislation  for  the  first  time, 
and  the  first  General  Assembly  was  held  on 
June  4.  Hitherto  the  governor  and  his  assist¬ 
ants  were  virtually  the  representatives  of  the 
people.  They  had  only  a  few  laws,  which  they 
called  “fundamental;”  they  were  governed,  in 
general,  by  the  common  law  aud  statutes  of 
England. 

First  Governor- General  of  the  Carolinas. 

The  people  of  the  Carolinas  suffered  long,  if  not 
patiently,  the  oppression  inflicted  by  governors 
appointed  by  the  proprietors,  until,  at  length, 
the  eyes  of  the  latter  were  opened  to  see  their 
true  interests,  by  the  outrageous  conduct  of 
Seth  Sothel.  He  was  suspended  from  all  au¬ 
thority  in  Carolina  in  November,  1691,  and  he 
w'as  made  to  comply  only  by  the  fear  of  a  threat¬ 
ened  mandamus  to  appear  before  the  king.  Tlien 
they  appointed  Philip  Ludwell  governor  of  the 
northern  and  southern  colonies  of  the  Carolinas, 
and  he  became  first  governor-general.  He  was 
an  honest  but  inefficient  man.  He  could  not 
carry  out  a  single  measure  opposed  to  the  popu¬ 
lar  will,  and  in  1692  he  was  removed  and  Thomas 
Smith  made  governor  in  his  place. 

First  Grand  Jury  in  New  England.  In 
1637  the  first  grand  jury  was  empanelled  (Sep¬ 
tember),  from  which  time  the  courts,  in  criminal 
cases,  proceeded  by  the  inquest  of  a  grand  jury, 
and  by  petit  jurors  as  to  matters  of  fact. 

First  Impost  Duties  in  English-American 
Colonies.  In  1672  the  British  Parliament,  re¬ 
garding  colonial  commerce  as  a  proper  source 
of  public  revenue  and  taxation,  passed  a  law  im¬ 
posing  a  duty  on  sugar,  tobacco,  ginger,  cocoa- 
nut,  indigo,  logwood,  fustic,  wool,  and  cotton, 
under  certain  conditions.  It  was  enacted  that 
the  whole  business  should  be  managed  and  the 
imposts  levied  by  officers  appointed  by  the  com¬ 
missioners  of  customs  in  England,  under  the  au¬ 
thority  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury.  This  was 
the  first  attempt  at  taxation  of  the  colonies  with¬ 
out  their  consent. 


First  Impost  Duty  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  spring  of  1783  the  Congress  discussed 
the  question  of  laying  an  impost  duty  for  the 
restoration  of  the  public  credit.  Finally,  on 
April  18,  1782,  it  was  voted  “  that  it  be  recom¬ 
mended  to  the  several  states  as  indispensably 
necessary  to  the  restoration  of  public  credit, 
and  to  the  punctual  aud  honorable  discharge 
of  the  public  debts,  to  invest  the  Uuited  States, 
in  Congress  assembled,  with  power  to  levy  for 
the  use  of  the  United  States  ”  certain  duties 
named  upou  certain  goods  imported  from  any 
foreign  port.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  Arti¬ 
cles  of  Confederation  (which  see),  the  unani¬ 
mous  consent  of  the  states  was  necessary  to  con¬ 
fer  this  power  upou  the  Congress.  This  was  the 
first  attempt  to  lay  such  duties  for  revenue.  The 
necessity  was  obvious,  aud  all  the  states  except 
Rhode  Island  and  Georgia  agreed  to  an  ad  va¬ 
lorem  duty  of  five  per  cent,  upon  all  goods  ex¬ 
cepting  spirituous  liquors,  wines,  teas,  pepper, 
sugars,  molasses,  cocoa,  and  coffee,  on  which  spe¬ 
cific  duties  were  laid.  The  Assembly  gave,  as 
a  reason  for  its  refusal,  the  inequality  of  such  a 
tax,  bearing  harder  on  the  commercial  states, 
and  the  inexpediency  and  danger  of  intrusting 
its  collection  to  Federal  officers,  unknown!  and 
not  accountable  to  the  state  governments.  A 
committee  of  the  Congress,  with  Alexander 
Hamilton,  a  delegate  from  New  York,  as  chair¬ 
man,  was  appointed  to  lay  the  proposition  be¬ 
fore  the  several  states  and  to  urge  their  acqui¬ 
escence.  They  sent  it  forth  with  an  eloquent 
address,  which  appealed  to  the  patriotism  of  the 
people.  The  measure  was  approved  by  the  lead¬ 
ing  men  of  the  country,  and  all  the  states  but 
two  w’ere  willing  to  give  Congress  the  desired 
power.  “It  is  money,  not  power,  that  ought  to 
be  the  object,”  they  said.  “  The  former  will  pay 
our  debts,  the  latter  may  destroy  our  liberties.” 

First  Indian  Government  established  in 
New  England.  In  1647  the  General  Court  of 
Massachusetts  organized  the  Natick  Indians  at 
Nonantum  (see  Missions  to  the  Indians)  into  a  po¬ 
litical  community,  w'here  a  court  of  jurisdiction 
was  established.  An  order  was  passed  that  one 
or  more  of  the  magistrates  at  Boston  should, 
once  a  quarter,  keep  a  court  at  Nonantum,  and 
determine  all  cases,  civil  and  criminal,  that 
might  arise  among  the  Indians.  Pou'er  was 
given  to  the  sachems  to  bring  any  of  their  peo¬ 
ple  to  this  court,  and  to  hold  a  court  themselves 
once  a  mouth  if  they  saw  fit.  All  hues  imposed 
upon  any  Indians  were  bestowed  upon  some  meet¬ 
ing-houses  for  the  education  of  their  poorer  chil¬ 
dren  in  learning,  by  the  advice  of  the  magis¬ 
trates.  A  similar  court  was  set  up  on  the  site 
of  Concord.  In  1651  the  Indians  built  a  town 
at  Natick,  and  applied  for  a  form  of  civil  gov¬ 
ernment.  Mr.  Eliot  advised  them  to  adopt  that 
which  Jethro  proposed  to  Moses.  Accordingly, 
about  one  hundred  of  them  met  in  council  (Au¬ 
gust  6)  and  chose  one  ruler  of  one  hundred,  two 
rulers  of  fifties,  and  ton  rulers  of  tens.  After 
the  election  they  entered  into  a  solemn  covenant. 

First  Mass  celebrated  in  Boston,  The,  was 
performed  by  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1788, 


FIRST  MAYOR  OF  NEW  YORK 


484  FIRST  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION 


and  the  following  year  the  first  Roman  Catholic  I 
Church  was  founded  in  Boston. 

First  Mayor  of  New  York.  After  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  New  Netherlaud  by  the  English,  and  the 
name  of  the  province  as  well  as  the  capital  (New 
Amsterdam)  was  changed  to  New  York,  and  all 
the  arrangements  had  been  made  for  a  munici¬ 
pal  government  under  English  laws,  Thomas 
Willett  was  appointed  the  first  mayor  (June, 
1G65),  while  the  sheriff  (Sellout)  and  a  major¬ 
ity  of  the  new  board  of  aldermen  (burgomas-  j 
ters)  were  Dutch.  Willett  was  much  esteemed 
by  all  the  people  of  both  nationalities. 

First  Military  Organization  in  Pennsylva¬ 
nia.  (See  Franklin's  Volunteer  Militia.) 

First  Mint  established  in  the  English- 
American  Colonies.  The  earliest  colonial  coin¬ 
age  was  in  Massachusetts,  in  pursuance  of  an 
order  of  the  General  Court,  passed  May  27,  1652, 
which  established  a  “mint-house”  at  Boston. 
The  order  required  the  coinage  of  “  12-pence, 
6-pence,  and  3-pence  peeces,  which  shall  be  for 
forme  fiatt,  and  stamped  on  one  side  with  N.  E., 
and  on  the  other  side  with  Xlld,  VId,  and  Illd,” 
according  to  the  value  of  each  piece.  These 
coins  were  to  be  of  the  fineness  of  “new  ster¬ 
ling  English  money,”  and  every  shilling  was  to 
“  weigh  three  penny  Troy  weight,  and  lesser 
peeces  proportionably.”  It  was  found,  as  soon 
as  they  were  in  circulation,  that,  owing  to  the 
excessive  plainness  of  their  finish,  they  were 
exposed  to  “  washing  and  clipping.”  To  rem¬ 
edy  this  evil,  the  General  Court,  on  Oct.  9  of 
the  same  year,  ordered  a  new  die,  and  required 
that  “  henceforth  both  shillings  and  smaller 
peeces  shall  have  a  double  ring  on  either  side, 
Avith  this  inscription:  “Massachusetts,  and  a 
tree  in  the  centre,  on  the  one  side,  and  New 
England  and  the  date  of  the  year  on  the  oilier 


THE  “PINE-TREE  SHILLING.” 


side.”  In  1662  a  tAvo-penny  piece  was  added  to 
the  series.  This  mint  existed  about  thirty-four 
years,  but  all  the  coins  issued  have  only  the 
dates  1652  and  1662,  the  original  dies  having 
done  serA’ice,  probably,  throughout  the  whole 
period.  These  coins  are  now  known  as  “piue- 
tree  shillings.” 

First  National  Congress,  Opening  of  the. 
On  the  8th  of  January,  1790,  Washington  left  his 
house  on  Franklin  Square,  New  York,  in  his 
coach,  drawn  by  four  bay  horses,  preceded  by 
Colonel  Humphreys  and  Major  Jackson,  in  mil¬ 
itary  uniform,  riding  two  of  his  white  horses, 
and  followed  by  his  private  secretaries,  Lear 
and  Nelson,  in  liis  chariot.  His  own  coach  Avas 
followed  by  carriages  bearing  the  Chief-justice 
and  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  and  of  War,  the 


Secretary  of  State  not  liaA'ing  yet  arrived.  The 
President  was  met  at  the  outer  door  of  the  hall 
by  the  door-keepers  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives,  and  conducted  by  them  to  the 
door  of  the  Senate-chamber,  from  which  he  was 
led  through  the  assembled  members  of  Congress 
(the  Senators  on  one  side  and  Representatives 
on  the  other)  to  the  chair  of  state,  where  he  was 
seated.  In  a  few  minutes  the  President  arose, 
and  with  him  the  members  of  both  Houses,  and 
read  his  speech,  or  message.  Handing  a  copy 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate  and  Speaker  of 
the  House,  he  retired,  bowing  to  the  members 
as  he  passed  out.  Then  he  returned  to  his  house 
in  the  same  manner  as  he  came.  On  that  occa¬ 
sion  Washington  was  dressed  in  a  suit  of  clothes 
made  in  a  woollen  factory  at  Hartford,  Conn. 
(See  Washing ton's  Tour  in  New  England.)  These 
•eremonies  at  the  opening  of  each  Congress  Avere 
done  away  with  by  Jefferson,  when  he  became 
President,  he  sending  his  written  messages  to 
Congress  by  his  private  secretary,  instead  of  de¬ 
livering  them  in  person. 

First  Naturalization  Act  in  the  Colonies. 

In  1715  the  Assembly  of  NeAv  York  passed  an  act 
for  naturalizing  all  Protestants  of  foreign  birth 
then  inhabiting  that  colony. 

First  Navigation  Act.  By  an  ordinance  of 
the  British  Parliament  (1646),  all  goods,  mer¬ 
chandise,  and  necessaries  for  the  English-Amer- 
icau  plantations  Avere  exempted  from  duty  for 
three  years,  on  condition  that  no  colonial  vessel 
be  suffered  to  lade  any  goods  of  the  growth  of 
the  plantations  and  carry  them  to  a  foreign  port, 
excepting  in  English  bottoms.  The  preamble 
to  the  ordinance  mentioned  “Virginia,  Bermu¬ 
das,  Barbadoes,  and  other  places  of  America.” 

First  Organ  in  a  Congregational  Church 
in  New  England.  Late  in  November,  1785,  an 
organ  was  introduced  into  the  First  Congrega¬ 
tional  Church  in  Boston.  Never  before  had  in¬ 
strumental  music  been  heard  in  a  Congrega¬ 
tional  church  in  Nerv  England. 

First  Paper-money  in  America.  To  defray 
the  expenses  of  De  Nonville’s  Expedition  (which 
see),  a  paper-currency,  similar  to  the  Continental 
Bills  of  Credit  (Avhich  see),  was  issued  by  the 
government  of  Canada  in  1684,  which  was  called 
“  card  money.”  It  Avas  redeemable  in  bills  on 
France. 

First  Paper-money  in  Virginia.  Levies 
for  the  French  and  Indian  War  (which  see)  were 
raised  in  Virginia,  and  in  1755  the  Virginia  As¬ 
sembly,  having  voted  £20,000  towards  their  sup¬ 
port,  authorized  the  issue  of  treasury  notes — 
the  first  paper-money  of  that  province. 

First  Political  Newspapers  in  America 

(1732).  The  quarrel  between  Govern  or  Cosby  and 
Rip  van  Dam  resulted  in  the  employment  of  the 
newspaper  press  for  the  first  time  in  America 
as  a  political  engine.  The  New  York  Gazette, 
printed  by  Bradford,  became  the  organ  of  the 
governor  and  the  royalist  party ;  the  New  York 
Weekly  Journal,  printed  by  John  P.  Zenger,  was 
the  organ  of  the  Republicans.  (SeeZenger's  1'rial.) 

First  Presidential  and  Congressional  Elec- 


FIRST  PRISONER  OF  WAR 


485  FIRST  REPUBLICAN  GOVERNMENT 


tion.  All  of  tlie  ratifying  states  excepting  New 
York  cbose  presidential  electors,  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution  (which 
see).  The  electors  chosen  met  in  their  respec¬ 
tive  states  on  the  day  in  February,  1789,  appoint¬ 
ed  by  the  expiring  Continental  Congress,  aur 
cast  their  votes  unanimously  for  George  Wash¬ 
ington.  Meanwhile  the  election  of  senators 
and  representatives  had  occurred  in  the  several 
states — the  former  by  the  State  Legislatures  and 
the  latter  by  the  people.  The  election  of  rep¬ 
resentatives  was  attended  with  much  party 
warmth  of  feeling,  as  the  people  were  divided, 
by  a  pretty  sharply  defined  line,  into  “Federal” 
and  “Anti-Federal”  parties. 

First  Prisoner  of  War  (1812).  Captain  Wil¬ 
kinson,  of  the  Royal  Marines,  excited  suspicions 
in  Norfolk,  Va.,  when  war  was  declared,  that  he 
w'as  about  to  give  information  of  the  fact  to  a 
British  man-of-war  then  hovering  on  the  coast. 
He  was  seen  rapidly  making  his  way  from  the 
house  of  the  British  consul  through  back  streets 
to  a  mail-boat  about  to  start  for  Hampton.  He 
darted  on  board  the  boat,  and  tried  to  conceal 
himself.  About  from  the  navy-yard  and  anoth¬ 
er  from  Fort  Norfolk  gave  chase.  Wilkinson 
was  brought  back,  and  conveyed  to  the  navy- 
yard  as  a  prisoner  of  war,  the  first  taken  after 
war  was  declared. 

First  Public  Worship  at  Jamestown.  Rev. 
Mr.  Hunt  accompanied  the  first  emigrants  to 
Virginia.  The  weather  was  very  warm,  and 
under  an  awning  made  of  an  old  sail,  fastened 
to  two  or  three  trees,  to  shade  them  from  the 
sun,  the  first  public  worship  was  held.  They 
made  walls  of  split  rails;  their  seats  were  un¬ 
hewed  logs,  until  they  cut  planks ;  the  pulpit 
was  a  bar  of  wood  nailed  to  two  trees ;  and  in 
stormy  weather  they  repaired  to  an  old  and 
greatly  worn  tent.  This  was  the  chapel  until 
they  built  a  barn-like  structure,  set  upon  “rude 
crotchets,”  covered  with  rafts,  sedge,  and  earth, 
as  were  the  walls.  Their  best  houses  were 
like  the  church,  though  of  inferior  workman¬ 
ship;  and  out  of  the  chapel  they  could  not  well 
keep  the  wind  and  rain,  yet  in  it  they  had 
daily  common  prayer  morning  and  evening,  ev¬ 
ery  Sunday  two  services,  and  “every  three 
months  the  holy  communion,  until  the  minis¬ 
ter  died.” 

First  Quaker  Meeting-house  in  Boston, 
The,  was  built  in  1710. 

First  Quarantine  Law.  A  profitable  trade 
had  been  opened  between  Massachusetts  and 
Barbadoes  and  other  West  India  islands.  In 
the  summer  of  1647  there  was  a  wasting  epi¬ 
demic  in  those  islands,  carrying  off  six  thousand 
people  in  Barbadoes,  and  nearly  as  many  in  the 
other  islands,  proportionably  to  their  popula¬ 
tion.  The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  on 
hearing  of  the  disease,  published  an  order  that 
all  vessels  which  should  come  from  the  West 
Indies  should  stay  at  the  Castle  at  the  entrance 
to  the  harbor,  and  not  land  any  passengers  or 
goods  without  license  from  three  of  the  Coun¬ 
cil,  under  a  penalty  of  $500.  A  like  penalty  was 
imposed  upon  any  person  visiting  such  quaran¬ 


tined  vessel  without  permission.  A  similar  or¬ 
der  was  sent  to  Salem  and  other  ports.  Was 
this  disease  yellow  fever? 

First  Remittance  from  New  Plymouth. 

In  November,  1621,  Rev.  Robert  Cushman  came 
to  New  Plymouth  in  the  Fortune,  and  embarked 
for  England  in  the  same  vessel  the  following 
month,  taking  with  him  a  cargo  of  furs,  sassa¬ 
fras,  clapboards,  and  wainscot,  valued  at  about 
$2450,  the  first  remittance  from  the  Pilgrim 
colony. 

First  Republican  Government  in  Ameri¬ 
ca.  When  the  six  thousand  white  inhabitants 
of  Louisiana  heard  of  the  cession  of  their  do¬ 
main  by  France  to  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  1763, 
they  formed  an  Assembly  of  representatives  of 
each  parish  in  the  colony,  which  resolved  to  ask 
the  King  of  France  to  observe  their  loyalty,  and 
not  sever  them  from  his  dominions.  They  sent 
John  Milliet,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  New  Or¬ 
leans,  as  their  envoy  to  Paris,  to  present  their 
petition  to  Choisenl  (which  see);  but  that  min¬ 
ister  said,  “  It  may  be  France  cannot  bear  the 
charge  of  supporting  the  colony’s  precarious  ex¬ 
istence.”  On  July  10,  1765,  Antonio  de  Ulloa 
wi’ote  a  letter  at  Havana  to  New  Orleans,  and 
announced  to  the  authorities  there  that  he  had 
received  orders  to  take  possession  of  Louisiana 
in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  monarch.  He  land¬ 
ed  there  on  March  5,  1766,  with  civil  officers, 
three  Capuchin  monks,  and  eighty  soldiers.  The 
colonists  received  him  coldly.  The  French  gar¬ 
rison  of  three  hundred  soldiers  refused  to  enter 
the  Spanish  service,  nor  would  the  inhabitants 
consent  to  give  up  their  nationality.  Ulloa 
could  only  direct  a  Spanish  commissary  to  de¬ 
fray  the  expenses  of  government  at  the  cost  of 
Spain,  and  to  administer  it  under  the  French 
flag,  by  old  French  officers.  Very  soon  the 
Spanish  restrictive  commercial  system  was  ap¬ 
plied  to  Louisiana.  The  merchants  of  New  Or- 
eans  remonstrated.  “The  extension  and  free¬ 
dom  of  trade,”  they  said,  “far  from  injuring 
states  and  colonies,  are  their  strength  and  sup- 
tort.”  The  ordinance  was  suspended,  and  very 
ittle  Spanish  jurisdiction  was  exercised  in  Lou¬ 
isiana.  The  conduct  of  Ulloa,  the  derangement 
of  business,  and  a  sense  of  vassalage  aroused  the 
whole  colony  at  the  end  of  two  years,  and  it  was 
proposed  to  make  New  Orleans  a  republic  like 
Holland  or  Venice,  with  a  legislative  body  of 
forty  men,  and  a  single  executive.  The  peo¬ 
ple  of  the  country  parishes  filled  the  city,  and, 
joining  those  of  New  Orleans,  formed  a  numer¬ 
ous  assembly,  in  which  John  Milliet,  his  brother, 
Lafreniere,  and  one  or  twTo  others  were  conspic¬ 
uous.  They  adopted  an  address  to  the  Superior 
Council  (Oct.  25,  1768),  rehearsing  their  griev¬ 
ances,  and  in  their  Petition  of  Rights  they  claim¬ 
ed  freedom  of  commerce  with  the  ports  of  France 
and  America,  and  demanded  the  expulsion  of 
Ulloa  from  the  colony.  The  address  was  signed 
by  nearly  six  hundred  names.  It  was  adopted 
by  the  Council  (Oct.  26);  and  when  the  French 
(lag  was  displayed  on  the  public  square,  women 
and  children  kissed  its  folds,  and  nine  hundred 
men  raised  it  amid  shouts  of  “Long  live  the 


FIRST  SALT-WORKS  IN  AMERICA  488 


FIRST  TARIFF  BILL  PASSED 


King  of  France ;  we  will  have  no  king  but  him.” 
Ulloa  fled  to  Havana,  while  the  people  of  Lou¬ 
isiana  made  themselves  a  republic  as  an  alter¬ 
native  to  their  renewed  political  connection  with 
France.  They  elected  their  own  treasurer,  and 
syndics  to  represent  the  mass  of  the  colony. 
They  sent  envoys  to  Paris  bearing  a  memorial 
to  the  French  monarch  (Louis  XV.),  asking  him 
to  intercede  between  them  and  the  King  of 
Spain.  Du  Chatelet,  the  French  ambassador  in 
London,  wrote  to  Choiseul  (Feb.  24, 1769) :  “  The 
success  of  the  people  of  New  Orleans  in  driving 
away  the  Spaniards  is  at  least  a  good  example 
for  the  English  colonies;  may  they  set  about 
following  it.”  (See  Choiseul  and  the  Americans.) 

First  Salt-works  established  in  America. 

In  1630  Governor  Harvey,  of  Virginia,  commenced 
an  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  salt  by 
solar  evaporation  of  sea-water,  to  be  erected  at 
Accomac,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Chesapeake 
Bay. 

First  Sermon  preached  in  New  England. 

Rev.  Robert  Cushman  (which  see),  one  of  the 
agents  sent  by  the  “Pilgrims”  at  Leyden  to 
Loudon,  to  prepare  the  way  for  their  emigration 
to  America,  became  one  of  the  founders  of  New 
Plymouth  colony,  in  New  England.  He  reached 
New  Plymouth  Nov.  9,  1621,  and  on  Dec.  12  he 
preached  a  sermon  “  On  the  Sin  and  Danger  of 
Self-love.”  This  was  the  first  sermon  preached 
in  New  England  by  a  regularly  ordained  minis¬ 
ter.  It  was  printed  in  London,  and  is  believed 
to  be  the  oldest  sermon  extant  preached  in  Amer¬ 
ica.  In  the  “Epistle  Dedicatory,”  the  preacher 
declared  it  to  be  the  general  belief  that  New  Eng¬ 
land  was  an  island. 

First  Settlement  in  Ohio.  (See  Ohio  Com¬ 
pany.) 

First  Settler  in  North  Carolina.  George 
Durant,  a  Quaker,  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  white  settler  in  North  Carolina  —  about 
1650.  Other  settlers  appeared  in  the  region  of 
the  Chowan.  Durant’s  Neck  perpetuates  the 
name  of  that  first  settler. 

First  Ship  and  first  Water-mills  built  in 
Massachusetts.  In  1633  a  ship  was  built  at 
Medford,  of  sixty  tons  burden  —  the  beginning 
of  ship-building  in  New  England.  The  same 
year  a  water-mill  was  built  at  Dorchester  by 
Mr.  Stoughton,  by  permission  of  the  authori¬ 
ties;  and  another  was  erected  at  Roxbury  by 
Mr.  Dunimer.  The  same  year  rye  was  first  raised 
in  New  England,  at  which  the  poor  people  great¬ 
ly  rejoiced  to  find  the  land  would  bear  it. 

First  Ship  built  in  Boston,  The,  was  called 
The  Trial.  She  made  a  trip  to  Balboa  in  1638, 
laden  with  cod  and  mackerel,  and  returned  with 
a  cargo  of  fruit,  wine,  oil,  iron,  and  wool  for  the 
colonies. 

First  Ship  built  in  New  England.  On  the 

arrival  of  the  Popham  Colony  (  which  see), 
Thomas  Digby,  the  master  shipwright,  caused 
timber  to  be  cut  down,  hewn  into  shape,  and 
left  to  season  until  late  in  the  fall,  when  he 
built  a  vessel,  of  thirty  tons  burden,  which  was 
named  Virginia.  This  was  the  first  vessel  built 


by  Englishmen  in  New  England.  Its  first  use 
was  to  convey  the  disappointed  colonists  back 
to  Old  England.  That  was  in  1607. 

First  Ship  built  on  Manhattan  Island. 

Adrian  Block  was  a  bold  Dutch  navigator.  He 
came  from  Holland  to  Manhattan  in  1613,  in  the 
Tigress,  a  small  vessel ;  and  when  she  was  about 
to  sail  for  Amsterdam,  with  a  cargo  of  furs  and 
skins,  late  in  the  year,  she  took  fire  and  was  de¬ 
stroyed.  The  hardy  seamen  built  rude  log  huts 
to  shelter  themselves  from  the  snows  and  winds, 
and  went  cheerily  to  work  to  construct  a  new 
vessel.  It  was  completed  before  the  ice  in  the 
bay  had  broken  up  in  the  spring.  Block  named 
it  Ormst — the  “restless” — a  title  that  seemed 
prophetic  of  the  unresting  commercial  activity 
of  the  great  city  and  forests  of  vessels  that  now 
appear  where  that  rude  hamlet  and  little  vessel 
were  built  early  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

First  Street-lamps  in  Boston,  The,  were 
put  up  in  1774. 

First  supplying  of  Indians  with  Fire-arms. 

In  1656  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  grant¬ 
ed  a  license  to  certain  persons  to  supply  the 
Eastern  Indians  with  arms  and  ammunition  for 
hunting,  on  paying  an  acknowTedgmeut  into  the 
public  treasury.  They  soon  learned  to  use  them 
for  a  different  purpose. 

First  Tariff  Bill  passed  by  the  National 
Congress.  On  May  15,  1789,  the  first  tariff  bill 
adopted  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
was  carried  in  the  House  of  Representatives  by 
the  very  decided  majority  of  forty-one  to  eight. 
It  was  modified  by  the  Senate  before  its  final 
passage.  It  imposed  specific  duties  on  distilled 
spirits,  molasses,  wines,  beer,  ale,  porter,  cider, 
malt,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  tea,  candles,  cheese, 
soap,  boots  and  shoes,  silks,  cables  and  tarred 
and  untarred  cordage,  fine  and  pack  thread, 
wrought  steel,  nails  and  spikes,  salt,  manufact¬ 
ured  tobacco,  indigo,  wool  and  cotton  cards, 
coal,  pickled  and  dried  fish,  playing-cards,  cot¬ 
ton,  and  hemp.  Ad  valorem  duties  of  ten  per 
cent,  were  laid  on  glass  of  all  kinds  (black  quart- 
bottles  excepted),  china,  stone  and  earthen  ware, 
gunpowder,  paints,  shoe  and  knee  buckles,  gold 
and  silver  lace  and  leaf,  blank -books,  paper, 
cabinet  wares,  leather,  ready-made  clothing, 
hats,  gloves,  millinery,  canes,  brushes,  gold  and 
silver  and  plated  ware  and  jewelry,  buttons, 
saddles,  sheet  and  rolled  irou,  iron  castings,  an¬ 
chors,  tin  and  wooden  ware.  A  duty  of  five  per 
cent,  was  laid  upon  all  other  articles,  including 
manufactures  of  wool,  cotton,  and  linen,  except¬ 
ing  saltpetre,  tin,  lead,  old  pewter,  brass,  iron 
and  brass  wire,  copper  in  sheets,  wood,  dye- 
stuff's,  hides  aud  furs,  which  were  to  be  admitted 
free  of  duty.  In  a  subsequent  act  it  was  pro¬ 
vided  that  in  all  cases  of  ad  valorem  duties  the 
value  should  be  ascertained  by  adding  ten  per 
cent.,  or,  if  the  goods  came  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  or  beyond,  twenty  per  cent.,  to  the 
cost  at  the  place  of  exportation.  Upon  all 
goods  re-exported  within  twelve  months  a 
drawback  was  to  be  allowed  of  the  whole 
amount  of  duties,  one  per  cent,  being  deducted. 
For  the  encouragement  of  American  shipping, 


FIRST  TEMPERANCE  SOCIETY 


487  FIRST  TROOPS  FOR  WASHINGTON 


when  the  goods  were  imported  in  American  ves¬ 
sels  a  tenth  part  of  the  duties  was  to  be  remit¬ 
ted.  This  first  tariff  act  was  limited  to  the  1st 
of  June,  1796. 

First  Temperance  Society  in  America. 

French  traders  engaged  extensively  in  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  liquors  to  the  Indians  in  Can¬ 
ada.  The  Jesuit  missionaries  opposed  the  traf¬ 
fic  with  all  their  might.  That  traffic  was  not 
only  injurious  to  the  Indians,  but  interfered  se¬ 
riously  with  the  labors  of  the  missionaries.  The 
wealthy  traders  managed  to  interest  the  gov¬ 
ernor-general  in  their  behalf,  also  the  king’s 
counsel,  on  the  pretext  that  the  traffic  was  nec¬ 
essary  to  secure  the  good-will  of  the  Indians. 
It  was  asserted  that  the  evils  of  it  were  imagi¬ 
nary  or  much  exaggerated.  For  once,  however, 
philanthropy  triumphed  over  sordid  interest. 
The  Bishop  of  Quebec  went  to  France  in  1678, 
and  obtained  a  royal  decree  prohibiting  this 
outrageous  traffic  under  heavy  penalties. 

First  Traitor  in  the  United  States,  Teie. 
On  the  establishment,  of  a  general  hospital 
(July  27, 1755),  Dr.  Benjamin  Church  was  unani¬ 
mously  chosen  chief  director.  He  was  a  grand¬ 
son  of  Colonel  Benjamin  Church,  distinguished 
in  the  Indian  wars  in  New  England.  He  was 
born  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Aug.  24, 1734 ;  lost  at  sea 
in  May,  1776.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard 
University,  studied  medicine  in  London,  and  be¬ 
came  eminent  as  a  surgeon.  He  lived  a  bach¬ 
elor,  extravagantly  and  licentiously,  in  a  fine 
mansion  which  he  built  at  Raynham,  Mass.,  in 
1768.  For  several  years  preceding  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  he  was  conspicuous  among  the  leading 
Whigs.  Of  the  Massachusetts  Provincial  Con¬ 
gress  he  was  an  active  member.  At  the  same 
time,  while  he  was  trusted  as  an  ardent  patriot, 
Church  was  evidently  the  secret  enemy  of  the 
Republicans.  So  early  as  1774  he  wrote  paro¬ 
dies  of  his  own  popular  songs  in  favor  of  lib¬ 
erty  for  the  Tory  newspapers ;  and  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1775,  an  intercepted  letter,  written  by  him 
in  cipher  to  Major  Cain,  in  Boston,  which  had 
passed  through  the  hands  of  the  mistress  of 
Church,  was  deciphered;  and  the  woman  con¬ 
fessed  that  he  was  the  author.  The  case  was 
laid  before  the  Continental  Congress,  and  he 
was  dismissed  from  the  general  directorship  of 
the  hospital.  He  was  arrested  and  tried  by  a 
court-martial  at  Cambridge  on  a  charge  “of 
holding  a  criminal  correspondence  with  the  en¬ 
emy.”  He  was  convicted  (Oct.  3),  and  impris¬ 
oned  at  Cambridge.  On  the  7th  of  November 
the  Congress  ordered  him  to  be  “close  confined, 
without  the  use  of  pen,  ink,  or  paper;  and  that 
no  person  be  allowed  to  conveise  with  him,  ex¬ 
cept  in  the  presence  and  hearing  of  a  magistrate 
of  the  town  or  the  sheriff  of  the  county  where 
he  shall  be  confined,  and  in  the  English  lan¬ 
guage,  until  further  orders  from  this  or  a  future 
Congress.”  He  was  so  confined  in  the  jail  at 
Norwich,  Conn.  In  May,  1776,  he  was  released 
on  account  of  failing  health,  and  sailed  for  the 
West  Indies  in  a  merchant  vessel.  He  and  the 
vessel  were  never  heard  of  afterwards.  Benja¬ 
min  Church  was  the  first  traitor  to  the  Repub¬ 


lican  cause  in  America.  He  was  well  educated, 
and  a  writer  in  prose  and  verse  of  considerable 
ability. 

First  Troops  for  the  Defence  of  Washing¬ 
ton  (1861).  Pennsylvania  sent  the  first  troops  to 
the  capital  for  its  defence.  (See  Pennsylvania 
Troops  at  the  Capital. )  Massachusetts  was  equally 
ready  and  determined,  and  some  of  her  troops 
reached  the  capital  on  the  day  after  the  arrival  of 
the  Pennsylvanians.  Some  troops  were  sent  by 
Massachusetts  (April  17, 1861)  to  Fortress  Mon¬ 
roe,  in  Virginia,  then  in  imminent  danger  of 
seizure  by  the  insurgents;  and  thirteen  com¬ 
panies,  under  General  Butler,  started  for  Wash¬ 
ington  city.  Rhode  Island,  through  wThich  these 
troops  passed,  was  iu  a  blaze  of  excitement. 
Governor  Sprague  had  promptly  tendered  to 
the  government  the  services  of  one  thousand 
infantry  and  a  battalion  of  artillery;  and  the 
Legislature,  assembling  on  April  17,  promptly 
provided  for  the  state’s  quota  and  appropriated 
$500,000  for  war  purposes.  The  banks  offered 
adequate  loans  to  the  state ;  and  within  a  few 
days  Rhode  Island  troops  were  on  their  way  tow¬ 
ards  Washington  —  Colonel  Tompkins’s  Rhode 
Island  Marine  Artillery,  with  eight  guns,  and 
the  First  Regiment  of  Infantry,  twelve  hun¬ 
dred  strong,  under  Colonel  Burnside.  Govern¬ 
or  Sprague  accompanied  these  troops  as  com¬ 
mander-in-chief.  Connecticut  was  equally  ex¬ 
cited.  The  patriotic  Governor  Buckingham  is¬ 
sued  a  proclamation,  on  the  very  day  of  the 
President’s  call,  urging  the  citizens  of  his  state 
to  volunteer  their  services  in  support  of  the 
government.  So  warm  was  the  response  of  the 
banks  and  the  people  that,  in  a  message  to  the 
Legislature  on  May  1,  the  governor  averred  that 
forty-one  volunteer  regiments  had  already  been 
accepted,  and  that  a  part  of  these  were  already 
in  the  national  capital.  New  York  was  equally 
prompt  and  patriotic,  and  its  troops  soon  pressed 
forward  to  Washington.  New  Jersey  was  equal¬ 
ly  aroused.  Governor  Olden,  inspired  by  the 
enthusiastic  loyalty  of  his  people,  issued  a  call 
for  his  state’s  quota  two  days  after  the  Presi¬ 
dent’s  proclamation.  The  Trenton  banks  ten¬ 
dered  a  loan  to  the  state,  and  the  authorities  of 
Newark  appropriated  $100,000  for  the  mainte¬ 
nance  of  families  of  volunteers,  and  $15,000  for 
the  equipment  of  the  soldiers.  On  the  30th  the 
Legislature  met,  and  appointed  Theodore  Run¬ 
yon  commander  of  the  New  Jersey  forces ;  and 
then  the  movement  towards  Washington  began. 
Pennsylvania,  under  the  guidance  of  her  ener¬ 
getic  governor  (Curtin),  had  appropriated  (April 
12,  1861)  $500,000  for  arming  and  equipping  the 
militia  of  the  state;  and  when  news  of  the  at¬ 
tack  on  Fort  Sumter  reached  Philadelphia  the 
excitement  of  the  people  was  intense.  The 
President’s  call  for  troops  increased  the  enthu¬ 
siasm,  and  before  the  Legislature  met  in  extra 
session,  April  30,  thousands  of  Pennsylvanians 
were  enrolled  in  the  Union  army,  and  hundreds 
of  them  were  in  Washington  city.  The  Legis¬ 
lature  authorized  a  loan  of  $3,000,000  for  war 
purposes.  The  states  of  the  West  and  North¬ 
west  were  equally  enthusiastic,  and  within  a 
few  days  after  the  President’s  call  thousands  of 


FIRST  TYPE-FOUNDERY  IN  AMERICA  488  FISHERIES,  DISPUTE  ABOUT  THE 


volunteers  were  on  the  way  towards  Washing¬ 
ton.  Notwithstanding  these  demonstrations  at 
the  North,  the  leaders  in  the  insurrection  ex¬ 
cited  the  people  of  the  South  with  false  hopes 
by  boastful  and  impassioned  harangues. 

First  Type  foundery  in  America.  In  1769 
Abel  Buell,  of  Killingwortl),  Conn.,  established  a 
type  -  foundery  there,  in  which  he  made  good 
long-primer  type.  That  year  he  had  asked  as¬ 
sistance  of  the  Connecticut  Legislature  in  es¬ 
tablishing  a  type-foundery. 

First  United  States  Ambassador  to  Great 
Britain.  On  the  1st  of  June,  1785,  John  Adams 
was  introduced  by  the  Marquis  of  Carmarthen 
to  the  King  of  Great  Britain  as  ambassador  ex¬ 
traordinary  from  the  United  States  of  America 
to  the  Court  of  London.  The  inexecution  of 
the  treaty  of  peace  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain 
had  threatened  an  open  rupture  between  the 
two  nations.  Adams  was  sent  with  full  powers 
to  arrange  all  matters  in  dispute.  His  mission 
was  almost  fruitless.  He  found  the  temper 
of  the  British  people,  from  the  peasant  up  to 
the  monarch,  very  unfriendly  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  never  insulted,  but  the  chil¬ 
liness  of  the  social  atmosphere  and  the  studied 
neglect  of  bis  official  representations  often  ex¬ 
cited  hot  indignation  in  his  bosom.  But  his 
government,  under  the  old  confederation,  was  so 
weak  and  powerless  that  he  was  compelled  to 
endure  the  hauteur  of  British  officials  in  silence. 
They  gave  him  to  understand  that  they  would 
make  no  arrangements  about  commercial  rela¬ 
tions  between  the  two  governments;  and  when 
he  proposed  to  his  own  government  to  pass 
countervailing  navigation  laws  for  the  benetit 
of  American  commerce,  he  was  met  by  the  stern 
fact  that  it  possessed  no  power  to  do  so.  At 
length,  believing  his  mission  to  be  useless,  and 
the  British  government  sturdily  refusing  to 
send  a  minister  to  the  United  States,  Mr.  Adams 
asked  and  obtained  permission  to  return  home. 

First  United  States  Minister  Plenipoten¬ 
tiary  to  France.  On  the  14th  of  September, 
1778,  the  Continental  Congress  appointed  Dr. 
Benjamin  Franklin  the  first  minister  plenipo¬ 
tentiary  to  the  Court  of  France,  and  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  five  was  chosen  to  draft  instructions 
to  him.  The  committee  was  composed  of  Gou- 
verneur  Morris,  Samuel  Chase,  W.  H.  Drayton, 
Samuel  Adams,  and  Richard  Henry  Lee. 

First  Vessel  of  War  taken  (1812).  When 
war  was  declared  Commodore  Rodgers  was  in 
the  port  of  New  York  with  a  small  squadron. 
He  at  once  put  to  sea  in  pursuit  of  a  British 
squadron  convoying  the  West  Indian  fleet  of 
merchantmen  to  England.  Rodgers’s  flag-ship, 
the  President,  fell  in  with  the  Belvidera,  and 
chased  her  several  hours.  News  of  this  affair 
reaching  Rear-admiral  Sawyer,  at  Halifax,  he 
sent  out  a  squadron  of  war  vessels  under  Cap¬ 
tain  Broke  to  search  for  Rodgers  and  his  frig¬ 
ate.  Broke’s  flag-ship  was  the  Shannon,  38  guns. 
This  squadron  appeared  near  New  York  early  in 
July,  and  made  several  captures,  among  them 
the  United  States  brig  Nautilus,  14  guns,  Lieu¬ 
tenant-commander  Crane.  She  had  arrived  at 


New  York  just  after  Rodgers  left,  and  went  out 
immediately  to  cruise  in  the  track  of  the  West 
Indian  fleet.  The  next  day  she  was  captured  by 
the  Shannon,  and  her  one  hundred  and  six  men 
were  made  prisoners.  This  was  the  first  vessel 
of  war  taken  on  either  side  in  that  contest.  A 
prize-crew  was  placed  in  her,  and  she  was  made 
one  of  Broke’s  squadron.  The  Nautilus  was  re¬ 
taken  by  Captain  Warrington,  June  30,  1815, 
between  Java  and  the  islands  of  the  East  India 
Archipelago.  She  was  also  the  last  vessel  capt- 
ured  on  either  side  during  the  war.  Informed 
of  the  proclamation  of  peace,  Warrington  gave 
up  the  Nautilus  to  the  English  and  returned 
home. 

First  Yearly  Meeting  of  Friends  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  The,  was  held  there  in  July,  1683. 
William  Peun  was  there  and  preached  a  most 
encouraging  sermon.  He  was  full  of  hope  for 
the  future  of  his  people  and  his  province.  A 
Yearly  Meeting  of  Friends  had  already  been 
held  the  same  year,  in  Boston,  where,  twenty- 
three  years  before,  Mary  Dyer  was  hanged  be¬ 
cause  she  was  a  Quaker.  In  Boston  they  were 
yet  (1683)  but  a  handful,  while  in  Philadelphia 
their  spacious  log  meeting-house  was,  on  this  oc¬ 
casion,  crowded.  William  Penn  was  then  in  the 
full  vigor  of  manhood,  being  thirty-nine  years 
of  age. 

Fish,  Hamilton,  son  of  Colonel  Nicholas  Fish, 
was  born  in  New  York  city,  Aug.  3,  1808.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1827,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830.  He  became  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  Congress  in  1842.  In  1848  he  was  chosen 
governor  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  in  1851 
became  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
acting  with  the  Republican  party  after  its  for¬ 
mation  in  1856.  He  was  a  firm  supporter  of  the 
government  during  the  Civil  War,  and  in  March, 
1869,  Mr.  Fish  was  called  to  the  cabinet  of  Pres¬ 
ident  Grant  as  Secretary  of  State,  and  remained 
in  that  position  eight  years,  during  which  time 
he  assisted  materially  in  settling,  peacefully, 
disputes  with  Great  Britain,  of  which  the  “Ala¬ 
bama  Claims”  was  a  principal  topic.  (See  Tri¬ 
bunal  of  Arbitration.)  He  is  President  of  the 
General  Society  of  the  Cincinnati. 

Fish,  Nicholas,  was  horn  in  New  York  city, 
Aug.  28,  1758 ;  died  there,  June  20,  1833.  He 
studied  law  in  the  office  of  John  Morin  Scott, 
and  was  on  his  staff  as  aid  in  the  spring  of 
1776.  In  June  he  was  made  brigade-major, 
and  in  November  major  of  the  Second  New 
York  regiment.  Major  Fish  was  in  the  battles 
at  Saratoga  in  1777 ;  was  division  inspector  in 
1778,  and  commanded  a  corps  of  light  infantry 
in  the  battle  of  Monmouth.  He  served  in  Sulli¬ 
van’s  Expedition  (which  see)  in  1779 ;  under  La¬ 
fayette,  in  Virginia,  in  1781,  and  was  at  the  sur¬ 
render  of  Cornwallis,  behaving  gallantly  during 
the  siege.  For  many  years  after  1786,  Fish,  who 
had  become  lieutenant-colonel  during  the  war, 
was  adjutant-general  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  was  appointed  supervisor  of  the  United 
States  revenue  iu  1794.  In  1799  he  became  Pres¬ 
ident  of  the  New  York  State  Cincinnati  Society. 

Fisheries,  Dispute  about  the.  In  the  sum- 


489 


FISHING  BOUNTIES 


FISHERIES,  THE 

raer  of  1815  some  ill-feeling  was  engendered  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  con¬ 
cerning  the  fisheries  on  the  coasts  of  British 
America  in  the  East.  American  fishermen  were 
charged  with  a  violation  of  the  treaty  of  1818 
with  Great  Britain,  which  stipulated  that  they 
should  not  cast  their  lines  or  nets  in  the  bays 
of  the  British  provinces,  except  at  the  distance 
of  three  miles  or  more  from  shore.  Now  the 
British  government  claimed  the  right  to  draw  a 
line  from  headland  to  headland  of  these  bays, 
and  to  exclude  the  Americans  from  the  waters 
within  that  line.  It  had  been  the  common  prac¬ 
tice,  without  interference,  before,  for  American 
fishermen  to  catch  cod  within  large  bays,  where 
they  could  easily  carry  on  their  vocation  at  a 
greater  distance  than  three  miles  from  the 
shore ;  now  this  new  interpretation  would  ex¬ 
clude  them  from  all  bays.  The  British  govern¬ 
ment  sent  an  armed  naval  force  to  snstaiu  this 
claim,  and  American  vessels  were  threatened 
with  seizure  if  they  did  not  comply.  The  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  United  States,  regarding  the  as¬ 
sumption  as  illegal,  sent  two  war  steamers 
(Princeton  and  Fulton)  to  the  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia  to  protect  the  rights  of  American  fisher¬ 
men.  For  a  time  war  between  the  two  govern¬ 
ments  seemed  inevitable,  but  the  dispute  was 
amicably  settled  by  mutual  concessions  in  Octo¬ 
ber,  1853. 

Fisheries,  The.  The  interruption  of  the 
fisheries  formed  one  of  the  elements  of  the  war 
for  independence,  1775-83,  and  promised  to  be 
a  marked  consideration  in  any  treaty  of  peace 
with  Great  Britain.  Public  law  on  the  subject 
had  not  been  settled.  By  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
(which  see)  France  had  agreed  not  to  fish  within 
thirty  leagues  of  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia;  and 
by  that  of  Paris  not  to  fish  within  fifteen  leagues 
of  Cape  Breton.  Vergennes,  in  a  letter  to  Lu¬ 
zerne,  the  French  minister  at  Philadelphia,  had 
said  :  “  The  fishing  on  the  high  seas  is  as  free  as 
the  sea  itself,  but  the  coast  fisheries  belong,  of 
right,  to  the  proprietors  of  the  coast;  therefore, 
the  fisheries  on  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  of  Canada  belong  exclusively 
to  the  English,  and  the.  Americans  have  no  pre¬ 
tension  whatever  to  share  in  them.”  But  the 
Americans  had  almost  alone  enjoyed  these  fish¬ 
eries,  and  deemed  that  they  had  gained  a  right 
to  them  by  exclusive  and  immemorial  usage. 
New  England,  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  had, 
by  act  of  Parliament,  been  debarred  from  fish¬ 
ing  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  they 
claimed  that,  in  any  treaty  of  peace,  these  fish¬ 
eries  ought  to  be  considered  as  a  perpetual 
joint  property.  Indeed,  New  England  had 
plauned,  and  furnished  the  forces  for,  the  first 
reduction  of  Cape  Breton,  and  had  rendered 
conspicuous  assistance  in  the  acquisition  of 
Nova  Scotia  and  Canada  by  the  English.  The 
Congress,  on  March  23,  1779,  in  Committee  of 
the  Whole,  agreed  that  the  right  to  fish  on  the 
coasts  of  Nova  Scotia,  the  banks  of  Newfound¬ 
land,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  straits 
of  Labrador  and  Belle  Isle,  should  in  no  case  be 
given  up.  In  the  final  treaty  of  peace  (1783)  the 
fishery  question  was  satisfactorily  settled. 


Fisher’s  Hill,  Battle  of.  When  driven 
from  Winchester  (see  Winchester,  Battle  of)  Early 
did  not  halt  until  he  reached  Fisher’s  Hill,  be¬ 
yond  Strasburg,  and  twenty  miles  from  the  bat¬ 
tle-field.  It  was  strongly  fortified,  and  was  con¬ 
sidered  the  most  impregnable  position  iu  the 
valley.  Iu  his  despatch  to  the  Secretary  of 
War  (Sept.  19,  1864)  Sheridau  wrote :  “  We 
have  just  sent  the  enemy  whirling  through 
Winchester,  and  are  after  them  to-morrow.” 
He  kept  his  word,  and  appeared  in  front  of 
Fisher’s  Hill  on  the  22d.  There  Early  was 
strongly  intrenched.  Sheridau  sent  Crook’s 
corps  to  gain  the  left  and  rear  of  the  position, 
and  advanced  to  the  attack  of  the  left  ami 
front,  with  Wright’s  and  Emory’s  corps.  The 
assault  began  at  four  o’clock.  The  Confederate 
line  was  soon  broken,  and  the  entire  force  re¬ 
treated  iu  disorder  up  the  valley,  leaving  behind 
them  sixteen  guns  and  over  one  thousand  men 
as  prisoners.  Early’s  army  was  saved  from 
total  destruction  by  the  holding  in  check  of 
Torbert’s  cavalry  in  the  Luray  Valley,  and  the 
detention  of  Wilson’s  cavalry,  who  fought  at 
Front  Royal  the  day  before  (Sept.  21).  Sheridau 
chased  Early  to  Port  Republic  (which  see), 
where  he  destroyed  the  Confederate  train  of 
seventy-five  wagons.  Thence  his  cavalry  pur¬ 
sued  as  far  as  Staunton,  where  the  remnant  of 
Early’s  army  sought  and  found  shelter  iu  the 
passes  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  National  cav¬ 
alry  destroyed  a  vast  amount  of  supplies  at 
Staunton,  passed  on  to  Waynesborough,  and 
laid  waste  the  Virginia  Central  Railway.  Then 
Sheridan’s  whole  army  went  down  the  Shenan¬ 
doah  Valley,  making  his  march  a  track  of  deso¬ 
lation.  He  had  been  instructed  to  leave  noth¬ 
ing  “  to  invite  the  enemy  to  return.”  He  placed 
his  forces  behind  Cedar  Creek,  half-way  between 
Strasburg  and  Middletown.  Early’s  cavalry 
had  rallied,  under  Rosser,  and  hung  upon  Sheri¬ 
dan’s  rear  as  he  moved  down  the  valley.  Tor- 
bert  and  his  cavalry  turned  upon  them  (Oct.  9) 
and  charged  the  Confederates,  who  fled,  leaving 
behind  them  three  hundred  prisoners,  a  dozen 
guns,  and  nearly  fifty  wagons.  They  were  chased 
twenty-six  miles.  Three  days  later  Early  at¬ 
tempted  to  surprise  Sheridan,  while  resting  at 
Fisher’s  Hill,  when  the  Confederates  were  se¬ 
verely  chastised.  Supposing  Early  would  not 
attempt  any  aggressive  movement  soon,  Sheri¬ 
dan  left  Wright  in  command  of  the  army  and 
went  to  Washington  on  official  business. 

Fishing  Bounties.  In  1792  an  act  of  Con¬ 
gress  re-established  the  old  system  of  bounties 
to  which  the  American  fishermen  had  been  ac¬ 
customed  under  the  British  government.  All 
vessels  employed  for  the  term  of  four  months, 
at  least,  in  each  year,  on  the  Newfoundland 
banks  and  other  codfisheries,  were  entitled  to  a 
bounty  varying  from  $1  to  $2.50  per  ton,  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  size,  three  eighths  to  go  to  the  own¬ 
ers  and  five  eighths  to  the  fishermen.  The  na¬ 
tional  benefit  of  the  fisheries  as  a  nursery  for 
seamen  in  case  of  war  was  urged  as  the  chief 
argument  in  favor  of  the  bounties.  That  bene¬ 
fit  was  very  conspicuous  when  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  occurred  in  1812-15. 


FISHING  CREEK,  SUMTER’S  DEFEAT  AT  490  FIVE  NATIONS,  TREATY  WITH  THE 


Fishing  Creek,  Sumter’s  Defeat  at.  When 
Geueral  Gates  was  approaching  Camden  lie  sent 
General  Sumter  with  a  detachment  to  intercept 
a  convoy  of  stores  passing  from  Ninety-six  to 
Rawdou’s  camp  at  Camden.  Sumter  was  suc¬ 
cessful.  He  captured  forty-four  wagons  load¬ 
ed  with  clothing  and  made  a  number  of  prison¬ 
ers.  On  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  Gates,  Sumter 
continued  his  march  up  the  Catawba  River  and 
encamped  (Aug.  18,  1780)  near  the  mouth  of 
Fishing  Creek.  There  he  was  surprised  by 
Tarleton,  and  his  troops  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter.  More  than  fifty  were  killed  and  three 
hundred  were  made  prisoners.  Tarleton  recapt¬ 
ured  the  British  prisoners  and  all  the  wagons 
and  their  contents.  Sumter  escaped,  and  in  such 
haste  that  he  rode  into  Charlotte  (N.  C.)  with¬ 
out  hat  or  saddle. 

Fitch,  John,  inventor,  was  born  at  East  Wind¬ 
sor,  Conn.,  Jan.  21, 1743  ;  died  at  Bardstown,  Ky., 
July  2, 1798.  He  was  an  armorer  in  the  military 
service  during  the  Revolution,  and  at  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  manufactured  sleeve-buttons.  For  a  while, 
near  the  close  of  the  war,  he  was  a  surveyor  in 
Virginia,  during  which  time  he  prepared,  en¬ 
graved  on  copper,  and  printed,  on  a  press  of  his 
own  manufacture,  a  map  of  the  Northwest  coun¬ 
try,  afterwards  formed  into  a  territory.  He  con¬ 
structed  a  steamboat  in  1786  that  could  be  pro¬ 
pelled  eight  miles  an  hour.  A  company  was 
formed  (1788)  in  Philadelphia,  which  caused  a 
steam-packet  to  ply  on  the  Delaware  River,  and 
it  ran  for  about  two  years,  when  the  company 
failed.  In  1793  be  unsuccessfully  tried  Ins  steam- 
navigation  projects  in  France.  Discouraged,  he 
went  to  the  Western  country  agaiu,  where  he 
died,  leaving  behind  him  a  history  of  his  advent¬ 
ures  in  the  steamboat  enterprise,  in  a  sealed  en¬ 
velope,  directed  to  “  My  children  and  future  gen¬ 
erations,”  from  which  Thompson  Wescott,  of 
Philadelphia,  prepared  an  interesting  biogra¬ 
phy  of  Fitch,  which  was  published  in  1867. 

Five  Forks,  Battle  of  the.  (See  Peters¬ 
burg,  Final  Struggle  for.)  Sheridan  had  crossed 
the  Appomattox  from  Bermuda  Hundred,  and, 
passing  in  the  rear  of  the  army  before  Peters¬ 
burg,  on  the  morning  of  March  29, 1865,  had  halt¬ 
ed  at  Dinwiddie  Court-house.  A  forward  move¬ 
ment  of  the  National  army  had  just  begun.  War¬ 
ren  and  Humphreys,  with  their  corps,  had  moved 
at  an  early  hour  that  morning  against  the  flanks 
of  the  Confederates,  and  they  bivouacked  in  front 
of  the  works  of  their  antagonists,  only  six  miles 
from  Dinwiddie  Court-house.  Warren  had  lost 
three  hundred  men  in  a  fight  on  the  way.  On 
the  next  day  (March  30)  Sheridan  sent  a  part  of 
his  cavalry  to  the  Five  Forks,  blit  the  Confed¬ 
erate  works  there  were  too  strongly  armed  and 
manned  to  be  ridden  over,  and  the  Nationals 
were  driven  back  to  the  Court-house.  There 
was  some  severe  fighting  that  day,  without  a, 
decisive  result.  Sheridan  was  engaged  in  the 
struggle,  but  at  midnight  he  was  satisfied  that 
Lee  was  withdrawing  his  troops  and  felt  quite 
at  ease.  It  was  known  at  headquarters  that 
his  troops  had  been  driven  back  from  Five 
Forks  and  that  it  was  uncertain  whether  he 


could  hold  his  position.  Warren  was  sent  to 
his  aid  with  a  portion  of  his  corps.  Rank¬ 
ing  Warren,  Sheridan  became  commander  of 
the  whole  force.  Leaving  Warren  half-way  be¬ 
tween  Dinwiddie  Court-house  and  Five  Forks, 
Sheridan  pressed  boldly  on  towards  the  latter 
place,  with  cavalry  alone,  and  drove  the  Confed¬ 
erates  into  their  works  and  enveloped  them 
with  his  overwhelming  number  of  horsemen. 
He  now  ordered  Warren  forward  to  a  position 
on  his  right  so  as  to  be  fully  on  the  Confeder¬ 
ate  left.  He  drove  some  Confederates  towards 
Petersburg  and  returned  before  Warren  was 
prepared  to  charge  upon  the  works.  At  four 
o’clock  P.M.  Warren  moved  to  the  attack.  Ayres 
charged  upon  the  Confederate  right,  carried  a 
portion  of  the  line,  and  captured  more  than  1000 
men  and  several  battle-flags.  Merritt  charged 
the  front  and  Griffin  fell  upon  the  left  with  such 
force  that  he  carried  theintrenchmentsaud  seized 
1500  men.  Crawford,  meanwhile,  had  come  for¬ 
ward,  cut  off  their  retreat  in  the  direction  of 
Lee’s  lines,  struck  them  in  the  rear,  and  capt¬ 
ured  four  guns.  Hard  pressed,  the  Confederates 
fought  gallantly  and  with  great  fortitude.  At 
length  the  cavalry  charged  over  the  works  si¬ 
multaneously  with  the  turning  of  their  flanks 
by  Ayres  and  Griffin,  and,  bearing  down  upon 
the  Confederates  with  great  fury,  caused  a  large 
portion  of  them  to  throw  down  their  arms, 
while  the  remainder  made  a  disorderly  flight 
westward,  pursued  many  miles  by  Merritt  and 
McKenzie.  The  Confederates  lost  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  men,  killed  and  wounded,  and  over  5000 
were  made  prisoners.  The  Nationals  lost  about 
1000,  of  whom  634  w  ere  killed  and  wounded. 

Five  Nations,  Last  Expedition  against 
THE,  BY  THE  French.  In  1697  Frontenac  led 
an  expedition  against  the  Iroquois  Confederacy. 
He  crossed  Lake  Ontario  with  a  powerful  force, 
and  marching  southward  to  Lake  Onondaga, 
he  found  their  principal  village  deserted  ami 
burned.  He  sent  seven  hundred  men  to  destroy 
the  Oneida  castle.  They  took  a  few  prisoners. 
It  would  doubtless  have  fared  hard  with  the 
French  if  the  Senecas  had  not  been  kept  back 
by  a  false  report  that  the  Ottawas  were  to  at¬ 
tack  them  at  the  same  time.  As  it  was,  the 
count  thought  it  prudent  to  retire.  He  had 
taken  prisoner  an  aged  Onondaga  chief,  about 
one  hundred  years  old,  whom  he  gave  up  to  his 
savage  followers  for  torture. 

Five  Nations,  The,  were  the  five  Algonquin 
nations,  namely :  MoliawLs,  Oneidas,Onondagas, 
Cayugas,  and  Senecas,  who  originally  formed  the 
Iroquois  Confederacy.  The  Five  Nations  wrere 
joined  by  the  Tuscaroras,  from  North  Carolina, 
in  1713,  and  then  the  confederacy  was  called  the 
Six  Nations. 

Five  Nations,  Treaty  with  the  (1684).  A 
grand  convention  was  held  at  Albany  between 
the  English  and  the  Iroquois  Confederacy  in  the 
summer  of  1684,  at  which  a  treaty  was  conclud¬ 
ed  (Aug.  2)  between  Lord  Effingham,  Governor 
of  Virginia,  and  Governor  Dongan  and  chiefs  of 
a  portion  of  that  confederacy.  (See  Iroquois 
Confederacy.)  It  was  a  treaty  of  peace  on  behalf 


FLAG  FOR  THE  CONFEDERACY 


491  FLAG  OF  THE  “  SOVEREIGN  STATE  ” 


of  all  the  English  settlements.  By  it  the  Five 
Nations  put  the  lands  and  castles  of  the  Mo¬ 
hawks  and  Oneidas  under  the  protection  of  the 
English  government,  and  the  English  undertook 
to  guarantee  them  to  the  Indians.  As  au  exter¬ 
nal  mark  by  which  this  act  should  be  announced, 
the  Indians  desired  that  the  arms  of  the  Duke 
of  York  might  he  affixed  to  their  castles. 

Flag  for  the  Confederacy  (1861).  The  “  Con¬ 
gress”  at  Montgomei-y  discussed  the  subject  of 
a  national  flag  with  much  feeling.  Several  mod¬ 
els  had  been  offered.  Mr.  Metnminger  presented 
two.  One,  from  some  women  of  Charleston,  was 

composed  of  a  blue 
cross  on  a  red  field, 
with  seven  stars 
—  similar  to  the 
South  Carolina 
flag  (which  see) ; 
the  other  w as  from 
a  gentleman  of  the 
same  city.  It  was 
a  cross,  with  fifteen 
stars.  Memminger 
made  a  speech  ou 
presenting  these  models.  Then  a  committee  of 
one  delegate  from  each  state  was  appointed  to 
report  upon  a  device  for  a  national  flag  and  seal. 
Brooke,  of  Mississippi,  offered  a  resolution  to  in¬ 
struct  the  committee  to  report  a  design  as  similar 
as  possible  to  that  of  the  United  States,  making 
only  such  changes  as  should  give  them  distinc¬ 
tion.  He  eulogized  the  old  flag,  and  was  severe¬ 
ly  rebuked  for  uttering  sentiments  which  were 
regarded  as  almost  treasonable.  W.  Porclier 
Miles,  of  South  Carolina,  chairman  of  the  com¬ 
mittee,  protested  against  the  resolution  and  the 
ntterauces  of  the  member.  He  “  gloried,”  he 
said,  “more,  a  thousand  times,  in  the  palmetto 
flag  of  his  state.”  He  had  regarded  “  from  his 
youth  the  stars  and  stripes  as  the  emblem  of 
oppression  and  tyranny.”  Brooke  withdrew  his 
motion.  Mrs.  C.  Ladd,  of  South  Carolina,  pre¬ 
sented  a  model,  through  W.  W.  Boyce,  “  tri-col¬ 
ored,  with  a  red  union,  seven  stars,  and  the  cres¬ 
cent  moon.”  In  her  letter  accompanying  the 
flag,  she  offered  her  three  boys  to  her  “  country  ” 
and  suggested  “Washington  Republic”  as  the 
title  of  the  Confederacy.  Boyce  made  a  speech 
in  presenting  the  model.  Chilton,  Toombs,  Ste¬ 
phens,  and  others  also  presented  designs  for 
flags.  They  were  sent  in  almost  daily,  some  of 
them  showing  a  strong  attachment  to  the  old 
national  flag.  Seven  designs  were  sent  by  two 
young  women  in  the  art  department  of  “  Tus- 
cogee  Female  College,”  the  principal  features  of 
all  being  an  eagle,  stars,  and  a  cotton-bale.  In 
their  letter  they  said :  “  With  cotton  as  king, 
there  are  seven  states  bound  by  a  chain  of  sis¬ 
terly  love,  that  will  strengthen  with  time,  as 
onward,  right  onward,  they  move  up  the  glori¬ 
ous  path  of  Southern  independence.”  The  com¬ 
mittee  made  an  elaborate  report,  in  which  they 
said  they  did  not  share  in  the  sentiment  of  at¬ 
tachment  to  the  “stars  and  stripes,”  too  often 
repeated  in  communications;  yet  they  recom¬ 
mended  a  flag  that  had  a  certain  resemblance 
to  the  one  they  were  deserting.  It  was  to  con¬ 


sist  of  a  red  field,  with  a  white  space  extending 
horizontally  through  the  centre  and  equal  in 
width  to  one  third  the  width  of  the  flag ;  the 
field  of  the  union  was  blue,  extending  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  the  white  stripe,  and  stop¬ 
ping  at  the  lower  red  stripe.  In  the  centre  of 
the  union  was  a  circle  of  white  stars,  correspond¬ 
ing  iu  number  to  that  of  the  states  of  the  Con¬ 
federacy.  It  was  really  the  old  flag — red,  white, 
and  blue — with  three  “  alternate  stripes,  red  and 
white,”  instead  of  thirteen  such  stripes.  This 
flag  was  first  displayed  in  public  over  the  state- 
house  at  Montgomery,  March  4, 1861. 

Flag  of  Sumter.  Wheu  news  reached  Wash¬ 
ington  of  the  evacuation  of  Charleston  (Febru¬ 
ary,  1865),  the  President  appointed  the  anniver¬ 
sary  (April  14)  of  the  evacuation  of  the  fort 
when  the  old  flag  which  Auderson  took  with 
him  should  be  again  raised  over  the  fortress  by 
his  hand.  A  large  number  of  citizens  left  New 
York  iu  the  steamer  Oceanus  to  assist  iu  the  cer¬ 
emonies.  When  the  multitude  were  assembled 
around  the  flag-staff,  the  songs  of  Victory  at  Last 
and  Rally  round  the  Flag  were  sung.  Rev.  Mr. 
Harris,  who  made  the  prayer  at  the  raising  of 
the  flag  over  Fort  Sumter,  Dec.  27,  1860  (see 
Anderson  in  Fort  Sumter),  now  offered  prayer  and 
pronounced  a  blessing  ou  the  old  flag.  Rev.  Dr. 
Storrs  read  selections  from  the  Psalms.  General 
Townsend  read  Major  Anderson’s  despatch  an¬ 
nouncing  the  fall  of  Sumter.  Then  the  faithful 
Sergeant  Hart  (see  Fort  Sumter,  First  Reinforce¬ 
ment  of)  appeared  with  a  carpet-bag  containing 
the  flag.  It  was  attached  to  the  halyards,  when 
General  Anderson,  after  a  brief  and  touching  ad¬ 
dress,  hoisted  it  to  the  peak  of  the  flag-staff  amid 
loud  huzzas,  followed  by  singing  The  Star-span¬ 
gled  Banner.  Six  guns  on  the  fort  were  then 
fired,  and  were  responded  to  by  all  the  batteries 
that  took  part  in  the  bombardment  in  1861.  Rev. 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  the  orator  of  the  day,  pro¬ 
nounced  an  address.  So,  four  years  from  the 
time  of  the  evacuation  of  Fort  Sumter  it  was 
“repossessed”  by  the  government. 

Flag  of  the  Continental  Navy.  When  the 
Provincial  Congress  of  South  Carolina,  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1776,  presented  the  thanks  of  that  body 
to  their  representatives  in  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress  for  their  services  there  in  bringing  about 
the  establishment  of  a  navy,  and  other  measures 
of  importance,  Christopher  Gadsden  presented 
the  standard  which  was  to  be  used  by  the  Amer¬ 
ican  navy,  representing  on  a  yellow  field  a  rat¬ 
tlesnake,  with  thirteen  full-grown  rattles,  coiled 
to  strike, with  the  words  “Don’t  tread  on  me.” 
The  Massachusetts  navy  had  a  flag  with  a  pine- 
tree  on  it.  (See  Flag,  The  National.) 

Flag  of  the  “Sovereign  State”  of  South 
Carolina.  The  secession  convention  adopted  a 
banner  for  the  new  empire  on  the  day  when  the 
ordinance  of  secession  was  passed.  It  was  com¬ 
posed  of  red  and  blue  silk.  The  first  was  the 
ground  of  the  standard,  and  the  last,  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  was  displayed  over  its  whole  field. 
On  the  blue  cross  were  fifteen  stars,  the  number 
of  the  slave-labor  states.  The  largest  star,  in 
the  centre,  was  for  South  Carolina.  Ou  the  red 


FLAG,  THE  NATIONAL  492  FLAG,  THE  NATIONAL 


field  was  a  palmetto-tree,  and  a  crescent  moon 
of  silver. 

Flag,  The  National.  Every  colony  bad  its 
peculiar  ensign,  and  the  army  and  navy  of  the 
united  colonies,  at  first,  displayed  various  flags, 
some  colonial,  others  regimental,  and  others, 
like  the  flag  on  Fort  Sullivan,  Charleston  har¬ 
bor —  a  blue  field  with  a  silver  crescent  —  for 
special  occasions.  The  American  flag  used  at 
the  battle  on  Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill,  was  called 
the  “New  England  flag.”  It  was  a  blue  ground, 


■with  the  red  cross  of  St.  George  in  a  corner, 
quartering  a  white  field,  and  in  the  upper  dex¬ 
ter  quartering  was  the  figure  of  a  pine-tree. 
The  New-Euglanders  had  also  a  “  pine-tree  flag” 


THE  PINE-TREE  FLAG. 


as  well  as  a  “pine-tree  shilling.”  The  above  en¬ 
graving  is  a  reduced  copy  of  a  vignette  on  a  map 
of  Boston,  published  in  Paris  in  1776.  The  London 
Chronicle,  an  anti-ministerial  paper,  in  its  issue 
for  January,  1776,  gives  the  following  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  flag  of  an  Americau  cruiser  that  had 
been  captured  :  “In  the  Admiralty  Office  is  the 
flag  of  a  provincial  privateer.  The  field  is  white 
bunting ;  on  the  middle  is  a  green  pine-tree,  and 


upon  the  opposite  side  is  the  motto  ‘Appeal  to 
Heaven.’”  The  Culpepper  men,  who  marched 
with  Patrick  Henry  towards  Williamsburg  to 
demand  instant  restoration  of  powder  to  the  old 
magazine,  or  payment  for  it  by  Governor  Dun- 
more,  bore  a  flag  with  a  rattlesnake  upon  it, 
coiled  ready  to  strike,  with 
Patrick  Henry’s  words  (see 
Virginia  Convention,  1775),  and 
the  words  “  Don’t  tread  on 
me.”  It  is  believed  that  the 
first  American  flag  bearing 
thirteen  red  and  white  stripes 
was  a  Union  flag  presen  ted  to 
the  Philadelphia  Light  Horse  by  Captain  Abra¬ 
ham  Markoe,  a  Dane,  probably  early  in  1775.  A 
“Union  flag”  is  mentioned  as  having  been  dis¬ 
played  at  a  gathering  of  Whigs  at  Savannah  in 
June,  1775 — probably  thirteen  stripes.  The  ear¬ 
liest  naval  flags  exhibited  thirteen  alternate  red 
and  white  stripes,  some  with  a  pine-tree  upon 
them,  and  others  with  a  rattlesnake  stretched 
across  the  field  of  stripes,  and  beneath  it  the 
words,  either  imploringly  or  as  a  warning, 
“Don’t  tread  on  me.”  The  new  Union  flag 
raised  at  Cambridge,  Jan.  1, 1776,  was  composed 
of  thirteen  alternate  red  aud  white  stripes,  with 
the  English  union  in  one  corner.  (See  Union 
Flag  at  Boston.)  Finally,  the  necessity  of  a 
national  flag  was  felt,  especially  for  the  marine 
service,  and  the  Continental  Congress  adopted 
the  following  resolution,  June  14,  1777:  “  Re- 
solved,  That  the  flag  of  the  United  States  be  thir¬ 
teen  stripes,  alternate  red  and  white;  that  the 
union  be  thirteen  stars,  white,  on  a  blue  field, 
representing  a  new  constellation.”  There  was 
a  dilatoriuess  in  displaying  this  flag.  The  reso¬ 
lution  was  not.  officially  promulgated  over  the 
signature  of  the  secretary  of  the  Congress  until 
Sept.  3,  though  it  was  previously  printed  in  the 
newspapers.  This  was  more  than  a  year  after 
the  colonies  had  been  declared  free  and  inde¬ 
pendent.  Probably  the  first  display  of  the  na¬ 
tional  flag  at  a  military  post  was  at  Fort  Schuy¬ 
ler,  on  the  site  of  the  village  of  Rome,  Oneida 
Co.,  N.  Y.  The  fort  was  besieged  early  in  Au¬ 
gust,  1777.  The  garrison  were  without  a  flag, 
so  they  made  one  according  to  the  prescription 
of  Congress  by  cutting  up  sheets  to  form  the 
white  stripes,  bits  of  scarlet  cloth  for  the  red 
stripes,  and  the  blue  ground  for  the  stars  was 
composed  of  portions  of  a  cloth  cloak  belonging 
to  Captain  Abraham  Swartwout,  of  Duchess 
County,  N.  Y.  This  flag  was  unfurled  over  the 
fort  on  the  3d  of  August,  1777.  Paul  Jones  was 
appointed  to  the  Ranger  on  June  14, 1777,  and  he 
claimed  that  he  was  the  first  to  display  the  stars 
and  stripes  on  a  naval  vessel.  The  Range r  sailed 
from  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  on  Nov.  1, 1777.  It  is 
probable  that  the  national  flag  was  first  unfurled 
in  battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Brandywine,  Sept. 
11, 1777 — the  first  battle  after  its  adoption.  It 
first  appeared  over  a  foreign  stronghold,  June 
28, 1778,  when  Captain  Rathboue,  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  sloop-of-war  Providence,  with  his  crew  and 
some  escaped  prisoners,  captured  Fort  Nassau, 
New  Providence,  Bahama  Islands.  The  captors 
were  menaced  by  the  people,  when  the  stars  and 


THE  CULPEPPER  FLAG. 


493 


FLAGS,  EXCHANGE  OF 

stripes  were  nailed  to  the  flag-staff  in  defiance. 
John  Singleton  Copley,  the  American-born  paint¬ 
er,  in  London,  claimed  to  be  the  first  to  display 
the  stars  and  stripes  in  Great  Britain.  On  the 
day  when  George  III.  acknowledged  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  United  States  (Dec.  5,  1782),  he 
painted  the  flag  of  the  United  States  in  the  back¬ 
ground  of  a  portrait  of  Elkauah  Watson.  To 
Captain  Mooers,  of  the  whaling -ship  Bedford , 
of  Nantucket,  is  doubtless  due  the  honor  of  first 
displaying  the  national  flag  in  a  port  of  Great 
Britain.  He  arrived  in  the  Downs,  with  it  fly¬ 
ing  at  the  fore,  Feb.  3, 1783.  That  flag  was  first 
carried  to  the  East  Indian  seas  in  the  Enterprise 
(an  Albany-built  vessel),  Captain  Stewart  Dean, 
in  1785.  When  Vermont  and  Kentucky  were 
added  to  the  union  of  states  the  flag  was  altered. 
By  an  act  of  Congress  (Jan.  13,  1794)  the  num¬ 
ber  of  the  stripes  and  stars  in  the  flag  was  in¬ 
creased  from  thirteen  to  fifteen.  The  act  went 
into  effect  May  1,  1795.  From  that  time  until 
1818,  when  there  were  twenty  states,  the  number 
of  the  stars  and  stripes  remained  the  same.  A 
committee  appointed  to  revise  the  standard  in¬ 
vited  Captain  Samuel  C.  Reid,  the  brave  de¬ 
fender  of  the  privateer  Armstrong  (see  Priva¬ 
teers)  to  devise  a  new  flag.  He  retained  the 
original  thirteen  stripes,  but  added  a  star  for 
every  state.  That  has  been  the  device  of  the 
flag  of  the  United  States  ever  since.  It  now 
(1880)  has  thirteen  stripes  and  thirty-eight  stars. 

Flags,  Exchange  of.  Monroe  had  far  ex¬ 
ceeded  his  instructions  in  the  warmth  of  his 
expressions  of  sympathy  with  the  French  revo¬ 
lutionists  at  his  public  reception  (which  see), 
and  his  conduct  so  displeased  his  government 
that  the  Secretary  of  State  (Mr.  Randolph), 
suggested  that  a  private  reception  and  an  oral 
speech  were  what  the  cabinet  expected.  He 
was  reminded  that  the  United  States  were  neu¬ 
tral,  and  that  offence  might  be  given  to  Eng¬ 
land  or  Spain,  with  both  of  which  negotiations 
were  then  pending;  and  it  might  become  neces¬ 
sary  at  some  time  “  to  explain  away  or  disavow 
an  excess  of  fervor,  so  as  to  reduce  it  down  to 
the  cool  system  of  neutrality.”  Before  this  re¬ 
buke  reached  him,  Monroe  had  goue  much  fur¬ 
ther  in  his  demonstrations  of  sympathy  in  the 
name  of  his  government.  The  French  Conven¬ 
tion  having  decreed  the  suspension  in  their  hall 
of  the  French  and  American  flags,  intertwined, 
in  testimony  of  eternal  union  and  friendship, 
Monroe  took  it  upon  himself  to  send  an  Ameri¬ 
can  flag  for  the  purpose  in  the  name  of  the 
American  people.  It  was  conveyed  by  the  hand 
of  Captain  Barney,  of  the  navy  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion,  who,  in  addition  to  a  letter  by  Monroe,  de¬ 
livered  a  speech  of  his  own.  Barney  received 
the  fraternal  embrace  of  the  President  of  the 
Convention,  and  soon  afterwards  a  commission 
in  the  French  navy.  The  Convention  ordered 
the  French  colors  to  be  sent  to  the  American 
Congress.  They  were  presented  by  the  French 
ambassador  (Adet),  Jan.  1,  179G,  with  an  ad¬ 
dress,  to  which  the  President  responded,  and 
the  colors  were  ordered  to  be  deposited  in  the 
archives  of  the  nation.  (See  Monroe,  Reception 
of,  in  France .) 


FLETCHER 

Fletcher,  Benjamin,  governor  of  New  York, 
succeeded  Governor  Sloughter,  whose  life  and 
administration  were  suddenly  terminated  by  de¬ 
lirium  tremens.  (See  Leisler’s  Insurrection.)  Fletch¬ 
er  was  also  authorized  to  govern  Pennsylvania, 
which  had  recently  been  taken  from  him  and 
made  a  royal  province;  also,  to  facilitate  the 
defence  of  New  York  against  the  French  in  Can¬ 
ada,  he  was  invested  with  the  command  of  the 
militia  of  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  province  to  be  defended.  Fletcher 
was  a  colonel  in  the  British  army.  Possessed 
of  violent  passions,  he  was  weak  in  judgment, 
greedy,  dishonest,  and  cowardly.  He  fell  natu¬ 
rally  into  the  hands  of  the  aristocratic  party, 
and  his  council  was  composed  of  the  enemies  of 
Leisler.  The  recklessness  of  his  administration, 
his  avarice,  his  evident  prostitution  of  his  of¬ 
fice  to  the  securing  of  personal  gain,  disgusted 
all  parties.  He  continually  quarrelled  with  the 
popular  Assembly,  and  his  whole  administration 
was  unsatisfactory.  The  Quaker-governed  As¬ 
sembly  of  Pennsylvania  thwarted  his  schemes 
for  obtaining  money  for  making  war  on  the 
French  ;  and  he  was  fortunately  led  by  Colonel 
Peter  Schuyler  in  all  his  military  undertakings. 
The  Assembly  of  Connecticut  denied  his  right 
to  control  their  militia ;  and  late  in  the  autumn 
of  1693  he  went  to  Hartford  with  Colonel  Bay¬ 
ard  and  others  from  New  York,  and  in  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  the  train-bands  of  that  city,  commanded 
by  Captain  Wadsworth  (see  Connecticut  Charter), 
he  directed  (so  says  tradition)  his  commission  to 
be  read.  Bayard  began  to  read,  when  Wads¬ 
worth  ordered  the  drums  to  be  beaten.  “  Si¬ 
lence  !”  said  Fletcher,  angrily.  When  the  read¬ 
ing  was  again  begun,  “Drum!  drum!”  cried 
Wadsworth.  “  Silence !”  again  shouted  Fletcher, 
and  threatened  the  captain  with  punishment. 
Wadsworth  stepped  in  front  of  the  governor, 
and,  with  his  hand  on  the  hilt  of  his  sword,  he 
said:  “If  my  drummers  are  again  interrupted, 
I’ll  make  sunlight  shine  through  you.  We  deny 
and  defy  your  authority.”  The  cowed  governor 
sullenly  folded  the  paper,  and  with  his  retinue 
returned  to  New  York.  With  a  pretended  zeal 
for  the  cause  of  religion,  Fletcher  procured  the 
passage  of  an  act  by  the  Assembly  for  building 
churches  in  various  places,  and  under  it  the 
English  Church  and  preaching  in  English  were 
introduced  into  New  York.  Trinity  Church  was 
organized  under  the  act,  and  its  present  church 
edifice  stands  upon  the  ground  where  the  first 
structure  was  erected.  During  Fletcher’s  ad¬ 
ministration,  pirates  infested  American  waters ; 
and  he  was  accused  not  only  of  winking  at  vio¬ 
lations  of  the  navigation  laws,  but  of  favoring 
the  pirates,  for  private  gain.  They  sometimes 
found  welcome  in  the  harbor  of  New  York  (see 
Buccaneers),  instead  of  being  seized  and  pun¬ 
ished.  When  Bellomont,  after  the  Treaty  of 
Ryswick,  came  over  as  governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  ho  was  commissioned  to  investigate  the 
conduct  of  Fletcher  and  to  succeed  him  as  gov¬ 
ernor,  and  he  sent  him  to  England  under  arrest. 
The  colony  felt  a  relief  when  he  was  gone,  for 
his  career  had  been  marked  by  misrule  and  prof¬ 
ligacy. 


FLEURY 


494 


FLOATING  BATTERIES 


Fleury,  Louis  (Chevalier  and  Viscount  de), 
was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Continental  Ar- 
'iny,  and  died  a  field-marshal  of  France.  He  was 
educated  an  engineer,  and,  coming  to  America, 
he  received  a  captain’s  commission  from  Wash¬ 
ington.  For  his  good  conduct  in  the  campaign 
of  1777,  Congress  gave  him  a  horse  and  commis¬ 
sion  of  lieutenant-colonel  (Nov.  26,  1777) ;  and 
in  the  winter  of  1778  he  was  inspector  under 
Steuben.  He  was  adjutant-general  of  Lee’s  divis¬ 
ion  in  June,  1779,  and  was  so  distinguished  at  the 
assault  on  Stony  Point  (July,  1779)  that  Congress 
gave  him  thanks  and  a  silver  medal.  De  Fleury 


pack-horse,  and  upon  this  animal,  which  with 
difficulty  he  spurred  into  a  trot,  he  escaped.  The 
fugitive  army  was  well  covered  in  its  retreat  by 
Major  Clarke’s  battalion.  The  Indians,  after 
following  about  four  miles,  turned  back;  but 
the  army  did  not  halt  until  it  was  safely  within 
the  palisades  of  Fort  Jefferson.  They  had  run 
from  the  scene  of  conflict  to  Fort  Jefferson,  a 
distance  of  twenty -nine  miles,  between  nine 
o’clock  in  the  morning  and  seven  o’clock  in  the 
evening — ten  hours. 

Floating  Batteries.  The  first  American  float¬ 
ing  battery  was  seen  in  the  Charles  River,  at 


MEDAL  AWARDED  TO  LIEUTENANT-COLONEL  DE  FLEURV. 


returned  to  France  soon  after  the  affair  at  Stony 
Point,  before  the  medal  was  struck ;  and  it  was 
probably  never  in  his  possession,  for  it  seems  to 
have  been  lost,  probably  while  Congress  was  in 
session  at  Princeton.  In  April,  1859,  a  boy  found 
it  while  digging  in  a  garden  at  Piinceton.  De 
Fleury,  on  his  return  to  France,  joined  the 
French  troops  under  Rochambeau  sent  to  Amer¬ 
ica  in  1780. 

Flight  of  St.  Clair’s  Army  (1791).  After  a 
desperate  fight  (  see  St.  Clair's  Campaign )  the 
ranks  of  the  soldiers  were  broken  by  the  Indians, 
and  the  former,  gathering  in  groups,  were  shot 
down  without  resistance.  Then  a  most  disorder¬ 
ly  flight,  began,  the  militia  leading.  Among  the 
fugitives  were  a  number  of  women,  chiefly  wives 
of  the  soldiers.  In  the  army  of  St.  Clair  there 
were  about  two  hundred.  Of  these,  fifty-six 
were  killed  in  the  fight;  the  remainder  joined 
in  the  flight.  One  of  them,  Mrs.  Catharine 
Miller  (who  died  in  Cincinnati  about  the 
year  1838),  was  so  fleet  of  foot  that  she 
ran  ahead  of  the  army.  She  had  a  great 
quantity  of  red  hair  that  streamed  be¬ 
hind  her  as  she  ran,  and  formed  the 
oriflamme  which  the  soldiers  followed. 
St.Clair  behaved  with  the  greatest  bra¬ 
very  in  the  battle.  He  was  so  tortured 
with  gout  that  he  could  not  mount  his 
horse  without  assistance.  He  was  not 
in  uniform- — his  chief  covering  was  a  warm 
cappo  coat  and  a  three-cornered  hat,  from  under 
which  his  white  hair  was  seen  streaming  as  he 
and  General  Butler  rode  up  and  down  the  lines 
during  the  battle.  He  had  three  horses  killed 
under  him,  and  eight  bullets  passed  through  his 
clothes.  When  the  retreat  began  he  mounted  a 


Boston,  in  October,  1775.  Washington  had  or¬ 
dered  the  construction  of  two,  to  assist  in  the 
siege  of  the  New  England  capital.  They  were 
armed  and  manned,  and  on  the  26th  of  October 
opened  fire  on  the  town,  producing  much  con¬ 
sternation.  They  appear  to  have  been  made  of 
strong  planks,  pierced  near  the  water-line  for 
oars,  and  further  up  were  port-holes  for  musket¬ 
ry  and  the  admission  of  light.  A  heavy  gun  was 
placed  in  each  end,  and  upon  the  top  were  four 
swivels.  The  ensign  was  the  pine-tree  flag. 
Colonel  Reed,  writing  to  Colonel  Moylan,  on 
Oct.  20,  1775,  said :  “  Please  to  fix  some  partic¬ 
ular  color  for  a  flag  and  a  signal,  by  which  our 
vessels  may  know  each  other.  What  do  you 
think  of  a  flag  with  a  white  ground,  a  tree  in 
the  middle,  and  the  motto  ‘An  Appeal  to  Heav¬ 
en  V  This  is  the  flag  of  our  floating  batteries.” 
When  the  War  of  1812-15  broke  out,  the  subject 


AMERICAN  FLOATING  BATTERY. 


of  harbor  defences  occupied  much  of  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  citizens  of  the  American  coast-towns,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  city  of  New  York.  Among  the 
scientific  men  of  the  day,  John  Stevens  and 
Robert  Fulton  appear  conspicuous  in  proposing 
plans  for  that  purpose.  Earlier  than  this  (in 
1807),  Abraham  Bloodgood,  of  Albany,  suggest- 


FLOATING  BATTERIES 


495 


FLOATING  BATTERIES 


ed  tlie  construction  of  a  floating  revolving  bat¬ 
tery  not  unlike,  in  its  essential  character,  the 
revolving  turret  built  by  Captain  Ericsson  in 
the  winter  of  1861-62.  (See  Monitor.)  lu  March, 
1814,  Thomas  Gregg,  of  Pennsylvania,  obtained 
a  patent  for  a  proposed  iron-clad  steam  vessel-of- 
war,  resembling  in  figure  gunboats  and  “rums” 


during  the  late  Civil  War  in  the  United  States. 
At  about  the  same  time  a  plan  of  a  floating  bat¬ 
tery  submitted  by  Robert  Fulton  was  approved 
by  naval  officers.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a  steam¬ 
ship  of  peculiar  construction,  that  might  move 
at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  and  furnished, 
in  addition  to  its  regular  armament,  with  sub¬ 
marine  guns.  Her  construction  was  ordered  by 
Congress,  and  she  was  built  at  the  ship-yard  of 
Adam  and  Noah  Brown,  at  Corlear’s  Hook,  New 
York,  under  the  supervision  of  Fulton.  She  was 
launched  Oct.  29, 1814.  Her  machinery  was  test¬ 
ed  in  May  following,  and  on  July  4  (1815)  she 
made  a  trial-trip  of  fifty-three  miles  to  the  ocean 
and  back,  going  at  the  rate  of  six  miles  an  hour. 
This  vessel  was  called  Fulton  the  First.  She 


measured  one  hundred  and  forty-five  feet  on 
deck  and  fifty-five  feet  breadth  of  beam  ;  drew 
only  eight  feet  of  water;  mounted  thirty  32- 
pound  carronades,  and  two  columbiads  of  one 
hundred  pounds  each.  She  was  to  be  command¬ 
ed  by  Captain  Porter.  It  was  a  structure  rest¬ 
ing  upon  two  boats  on  keels,  separated  from  end 
to  end  by  a  channel  fifteen  feet  wide 
and  sixty  feet.  long.  One  boat  con- 
tained  the  boiler 
for  generating 
steam,  which 
was  made  of 
copper.  The 
machinery  oc¬ 
cupied  the  other 
boat.  The  wa 
ter  -  wheel  ( A ) 
revolved  in  the 
space  betweeu 

them.  The  main  section  op  the  float- 
o  r  gun  deck  ing  battery. 
supported  the 
armament,  and  was  protected  by  a  parapet  four 
feet  ten  inches  thick,  of  solid  timber,  pierced  by 
embrasures.  Through  twenty -five  port -holes 
were  as  many  32-pounders,  intended  to  fire  red- 
hot  shot,  which  could  be  heated  with  great  safe¬ 
ty  and  convenience.  Her  upper,  or  spar,  deck, 
upou  which  many  hundred  meu  might  parade, 
was  encompassed  with  a  bulwark  for  safetj7. 
She  was  rigged  Avitli  two  stout  masts,  each  of 
which  supported  a  large  lateen  yard  and  sails. 
She  had  tAVO  boAvsprits  and  jibs,  and  four  rud¬ 
ders,  one  at  each  extremity  of  each  boat,  so  that 
she  might  be  steered  with  either  end  foremost. 
Her  machinery  was  calculated  for  an  addition¬ 
al  engine,  which  might  discharge  an  immeuse 
column  of  water  Avhich  it  was  intended  to  throw 

upon  the  decks  and 
through  the  port-holes  of 
an  enemy,  and  thereby 
deluge  her  armament  and 
ammunition.  The  most 
extravagant  stories  con¬ 
cerning  this  monster  of 
the  deep  went  forth  at 
about  the  time  of  her  be¬ 
ing  launched.  In  a  trea¬ 
tise  on  steam  vessels,  pub¬ 
lished  in  Scotland  soon 
afterwards,  the  author 
said:  “Her  length  is  three 
hundred  feet  ;  breadth, 
two  hundred  feet;  thick¬ 
ness  of  her  sides,  thirteen 
feet,  of  alternate  oak 
plank  and  corkwood ;  car¬ 
ries  forty-four  guns,  four 
of  which  are  100-pound¬ 
ers ;  can  discharge  one 
hundred  gallons  of  boil¬ 
ing  water  in  a  few  min¬ 
utes,  and  by  mechanics 
brandishes  three  hundred 
cutlasses  Avith  the  utmost 
regularity  over  her  gun- 
Avales ;  works,  also,  tin 


GREGG’S  IKON-CLAD  VESSEL  IN  1814. 


FLOATING  BATTERY,  "FULTON  THE  FIRST.'* 


FLOATING  BATTERIES 


FLORIDA 


496 


equal  number  of  pikes  of  great  length,  darting 
them  from  her  sides  with  prodigious  force,  and 
withdrawing  them  every  quarter  of  a  minute.” 
The  insurgents  of  South  Carolina  constructed  a 
floating  battery  in  Charleston  harbor  in  the  win¬ 
ter  of  1861.  It  was  a  curious  monster,  made  of 
heavy  pine  timber,  tilled  in  with  palmetto-logs, 
and  covered  with  a  double  layer  of  railroad  iron. 
It  appeared  like  an  immense  shed,  tweuty-tive 


feet  in  width,  and,  with  its  appendage,  about 
one  hundred  feet  in  length.  It  mounted  in  its 
front  (which  sloped  inwards  from  its  iron-clad 
roof)  four  enormous  siege-guns.  The  powder- 
magazine  was  in  the  rear,  below  the  water-line, 
and  at  its  extremity  was  a  platform  covered 
with  sand-bags,  to  protect  its  men  and  balance 
the  heavy  guns.  Attached  to  it  was  a  floating 
hospital.  It  was  intended  to  tow  this  monster 
to  a  position  so  as  to  bring  its  guns  to  bear  on 
Fort  Sumter.  Stevens’s  floating  battery  was  a 
more  formidable  structure.  This  battery  had 
been  in  process  of  construction  by  Messrs.  Ste¬ 
vens,  of  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  for  several  years  before 
the  Civil  War.  It  was  intended  solely  for  a 
harbor  defence.  Already  there  had  been  about 
$1,000,000  spent  upon  it,  chiefly  by  the  United 
States  government,  and  yet  it  was  not  com¬ 
pleted.  Until  just  before  the  war  it  had  been 
shut  in  from  the  public  eye.  It  was  to  be  seven 
hundred  feet  in  length,  covered  with  iron  plates, 
so  as  to  be  proof  against  shot  and  shell  of  every 
kind.  It  was  to  be  moved  by  steam-engines  of 
sufficient  strength  to  give  it  a  momentum  that 
would  cause  it,  as  a  “ram,”  to  cut  in  two  any 
ship-of-war  then  known  when  it  should  strike 
her  at  the  waist.  It  was  intended  for  a  battery 
of  sixteen  heavy  rifled  cannons  in  bomb-proof 
casemates,  and  two  heavy  columbiads  for  throw¬ 
ing  shells.  The  latter  were  to  be  on  deck,  fore 
and  aft.  The  smoke-stack  was  to  be  construct¬ 
ed  in  sliding  sections,  like  a  telescope,  for  obvi¬ 
ous  purposes  ;  and  the  vessel  was  so  constructed 
that  it  might  be  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  water. 
Its  burden  was  rated  at  six  thousand  tons.  It 
was  not  completed  wTien  the  Civil  War  ended. 
The  following  is  a  portion  of  the  specification : 
“  The  boat  is  framed  on  an  angle  of  about  eigh¬ 
teen  degrees  all  round  the  vessel,  where  the  top 
timbers  elevate  the  balls,  and  the  lower  ones 
direct  them  under  her.  The  fop  deck,  which 
glances  the  ball,  may  be  hung  on  a  mass  of 
hinges  near  the  ports.  Said  deck  is  supported 


by  knees  and  cross-timbers  on  the  lower  sides, 
so  that  it  may  be  sprung  with  powder,  if  re¬ 
quired  (when  boarded  by  the  enemy),  to  a  per¬ 
pendicular,  when  the  said  deck  will  be  checked 
by  stays,  while  the  power  of  powder  will  be  ex¬ 
hausted  in  the  open  air,  and  then  fall  or  spring 
to  the  centre  of  the  deck  again.  The  aforesaid 
deck  will  run  up  and  down  with  the  angle, 
which  may  be  coppered  or  laid  with  iron.  The 
gun -deck  may  be  bored  at  pleas¬ 
ure,  to  give  room,  if  required,  as 
the  men  and  guns  are  under  said 
deck.  The  power  is  applied  be¬ 
tween  her  keels,  where  there  is  a 
concave  formed  to  receive  them 
from  the  bow  to  the  stern,  except 
a  small  distance  in  each  end, 
forming  an  eddy.  The  power  may 
be  reversed  to  propel  her  either 
way.  Said  power  is  connected  to 
upright  levers,  to  make  horizontal 
strokes  alternately.”  This  project 
was  abandoned,  and  the  battery 
was  sold  at  auction  in  1880.  (See 
Stevens ,  John.) 

Florida.  Tiiis  twenty-seventh  state  admit¬ 
ted  into  the  Union  received  its  name  from  its 
discoverer  in  1512.  (See  Ponce  de  Leon.)  It  was 
visited  by  Vasquez,  another  Spaniard,  in  1520. 
It  is  believed  by  some  that  Verrazani  saw  its 
coasts  in  1524  (see  Verrazani ):  and  the  same  year 
a  Spaniard  named  De  Geray  visited  it.  Its  con¬ 
quest  was  undertaken  by  Narvaez,  in  1528  (see 
Narvaez),  and  by  De  Soto  in  1539.  Huguenots — 
Protestants  of  France — sought  refuge  there  at 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  (see  Hu¬ 
guenots),  when  they  were  attacked  by  the  Span¬ 
iards.  The  latter,  landing  on  the  site  of  St. 
Augustine,  fouuded  a  city  there  in  1565,  which 

was  captured  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake  in 
1586.  The  domain 
of  Florida,  in  those 
early  times,  extend¬ 
ed  indefinitely  west¬ 
ward,  and  included 
Louisiana.  LaSalle 
visited  file  western 
portion  in  1682,  and 
in  1696  Pensacola 
was  settled  by  Span¬ 
iards.  At  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  18th 
century  the  English  in  the  Carolinas  attacked 
the  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine;  and  subsequent¬ 
ly  the  Georgians,  under  Oaletlmrpe,  made  war 
upon  them.  (See  Oglethorpe.)  By  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  in  1763,  Florida  was  exchanged  by  the 
Spaniards,  with  Great  Britain,  for  Cuba,  which 
had  then  recently  been  conquered  by  England. 
Soon  afterwards  they  divided  the  territory  into 
East  and  West  Florida,  the  Appalachicola  River 
being  the  boundary-line.  Natives  of  Greece,  It¬ 
aly,  and  Minorca  were  induced  to  settle  there, 
at  a  place  called  New  Smyrna,  about  sixty  miles 
south  of  St.  Augustine,  to  the  number  of  fifteen 
hundred,  where  they  engaged  in  the  cultivation 
of  indigo  and  the  sugar-cane ;  but  becoming  dis- 


FLOATING  BATTERY  AT  CHARLESTON. 


STATE  SEAL  OF  FLORIDA. 


FLOEIDA,  CESSION  OF  BY  SPAIN  497  FLORIDA,  DE  LUNA’S  EXPEDITION  TO 


satisfied  with  their  employers,  they  removed  to 
St.  Augustine.  During  the  old  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence,  the  trade  of  the  Southern  colonies  was 
seriously  interfered  with  by  pirates  fitted  out  in 
Florida,  and  the  British  incited  the  Indians  in 
that  region  to  make  war  on  the  Americans. 
The  Spaniards  invaded  West  Florida,  and  capt¬ 
ured  the  garrison  at  Baton  Rouge  in  1779 ;  and 
in  May,  1781,  they  seized  Pensacola.  By  the 
treaty  of  1783,  Florida  was  retroceded  to  Spain, 
and  the  western  boundary  was  defined,  when  a 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  emigrated  to  the 
United  States.  When,  in  1803,  Louisiana  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States  by  France,  it  was 
declared  to  be  ceded  with  the  same  extent  that 
it  had  in  the  hands  of  Spain,  and  as  it  had  been 
ceded  by  Spain  to  France.  This  gave  the  United 
States  a  claim  to  the  country  west  of  the  Perdido 
River,  and  the  government  took  possession  of  it 
in  1811.  Some  irritation  ensued.  In  the  war 
with  Great  Britain  (1812),  the  Spanish  authori¬ 
ties  at  Pensacola  favored  the  English.  An  ex¬ 
pedition  against  the  Americans  having  been  fit¬ 
ted  out  there,  General  Jackson  captured  that 
town.  Again,  in  1818,  it  was  captured  by  Jack- 
son,  but  was  subsequently  returned  to  Spain. 
Florida  was  purchased  from  Spain  by  the  United 
States  in  1819,  and  was  surrendered  to  the  lat¬ 
ter  in  July,  1821.  Emigration  then  began  to 
flow  into  the  territory,  in  spite  of  many  obsta¬ 
cles.  In  1835  a  distressing  warfare  broke  out 
between  the  fierce  Seminole  Indians  (see  Semi- 
noles),  who  inhabited  some  of  the  better  por¬ 
tions  of  Florida,  and  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  and  continued  until  1842,  when 
the  Indians  were  subdued,  though  not  thor¬ 
oughly  conquered.  (See  Seminole  War.)  In  May, 
1858,  the  whole  body  of  the  Seminoles  remaining 
in  Florida  were  removed  to  reservations  west  of 
the  Mississippi.  Florida  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  state  on  the  8th  of  March,  1845.  In¬ 
habitants  of  the  state  joined  in  the  war  against 
the  government,  a  secession  ordinance  having 
been  passed  Jan.  10,  1861,  by  a  convention  as¬ 
sembled  on  the  3d.  (See  Secession  Ordinances.) 
Forts  and  arsenals  and  the  navy-yard  at  Pensa¬ 
cola  were  seized  by  the  insurgents.  The  state 
authorities  continued  hostilities  until  the  close  of 
the  war.  Outlie  13th  of  July,  1865,  William  Mar¬ 
vin  was  appointed  provisional  governor  of  the 
state,  and  on  the  28th  of  October  a  state  conven¬ 
tion,  held  at  Tallahassee,  repealed  the  ordinance 
of  secession.  The  civil  authority  was  transfer¬ 
red  by  the  National  government  to  the  provi¬ 
sional  state  officers  in  January,  1866,  and,  under 
the  reorganization  measures  of  Congress,  Flori¬ 
da  was  made  a  part  of  the  third  military  district 
in  1867.  A  new  constitution  was  ratified  by  the 
people  in  May,  1868,  and  after  the  adoption  of 
t  he  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  National  Con¬ 
stitution,  on  the  14th  of  June,  Florida  was  recog¬ 
nized  as  a  reorganized  state  of  the  Union.  The 
government  was  transferred  to  the  state  officers 
on  the  4th  of  July.  Population  in  1880,  269,493. 

Florida,  Cession  of  by  Spain.  Jackson’s  in¬ 
vasion  of  Florida  and  his  capture  of  Pensacola 
(see* Seminole  Bar)  caused  much  political  debate 
in  and  out  of  Congress.  By  some  ho  was  much 
I.— 32 


censured,  by  others  praised.  The  United  States 
government  upheld  him,  and  the  Secretary  of 
State  (J.  Q.  Adams)  made  an  able  plea  of  justi¬ 
fication,  on  the  ground  of  the  well-known  inter¬ 
ference  of  the  Spanish  authorities  in  Florida  in 
American  affairs,  and  the  giving  of  shelter  to 
British  subjects  inciting  the  Indians  to  make 
war.  It  was  thought  the  British  government 
would  take  notice  of  the  summary  execution 
of  Arbuthnot  aud  Ambrister  (see  Seminole  War)} 
but  it  took  the  ground  that  British  subjects, 
meddling  in  the  affairs  of  a  foreign  nation,  must 
take  the  consequences.  Secretary  Adams  and 
the  Spanish  minister,  Don  Onis,  had  been  in 
correspondence  for  some  time  concerning  the 
settlement  of  the  Florida  question  aud  the  west¬ 
ern  boundary  of  the  United  States  next  to  the 
Spanish  possessions.  Finally,  pending  discus¬ 
sion  in  Congress  on  Jackson’s  vigorous  proceed¬ 
ings  in  Florida,  the  Spanish  minister,  under  new 
instructions  from  home,  signed  a  treaty  (Feb. 
22,  1819)  for  the  cession  of  Florida,  on  the  ex¬ 
tinction  of  the  various  American  claims  for  spo¬ 
liation,  for  the  satisfaction  of  which  the  United 
States  agreed  to  pay  to  the  claimants  $5,000,000. 
The  Louisiana  boundary,  as  fixed  by  the  treaty, 
was  a  compromise  between  the  respective  offers 
heretofore  made,  though  leaning  a  good  deal 
towards  the  American  side.  It  was  agreed  that 
the  Sabine  to  the  thirty-second  degree  of  north 
latitude,  thence  a  north  meridian  line  to  the 
Red  River,  the  course  of  that  river  to  the  one 
hundredth  degree  of  longit  ude  west  from  Green¬ 
wich,  thence  north  by  that  meridian  to  the  Ar¬ 
kansas  River  to  its  head  and  to  the  forty-second 
degree  of  north  latitude,  and  along  that  degree 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  should  be  the  boundary 
between  the  possessions  of  the  United  States 
and  Spain.  The  Florida  treaty  was  immedi¬ 
ately  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate,  and, 
in  expectation  of  a  speedy  ratification  by  Spain, 
an  act  was  passed  to  authorize  the  President  to 
take  possession  of  the  newly  ceded  territory. 
But  there  was  great  delay  in  the  Spanish  ratifi¬ 
cation.  It  did  not  take  place  until  early  in  1821. 
The  ratified  treaty  was  received  by  the  Presi¬ 
dent  in  February. 

Florida,  Conquests  on  the  Coasts  of.  Com¬ 
modore  Dupont  and  General  Wright  made  easy 
conquests  on  the  coast  of  Florida.  In  February, 
1862,  they  captured  Fort  Clinch,  on  Amelia  Isl¬ 
and,  which  the  Confederates  had  seized,  and 
drove  the  insurgents  from  Fernaudiua.  Other 
posts  were  speedily  abandoned,  and  a  flotilla  of 
gunboats,  under  Lieutenant  T.  H.  Stevens,  went 
up  the  St.  John's  River,  and  captured  Jackson¬ 
ville,  March  11.  St.  Augustine  was  taken  pos¬ 
session  of  about  the  same  time  by  Commander 
C.  R.  P.  Rogers,  and  the  alarmed  Confederates 
abandoned  Pensacola  and  all  the  fortifications 
opposite  Fort  Pickens.  Before  the  middle  of 
April  the  whole  Atlantic  coast  from  Cape  Hat- 
teras  to  Perdido  Bay,  west  of  Fort  Pickens  (ex¬ 
cepting  Charleston  and  its  vicinity),  had  been 
abandoned  by  the  Confederates. 

Florida,  De  Luna’s  Expedition  to.  Don 
Tristan  de  Luna  sailed  from  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico, 


FLORIDA,  INCURSIONS  FROM  498  FLORIDA  ORDINANCE  OF  SECESSION 


Ang.  14,  1559,  with  fifteen  hundred  soldiers, 
many  zealous  friars  who  wished  to  convert  the 
heathen,  and  mauy  women  and  children,  fami¬ 
lies  of  the  soldiers.  He  landed  near  the  site  of 
Pensacola,  Fla.,  and  a  week  afterwards  a  terrific 
storm  destroyed  all  his  vessels  and  strewed  the 
shores  with  their  fragments.  He  sent  an  ex¬ 
ploring  party  into  the  interior.  They  travelled 
forty  days  through  a  barren  and  almost  unin¬ 
habited  country,  and  found  a  deserted  Indian 
village,  but  uot  a  trace  of  the  wealth  with  which 
it  was  supposed  Florida  abounded.  Construct¬ 
ing  a  vessel  sufficient  to  bear  messengers  to  the 
Viceroy  of  Mexico,  De  Luna  sent  them  to  ask 
for  aid  to  return.  Two  vessels  were  sent  by 
the  viceroy,  and,  two  years  after  his  departure, 
De  Luna  returned  to  Mexico. 

Florida,  Incursions  from.  Iu  the  summer 
of  1778  two  bodies  of  armed  men,  composed  of 
regulars  and  refugees,  made  a  rapid  incursion 
into  Georgia  from  East  Florida — one  in  boats 
through  the  inland  navigation,  the  other  over¬ 
land  by  the  way  of  the  river  Altamaha.  The 
first  party  advanced  to  Simbury  and  summoned 
the  fort  to  surrender.  Colonel  McIntosh,  its 
commander,  replied,  “  Come  and  take  it.”  The 
enterprise  was  abandoned.  The  other  corps 
pushed  on  towards  Savamiah,  but  was  met  by 
about  one  hundred  militia,  with  whom  they 
skirmished.  In  one  of  these  General  Scriveu, 
who  commanded  the  Americans,  was  mortally 
wounded.  At  near  Ogeechee  Ferry  the  invaders 
were  repulsed  by  General  Elbert  with  two  hun¬ 
dred  Continental  soldiers.  Hearing  of  the  re¬ 
pulse  at  Sunbury,  they,  also,  retreated. 

Florida,  Invasion  of,  by  Oglethorpf..  When 
Oglethorpe  returned  to  Georgia  from  England 
(1736)  he  discovered  a  hostile  feeling  among  the 
Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine.  They  had  tried  to 
incite  the  Indians  against  the  new  settlements, 
and  also  to  procure  the  assassination  of  Ogle¬ 
thorpe.  The  latter,  not  fairly  prepared  to  re¬ 
sist  au  invasion,  sent  a  messenger  to  St.  Augus¬ 
tine  to  invite  the  Spanish  commandant  to  a 
friendly  conference.  He  explored  some  of  the 
coast  islands  and  prepared  for  fortification. 
(See  Oglethorpe.')  His  messenger  did  not  return, 
and  he  proceeded  to  secure  possession  of  the 
country  so  far  as  its  defined  boundary  permit¬ 
ted  him.  His  hostile  preparations  made  the 
Spaniards  vigilant, and  even  threaten  war;  and 
when,  in  1739,  there  was  war  between  England 
and  Spain,  he  determined  to  strike  the  Span¬ 
iards  at  St.  Augustine  a  heavy  blow  before  they 
were  fully  prepared  to  resist  it.  He  penetrated 
Florida  with  a  small  force  and  captured  some 
outposts  early  m  1740;  and  in  May  he  marched 
towards  St.  Augustine  with  six  hundred  regu¬ 
lar  troops,  four  hundred  Carolina  militia,  and  a 
large  body  of  friendly  Indians.  With  these  he 
stood  before  St.  Augustine  in  June,  after  captur¬ 
ing  two  forts,  and  demanded  the  instant  surren¬ 
der  of  the  post.  It  was  refused,  and  Oglethorpe 
determined  to  starve  the  garrison  by  a  close  in¬ 
vestment.  The  town  was  surrendered,  and  a 
small  8qnadrou  blockaded  the  harbor.  Swift- 
sailing  galleys  ran  the  weak  blockade  and  well 


supplied  the  fort.  Oglethorpe  had  no  cannon 
and  could  not  breach  the  walls.  In  the  heats 
of  summer  malaria  invaded  his  camp,  the  siege 
was  raised,  and  he  returned  to  Savannah.  Hos¬ 
tilities  were  now  suspended  for  about  two  years. 
(See  Georgia,  Invasion  of  by  Spaniards.) 

Florida  Ordinance  of  Secession.  Florida, 
purchased  of  Spain,  and  the  most  unimportant 
state  in  the  Union,  was  early  made  the  theatre 
of  seditions  speech  and  actiou  by  her  politicians. 
Her  representatives  in  Congress  were  anxions 
for  secession,  and  forward  in  assumptions  of 
sovereignty  for  their  little  state.  Anxious  to 
establish  an  independent  empire  on  the  borders 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  politicians  met  in 
convention  early  in  January,  1861,  at  Tallahas¬ 
see,  the  state  capital,  a  city  of  less  than  two 
thousand  inhabitants.  Colonel  Petit  was  cho¬ 
sen  chairman  of  the  convention,  and  Bishop 
Rutledge  invoked  the  blessing  of  the  Almighty 
upon  the  acts  they  were  about  to  perform.  The 
members  numbered  sixty-uiue,  and  about  one 
third  of  them  were  “  Co-operationists.”  (See 
Mississippi  Ordinance  of  Secession.)  The  Legis¬ 
lature  of  Florida,  fully  prepared  to  co-operate 
with  the  convention,  had  convened  at  the  same 
place  on  the  5th.  On  the  10th  the  convention 
adopted  an  ordinance  of  secession  by  a  vote  of 
sixty -two  against  seven.  In  its  preamble  it 
was  declared  that  “  all  hopes  of  preserving  the 
Union  upon  terms  consistent  with  the  safety 
and  honor  of  the  slave-holding  states”  had  been 
“  fully  dissipated.”  And  it  was  further  declared 
that  by  the  ordinance  Florida  had  withdrawn 
from  the  Union  and  become  “  a  sovereign  and 
independent  nation.”  On  the  following  day  the 
ordinance  was  signed,  while  bells  rang  and  can¬ 
nons  thundered  to  signify  the  popular  joy.  The 
uews  was  received  by  tbe  Florida  representa¬ 
tives  in  Congress  at  Washington  ;  but,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  state  had  “  withdrawn  from  the 
Union,”  they  remained  in  their  seats  for  reasons 
given  in  a  letter  to  Joseph  Finnegan,  written 
by  Senator  David  L.  Yulee  from  his  desk  in  the 
Senate  chamber.  “It  seemed  to  be  the  opin¬ 
ion,”  he  said,  “  that  if  we  left  here,  force,  loan, 
aud  volunteer  bills  might  be  passed,  which 
would  put  Mr.  Lincoln  iu  immediate  condition 
for  hostilities;  whereas,  by  remaining  in  our 
places  until  the  4th  of  March,  it  is  thought  we 
can  keep  the  hands  of  Mr.  Buchanan  tied  and 
disable  the  Republicans  from  effecting  any  leg¬ 
islation  which  will  strengthen  the  hands  of  the 
incoming  administration.”  Senators  from  other 
states  wrote  similar  letters  under  their  official 
franks.  The  convention  was  addressed  by  L. 
W.  Spratt,  of  South  Carolina,  an  eminent  advo¬ 
cate  for  reopening  the  African  slave-trade.  Del¬ 
egates  were  appointed  to  a  general  convention 
to  assemble  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  and  other 
measures  were  taken  to  secure  the  “sovereign¬ 
ty”  of  Florida.  The  Legislature  authorized 
the  emission  of  treasury  notes  to  the  amount 
of  $500,000,  aud  defined  the  crime  of  treason 
against  the  state  to  be,  in  one  form — the  hold¬ 
ing  of  office  under  the  National  government  in 
case  of  actual  collision  between  the  state  and 
government  troops  —  punishable  with  death. 


FLORIDA 


499 


FLOYD’S  DISLOYAL  ACTS 


The  governor  of  the  state  (Perry)  had  made  ar¬ 
rangements  before  the  passage  of  the  ordinance 
of  secession  to  seize  the  United  States  forts, 
navy-yard,  and  other  government  property  in 
Florida. 

Florida,  Revolutionary  Movements  in 
(1810).  The  success  of  Napoleon’s  arms  in  Spain 
and  the  impending  peril  to  the  Spanish  monarchy 
gave  occasion  for  revolutionary  movements  in 
the  Spanish  province  of  West  Florida  border¬ 
ing  on  the  Mississippi.  That  region  undoubtedly 
belonged  to  the  United  States  as  a  part  of  Lou¬ 
isiana  bought  from  the  French,  but  Spaiu  had 
refused  to  relinquish  it.  The  inhabitants  were 
mostly  of  British  or  American  birth.  Early  in 
the  autumn  of  1810  they  seized  the  fort  at  Baton 
Rouge,  met  in  convention,  and  proclaimed  them¬ 
selves  independent,  adopting  a  single  star  for 
their  flag,  as  the  Texans  did  in  1836.  There 
were  some  conflicts  between  the  revolutionists 
and  adherents  of  the  Spanish  connection,  and 
an  attack  upon  the  insurgents  seemed  immi¬ 
nent  from  the  Spanish  garrison  at  Mobile. 
Through  Holmes,  Governor  of  the  Mississippi 
Territory,  the  revolutionists  applied  to  the 
United  States  for  recognition  and  aid.  They 
claimed  all  the  unlocated  lands  in  the  domain, 
pardon  for  all  deserters  from  the  United  States 
Army  (of  whom  there  were  many  among  them), 
and  an  immediate  loan  of  $100,000.  Instead 
of  complying  with  these  requirements,  the  Pres¬ 
ident  issued  a  proclamation  for  taking  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  an  act 
which  had  been  delayed  because  of  conciliatory 
views  towards  Spaiu.  Claiborne,  Governor  of 
the  Orleans  Territory,  then  in  Washington,  was 
sent  in  haste  to  take  possession,  authorized,  in 
case  of  resistance,  to  call  upon  the  regular 
troops  stationed  on  the  Mississippi,  and  upon 
the  militia  of  the  two  adjoining  territories.  It 
was  not  necessary.  Soon  after  this  movement 
at  Baton  Rouge  a  man  named  Kemper,  who  pur¬ 
ported  to  act  under  the  Florida  insurgents,  ap¬ 
proached  Mobile,  with  some  followers,  to  at¬ 
tempt  the  capture  of  the  garrison.  He  was 
repulsed ;  but  the  alarmed  Spanish  governor 
wrote  to  the  American  authorities  that  if  he 
were  not  speedily  reinforced  he  should  be  dis¬ 
posed  to  treat  for  the  transfer  of  the  entire 
province.  Congress  passed  an  act  authorizing 
the  President  to  take  possession  of  both  East 
and  West  Florida  to  prevent  its  falling  into  the 
hands  of  another  foreign  power.  Thus  it  might 
be  held  subject  to  future  peaceful  negotiations 
with  Spain. 

Floridians.  (See  Mobilians.) 

Floyd,  John  Buchanan,  was  born  in  Mont¬ 
gomery  County,  Va.,  in  1805  ;  died  at  Abingdon, 
Va.,  April  26,  1863.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1828,  he  practised  law  in  Helena,  Ark.;  but  in 
1839  he  settled  in  Washington  County,  in  li is 
native  state.  He  served  in  the  Virginia  Legis¬ 
lature  several  terms,  and  was  governor  of  the 
state  in  1850-53.  His  father,  John,  had  been 
governor  of  Virginia.  .In  1857  President  Bu¬ 
chanan  appointed  him  Secretary  of  War,  in 
which  oflice  he  proved  disloyal,  and  conspired 


to  overthrow  the  government  by  furnishing  the 
slave-labor  states  with  arms  and  dispersing  the 
army.  (See  Floyd's  Disloyal  Acts.)  Indicted  by 
the  grand  jury  of  the  District  of  Columbia  as 
being  privy  to  the  abstracting  of  $870,000  in 
bonds  from  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  at 
the  close  of  1860  he  fled  to  Virginia,  wheu  he 
was  commissioned  a  general  in  the  Confederate 
army.  Iu  that  capacity  he  was  driven  from 
West  Virginia  by  General  Rosecrans.  The  night 
before  the  surrender  of  Fort  Donelson  (which 
see)  he  stole  away  iu  the  darkness,  and,  being 
censured  by  the  Confederate  government,  he 
never  served  in  the  army  afterwards. 

Floyd,  William,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Suffolk  County, 
L.  I.,  Dec.  17, 1764 ;  died  in  Oueida  County,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  4,  1821.  He  took  an  early  and  vigorous 
part  in  the  Revolution ;  was  a  member  of  the 
New  York  Committee  of  Correspondence ;  aud  a 
member  of  the  First  Continental  Congress  in 
1774,  aud  until  1777.  He  was  again  a  member 
after  October,  1778.  He  was  a  state  senator  in 
1777.  During  the  occupancy  of  Long  Island  by 
the  British,  for  nearly  seven  years,  his  family 
w’ere  in  exile.  Mr.  Floyd  held  the  commission 
of  brigadier,  and  commanded  the  Suffolk  Coun¬ 
ty  militia  in  repelling  an  invasion  of  Long  Isl¬ 
and  by  the  British.  General  Floyd  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  First  National  Congress,  and  as  Pres¬ 
idential  elector  gave  his  vote  for  Jefferson  in 
1801. 

Floyd’s  Disloyal  Acts.  John  B.  Floyd,  Sec¬ 
retary  of  War,  was  deeply  concerned  in  the 
conspiracy  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Republic. 
While  in  office  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Bu¬ 
chanan,  he  was  detected,  by  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  in  the  act  of  strip¬ 
ping  the  Northern  arsenals  of  arms  and  ammu¬ 
nition  and  tilling  those  of  the  South  with  those 
munitions  of  war.  So  early  as  Dec.  29, 1859 — 
a  year  before — according  to  the  report  of  the 
committee,  he  had  ordered  the  transfer  of  65,000 
percussion  muskets,  40,000  muskets  altered  to 
percussion,  and  10,000  percussion  rifles  from  the 
armory  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  the  arsenals  at 
Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  and  Watertown,  Mass.,  to  the 
arsenals  at  Fayetteville,  N.  C.,  Charleston,  S.  C., 
Augusta,  Ga.,  Mount  Vernon,  Ala.,  aud  Baton 
Rouge,  La. ;  and  these  were  distributed  in  the 
spring  of  1860,  before  the  meeting  of  the  Dem¬ 
ocratic  Convention  at  Charleston  (which  see). 
Eleven  days  after  the  issuing  of  the  above  order 
by  Floyd  Jefferson  Davis  introduced  (Jan. 9, 1860) 
into  the  National  Senate  a  bill  “to  authorize 
the  sale  of  public  arms  to  the  several  states  and 
territories,  and  to  regulate  the  appointment  of 
superintendents  of  the  National  armories.”  Da¬ 
vis  reported  the  bill  from  the  Military  Commit¬ 
tee  of  the  Senate,  and,  in  calling  it  up  on  Feb. 
21,  said,  “I  should  like  the  Senate  to  take  up  a 
little  bill  which  I  hope  will  excite  no  discus¬ 
sion.  It  is  the  bill  to  authorize  the  states  to 
purchase  arms  from  the  National  armories. 
There  are  a  number  of  volunteer  companies 
wanting  to  purchase  arms,  but  the  states  have 
not  a  sufficient  supply.”  Senator  Fessenden, 


FLYING  CAMP 


500 


of  Maine,  asked  (Feb.  23)  for  an  explanation  of 
reasons  for  such  action.  Davis  replied  that  the 
Secretary  of  War  had  recommended  an  increase 
of  appropriations  for  arming  the  militia,  and,  as 
the  militia  of  the  states  were  not  militia  of  the  United 
States,  he  thought  it  best  for  the  volunteer  com¬ 
panies  of  states  to  have  arms  that  were  uniform 
in  case  of  war.  Fessenden  offered  an  amend¬ 
ment  (March  26)  that  would  deprive  it  of  mis¬ 
chief,  but  it  was  lost,  and  the  bill  was  passed 
by  a  strict  party  vote — 29  Democrats  against  18 
Republicans.  It  was  smothered  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  (See  “Wise’s  Proposition 
to  Davis  when  Secretary  of  War,”  article  Rebell¬ 
ion  planned  in  1856.)  By  a  stretch  of  authority 
under  an  old  act  of  Congress  (1825),  Floyd  sold 
to  states  and  individuals  in  the  South  over 
31,000  muskets  altered  from  flint  to  percussion 
for  $2.50  each.  On  Nov.  24,  1860,  he  sold  10,000 
muskets  to  G.  B.  Lamar,  of  Georgia;  and  on  the 
16th  he  had  sold  5000  to  Virginia.  The  Mobile 
Advertise!',  one  of  the  principal  orgaus  of  the 
conspirators  in  Alabama,  who  knew  the  secret 
of  Floyd’s  movements,  said,  “  During  the  past 
year  135,430  muskets  have  been  quietly  trans¬ 
ferred  from  the  Northern  arsenal  at  Springfield 
alone  to  those  of  the  Southern  States.  We  are 
much  obliged  to  Secretary  Floyd  for  the  fore¬ 
sight  he  has  thus  displayed  in  disarming  the 
North  and  equipping  the  South  for  this  emer¬ 
gency.  There  is  no  telling  the  quantity  of 
arms  and  munitions  which  were  seut  South 
from  other  arsenals.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  every  man  in  the  South  who  can  carry  a 
gun  can  now  be  supplied  from  private  or  public 
sources.”  A  Virginia  historian  of  the  war  (Pol¬ 
lard  )  said,  “  It  was  safely  estimated  that  the 
South  entered  upon  the  war  with  150,000  small- 
arms  of  the  most  approved  modern  pattern  and 
the  best  in  the  world.”  Only  a  few  days  before 
Floyd  left  his  office  of  Secretary  of  War  and  fled 
to  Virginia  he  attempted  to  supply  the  South¬ 
erners  with  heavy  ordnance  also.  On  Dec.  20, 
1860,  he  ordered  forty  columbiads  and  four  32- 
pounders  to  be  sent  from  the  arsenal  at  Pitts¬ 
burgh  to  an  unfinished  fort  on  Ship  Island,  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  seventy-one  columbiads 
and  seven  32-pounders  to  be  seut  from  the  same 
arsenal  to  an  embryo  fort  at  Galveston,  Tex., 
which  would  not  be  ready  for  armament  in  five 
years.  When  Quartermaster  Taliaferro  (a  Vir¬ 
ginian)  was  about  to  send  off  these  heavy  guns, 
an  immense  public  meeting  of  citizens,  called 
by  the  mayor,  was  held,  and  the  guns  were  re¬ 
tained.  When  Floyd  fled  from  Washington  his 
successor,  Joseph  Holt,  of  Kentucky,  counter¬ 
manded  the  order. 

Flying  Camp.  In  June,  1776,  Congress,  at 
the  suggestion  of  Washington,  called  for  ten 
thousand  men  from  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
and  Maryland  to  form  a  “flying  camp”  for  the 
protection  of  New  Jersey.  Colonel  Hugh  Mercer, 
of  Virginia,  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general 
and  put  in  command  of  this  corps,  which  never 
reached  the  number  called  for.  On  the  death  of 
the  commander,  at  Princeton,  it  was  broken  up. 

Focus  of  Sedition.  It  is  agreed  by  all  ob¬ 


FONTAINEBLEAU,  TREATY  OF 

servers  that  the  National  capital  was  the  focal 
point  of  active  conspiracy  against  the  Union 
during  1860 ;  for  there,  in  Congress,  were  gath¬ 
ered  the  chief  political  actors  in  the  movement. 
There  was  the  voltaic  pile  that  energized  the 
secession  movement  in  all  the  slave  -  labor 
states.  A  leading  Georgia  journal  ( The  South¬ 
ern  Confederacy),  published  at  Atlanta,  said,  “  The 
towns  and  cities  have  been  flooded  with  sen¬ 
sational  despatches  and  inflammatory  rumors, 
manufactured  in  Washington  city  for  the  es¬ 
pecial  occasion.  To  be  candid,  there  has  never 
been  as  much  lying  and  bullying  practised,  in 
the  same  length  of  time,  since  the  destruction 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  as  in  the  recent  cam¬ 
paign.  The  fault  has  been  at  Washington 
city.  From  that  cesspool  have  emanated  all 
the  abominations  that  ever  cursed  a  free  peo¬ 
ple.”  So  early  as  Dec.  13,  1860,  about  all  of 
the  leading  disunionists  at  Washington  assem¬ 
bled  at  night  at  the  room  of  Reuben  Davis, 
a  representative  in  Congress  from  Mississippi, 
and  there  signed  the  following  letter  to  their 
constituents :  “  The  argument  is  exhausted. 
All  hope  of  relief  in  the  Union  through  the 
agencies  of  committees  [these  had  just  been 
appointed;  see  Thirty-sixth  Congress  ],  Congres¬ 
sional  legislation,  or  Constitutional  amendments 
is  extinguished,  and  we  trust  the  South  will  not 
be  deceived  by  appearances  or  the  pretence  of 
new  guarantees.  The  Republicans  are  resolute 
in  their  purpose  to  grant  nothing  that  will  or 
ought  to  satisfy  the  South.  We  are  satisfied 
the  honor,  safety,  and  independence  of  the 
Southern  people  are  to  be  found  only  in  a 
Southern  confederacy — a  result  to  be  obtained 
only  by  separate  state  secession — and  that  the 
sole  and  primary  aim  of  each  slave-holding  state 
ought  to  be  its  speedy  and  absolute  separation 
from  an  unnatural  and  hostile  Union.”  This 
declaration  was  signed  by  a  large  number  of 
Senators  and  Representatives  and  sent  broad¬ 
cast  over  the  slave-labor  states,  first  by  tele¬ 
graph,  and  then  in  print.  Mr. Toombs  returned 
to  Washington  from  Georgia  a  few  days  after; 
and  on  Dec.  22  he  telegraphed  an  address  to  the 
people  of  that  state,  in  which  he  said,  “  I  now 
tell  you,  upon  the  faith  of  a  true  man,  that  all 
further  looking  to  the  North  for  security  for 
your  constitutional  rights  in  the  Union  ought 
to  be  instantly  abandoned.  It  is  fraught  with 
nothing  but  ruin  to  yourselves  and  your  poster¬ 
ity.  Secession  by  the  4th  of  March  next  should 
be  thundered  from  the  ballot-box  by  the  unani¬ 
mous  voice  of  Georgia  on  the  2d  day  of  January 
next  [the  time  for  electing  members  of  the  Se¬ 
cession  Convention].  Such  a  voice  will  be  your 
best  guarantee  for  liberty,  security,  tranquillity, 
and  glory.”  This  despatch  unsettled  conserva¬ 
tives  and  dazed  the  mass  of  the  people.  Several 
of  similar  character  from  Toombs  and  others 
were  sent  from  Washington,  and  decided  the 
wavering  vote  of  Georgia  for  secession.  (See 
Georgia  Ordinance  of  Secession.) 

Fontainebleau,  Treaty  of.  At  Fontaine¬ 
bleau,  Nov.  3, 1762,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  nego¬ 
tiated,  which  was  signed  at  Paris.  (See  Treaty 
of  Paris.) 


FOOD  AT  NEW  PLYMOUTH 


501 


FOREIGN  GOVERNMENTS 


Food  at  New  Plymouth.  The  food  of  the 
“Pilgrims”  at  Plymouth  was  very  simple  and 
of  small  variety  for  several  years.  When,  iu 
August,  1623,  the  third  supply  of  colonists  — 
about  sixty  iu  number  —  came,  the  best  dish 
that  could  be  set  before  them  was  a  lobster,  a 
piece  of  fish,  and  a  cup  of  “fair  spring-water.” 
As  to  bread,  there  was  none  in  the  colony. 

Foote,  Andrew  Hull,  Rear-admiral  United 
States  Navy,  was  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Sept.  12,  1806;  died  in  New  York  city,  June  26, 
1863.  He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in 
1822;  was  flag-lieutenaut  of  the  Mediterranean 


ANDREW  HULL  FOOTE. 


squadron  in  1833;  and  in  1838,  as  first  lieuten¬ 
ant  of  the  ship  John  Adams,  Commodore  Read, 
he  circumnavigated  the  globe,  and  took  part  in 
an  attack  on  the  pirates  of  Sumatra.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  to  introduce  (1841)  the  principle 
of  total  abstinence  from  intoxicating  drinks 
into  the  United  States  Navy;  and  on  the  Cum¬ 
berland  (1843-45)  he  delivered,  on  Sundays,  ex¬ 
temporary  sermons  to  his  crew.  He  success¬ 
fully  engaged  iu  the  suppression  of  the  slave- 
trade  on  the  coast  of  Africa  (1849-52).  In  com¬ 
mand  of  the  China  station  in  1856,  when  the 
Chinese  and  English  were  at  war,  Foote  exerted 
himself  to  protect  American  property,  and  was 
fired  upon  by  the  “  Celestials.”  His  demand  for 
an  apology  was  refused,  and  he  stormed  and 
captured  four  Chinese  forts,  composed  of  gran¬ 
ite  walls  seven  feet  thick  and  mounting  one 
hundred  and  seventy-six  guns,  with  a  loss  of 
only  forty  men.  The  Chinese  garrison  of  five 
thousand  men  lost  four  hundred  of  their  num¬ 
ber  killed  and  wounded.  In  the  summer  of 
1861  Foote  was  made  captain,  and  in  September 
was  appointed  ilag-officer  of  a  flotilla  of  gun¬ 
boats  fitted  out  chiefly  at  Cairo,  and  command¬ 
ed  the  naval  expedition  against  Forts  Henry 
and  Donelson  (which  see),  on  the  Tennessee  and 
Cumberland  rivers,  early  in  1862,  in  co-opera¬ 
tion  with  General  Grant.  In  the  attack  on  the 
latter  he  was  severely  wounded  in  the  ankle  by 
a  fragment  of  a  shell.  Though  suffering,  he 
commanded  the  naval  attack  on  Island  Number 
Ten  (which  see).  After  its  reduction  he  re¬ 


turned  to  his  home  at  New  Haven.  He  was 
appointed  rear-admiral  in  July,  1862;  and  in 
May,  1863,  was  ordered  to  take  command  of  the 
South  Atlantic  squadron,  but  died  while  pre¬ 
paring  iu  New  York  to  leave  for  Charleston. 

Foragers,  Property  destroyed  by.  With 
the  opening  of  the  spring  of  1778  strong  forag¬ 
ing  parties  were  sent  out  by  the  British  holding 
Philadelphia;  and  these  often  met  small  parties 
of  American  soldiers,  when  sharp  skirmishes  en¬ 
sued.  One  of  these  parties  joined  an  expedit  ion 
up  the  Delaware  (May  7),  who  captured  or  burn¬ 
ed  a  number  of  vessels,  among  them  an  unfin¬ 
ished  Continental  frigate  at  the  falls  near  Tren¬ 
ton,  whither  it  had  been  conveyed  for  safety. 

Forbes,  John,  was  born  in  Fifeshire,  Scotland, 
in  1710;  died  in  Philadelphia,  March  11,  1759. 
He  was  a  physician,  but,  preferring  military  life, 
he  entered  the  British  army,  and  was  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  Scotch  Greys  in  1745.  He  was 
acting  quartermaster  -  general  under  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland;  and  late  iu  1757  he  came  to 
America,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier -general. 
He  commanded  the  troops — eight  thousand  iu 
number  —  against  Fort  Duquesne  (which  see), 
and  he  named  the  place  Pittsburgh,  iu  honor 
of  William  Pitt. 

Force,  Peter,  was  born  at  Passaic  Falls, 
N.  J.,  Nov.  26,  1790  ;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
Jan.  23, 1868.  He  learned  the  printer’s  trade  in 
New  York  city,  and  was  president  of  the  New 
York  Typographical  Society  in  1812.  In  No¬ 
vember,  1815,  he  settled  in  Washington  city,  be¬ 
came  a  newspaper  editor  and  publisher,  and 
was  mayor  of  the  city  in  1836-40.  He  was  ma¬ 
jor-general  of  the  militia  of  the  district  in  1860, 
and  was  president  of  the  National  Institute. 
Mr.  Force  made  a  contract  with  the  United 
States  government  in  1833  for  the  preparation 
and  publication  of  a  documentary  history  of  the 
American  colonies  covering  the  entire  period  of 
the  Revolution.  He  prepared  and  published 
nine  volumes,  folio,  and  had  the  tenth  prepared, 
when  Congress  refused  to  make  further  appro¬ 
priations  for  the  work,  and  it  has  never  been 
published.  He  had  gathered  an  immense  col¬ 
lection  of  books,  manuscripts,  maps,  and  plans ; 
and  in  1867  his  entire  collection  was  purchased 
by  the  government  for  $100,000,  and  it  was 
transferred  to  the  library  of  Congress.  His 
great  work  is  entitled  American  Archives.  Mr. 
Force’s  first  publication  in  Washington  was  the 
National  Calendar,  an  annual  volume  of  national 
statistics,  which  was  continued  from  1820  to  1836. 

Forces  at  Yorktown.  For  the  siege  of 
Yorktown  the  French  provided  thirty -seven 
ships  of  the  line,  and  the  Americans  nine.  The 
Americans  furnished  9000  land-troops  (of  whom 
5500  were  regulars ),  and  the  French  7000, 
Among  the  prisoners  were  two  battalions  of 
Anspachers,  amounting  to  1027  men,  and  two 
regiments  of  Hessians,  numbering  875.  The 
flag  of  the  Anspachers  was  given  to  Washing¬ 
ton  by  the  Congress.  (See  Offerings  of  a  Grate¬ 
ful  Congress.) 

Foreign  Governments  and  the  United 


FOREIGN  GOVERNMENTS 


502 


FOREIGN  INTERCOURSE 


States  (1861).  From  the  time  when  the  South 
Carolina  Ordinance  of  Secession  was  passed 
there  was  observed  in  most  of  the  European 
courts  an  unfriendliness  of  spirit  towards  the 
National  government  and  a  willingness  to  give 
its  enemies  encouragement  in  their  revolution¬ 
ary  measures.  The  public  journals  in  their  in¬ 
terest  were  equally  unfriendly  in  their  utter¬ 
ances.  When,  early  in  February,  the  Confeder¬ 
ate  States  government  (which  see)  was  organ¬ 
ized,  Europe  seemed  prepared  to  accept  the 
hopeless  dismemberment  of  the  Republic  as  an 
accomplished  fact.  This  belief  was  strength¬ 
ened  by  the  despatches  of  most  of  the  foreign 
ministers  at  Washington  to  their  respective 
governments,  who  announced,  early  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  the  practical  dissolution  of  the  Union  ;  and 
some  affected  to  be  amazed  at  the  folly  of  Con¬ 
gress  in  legislating  concerning  the  tariff'  and 
other  National  measures  when  the  nation  was 
hopelessly  expiring.  The  Queen  of  England,  in 
her  speech  from  the  throne,  expressed  a  “  heart¬ 
felt  wish”  that  the  differences  that  distracted 
our  country  “  might  be  susceptible  of  a  satisfac¬ 
tory  adjustment.”  For  these  humane  expres¬ 
sions  she  wras  reproved ;  and,  finally,  yielding 
to  the  importunities  of  her  ministers,  some  of 
whom  earnestly  desired  the  downfall  of  our  Re¬ 
public,  she  issued  (May  13, 1861),  a  proclamation 
of  neutrality,  by  which  a  Confederate  govern¬ 
ment,  as  existing,  was  acknowledged,  and  bel¬ 
ligerent  rights  were  accorded  to  the  insurgents. 
Already  an  understanding  existed  between  the 
governments  of  England  and  France  that  they 
were  to  act  together  in  regard  to  American  af- 
,  fairs.  They  had  even  gone  so  far  as  to  apprise 
other  European  governments  of  this  understand¬ 
ing,  with  the  expectation  that  they  would  con¬ 
cur  with  them  and  follow  their  example,  what¬ 
ever  it  might  be.  Thus,  at  the  very  outset  of 
our  difficulties,  these  two  powerful  governments 
had  entered  into  a  combination  for  arraying 
Europe  on  the  side  of  the  insurgents,  and  giv¬ 
ing  them  moral  if  not  material  aid  in  their  ef¬ 
forts  to  destroy  the  Republic.  The  proclama¬ 
tion  of  the  British  queen,  made  with  unseemly 
haste  before  the  minister  of  the  new  adminis¬ 
tration  (C.  F.  Adams)  could  reach  England,  was 
followed  by  corresponding  unfriendly  action  in 
the  British  Parliament.  And  in  addition  to  af¬ 
fected  indifference  to  the  fate  of  our  nation, 
British  legislators,  orators,  publicists,  and  jour¬ 
nalists  were  lavish  of  causeless  abuse,  not  only 
of  the  government,  but  of  the  people  of  the  free- 
labor  states  who  were  loyal  to  the  government. 
This  abuse  was  often  expressed  in  phrases  so 
unmanly  and  ungenerous,  and  even  coarse  and 
vulgar  at  times,  that  high-minded  Englishmen 
blushed  for  shame.  The  emperor  of  the  French 
was  more  cautious  and  astute ;  but  he  followed 
the  British  queen  in  according  belligerent  rights 
to-  the  insurgents  by  a  decree  (June  11, 1861), 
and,  at  the  same  time,  entered  into  political 
combinations  for  the  propagation  of  imperial¬ 
ism  in  North  America,  with  a  belief  that  the 
days  of  the  great  Republic  were  numbered  and 
its  power  to  enforce  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (which 
see)  had  vanished.  The  Queen  of  Spain  also 


hastened  to  proclaim  the  neutrality  of  her  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  to  combine  with  France  in  re¬ 
planting  the  seeds  of  monarchical  institutions 
in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  now  that  the  Re¬ 
public  was  expiring.  The  Kiug  of  Portugal 
also  recognized  the  insurgents  as  belligerents. 
But  the  more  enlightened  and  wise  monarch  of 
Russia,  who  was  about  to  strike  off  the  shackles 
of  almost  forty  million  slaves  in  his  own  domin¬ 
ions,  instructed  his  minister  (July  29,  1861)  to 
say  to  the  imperial  representative  at  Washing¬ 
ton  :  “  In  every  event  the  American  nation  may 
count  upon  the  most  cordial  sympathy  on  the 
part  of  our  august  master  during  the  im¬ 
portant  crisis  which  it  is  passing  through  at 
present.”  The  Russian  emperor  kept  his  word  ; 
and  the  powers  of  Western  Europe,  regarding 
him  as  a  pronounced  ally  of  the  American  Re¬ 
public,  acted  with  more  circumspection.  The 
attitude  of  foreign  governments  encouraged  the 
insurgents  to  believe  that  recognition  and  aid 
would  surely  be  furnished ;  and  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  England,  by  a  negative  policy,  did  give 
them  all  the  aid  and  encouragement  it  prudent¬ 
ly  could  until  it  was  seen  that  the  Confederate 
cause  wras  hopeless,  when  Lord  John  Russell  ad¬ 
dressed  the  head  of  the  Confederacy  in  insulting 
terms.  That  astute  publicist,  Count  Gasparin, 
of  France,  writing  in  1862,  when  considering  the 
unprecedented  precipitancy  with  which  leading 
European  powers  recognized  the  iusurgents  as 
belligerents,  said,  “  Instead  of  asking  on  which 
side  were  justice  and  liberty,  we  have  hastened 
to  ask  on  which  side  were  our  interests;  then, 
too,  on  which  side  were  the  best  chances  of  suc¬ 
cess.”  He  said  England  had  a  legal  right  to  be 
neutral,  but  had  no  moral  right  to  withhold  her 
sympathies  from  a  nation  “  struggling  for  its 
existence  and  universal  justice  against  rebels 
intent  on  crimes  against  humanity.” 

Foreign  Intercourse  was  first  established  by 
law  in  1790.  President  Washington,  in  his  mes¬ 
sage  (Jan.  8,  1790),  suggested  to  Congress  the 
propriety  of  providing  for  the  employment  and 
compensation  of  persons  for  carrying  on  inter¬ 
course  with  foreign  nations.  The  House  ap¬ 
pointed  a  committee  (Jan.  15)  to  prepare  a  bill 
to  that  effect,  which  was  presented  on  the  21st. 
It  passed  the  House  on  March  30.  The  two 
Houses  could  not  agree  upon  the  provisions  of 
the  bill,  and  a  committee  of  conference  was  ap¬ 
pointed  ;  and  finally  the  original  bill,  greatly 
modified,  was  passed  (June  25,  1790).  The  act 
fixed  the  salary  of  ministers  at  foreign  courts  at 
$9000  a  year,  and  charges  d’affaires  at  $4500.  To 
the  first  ministers  sent  to  Europe  the  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress  guaranteed  the  payment  of 
their  expenses,  with  an  additional  compensa¬ 
tion  for  their  time  and  trouble.  These  allow¬ 
ances  had  been  fixed  at  first  at  $11,111  annual¬ 
ly.  After  the  peace  the  Continental  Congress 
had  reduced  the  salary  to  $9000,  in  consequence 
of  which  Franklin  insisted  upon  his  recall,  the 
sum  being  insufficient.  When  the  bill  of  1790 
went  before  the  Senate  that  body  was  only  will¬ 
ing  to  vote  a  general  sum  for  the  expenses  of 
foreign  intercourse,  and  to  leave  the  compensa¬ 
tion  of  the  respective  ministers  to  the  discretion 


FOREIGN  OFFICERS 


503  FORREST’S  INVASION  OF  TENNESSEE 


of  the  President,  urging  that  the  difference  in 
expenses  at  the  various  courts  called  for  dis¬ 
crimination  in  the  sums  allowed.  To  this  the 
House  would  not  agree,  and  for  a  while  both 
Houses  iusisted  upon  compliance  with  their  re¬ 
spective  views.  Hence  the  delay  in  the  passage 
of  the  bill.  The  act  also  made  allowance  for 
“  outfits,”  which  had  been  insisted  upon  by 
Jefferson  when  he  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Franklin. 

Foreign  Officers  in  the  Continental  Army. 

There  being  a  great  deficiency  of  native  skill  in 
the  departments  of  artillery  and  engineering  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war,  it  was  thought  desir¬ 
able  to  procure  foreigu  officers ;  and  it  was  a 
part  of  Silas  Deane’s  business  abroad  to  engage 
a  few  of  this  description.  He  found  a  large 
number  of  officers  were  then  out  of  employ¬ 
ment,  and  Deane  w  as  beset  with  almost  endless 
solicitations.  He  exceeded  his  instructions  and 
sent  out  about  fifty  officers  of  all  ranks,  to 
whom  he  made  extravagant  promises  of  promo¬ 
tion.  These  officers  became  a  source  of  discon¬ 
tent  to  the  native  officers  and  considerable  em¬ 
barrassment  to  Congress.  There  was,  indeed, 
great  jealousy  and  heart-burnings  among  the 
officers ;  and  on  account  of  these  foreigners 
being  put  in  places  of  high  rank,  there  was  a 
disposition  on  the  part  of  some  Americans  to 
quit  the  army.  Because  a  French  officer  named 
Du  Coudray,  it  was  rumored,  was  to  be  made  a 
major-general,  Greene,  Knox,  and  Sullivan,  in  a 
joint  letter  to  Congress,  threatened  to  resign  if 
the  appointment  should  be  made.  Deane  had 
signed  a  contract  with  Du  Coudray  for  a  major- 
generalship  in  consideration  of  some  supplies 
which  he  had  furnished.  Congress,  offended, 
voted  the  letter  an  “attempt  to  influence  their 
decision,  an  invasion  of  the  liberties  of  the  peo¬ 
ple,  and  indicating  a  want  of  confidence  in  the 
justice  of  Congress,”  for  which  the  writers  were 
required  to  make  an  apology.  Duportail,  Ra- 
diere,  and  J.  B.Govion  were  engaged  as  engineers, 
and  were  officers  of  merit,  recommended  by  the 
French  court.  Koscinszko  and  Count  Pulaski 
w'ere  officers  from  Poland,  w'here  they  had  won 
distinction  ;  and  the  Baron  de  Steuben,  a  Prus¬ 
sian  officer,  was  of  great  service  in  disciplining 
the  army,  which  he  joined  at  Valley  Forge.  La¬ 
fayette  served  as  a  volunteer,  without  pay,  and 
served  the  American  cause  with  the  zeal  and 
fidelity  of  a  disinterested  patriot.  He  brought 
with  him  eleven  other  officers,  among  them  the 
Baron  de  Kalb.  (See  Choiseul  and  the  Americans.) 

Forest  Foundling,  A.  After  the  battle  at 
Tallahatchie  (November,  1813)  an  Indian  moth¬ 
er  was  found  among  the  slain.  Upon  her  bos¬ 
om  lay  her  infant  boy,  vainly  endeavoring  to 
draw  sustenance  from  the  cold  breast.  The 
babe  was  carried  to  General  Jackson,  who  vain¬ 
ly  tried  to  induce  some  of  the  captive  mothers 
to  give  it  nourishment.  “No,”  they  said,  “his 
relations  are  all  dead ;  kill  him  too.”  The  babe 
was  nourished  with  sugar  and  water  in  Jack¬ 
son’s  tent  until  a  nurse  could  be  procured  at 
Huntsville,  when  it  was  sent  to  Mrs.  Jackson. 
The  general  was  a  childless  man,  and  he  adopt- 1 


ed  this  forest  foundling  as  his  son.  Mrs.  Jack- 
son  watched  over  him  with  a  mother’s  care,  and 
he  grew  to  be  a  beautiful  youth,  full  of  prom¬ 
ise  ;  but  he  died  of  consumption  at  the  Hermit¬ 
age  before  he  reached  manhood,  and  was  sin¬ 
cerely  mourned  by  his  foster  parents.  The  in¬ 
stincts  of  the  Indian  were  strong  in  this  boy. 
He  delighted  to  roam  in  the  forests,  and  deco¬ 
rate  his  head  with  feathers,  and  start  out  of  au 
ambush  with  loud  yells  and  horrible  grimaces 
to  frighten  children.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
harness-maker  in  Nashville. 

Forrest  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  Gen¬ 
eral  N.  B.  Forrest  had  become  a  famous  guerilla 
chief  in  1863,  and  early  in  1864  the  sphere  of  his 
duties  was  enlarged,  and  their  importance  in¬ 
creased.  He  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  most 
skilful  and  daring  Confederate  leader  in  the 
West.  He  made  an  extensive  raid  in  Tennessee 
and  Kentucky  with  about  five  thousand  mounted 
men  in  March  and  April,  1864.  He  had  been  skir¬ 
mishing  with  General  W.  S.  Smith  in  northern 
Mississippi,  and,  sweeping  rapidly  across  the 
Tennessee  River  into  western  Tennessee,  rested 
a  while  at  Jackson,  and  then  (March  23)  pushed 
on  towards  Kentucky.  Apart  of  his  force  capL 
ured  Union  City  the  next  day,  with  the  Nation¬ 
al  garrison  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  men.  For¬ 
rest  then  pushed  on  to  Paducah,  on  the  Ohio  Riv¬ 
er,  with  three  thousand  men,  and  demanded  the 
surrender  of  Fort  Anderson  there,  in  which  the 
little  garrison  of  seven  hundred  men,  under  Colo¬ 
nel  Hicks,  had  taken  refuge.  It  was  refused  ; 
and  after  assailing  the  works  furiously,  and 
plundering  and  burning  the  town,  until  mid¬ 
night,  he  ceased  the  assault.  Hearing  of  rein¬ 
forcements  for  Hicks  approaching,  he  decamped 
(March  27)  with  a  loss  of  three  hundred  men 
killed  and  wounded.  The  National  loss  was 
sixty  killed  and  wounded.  Forrest  was  cha¬ 
grined  by  this  failure,  and  proceeded  to  attack 
Fort  Pillow,  on  the  Mississippi,  which  he  capt¬ 
ured  in  April.  (See  Fort  Pillow .)  Hearing  of 
the  march  of  General  Sturgis  from  Memphis  to 
intercept  him,  Forrest  escaped  from  Tennessee 
into  Mississippi.  A  few  weeks  later,  troops  sent 
out  from  Memphis  to  hunt  up  and  capture  him 
were  defeated  by  him  in  a  severe  engagement 
at  Gun  Town  (June  10),  on  the  Mobile  and  Ohio 
Railway,  and  were  driven  back  with  great  loss. 
On  the  14th  he  was  defeated  near  Tupelo,  Miss. 
Not  long  afterwards,  when  Smith  was  in  Mis¬ 
sissippi  with  ten  thousand  men,  the  bold  raider 
flanked  him,  and  dashed  into  Memphis  in  broad 
daylight,  at  the  head  of  three  thousand  cavalry, 
in  search  of  National  officers,  and  escaped  again 
into  Mississippi.  Forrest  died  Oct.  20, 1877. 

Forrest’s  Invasion  of  Tennessee  (  1864 ). 
For  several  weeks  Forrest,  the  guerilla  leader, 
had  been  in  northern  Alabama,  to  prevent  troops 
from  the  Mississippi  joining  Sherman.  He  cross¬ 
ed  the  Tennessee  River,  near  Waterloo  (Sept. 
25,  1864),  with  a  force  of  light  cavalry  about 
seven  thousand  strong,  and  invested  Athens. 
The  post  was  surrendered  about  half  an  hour 
before  sufficient  reinforcements  arrived  to  hold 
it.  These,  with  the  garrison,  after  a  sharp  con- 


FORSYTH 


504 


FORT  DETROIT 


flict,  became  prisoners.  Forrest  then  pushed  on 
northward  to  Pulaski,  in  Tennessee,  destroying 
the  railway;  but  General  Rousseau,  at  Pulaski, 
repulsed  Forrest  after  brisk  skirmishing  sev¬ 
eral  hours,  when  the  raider  made  eastward,  and 
struck  the  railway  between  Tullahoma  and  De- 
cherd.  He  was  confronted  and  menaced  by  Na¬ 
tional  forces  under  Rousseau,  Steedman,  and 
Morgan,  and  withdrew  before  he  had  done  much 
damage.  At  Fayetteville  he  divided  his  forces, 
giving  four  thousand  to  Buford,  his  second  in 
command.  Buford  attacked  Athens  (Oct.  2-3), 
which  General  Granger  had  regarrisoned  with 
the  Seventy- third  Indiana,  and  was  repulsed. 
Forrest  had  pushed  on  to  Columbia,  on  the 
Duck  River,  with  three  thousand  men,  but  did 
not  attack,  for  he  met  Rousseau,  with  four  thou¬ 
sand  men,  coming  down  from  Nashville.  At 
the  same  time,  General  C.  C.  Washburne  was 
moving  up  the  Tennessee  on  steamers,  with  four 
thousand  troops  (three  thousand  of  them  cav¬ 
alry),  to  assist  in  capturing  the  invaders.  Sev¬ 
eral  other  leaders  of  the  National  troops,  under 
the  command  of  Geueral  Thomas,  wrho  had  now 
arrived  at  Nashville,  joined  in  the  hunt  for  For¬ 
rest.  He  saw  his  peril,  and,  parolling  his  one 
thousand  prisoners,  he  destroyed  five  miles  of 
the  railway  south  from  the  Duck  River,  and  es¬ 
caped  over  the  Tennessee  (Oct.  6),  at  Bainbridge, 
with  very  little  loss. 

Forsyth,  John,  was  born  at  Fredericksburg, 
Va.,  Oct.  22,  1780;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
Oct.  21,  1841.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of 
New  Jersey  in  1799.  His  parents  removed  to 
Georgia  when  he  was  quite  young;  he  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  its  practice  about  the 
year  1801.  He  was  attorney-general  of  the  state 
in  1808 ;  member  of  Congress  from  1813  to  1818, 
and  from  1823  to  1827.  He  was  also  United 
States  Senator,  and  from  1827  to  1829  was  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Georgia.  Mr.  Forsyth  was  United  States 
minister  to  Spain  (1819-22),  and  negotiated  the 
treaty  that  gave  Florida  to  our  Republic.  He 
opposed  “  nullification  ”  (which  see)  in  South 
Carolina,  favored  Clay’s  Compromise  Act  of  1833 
(which  see),  and  was  United  States  Secretary 
of  State  from  1835  to  1841. 

Fort  Anne,  Events  near  (1777).  When  the 
British  took  possession  of  Ticonderoga  (July  6, 
1777 ),  Burgoyne  ordered  gunboats  to  pursue 
the  bateaux  laden  with  stores,  etc.,  from  the 
fort.  (See  Burgoyne' 8  Campaign.)  The  boom- 
bridge  barrier  across  the  lake  there  wras  soon 
broken,  and  the  pursuing  vessels  overtook  the 
fugitive  boats  near  Skenesborough,  and  destroy¬ 
ed  them  and  their  contents.  Colonel  Long,  in 
command  of  the  men  in  them,  escaped  with  his 
people  and  the  invalids,  aud  after  setting  fire 
to  everything  combustible  at  Skenesborough 
(now  Whitehall),  they  hastened  to  Fort  Anne, 
a  few  miles  iu  the  interior,  followed  by  a  Brit¬ 
ish  regiment.  When  near  the  fort,  Long  turned 
on  his  pursuers,  and  routed  them ;  but  the  lat¬ 
ter  being  reinforced,  Long  was  driven  back.  He 
burned  Fort  Anne,  aud  tied  to  Fort  Edward,  on 
the  Hudson. 

Fort  Brown,  on  the  Rio  Grande  (1846).  On 


his  arrival  on  the  Rio  Grande,  opposite  Matamo- 
ras  (March  29, 1846),  with  a  part  of  the  Army  of 
Occupation,  General  Taylor  began  building  a  fort 
that  would  accommodate  two  thousand  men.  It 
was  placed  in  command  of  Major  Jacob  Brow  n, 
and  was  afterwards  named  Fort  Browm,  in  com¬ 
pliment  to  him.  Taylor  was  ordered  by  General 
Ampiulia,  commander  of  the  Mexican  forces  at 
Matamoras,  to  withdraw  within  twenty -four 
hours,  as  he  claimed  the  territory  around  Fort 
Brown  belonged  to  the  Department  of  Tamauli- 
pas,  a  part  of  Mexico.  Taylor  refused  to  do  so ; 
and  when  he  had  gone  back  to  Point  Isabel  with 
a  part  of  his  forces,  leaving  Major  Brown  in  com¬ 
mand,  Arista  crossed  the  river  with  some  troops 
to  attack  the  fort.  His  army  was  hourly  in¬ 
creasing  in  strength.  On  the  night  of  May  4 
the  Mexicans  erected  a  battery  behind  the  fort, 
and  early  the  next  morning  opened  a  heavy  fire 
from  it  upon  the  fortification.  At  the  same  time 
batteries  at  Matamoras,  w  hich  had  fired  upon 
the  fort  on  the  3d,  hurled  shot  and  shell,  but 
with  little  etfect,  for  Brown  had  erected  bomb¬ 
proof  shelter.  Almost  at  the  beginning  of  the 
bombardment,  the  gallant  commander  wras  kill¬ 
ed.  The  bombardment  continued  thirty -six 
hours,  when  Arista  demanded  a  surrender  of 
the  fort.  It  w  as  refused,  and  towards  evening 
(April  6)  a  heavy  tempest  of  shot  and  shell  fell 
upon  the  fort.  The  fort  withstood  the  attack 
until  relieved  by  approaching  troops  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Taylor.  (See  Mexico,  War  with.) 

Fort  Cumberland  attacked.  At  the  head 
of  the  Bay  of  Fnudy  the  British  had  maintained 
Fort  Cumberland  from  the  year  1755.  In  1776 
only  a  small  garrison  w  as  there  to  take  care  of 
the  public  property.  Captain  Jonathan  Eddy, 
a  native  of  Massachusetts,  who  had  lived  many 
years  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fort,  believing  it 
might  be  easily  captured,  applied  to  the  Provin¬ 
cial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  for  men  and  sup¬ 
plies  for  that  purpose.  These  w'ere  not  furnish¬ 
ed,  and  Eddy  returned  to  Nova  Scotia,  where  he 
raised  a  few  men,  and  on  the  night  of  Nov.  20, 
1776,  attacked  the  fort.  Apprised  of  the  move¬ 
ment,  the  little  garrison,  prepared,  repulsed  the 
assailants.  A  British  reinforcement  soon  ar¬ 
rived,  and  the  assailants  fled  in  haste.  The  in¬ 
habitants,  who  had  joined  the  standard  of  Eddy, 
soon  saw  their  houses  in  flames,  and  then, fearing 
British  vengeance,  made  their  way  to  New  Eng¬ 
land  in  a  famishing  condition. 

Fort  Detroit.  The  old  French  village  rtf  De¬ 
troit  contained  one  hundred  and  sixty  houses  in 
1812,  and  about  eight  hundred  souls.  It  stretch¬ 
ed  along  the  river  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
the  water,  and  the  present  Jefferson  Avenue  was 
the  principal  street.  On  the  high  ground  in  the 
rear,  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  yards  from 
the  river,  stood  Fort  Detroit,  built  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish  after  the  conquest  of  Canada,  in  1760.  It 
was  quadrangular  in  form,  with  bastions  and 
barracks,  and  covered  about  two  acres  of  ground. 
The  embankments  were  nearly  twenty  feet  high, 
w  ith  a  deep  ditch,  and  were  surrounded  with  a 
double  row  of  pickets.  The  fort  did  not  com¬ 
mand  the  river.  The  town,  also,  was  surround- 


FORT  DETROIT,  GARRISON  OF  505  FORT  DONELSON,  CAPTURE  OF 


ed  by  pickets  fourteen  feet  in  height,  with  loop¬ 
holes  to  shoot  through. 

Fort  Detroit,  Garrison  of,  saved  from 
Starvation  (1763).  While  Detroit  was  closely 
besieged  by  Pontiac,  a  schooner  was  despatched 
from  the  Niagara  River  with  provisions  for  the 
relief  of  the  garrison.  She  was  manned  by 
twelve  white  men  and  sis  Mohawk  Indians, 
and  arrived  in  the  Detroit  River  Sept.  3d.  While 
at  anchor,  the  vessel  was  attacked  by  about  three 
hundred  and  fifty  Indians  in  canoes,  but  they 
were  dispersed  by  the  crew.  The  master  of  the 
vessel  and  one  of  his  crew  were  killed,  and  four 
were  wounded.  The  vessel  arrived  in  safety  at 
Detroit,  and  with  its  contents  the  garrison  was 
saved  from  starvation. 

Fort  Donelson,  Capture  of.  After  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  Fort  Henry  (which  see)  there  was  no  hin- 
derance  to  the  river  navy  going  up  the  Tennessee 
to  the  fertile  cotton  regions  of  the  heart  of  the 
Confederacy.  Foote  sent  Lieutenant-command¬ 
er  S.  L.  Phelps,  with  three  vessels,  to  reconnoi¬ 
tre  the  borders  of  that  river.  They  penetrated 
to  Florence,  Alabama,  seizing  Confederate  ves¬ 
sels  and  destroying  Confederate  property,  and 
discovered  the  weakness  of  the  league  in  all 
that  region,  for  Unionism  was  everywhere  prev¬ 
alent,  but  suppressed  by  the  mailed  hand  of  the 
Confederate  leaders.  Phelps’s  report  caused  an 
immediate  expedition  against  Fort  Donelson, 
situated  on  the  high  left  bank  of  the  Cumber¬ 
land  River,  at  Dover,  the  capital  of  Stewart 
County,  Tenn.  It  was  formed  chiefly  of  outly¬ 
ing  intrenchments,  covering  about  one  hundred 
acres,  upon  hills  furrowed  by  ravines.  At  Fort 
Henry  General  Grant  reorganized  his  army  in 
three  divisions,  under  Generals  McClernand, 
Smith,  and  Lew.  Wallace.  (See  Belmont.)  Com¬ 
modore  Foote  returned  to  Cairo  to  take  his  mor¬ 
tar-boats  up  the  Cumberland  River  to  assist  in 
the  attack.  On  the  morning  of  Feb.  12,  1862, 
the  divisions  of  McClernand  and  Smith  marched 
for  Fort  Donelson,  leaving  Wallace  with  a  bri¬ 
gade  to  hold  the  vanquished  forts  on  the  Ten¬ 
nessee.  On  the  same  evening  Fort  Donelson 
was  invested.  Grant  resolved  to  wait  for  the 
arrival  of  the  flotilla  bearing  troops  that  would 
complete  Wallace’s  division  before  making  the 
attack.  General  Pillow  was  in  command  of  the 
fort ;  but,  on  the  morning  of  the  13th,  General 
Floyd  arrived  from  Virginia  with  some  troops 
and  superseded  him.  They  were  assisted  by 
General  S.  B.  Buckner  (see  Kentucky  State  Guard), 
a  better  soldier  than  either.  All  day  (Feb.  13) 
there  was  skirmishing,  and  at  night  the  weath¬ 
er  became  extremely  cold,  while  a  violent  rain¬ 
storm  was  falling.  The  National  troops,  biv¬ 
ouacking  without  tents,  suffered  intensely.  They 
dared  not  light  camp-fires,  for  they  would  ex¬ 
pose  them  to  the  guns  of  their  foes.  They  were 
without  sufficient  food  and  clothing.  Perceiv¬ 
ing  the  perils  of  his  situation,  Grant  had  sent 
for  Wallace  to  bring  over  his  troops.  He  ar¬ 
rived  about  noon  on  the  14th.  The  transports 
had  arrived,  and  Wallace’s  division  was  com¬ 
pleted  and  posted  between  those  of  McClernand 
and  Smith,  by  which  the  thorough  investment 


of  the  fort  was  completed.  At  three  o’clock 
that  afternoon  the  bombardment  of  the  fort 
was  begun  by  the  Carondelet,  Captain  Walke, 
and  she  was  soon  joined  by  three  other  armored 
gunboats  in  the  front  line.  A  second  line  was 
formed  of  unarmored  boats.  The  former  were 
exposed  to  a  tremendous  pounding  by  missiles 
from  the  shore-batteries ;  and  they  were  com¬ 
pelled  to  retire,  after  receiving  one  hundred  and 
forty  wounds  aud  having  fifty-four  men  killed 
and  wounded.  Foote  returned  to  Cairo  to 
repair  damages  aud  to  bring  up  a  sufficient 
naval  force  to  assist  in  carrying  on  the  siege. 
Grant  resolved  to  wait  for  the  return  of  Foote 
and  the  arrival  of  reinforcements.  But  he  was 
not  allowed  to  wait.  On  the  night  of  the  14th 
the  Confederate  leaders  held  a  couucil  of  war, 
and  it  was  concluded  to  make  a  sortie  early  the 
next  morning,  to  rout  or  destroy  the  invading 
forces,  or  to  cut  through  them  and  escape  to  the 
open  country  in  the  direction  of  Nashville.  This 
was  attempted  at  five  o’clock  (Feb.  15).  The 
troops  engaged  in  it  were  about  ten  thousand 
in  number,  commanded  by  Generals  Pillow  and 
Bnslirod  R.  Johnson.  They  advanced  from  Do¬ 
ver — Mississippians,  Teunesseeaus,  and  Virgin¬ 
ians —  accompanied  by  Forrest’s  cavalry.  The 
main  body  Avas  directed  to  attack  McClernand’s 
division,  who  occupied  the  heights  that  reached 
to  the  river.  Buckner  was  directed  to  strike 
Wallace’s  division,  in  the  centre,  at  the  same 
time,  so  that  it  might  not  be  in  a  condition  to 
help  McClernand.  These  movements  were  not 
suspected  by  the  Nationals,  and  so  quick  and 
vigorous  was  Pillow’s  attack  that  Grant’s  right 
wing  was  seriously  menaced  within  twenty  min¬ 
utes  after  the  sortie  of  the  Confederates  was 
known.  The  attack  was  quick,  furious,  and 
heavy.  Oglesby’s  brigade  received  the  first 
shock,  but  stood  firm  until  their  ammunition 
began  to  fail,  when  they  gave  way  under  the 
tremendous  pressure,  excepting  the  extreme  left, 
held  by  Colonel  J.  A.  Logan,  with  his  Illinois 
regiment.  Imitating  their  commander,  they 
stood  as  firmly  as  a  wall,  and  prevented  a  panic 
and  a  rout.  The  light  batteries  of  Taylor, 
McAllister,  and  Dresser,  shifting  positions  and 
sending  volleys  of  grape  and  canister,  made  the 
Confederate  line  recoil  again  and  again.  At 
eight  o’clock  McClernand’s  division  was  so  hard 
pressed  that  he  sent  to  Wallace  for  help.  Wal¬ 
lace,  being  assigned  to  a  special  duty,  could  not 
comply  without  orders,  for  which  he  sent. 
Grant  was  away,  in  consultation  Avith  Com¬ 
modore  Foote,  who  had  arrived.  Again  McCler¬ 
nand  sent  for  help,  saying  his  flank  Avas  turned. 
Wallace  took  the  responsibility.  Then  Buckner 
appeared.  The  battle  raged  fiercely.  McCler¬ 
nand’s  line  was  falling  back,  in  good  order,  and 
calling  for  ammunition.  Wallace  took  the  re¬ 
sponsibility  of  ordering  some  up.  Then  he 
thrust  his  brigade  (Colonel  Thayer  command¬ 
ing)  between  the  retiring  troops  and  the  advanc¬ 
ing  Confederates,  flushed  with  hope,  aud  formed 
a  new  line  of  battle  across  the  road.  Back  of 
this  Avas  a  reserve.  In  this  position  they  await¬ 
ed  an  attack,  while  McCleruand’s  troops  sup¬ 
plied  themselves  with  ammunition  from  wagons 


FORT  DUMMER 


506 


FORT  FISHER.  CAPTURE  OF 


which  Wallace  had  ordered  up.  Just  then  the 
combined  forces  of  Pillow  and  Buckner  fell  upon 
them  and  were  repulsed  by  a  battery  and  the 
First  Nebraska.  The  Confederates,  after  a  se¬ 
vere  struggle,  retired  to  their  works  in  confu¬ 
sion.  This  was  the  last  sally  from  the  fort. 
“  God  bless  you !  ”  wrote  Grant’s  aid  the  next 
day  to  Wallace,  “  you  did  save  the  day  on  the 
right.”  It  was  now' noon.  Grant  was  in  the 
field,  and,  after  consultation  with  McCleruand 
and  Wallace,  he  ordered  the  former  to  retake 
the  hill  he  had  lost.  This  was  soon  bravely 
done,  and  the  troops  bivouacked  on  the  field  of 
victory  that  cold  winter  night.  Meanwhile, Gen¬ 
eral  Smith  had  been  smiting  the  Confederates  so 
vigorously  on  their  right  that,  when  night  came 
on,  they  were  imprisoned  within  their  trenches, 
unable  to  escape.  Finding  themselves  closely 
held  by  Grant,  the  question,  How  shall  we  es¬ 
cape?  was  a  paramount  one  in  the  minds  of  Floyd 
and  Pillow.  They  were  both  terror-stricken  by 
the  impending  danger  of  falling  into  the  hands 
of  their  outraged  government.  At  midnight  the 
three  Confederate  commanders  held  a  private 
council,  when  it  was  concluded  that  the  garri¬ 
son  must  surrender.  “  I  cannot  surrender,”  said 
Floyd;  “you  know  my  position  with  the  Fed- 


chusetts  was  advised,  with  justice,  to  make 
peace  by  restoring  to  the  Indians  their  lands. 
The  attacks  of  the  barbarians  extended  all 
along  the  northern  frontier  as  far  west  as  the 
Connecticut  River.  To  cover  the  towns  in  that 
valley,  Fort  Dummer  was  erected  on  the  site  of 
what  is  now  Brattleborough,  in  Vermont,  the 
oldest  English  settlement  in  that  state.  (See 
Novridyewock ,  Expedition  to.) 

Fort  Fisher,  Capture  of.  It  was  late  in 
1864  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  close  the 
port  of  Wilmington  against  English  blockade- 
runners  by  capturing  Fort  Fisher  and  its  de¬ 
pendencies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cape  Fear  River. 
The  expedition  sent  against  that  fort  consisted 
of  a  powerful  fleet  of  war-vessels  under  Admi¬ 
ral  D.  D.  Porter  and  a  land  force  under  the  im¬ 
mediate  command  of  General  Godfrey  Weitzel, 
of  t  he  Army  of  the  James,  accompanied  by  Gen¬ 
eral  B.  F.  Butler  as  commander  of  that  army. 
The  whole  force  (the  troops  on  transports) 
was  gathered  in  Hampton  Roads  early  in  De¬ 
cember.  The  troops  consisted  of  General  Ames’s 
division  of  the  Twenty-fourth  Corps  and  General 
Paine’s  division  of  the  Twenty-fifth  (colored) 
Corps.  The  war- vessels  were  wooden  ships, 
iron-clads,  monitors,  gunboats,  and  a  powder- 


the  powder-ship.  (See  foot-note  on  page  507.) 


erals ;  it  won’t  do,  it  won’t  do.”  Pillow  said, 
“  I  will  not  surrender  myself  uor  my  command ; 
I  will  die  first.”  “  Then,”  said  Buckner,  coolly, 
the  surrender  will  devolve  on  me.”  Then  Floyd 
said  :  “  General,  if  you  are  put  in  command,  will 
you  allow  me  to  take  out,  by  the  river,  my  bri¬ 
gade  ?  ”  “  If  you  will  move  before  I  surrender,” 
Buckner  replied.  Floyd  offered  to  surrender 
the  command,  first,  to  Pillow,  who  replied,  “  I 
will  not  accept  it — I  will  never  surrender.” 
Buckner  said,  like  a  true  soldier,  “  I  will  ac¬ 
cept  it,  and  share  the  fate  of  my  command.” 
Within  an  hour  after  the  conference  Floyd  fled 
up  the  river  with  a  part  of  his  command,  and 
Pillow  sneaked  away  iu  the  darkuess  and  final¬ 
ly  reached  his  home  in  Tennessee.  The  Confed¬ 
erates  never  gave  him  employment  again.  The 
next  morning  the  fort  and  13,500  men  were  sur¬ 
rendered,  and  the  spoils  of  victory  were  3000 
horses,  48  field-pieces,  17  heavy  guns,  20,000 
muskets,  and  a  large  quantity  of  military  stores. 
During  the  siege  the  Confederates  lost  237  killed 
and  1000  wounded ;  the  National  loss  was  esti¬ 
mated  at  446  killed,  1755  wounded,  and  152  made 
prisoners. 

Fort  Dummer.  In  the  war  against  the  Nor- 
ridgewock  Indians  (1723)  repeated  attempts 
were  made  to  engage  the  assistance  of  the  Mo¬ 
hawks,  but  they  were  unsuccessful,  aud  Massa- 


ship,  destined  to  be  blown  up  abreast  of  the  fort 
with  a  hope  of  destructive  effect.  Fort  Fisher 
was  an  extensive  earthwork  on  a  point  of  sandy 
land  between  the  Cape  Fear  River  at  its  mouth 
and  the  ocean,  aud  was  commanded  by  General 
W.  H.  C.  Whiting.  The  land-face  of  the  fort  oc¬ 
cupied  the  whole  width  of  the  cape  known  as 
Federal  Point,  and  was  armed  with  twenty 
heavy  guns.  All  along  the  land-front  was  a 
stockade,  and  on  the  sea-front  were  the  wrecks 
of  several  blockade-ruuners.  At  noon  on  the 
14th  the  transports,  with  the  troops,  went  to 
sea ;  the  naval  vessels  had  departed  thirty-six 
hours  before.  The  appointed  rendezvous  of  the 
expedition  was  twenty-five  miles  off  the  coast, 
at  Fort  Fisher,  so  as  not  to  be  discovered  by  the 
Confederates  until  ready  for  action.  There  was 
a  delay  in  the  arrival  of  the  war-vessels,  aud 
the  transports,  coaled  and  watered  for  only  ten 
days,  were  compelled  to  run  up  to  Beaufort  har¬ 
bor  (N.  C.)  for  both,  the  war-fleet  remaining  off 
Fort  Fisher.  A  capital  part  of  the  movement 
was  the  explosion  on  board  of  a  vessel  anchored 
near  the  fort,  in  the  night,  of  two  hundred  and 
fifteen  tons  of  gunpowder,  with  the  hope  that  it 
would  dismount  the  guns  or  otherwise  disable 
the  fort  and  garrison,  so  as  to  allow  the  troops 
to  land  and  make  an  easy  conquest.  During  the 
absence  of  the  troops  up  the  coast  the  powder- 


FORT  FISHER,  CAPTURE  OF  507  FORT  GEORGE,  CAPTURE  OF 


ship  performed  her  functions,  hut  with  no  serious 
effect,*  and  the  war-vessels  bombarded  the  fort, 
doing  very  little  damage.  The  transports  re¬ 
turned  on  Christmas  evening,  the  next  morn¬ 
ing  the  war- vessels  opened  a  bombardment, 
and  at  3  o’clock  P.M.  the  troops  began  their 
debarkation  two  miles  above  the  fort.  Only 
a  part  of  the  troops  had  been  landed  when 
the  surf  ran  too  high  to  permit  more  to  go 
ashore.  These  marched  down  to  attack  the  fort. 
Not  a  gun  had  been  dismounted,  and,  as  they 
were  ready  to  rake  the  narrow  peninsula  on 
which  the  troops  stood  the  moment  the  fleet 
should  withhold  its  fire,  prudence  seemed  to  re¬ 
quire  the  troops  to  withdraw.  They  did  so,  and 
Avere  ordered  to  the  James  River  to  assist  in  the 
siege  of  Petersburg  (which  see),  and  the  expedi¬ 
tion  of  the  land  force  against  Fort  Fisher  was 
temporarily  abandoned.  It  was  resumed  ten 
days  afterwards.  The  Avar-vessels  had  remained 
off  Fort  Fisher.  Tbe  same  troops,  led  by  Weit- 
zel,  Avere  placed  under  the  command  of  General 
A.  H.  Terry,  with  the  addition  of  a  thin  brigade 
of  1400.  Lieutenant-colonel  Comstock,  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Grant’s  staff,  who  accompanied  the  first  ex¬ 
pedition,  was  made  the  chief-engineer  of  this. 
The  expedition  left  Hampton  Roads  Jan.  6, 1865, 
and  rendezvoused  off  Beaufort  (N.  C.),  where 
Porter  was  taking  in  supplies  of  coal  and  am¬ 
munition.  They  were  all  detained  by  rough 
weather,  and  did  not  appear  oft’ Fort  Fisher  until 
the  evening  of  the  12th.  The  navy,  taught  by 
experience,  took  a  position  Avhere  it  could  bet¬ 
ter  affect  the  laud-front  of  the  fort  than  before. 
Under  coArer  of  the  fire  of  the  fleet,  8000  troops 
were  lauded  (Jan.  13).  Terry  Avisely  provided 
against  an  attack  iu  the  rear  by  casting  up  in- 
trenchmeuts  across  the  peninsula  and  securing 
the  free  use  of  Masouborough  Inlet,  where,  if 
necessary,  troops  and  supplies  might  be  landed 
in  still  water.  On  the  evening  of  the  14th  the 
light  guns  Avere  landed,  and  before  morning 
were  iu  battery.  Wisely  planned  by  Terry,  a 


*  The  powder-ship  was  the  Louisiana,  a  propeller  of  295 
tons,  having  an  iron  hull.  She  was  disguised  as  a  blockade- 
runner.  To  have  the  powder  above  the  water  line,  a  light 
deck  was  built  for  the  purpose.  On  this  was  first  placed  a 
row  of  barrels  of  powder,  standing  on  end,  the  upper  one 
open.  The  remainder  of  the  powder  was  in  canvas  bags, 
holding  about  sixty  pounds  each,  the  whole  being  stored  as 
represented  in  the  above  sketch,  in  which  the  form  of  the 
vessel  is  also  delineated.  The  whole  weight  of  the  powder 
was  215  tons,  or  4:10,000  pounds.  To  communicate  fire  to  the 
whole  mass  simultaneously,  four  separate  threads  of  the 
Gomez  fuse  were  woven  through  it,  passing  through  each  sep¬ 
arate  barrel  and  bag.  At  the  stern  and  under  the  cabin  was 
a  heap  of  pine  wood  (H)  and  other  combustibles,  which  were 
to  be  fired  by  the  crew  when  they  should  leave  the  vessel. 
Three  devices  were  used  for  communicating  fire  to  the  fuses, 
namely,  clock-work,  by  which  a  percussion-cap  was  exploded; 
short  spermaceti  candles,  which  burned  down  and  ignited  the 
fuses  at  the  same  time;  and  a  slow  match  that  worked  in  time 
with  the  candles  and  the  clock-work.  The  powder-vessel 
followed  a  blockade-runner  and  was  anchored  within  throe 
hundred  yards  of  the  fort,  according  to  the  report  of  Com¬ 
mander  Rhind.  When  the  combustibles  were  fired  and  the  ap¬ 
paratus  for  igniting  the  fuses  were  put  in  motion,  the  crew 
escaped  in  a  swift  little  steamer  employed  for  the  purpose. 
The  explosion  took  place  in  one  hour  and  fifty-two  minutes 
alter  the  crew  left.  Notwithstanding  the  concussion  of  the 
explosion  broke  window  glasses  in  a  vessel  twelve  miles  dis¬ 
tant,  and  the  whole  lleet,  at  that  distance,  felt  it,  and  it  was 
also  felt  on  land  at  Beaufort  and  New  Berne,  from  sixty  to 
eighty  miles  distant,  there  was  no  perceptible  effect  upon  the 
fort  and  garrison.  The  edges  of  the  parapets  were  as  sharply 
defined  as  ever,  and  even  the  grass  was  not  disturbed. 


grand  assault  Avas  made  on  tbe  morning  of  tbe 
15th.  Tbe  batteries  of  tbe  Avar-ships  opened 
tbe  battle  on  tbe  14th.  They  kept  up  a  bom¬ 
bardment  all  day,  severely  damaging  the  gnus 
of  the  fort  and  silencing  most  of  them.  Tbe 
iron-clads  fired  slowly  throughout  tbe  night, 
Avorrying  and  fatiguing  tbe  garrison,  and  at 
eight  o’clock  in  tbe  morning  (Jan.  15)  tbe  entire 
naAral  force  moved  up  to  the  attack.  Meanwhile, 
1400  marines  and  600  sailors,  armed  with  revolv¬ 
ers,  cutlasses,  and  carbines,  were  sent  from  tbe 
ships  to  aid  the  troops  in  tbe  assault.  Ames’s 
division  led  in  the  assault,  which  began  at  half 
past  three  o’clock  P.M.  The  advance  carried 
shovels  and  dug  rifle-pits  for  shelter.  A  heavy 
storm  of  musketry  and  cannons  opened  upon 
the  assailants.  The  fleet  had  effectually  de¬ 
stroyed  the  palisades  on  the  land-front.  Sailors 
and  marines  assailed  the  northeast  bastion,  and 
with  this  assault  began  the  fierce  struggle.  The 
garrison  used  the  hnge  traverses  that  had  shield¬ 
ed  their  cannons  as  breastworks,  and  over  these 
the  combatants  fired  in  each  others’  faces.  The 
struggle  avus  desperate  and  continued  until  nine 
o’clock,  when  the  Nationals,  fighting  their  way 
into  the  fort,  had  full  possession  of  it.  All  the 
other  works  near  it  were  rendered  untenable ; 
and  during  the  night  (Jan.  16-17)  the  Confed¬ 
erates  blew  up  Fort  Caswell,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Cape  Fear  River.  They  abandoned  the 
other  works  and  fled  towards  Wilmington.  The 
Natioual  loss  in  this  last  attack  was  681  men, 
of  whom  88  were  killed.  On  the  morning  suc¬ 
ceeding  the  victory,  when  the  Nationals  were 
pouring  into  the  fort,  its  principal  magazine  ex¬ 
ploded,  killing  200  men  and  wounding  100.  The 
fleet  lost  about  300  men  during  the  action  and 
by  the  explosion.  The  loss  of  the  Confederates 
Avas  reported  by  General  Terry  as  over  2000  pris¬ 
oners,  169  pieces  of  artillery,  over  2000  small- 
arms,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  ammuni¬ 
tion  and  commissary  stores.  The  port  of  Wil¬ 
mington  was  closed  to  blockade-runners. 

Fort  George,  Capture  of  (1813).  The  vic¬ 
tors  left  York  (see  York ,  Capture  of)  early  iu  May, 
1813,  and  proceeded  to  attack  Fort  George,  near 
the  mouth  of  tbe  Niagara  River.  Stormy  weath¬ 
er  had  detained  them  at  York  for  a  week.  Losses 
and  sickness  had  reduced  the  number  of  the 
troops  to  one  thousand.  These  were  again  con¬ 
veyed  by  the  fleet  of  Cliauncey,  who,  with  Dear¬ 
born  and  other  naval  commanders,  went  before 
iu  the  pilot-schooner  Lady  of  the  Lake  and  select¬ 
ed  a  landing-place  four  miles  east  of  Fort  Niag¬ 
ara.  The  British  force  at  Fort  George  and  vi¬ 
cinity,  under  General  Vincent,  then  numbered 
about  one  thousand  eight  hundred.  Besides 
that  fort  they  had  several  works  along  the  Ni¬ 
agara  River.  The  American  troops  Avere  de¬ 
barked  May  8,  and  Chauncey  sailed  for  Sacketfls 
Harbor  for  supplies  and  reinforcements  for  the 
army.  He  returned  to  Dearborn’s  camp,  in  the 
Madison,  on  the  22d  of  May,  and  the  same  even¬ 
ing  Commodore  Perry  arrived  there.  Arrange¬ 
ments  Avere  immediately  made  for  an  attack  on 
Fort  George.  The  commodore  and  Perry  recon¬ 
noitred  the  enemy’s  batteries  in  the  Lady  of 
the  Lake.  Dearborn  was  ill,  but  on  the  morning 


FORT  GEORGE,  L.  I.,  SURPRISE  OF  508  FORT  HARRISON,  ATTACK  UPON 


of  the  27th  the  troops  were  conveyed  by  the 
squadron  to  a  x>oiut  a  little  westward  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Niagara,  and  landed  under  cover 
of  the  guns  of  the  fleet.  The  advance  was  led 
by  Colonel  Winfield  Scott,  accompanied  by  Com¬ 
modore  Perry,  who  had  charge  of  the  boats.  He 
and  Scott  both  leaped  into  the  water  at  the 
head  of  the  first  division  of  the  men,  and,  in  the 
face  of  a  galling  fire  and  gleaming  bayonets, 
'they  ascended  the  bank.  The  other  troops  fol¬ 
lowed,  and,  after  a  severe  conflict  on  the  plain, 
the  British  fell  back  discomfited.  General  Vin¬ 
cent,  satisfied  that  he  must  retreat,  and  know¬ 
ing  Fort  George  to  be  untenable,  ordered  the 
garrison  to  spike  the  guns,  destroy  the  ammuni¬ 
tion,  and  abandon  it.  This  was  done,  and  the 
whole  British  force  retreated  westward  to  a 
strong  position  among  the  hills,  at  a  place  called 
“  The  Beaver  Dams,”  about  eighteen  miles  from 
the  Niagara  River.  There  Vincent  had  a  de¬ 
posit  of  stores  and  provisions.  The  garrisons  of 
Forts  Erie  and  Chippewa  becoming  alarmed, 
abandoned  them,  and  the  whole  Niagara  frontier 
of  Canada  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ameri¬ 
cans. 

Fort  George,  L.  I.,  Surprise  of.  In  the 
autumn  of  1780  some  Rhode  Island  Tory  ref¬ 
ugees  took  possession  of  the  manor-house  of 
General  John  Smith,  at  Smith’s  Point,  L.  I.,  for¬ 
tified  it  and  the  grounds  around  it,  and  named 
the  works  Fort  George,  which  they  designed  as 
a  depository  of  stores  for  the  British  in  New 
York.  They  began  cutting  wood  for  the  British 
army  in  the  city.  At  the  solicitation  of  General 
Smith,  and  the  approval  of  Washington,  Major 
Benjamin  Tallmadge  crossed  the  Sound  from 
Fairfield,  with  eighty  dismounted  dragoons,  and 
landed,  on  the  evening  of  Nov.  21,  at  Woodville. 
There  he  remained  until  the  next  night  on  ac¬ 
count  of  a  storm.  At  the  mills,  two  miles  from 
Fort  George,  he  found  a' faithful  guide,  and  at 
dawn  he  and  his  followers  burst  through  the 
stockade,  rushed  across  the  parade,  shouting 
“  Washington  and  glory !”  and  so  furiously  as¬ 
sailed  the  redoubt  on  three  sides  that  the  garri¬ 
son  surrendered  without  resistance.  Tallmadge 
demolished  the  fort,  burned  vessels  lying  at  the 
wharf,  and  with  three  hundred  prisoners  start¬ 
ed  for  Fairfield.  At  Corum  he  destroyed  three 
hundred  tons  of  hay,  collected  for  the  British  in 
New  York,  and  reached  Fairfield  with  his  pris¬ 
oners  without  losing  a  man.  For  this  exploit 
Tallmadge  received  the  thanks  of  Congress. 

Fort  Granby,  on  the  confines  of  Pennsylvania, 
was  surprised  by  French  and  Indians  in  August, 
1756,  who  made  the  garrison  prisoners,  loaded 
them  with  flour,  and  drove  them  into  captivity. 

Fort  Griswold,  Massacre  at.  (See  Arnold 
at  Neiv  London.) 

Fort  Harrison  and  Spring  Hill  (1864).  Gen¬ 
erals  Ord  and  Birney,  with  a  considerable  force 
of  National  troops,  crossed  the  James  River  on 
muffled  pontoon  bridges  on  the  night  of  Sept.  28, 
to  attack  the  Confederate  works  below  Chapin’s 
Bluff,  the  heaviest  of  which  was  Battery  Harri¬ 
son,  on  a  hill  overlooking  a  great  extent  of 
country.  It  was  the  strongest  of  the  defences 


of  Richmond.  Ord  stormed  and  carried  it  be¬ 
fore  reinforcements  could  reach  its  thinned  gar¬ 
rison.  With  the  fort  were  captured  a  long  line 
of  intrenchments,  with  twenty -two  pieces  of 
heavy  ordnance  and  about  three  hundred  men. 
In  the  assault,  General  Burnham  was  killed  and 
Ord  severely  wounded.  The  Nationals  lost  about 
seven  hundred  men  killed  and  wounded.  The 
strong  work  was  named  Fort  Burnham,  iu  honor 
of  the  slain  general.  Then  Fort  Gilmer,  a  little 
farther  on,  was  assailed  by  the  Nationals,  with 
a  loss  of  three  hundred  men.  Meanwhile  Bir¬ 
ney,  with  three  thousand  colored  troops  in  ad¬ 
vance,  attacked  the  Confederate  works  at  Spring 
Hill,  on  New  Market  Heights.  These  were  com¬ 
manded  by  General  Charles  Paine.  The  Spring 
Hill  redoubt  was  very  strong.  On  its  front  was 
a  marsh,  traversed  by  a  brook  fringed  with  trees, 
and  it  was  further  defended  by  an  abatis.  The 
eager  troops  swept  across  the  marsh,  scaled  the 
heights  (Sept.  29, 1864),  carried  the  works  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet,  and  secured  the  key-point 
to  the  Confederate  defences  in  that  quarter. 
The  struggle  was  desperate,  and  the  victory 
was  won  by  the  black  warriors  at  a  fearful  cost 
of  life  and  vigor.  Before  the  storming  party 
reached  the  works,  two  hundred  of  them  fell 
dead,  and  not  less  than  one  thousand  were  killed, 
wounded,  or  captured.  For  their  gallantry  on 
that  occasion,  General  Butler,  at  the  close  of 
the  war,  presented  a  silver  medal  to  the  most 
meritorious  actors.  The  Confederates  attempt¬ 
ed  to  retake  Fort  Harrison  (Oct.  1,  1864).  The 
troops  were  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
General  Lee.  They  were  driven  back,  with  a 
loss  of  seven  battle-flags  and  almost  the  anni¬ 
hilation  of  Clingman’s  North  Carolina  Brigade. 
Meanwhile  General  Kautz  had  pushed  up  and 
entered  the  Confederate  outer  liue,  within  three 
or  four  miles  of  Richmond,  when  he  was  attacked 
and  driven  back,  with  a  loss  of  nine  guns  and 
four  hundred  of  his  men  made  captives.  The 
Confederates  were  in  turn  assailed  by  the  Tenth 
National  Corps,  and,  after  a  severe  battle,  were 
driven  back,  with  a  loss  of  seven  hundred  men 
and  three  brigade  commanders. 

Fort  Harrison,  Attack  upon  (1812).  At  the 
very  hour  when  the  Pigeon  Roost  massacre  took 
place  (see  Fort  Wayne),  two  young  haymakers 
were  killed  and  scalped  near  Fort  Harrison,  on 
the  Wabash,  two  miles  above  Terre  Haute.  The 
Prophet  (see  Tecumtha  and  the  Prophet)  at  Tippe¬ 
canoe  was  still  busy  stirring  up  the  Indians 
against  the  white  people.  The  garrison  of  Fort 
Harrison  was  commanded  by  Captain  Zachary 
Taylor  (afterwards  President  of  the  United 
States),  who  wTas  just  recovering  from  a  severe 
attack  of  bilious  fever.  He  had  been  warned 
by  friendly  Indians  to  be  on  his  guard.  His 
garrison  was  weak,  for  of  the  fifty  men  who 
composed  it,  not  more  than  a  dozen  were  exempt 
from  the  prevailing  fever.  Only  two  nou-com- 
missioued  officers  and  six  privates  could  mount 
guard  at  the  same  time.  In  the  presence  of  im¬ 
pending  danger  some  of  the  convalescents  went 
upon  duty  freely.  At  midnight  (Sept.  4,  1812) 
the  barbarians  stealthily  approached  the  fort 
and  set  fire  to  one  of  the  block-houses,  which 


FORT  HENRY,  CAPTURE  OF  509  FORT  JOHNSON,  SEIZURE  OF 


contained  tlie  stores  of  the  garrison.  At  the 
same  time  they  furiously  attacked  the  fort  with 
muskets.  So  feeble  in  body  were  the  garrison 
that  it  was  difficult  to  keep  the  flames  of  the 
block-house  under,  and  tlie  horrid  yells  of  the 
Indians  made  them  feel  that  all  was  lost,  and 
that  they  must  give  up  in  despair.  Two  of  the 
stoutest  soldiers  deserted  the  post  and  tried  to 
escape.  One  was  cut  in  pieces  and  the  other  re¬ 
turned.  Nothing  but  the  prudence,  valor,  and 
presence  of  mind  of  the  commander  saved  the 
post.  The  fire  was  subdued  by  great  exertions. 
At  six  o’clock  in  the  morning  (Sept.  5)  the  garri¬ 


son  returned  the  fire  of  the  assailants  so  briskly 
that  the  latter  retired  out  of  reach  of  the  guns, 
after  a  contest  of  almost  eight  hours.  They  de¬ 
stroyed  or  drove  off  the  live-stock  found  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  for  a  while  after  the  Indians 
abandoned  the  siege  the  garrison  subsisted  on 
green  corn  from  the  fields  around,  which  the  bar¬ 
barians  had  spared.  Soon  afterwards  General 
Hopkins,  with  Kentucky  volunteers,  gave  ample 
relief  to  the  sick  and  weary  soldiers  at  Fort 
Harrison.  Their  entire  loss  in  the  siege  was 
only  three  men  killed  and  three  wounded. 

Fort  Henry,  Capture  of.  At  a  bend  of  the 
Tennessee  River,  where  it  approaches  the  Cum¬ 
berland  River  within  about  twelve  miles,  the 
Confederates  built  Fort  Henry,  on  the  right 
bank,  and  on  a  high  hill  opposite  Fort  Hieman. 
At  the  beginning  of  February,  1862,  a  land  force 
under  General  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  and  a  flotilla 
of  gunboats  under  Commodore  A.  H.  Foote,  were 
sent  to  capture  these  two  forts.  They  appeared 
about  two  miles  below  Fort  Henry  on  Feb.  3. 
That  fort  was  armed  with  seventeen  great  guns, 
twelve  of  which  swept  the  river,  and  the  gar¬ 
rison  and  troops  encamped  outside  of  the  fort 
numbered  less  than  three  thousand.  These 
were  commanded  by  General  Tilghman,  of  Ma¬ 
ryland,  a  graduate  of  West  Point  Academy. 
Foote  placed  four  of  his  iron-clad  gunboats  in 
position  to  bombard  the  fort,  while  two  of  his  uu- 


armored  vessels  fished  up  torpedoes  with  which 
the  Confederates  had  strewn  the  river  bottom. 
Some  of  the  troops  went  up  the  left  side  of  the 
river  to  silence  the  guns  of  Fort  Hieman,  when 
the  garrison  fled.  Meanwhile  Foote  opened 
(Feb.  6)  a  heavy  fire  on  Fort  Henry.  It  was  so 
severe  that  in  an  hour  the  garrison  were  pauic- 
strickeu.  The  troops  outside  of  the  fort  had 
fled  to  Fort  Donelson,  twelve  miles  distant,  on 
the  Cumberland  River ;  and  only  the  commander 
and  less  than  one  hundred  men  remained  in  the 
fort  to  surrender  to  Foote.  Grant  and  the  land 
troops  did  not  arrive  until  after  the  surrender, 
when  the  fort  was  turned  over 
to  him.  The  Nationals  lost  two 
killed  and  thirty-eight  wounded. 
Of  the  latter,  twenty-nine  were 
wounded  and  scalded  on  the 
gunboat  Essex  by  steam  let  out 
of  the  boilers  by  the  piercing  of 
a  thirty-two-pound  shell.  As  it 
passed  it  took  off  a  portion  of  the 
head  of  Lieutenant  S.  B.  Britton, 
the  aid  of  Captain  Porter,  of  the 
Essex,  only  seventeen  years  of 
age.  This  victory  was  a  very 
important  one.  The  Nationals 
were  now  fairly  planted  in  the 
rear  of  the  Confederates  at  Co¬ 
lumbus  (which  see);  and  if  they 
should  capture  Fort  Donelson, 
on  the  Cumberland,  the  Confed¬ 
erates  believed  their  cause  would 
be  ruined  in  Keutucky,  Ten¬ 
nessee,  and  Missouri.  The  first 
great  step  towards  the  capture 
of  Fort  Donelson  had  been  taken. 
Halleck  telegraphed  to  McClel- 
Fort  Henry  is  ours  !  The  flag  of  the 
Union  is  re-established  on  the  soil  of  Tennessee. 
It  will  never  be  removed.”  The  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  wrote  to  Foote  :  “  The  country  appre¬ 
ciates  your  gallant  deeds,  and  this  department 
desires  to  convey  to  you  and  your  brave  associ¬ 
ates  its  profound  thanks  for  the  service  you 
have  rendered.” 

Fort  Johnson,  Seizure  of.  After  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  intrigues  by  Governor  Campbell,  of 
South  Carolina,  the  Council  of  Safety  of  that 
province  ordered  Colonel  William  Moultrie  to 
take  possession  of  Fort  Johnson,  on  James  Isl¬ 
and,  near  Charleston.  Aware  of  this  contem¬ 
plated  movement,  Lord  Campbell  sent  a  party 
to  the  fort  to  throw  the  guns  and  carriages 
from  the  platform  ;  and  on  Sept.  15,  1775,  hav¬ 
ing  suddenly  dissolved  the  last  royal  Assembly 
in  South  Carolina,  he  fled  for  safety  on  board 
the  British  ship  Tamar.  Meanwhile  the  fort 
had  been  taken  possession  of  by  three  compa¬ 
nies,  commanded  respectively  by  C.  C.  Pinckney, 
Bernard  Elliot,  and  Francis  Marion.  The  fu¬ 
gitive  governor  sent  his  secretary  in  a  boat  from 
the  Tamar  to  demand  by  “what  authority  they 
had  taken  possession  of  his  majesty’s  fort  ?” 
“We  hold  the  fort  by  express  command  of  the 
Council  of  Safety,”  replied  Lieutenant-colonel 
Motte,  who  was  in  command.  A  schooner  was 
stationed  between  Fort  Johnson  and  the  town 


FORT  LEE,  CAPTURE  OF 


510  FORT  McHENRY,  BOMBARDMENT  OF 


to  intercept  the  Tamar’s  boats ;  and  very  soon 
tents  holding  five  hundred  men  dotted  Janies 
Island,  near  the  fort. 

Fort  Lee,  Capture  of.  Early  on  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  Nov.  20,  1776,  Cornwallis  crossed  the 
Hudson  River  from  Dobbs’s  Ferry  to  Cluster’s 
Landing,  five  miles  above  Fort  Lee,  and  with  a 
force  about  six  thousand  strong,  including  artil¬ 
lery,  climbed  a  steep,  rocky  pathway  up  a  gorge 
iu  the  Palisades,  unobserved  by  Greene.  A 
farmer  awoke  that  officer  from  slumber  in  the 
morning  twilight,  in  time  for  him  to  escape 
from  imminent  peril.  He  fled  in  haste  from 
Fort  Lee,  with  the  garrison  of  two  thousand 
men,  leaving  cannons,  tents,  stores,  aud  camp 
equipage  behind.  He  barely  escaped  capture. 
Washington,  apprised  of  the  danger,  so  well 
covered  his  retreat  that  less  than  one  hundred 
stragglers  were  made  prisoners. 

Fort  McHenry,  Bombardment  of.  Fort 
McHenry  was  a  regular  work  on  Fell’s  Point, 
Baltimore,  about  oue  half  its  present  dimen¬ 
sions.  Iu  anticipation  of  a  visit  from  the  Brit¬ 
ish  marauding  squadrons,  the  Baltimorians  had 
sunk  some  vessels  iu  the  narrow  channel  between 
the  fort  and  Lazzaretto  Point,  which  prevented 
the  passage  of  an  enemy’s  ships.  Fort  McHen¬ 
ry  was  garrisoned  by  about  one  thousand  men, 
volunteers  aud  regulars,  commanded  by  Major 
George  Armistead.  To  the  right  of  it,  guard¬ 
ing  the  shores  of  the  Patapsco,  and  to  prevent 
troops  lauding  in  the  rear,  were  twro  redoubts 
(  Fort  Covington  and  Babcocn  s  Battery  ).  In 
the  rear  of  these,  upon  high  ground,  was  an  un¬ 
finished  circular  redoubt  for  seven  gnus,  and 
on  Lazzaretto  Point,  opposite  Fort  McHenry, 
was  a  small  battery.  This  and 
Fort  Covington  were  in  charge 
of  officers  of  Barney’s  flotilla. 

Such  were  Fort  McHenry  and  its 
supporters  on  the  morning  of 
Sept.  12, 1814,  when  the  British 
fleet,  under  Admiral  Cochrane, 
consisting  of  sixteen  heavy  ves¬ 
sels,  five  of  them  bomb -ships, 
had  made  full  preparations  for 
the  bombardment  of  the  fort.  At 
sunrise  (Sept.  13, 1814)  the  bomb- 
vessels  opened  a  heavy  fire  on 
the  fort  and  its  dependencies  at 
a  distance  of  two  miles,  and 
kept  up  a  well-directed  bom¬ 
bardment  until  three  o’clock  in 
the  afternoon.  Armistead  im¬ 
mediately  opened  the  batteries 
of  Fort  McHenry  upon  the  as¬ 
sailants  ;  but  after  a  wdiile  he 
found  that  his  missiles  fell  short 
of  his  antagonist  and  were  harm¬ 
less.  The  little  garrison  was  com¬ 
posed  of  two  companies  of  Sea 
Feucibles,  under  Captains  Bunbury  and  Addison ; 
two  companies  of  volunteers  from  the  city  of  Bal¬ 
timore,  under  the  command  of  Captains  Berry  and 
Pennington  ;  a  company  of  United  States  artil¬ 
lery, under  Captain  Evans ;  a  fine  company  of  vol¬ 
unteer  artillerists,  led  by  Judge  Joseph  H. Nichol¬ 


son  ;  a  detachment  of  Barney’s  flotilla,  under 
Lieutenant  Redman,  and  detachments  of  regu¬ 
lars,  six  hundred  strong,  furnished  by  General 
Winder,  and  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Stewart  and  Major  Lane.  The  garrison 
was  exposed  to  a  tremendous  shower  of  shells 
for  several  hours,  without  the  power  to  inflict 
injury  in  turn,  or  even  to  check  the  fury  of  the 
assault;  yet  they  endured  the  trial  with  cool 
courage  and  great  fortitude.  At  length  a  bomb¬ 
shell  dismounted  a  twenty-four-pounder  in  the 
fort,  killing  a  lieutenant  and  wounding  several 
of  the  men.  Admiral  Cochrane,  observing  the 
confusion  in  the  fort  caused  by  this  event,  and 
hoping  to  profit  by  it,  ordered  three  of  his  bomb- 
vessels  to  move  up  nearer  the  fort,  in  order  to 
increase  the  effectiveness  of  their  guns.  Ar- 
mistead  was  delighted,  and  immediately  ordered 
a  general  cannonade  and  bombardment  from 
every  part  of  the  fort ;  and  so  severe  was  his 
punishment  of  the  venturesome  intruders  that 
within  half  an  hour  they  fell  back  to  their  old 
anchorage.  A  rocket  vessel  ( Erebus )  was  so 
badly  damaged  that  the  British  were  compelled 
to  send  a  division  of  small  boats  to  tow  her  out 
of  reach  of  Armistead’s  guns.  The  garrison  gave 
three  cheers,  and  the  firing  ceased.  After  the 
British  vessels  had  resumed  their  former  sta¬ 
tions,  they  opened  a  more  furious  bombardment 
than  before,  and  kept  it  up  until  after  midnight, 
when  it  was  discovered  that  a  considerable  force 
i  (twelve  hundred  picked  men  in  barges)  had  been 
sent  up  the  Patapsco  in  the  gloom  to  attack 
Fort  McHenry  in  the  rear.  They  were  repulsed, 
and  the  bombardment  from  the  vessels  ceased. 
At  seven  o’clock  in  the  morning  of  the  14th  the 
hostile  shipping  and  the  land  forces  menacing 


THE  ARMISTEAD  VASE. 

the  city  withdrew,  and  Baltimore  was  saved. 
In  this  attack  on  the  fort  the  British  did  not 
lose  a  man ;  and  the  Americans  had  only  four 
men  killed  and  twenty-four  wounded,  chiefly  by 
the  exploding  of  the  shell  that  dismounted  the 
tweuty-four-pounder.  During  the  bombardment 


511  FORT  MEIGS  AND  ITS  DEFENCE 


FORT  MACON,  CAPTURE  OF 

Francis  S.  Key  was  held  in  custody  in  a  vessel 
of  the  fleet,  and  was  inspired  by  the  event  to 
compose  the  yet  popular  song  of  The  Star-span¬ 
gled  Banner  (which  see).  Armistead  and  his  brave 
little  band  received  the  grateful  benedictions  of 
the  people  of  Baltimore  and  of  the  whole  coun¬ 
try.  The  citizens  of  Baltimore  presented  Ar- 
mistead  with  a  costly  service  of  silver,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  piece  —  a  vase  —  in' the  form  of  a  bomb¬ 
shell  (see  p.  510).  Governor-general  Prevost,  of 
Canada,  was  so  certain  of  an  easy  victory  at 
Baltimore  that  he  ordered  rejoicings  at  Montreal 
on  account  of  the  capture  of  Washington  to  be 
postponed  until  after  the  capture  of  Baltimore 
should  be  heard  of! 

Fort  Macon,  Capture  of.  This  fort,  com¬ 
manding  the  important  harbor  of  Beaufort,  N.  C., 
and  Bogue  Sound,  was  seized  by  Governor  Ellis 
early  in  1861.  Its  possession  by  the  government 
would  secure  the  use  of  another  fine  harbor  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  for  the  National  vessels  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  blockading  service.  It  stands  upon 
a  long  ridge  of  sand  cast  up  by  the  ocean  waves 
called  Bogue  Island.  After  the  capture  of  New 
Berne  (which  see),  Burnside  sent  General  Parke 
to  take  the  fort.  A  detachment  took  possession 


time.  The  troops  fell  hack  to  the  rapids  of  the 
Maumee,  and  there  formed  a  fortified  camp. 
There  they  built  a  fortification  which  was  called 
Fort  Meigs,  in  honor  of  the  Governor  of  Ohio. 
Harrison’s  troops  there  were  about  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  in  number,  and  were  employed 
under  the  skilful  direction  of  Captain  Wood, 
chief-engineer  of  his  army.  The  work  was  about 
two  thousand  five  hundred  yards  in  circumfer¬ 
ence,  the  whole  of  which,  with  the  exception  of 
several  small  intervals  left  for  block  -  houses, 
was  to  be  picketed  with  timber  fifteen  feet  long 
and  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  set 
three  feet  in  the  ground.  When  the  fort  was 
partly  finished  (March,  1813),  the  general  and 
engineer  left  the  camp  in  the  care  of  Captain 
Leftwich,  who  ceased  work  upon  it,  utterly  neg¬ 
lected  the  suffering  garrison,  and  actually  burned 
the  pickets  for  fire -wood.  On  the  return  of 
Wood,  work  on  the  fort  was  resumed,  and  pushed 
towards  completion.  Harrison  had  forwarded 
Kentucky  troops  from  Cincinnati,  and  on  April 
12  he  himself  arrived  at  Fort  Meigs.  He  had 
been  informed  on  the  way  of  the  frequent  ap¬ 
pearance  of  Indian  scouts  near  the  rapids,  and 
little  skirmishes  with  what  he  supposed  to  be 


UP  THE  MAUMEE  VALLEY,  FROM  FORT  MEIGS. 


of  Beaufort,  and  a  flag  was  sent  to  the  fort  de¬ 
manding  its  surrender.  The  commander  of  the 
garrison,  a  nephew  of  Jefferson  Davis,  declared 
he  would  not  yield  until  he  had  “eaten  his  last 
biscuit  and  slain  his  last  horse.”  On  April  11, 
1861,  Parke  began  a  siege  of  the  fort.  Bat¬ 
teries  were  erected  on  Bogue  Island,  and  gun¬ 
boats,  under  Commodore  S.  Lockwood,  co-oper¬ 
ated  with  the  troops.  The  garrison  was  cut  off 
from  all  communication  with  the  outside  world 
by  land  or  water.  A  bombardment  was  begun 
on  the  morning  of  April  25.  The  fort  responded 
with  great  spirit  and  vigor,  and  a  tremendous 
artillery  duel  was  kept  up  for  several  hours, 
when  the  fort  displayed  a  white  flag.  Before 
ten  o’clock  the  next  morning  the  fort  was  in 
possession  of  the  Nationals,  with  about  five  hun¬ 
dred  prisoners. 

Fort  Meigs  and  its  Defence.  When  Harri¬ 
son  heard  of  the  advance  of  Winchester  to  the 
Maumee  and  the  Raisin,  he  ordered  all  of  his 
available  force  to  push  forward  to  reinforce  that 
officer.  The  advancing  column  was  soon  met 
by  fugitives  from  Freuchtown,  and  thoughts  of 
marching  on  Malden  were  abandoned  for  the  r 


the  advance  ot  a  more  powerful  force.  Expect¬ 
ing  to  find  Fort  Meigs  invested  by  the  British 
and  Indians,  he  took  with  him  all  the  troops  on 
the  Auglaize  and  St.  Mary’s  rivers.  He  was 
agreeably  disappointed  to  find  on  his  arrival 
that  no  enemy  was  near  in  force.  They  soon 
appeared,  however.  Proctor,  at  Fort  Malden, 
had  formed  plans  for  au  early  invasion  of  the 
Maumee  Valley.  Ever  since  the  massacre  at 
Freuchtown  he  had  been  active  in  concentrating 
a  large  Indian  force  for  t  he  purpose  at  Amlierst- 
bnrg.  He  so  fired  the  zeal  of  Tecumtha  and  the 
Prophet  by  promises  of  future  success  in  the 
schemes  for  an  Indian  confederation  that  at  the 
beginning  of  April  the  great  Shawnoese  warrior 
was  at  Fort  Malden  with  one  thousand  five  hun¬ 
dred  Indians.  Full  six  hundred  of  them  were 
drawn  from  the  country  between  Lake  Michigan 
and  the  Wabash.  On  the  23d  of  April,  Proctor, 
with  white  and  dusky  soldiers,  more  than  two 
thousand  in  number,  left  Amherstburg  on  a  brig 
and  smaller  vessels,  and,  accompanied  by  two 
gunboats  and  some  artillery,  arrived  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Maumee,  twelve  miles  from  Fort 
Meigs,  on  the  26th,  where  they  landed.  One  of 


FORT  MEIGS  AND  ITS  DEFENCE 


512 


FORT  MERCER 


the  royal  engineers  (Captain  Dixon)  was  sent 
up  with  a  party  to  construct  works  on  the  left 
hank  of  the  Maumee,  opposite  Fort  Meigs.  On 
the  28th  of  April  Harrison  was  informed  of  the 
movement  of  Proctor  and  his  forces.  He  knew 
that  Geueral  Green  Clay  was  on  the  march  with 
Kentuckiaus,  and  he  despatched  Captain  Will¬ 
iam  Oliver  with  an  oral  message  urging  him  to 
press  forward  by  forced  marches.  Meanwhile 
Proctor  and  his  forces  had  arrived,  and  on  the 
morning  of  May  1,  1813,  he  opened  a  cannonade 
and  bombardment  from  the  site  of  Maumee  City 
upon  Fort  Meigs,  and  continued,  with  slight  in¬ 
termission,  for  five  days,  but  without  much  in¬ 
jury  to  the  fort  and  garrison.  The  lire  was  re¬ 
turned  occasionally  by  eighteen-pounders.  The 
Americans  had  built  a  strong  traverse  athwart 
the  fort,  behind  which  they  were  sheltered. 
Their  ammunition  was  scarce,  and  it  was  used 
sparingly  ;  but  they  had  an  abundant  supply  of 
food  and  water  for  a  long  siege.  Still  Harrison 
felt  anxious.  He  looked  hourly  up  the  Maumee 
for  the  appearance  of  Clay  with  reinforcements. 
The  latter  had  heard  the  cannonading  at  the 
fort,  and  had  pressed  forward  as  rapidly  as  pos¬ 
sible.  Proctor  had  thrown  a  force  of  British 
and  Indians  across  the  river  to  gain  the  rear  of 
the  fort,  and  these  the  vanguard  of  Clay  encoun¬ 
tered.  When  the  latter  officer  drew  near  he  re¬ 
ceived  explicit  orders  from  Harrison  to  detach 
eight  hundred  men  from  his  brigade,  to  be  land¬ 
ed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  a  mile  and  a 
half  above  Fort  Meigs,  to  attack  the  British  bat¬ 
teries,  spike  their  gnns,  destroy  their  carriages, 
and  then  cross  the  river  to  the  fort ;  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  Clay’s  troops  to  fight  their  way  to 
the  fort.  These  orders  met  Clay  as  he  was 
descending  the  Maumee  in  boats  (May  5,  1813). 
Colonel  Dudley  was  appointed  to  lead  the  ex¬ 
pedition  against  the  British  batteries.  The  work 
was  successfully  performed  ;  but  a  band  of  rifle¬ 
men,  under  Captain  Leslie  Combs,  being  attack¬ 
ed  by  some  Indians  in  ambush,  Dudley  led  re¬ 
inforcements  to  them.  The  Indians  were  soon 
put  to  flight,  but  Dudley,  unmindful  of  his  in¬ 
structions,  pushed  on  in  pursuit,  leaving  Colonel 
Isaac  Shelby  in  charge  of  the  batteries.  Both 
the  British  and  Indians  were  reinforced ;  the 
batteries  were  retaken  ;  and  after  a  sharp  fight, 
in  which  Shelby’s  troops  participated,  Dudley’s 
whole  command  was  put  to  flight,  and  dispersed 
in  great  confusion.  A  great  part  of  them  were 
killed  or  captured.  Dudley  was  slain  and 
scalped,  and  Combs  and  many  companions  were 
marched  to  Fort  Miami  below  as  prisoners.  (See 
Running  the  Gauntlet.)  Of  the  eight  hundred 
who  landed  from  the  boats  only  one  hundred 
and  seventy  escaped  to  Fort  Meigs.  While  these 
scenes  were  occurring  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Maumee,  there  was  a  desperate  struggle  on  the 
fort  side.  A  part  of  the  remainder  of  Clay’s 
command,  under  Colonel  W.  E.  Boswell,  having 
landed  a  short  distance  above  the  fort,  were  or¬ 
dered  to  fight  their  way  in.  They  were  soon 
attacked  by  a  body  of  British  and  Indians,  but 
were  joined  by  a  sallying  party  from  the  fort; 
and  while  a  sharp  struggle  was  going  on  there, 
Harrison  ordered  a  helpful  sortie  from  the  fort 


to  attack  some  works  cast  up  by  the  enemy 
near  a  deep  ravine.  This  was  done  by  three 
hundred  and  fifty  men,  under  Colonel  John  Mil¬ 
ler,  of  the  regulars.  They  found  a  motley  force 
there,  eight  hundred  and  fifty  strong,  but  they 
were  soon  driven  away  and  their  cannons  spiked. 
The  fight  was  desperate,,  the  Americans  being 
surrounded  at  one  point  by  four  times  their  own 
number.  The  victors  returned  to  the  fort  with 
forty-three  captives.  Boswell  in  the  meantime 
had  utterly  routed  the  force  before  him  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet.  Fort  Meigs  was  saved. 
The  result  of  that  day’s  fighting,  and  the  ill- 
success  of  all  efforts  to  reduce  the  fort,  caused 
Proctor’s  Indian  allies  to  desert  him,  and  the  Ca¬ 
nadian  militia  to  turn  their  faces  homeward. 
The  Prophet  had  been  promised  by  Proctor  the 
whole  territory  of  Michigan  as  his  trophy,  and 
Tecumtha  was  to  have  the  person  of  General 
Harrison,  whom  he  had  intensely  hated  since 
the  battle  at  the  Tippecanoe  (which  see),  as  his. 
These  promises  were  unfulfilled,  and  the  Indians 
left  in  disgust.  Only  Tecutntha’s  commission 
and  pay  of  a  brigadier  in  the  British  army  se¬ 
cured  his  further  services. 

Fort  Mercer.  On  the  New  Jersey  shore  of 
the  Delaware,  not  far  below  Philadelphia,  was 
a  strong  work  called  Fort  Mercer,  with  a  garri¬ 
son  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Christopher 
Greene,  of  Rhode  Island.  After  Howe  had  taken 
possession  of  Philadelphia  (September,  1777), 
he  felt  the  necessity  of  strengthening  his  posi¬ 
tion  ;  so,  in  the  middle  of  October,  he  ordered 
General  Sir  Henry  Clinton  to  abandon  the  forts 
he  had  captured  in  the  Hudson  Highlands  (see 
Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery),  and  send  six 
thousand  troops  to  Philadelphia.  He  had  just 
issued  this  order,  when  news  of  the  surrender 
of  Burgoyne  aud  his  army  reached  him.  He 
then  perceived  that  he  must  speedily  open  the 
way  for  his  brother’s  fleet,  to  ascend  the  Dela¬ 
ware  to  Philadelphia,  or  all  would  be  lost.  He 
ordered  Count  Donop  to  take  twelve  hundred 
picked  Hessian  soldiers,  cross  the  Delaware  at 
Philadelphia,  march  down  the  New  Jersey  shore, 
and  take  Fort  Mercer  by  storm.  He  obeyed, 
aud  at  the  same  time  the  Brirish  vessels-of-war 
in  the  river  opened  a  furious  cannonade  on  Fort 
Mifflin,  opposite.  Already  the  works  at  Bil- 
liugsport,  below,  had  been  captured,  and  a  nar¬ 
row  channel  had  been  opened  through  obstruc¬ 
tions  above.  This  admitted  British  vessels  to 
approach  near  enough  to  cannonade  the  two 
forts.  On  the  approach  of  Donop  (Oct.  22, 1777), 
Greene  abandoned  the  outworks  of  Fort  Mercer, 
and  retired  into  the  principal  redoubt.  At  the 
edge  of  a  wood,  within  cannon-shot  of  the  fort, 
Donop  planted  a  battery  often  heavy  gnns,  and 
late  in  the  afternoon  he  demanded  the  instant 
surrender  of  the  fort,  threatening  that,  in  case 
of  refusal  and  resistance,  no  quarter  would  be 
given.  Colonel  Greene  had  only  four  hundred 
men  back  of  him,  but  he  gave  an  instant  and 
defiant  refusal,  saying,  “  We  ask  no  quarter,  nor 
will  we  give  any.”  Then  the  besiegers  opened 
their  heavy  guns,  and,  under  their  fire,  pressed 
up  to  storm  the  fort.  They  were  received  by 
terrible  volleys  of  musketry  aud  grape-shot  from 


FORT  MIFFLIN 


513 


cannons,  while  two  concealed  American  galleys 
smote  them  with  a  severe  enfilading  fire.  The 
slaughter  of  the  assailants  was  fearful.  Count 
Donop  instantly  fell,  and  many  of  his  officers 
were  slain  or  mortally  wounded.  At  twilight 
t he  invaders  withdrew,  after  a  loss  of  two  hun¬ 
dred  men.  The  Americans  lost  thirty-seven, 
killed  and  wounded.  Donop  died  three  days 
after  the  battle.  He  said,  “I  die  a  victim  to 
my  ambition  and  the  avarice  of  my  sovereign.” 
(See  German  Mercenaries.) 

Fort  Mifflin.  The  firing  of  the  first  gun  upon 
Fort  Mercer  (which  see)  was  the  signal  for  Brit¬ 
ish  vessels  to  approach  and  attack  Fort  Mifflin, 
opposite.  They  had  made  their  way  through 
the  obstructions  near  Billingsport.  The  Augusta, 
ship-of-war,  and  other  armed  vessels,  came  up 
the  river,  but  were  kept  at  bay  by  American 
galleys  and  floating-batteries.  The  attack  was 
deferred  until  the  morning  after  (Oct.  23)  the 
assault  on  Fort  Mercer.  A  heavy  cannonade 
was  brought  to  bear  on  the  British  fleet  by  the 
American  flotilla,  and  at  the  same  time  an  equal¬ 
ly  heavy  fire  was  kept  up  by  the  royal  vessels 
on  Fort  Mifflin,  the  little  garrison  of  which  was 
commanded  by  Lieutenant-colonel  Smith,  of  Ma¬ 
ryland.  Smith  made  a  gallant  defence.  A  hot 
shot  from  the  fort  set  fire  to  the  Augusta,  and  she 
blew  up.  After  an  engagement  of  several  hours, 
the  British  fleet  retired,  and  the  Americans  re¬ 
mained  masters  of  the  Delaware  a  short  time 
longer.  Finally  the  British  erected  batteries  on 
Province  Island,  that  commanded  Fort  Mifflin, 
and  brought  up  a  large  floating-battery  and  four 
64  gun  ships  and  two  40-gun  ships  to  attack  the 
fort.  On  the  10th  of  November  (1777)  the  Brit¬ 
ish  opened  their  batteries  on  land  and  water. 
Lientenant-colonel  Smith,  with  his  garrison  of 
three  hundred  men,  sustained  the  siege  six  con¬ 
secutive  days.  When  every  gun  was  dismount¬ 
ed,  and  the  fort  was  almost  a  ruin,  the  garrison 
left  in  the  night  (Nov.  16),  after  firing  the  re¬ 
mains  of  the  barracks,  and  escaped  to  Fort  Mer¬ 
cer,  which  Colonel  Greene,  despairing  of  relief, 
evacuated  Nov.  20,  1777.  During  the  siege  of 
Fort  Mifflin,  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  men 
of  the  garrison  were  killed  and  wounded.  The 
British  loss  is  not  known. 

Fort  Mims,  Massacre  at.  In  the  autumn 
of  1812,  Tecumtha  and  the  Prophet  (which  see) 
went  among  the  Creeks  to  stir  them  up  to  make 
war  upon  the  white  people.  They  were  divided 
in  sentiment,  for  many  of  them  preferred  peace 
and  friendship  with  the  Americans,  and  civil 
war  was  engendered.  The  white  settlers  among 
them  were  in  great  peril,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1813  they  were  led  to  expect  an  exterminating 
blow.  They  knew  that  a  British  squadron  was 
in  the  Gulf,  and  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Span¬ 
iards  at  Pensacola.  They  prepared  to  defend 
themselves  as  well  as  they  might.  They  learn¬ 
ed  that  British  agents  at  Pensacola  were  distrib¬ 
uting  supplies  among  the  Creeks.  Very  soon 
hostilities  began  here  and  there,  and  the  white 
people  fled  to  secret  places  for  refuge — some  in 
the  thick  swamps  not  far  above  the  junction  of 
the  Alabama  and  Tomuigbee  rivers.  There  they 
I.— 33 


FORT  MIMS,  MASSACRE  AT 

were  joined  by  wealthy  half-blood  families,  and 
the  house  of  Samuel  Mims,  an  old  and  wealthy 
inhabitant,  was  strongly  stockaded  with  heavy 
pickets.  Several  other  buildings  were  enclosed 
within  the  acre  of  ground  stockaded,  and  the 
whole  was  known  as  Fort  Mims.  Major  Beas¬ 
ley  was  placed  in  command,  and  authorized 
to  receive  any  citizens  who  would  assist  in 
defence  of  the  station,  and  issue  soldiers’  ra¬ 
tions  to  them.  Its  dimensions  were  soon  too 
small  for  the  people  who  flocked  to  it  for  pro¬ 
tection  against  the  impending  storm,  and  a  new 
enclosure  was  built.  At  the  close  of  August  In¬ 
dians  were  seen  prowling  around  Fort  Mims; 
but  Major  Beasley  was  confident  that  he  could 
“  maintain  the  post  against  any  number  of  In¬ 
dians.”  The  30th  of  August  was  a  beautiful  day, 
and  no  sense  of  danger  was  felt  at  the  fort.  It 
contained  five  hundred  and  fifty — men,  women, 
and  children.  The  midday  drum  was  beaten  for 
dinner.  The  soldiers  were  loitering  listlessly 
around,  or  were  playing  cards  ;  almost  one  hun¬ 
dred  children  were  playing  around,  and  young 
men  and  maidens  were  dancing.  At  that  mo¬ 
ment  a  thousand  almost  naked  Creek  warriors 
lay  in  a  ravine  not  more  than  four  hundred 
yards  from  the  fort,  ready,  like  famished  tigers, 
to  spring  upon  their  prey.  They  were  led  by 
Weathersford,  a  famous  Creek  chief.  The  first 
tap  of  the  dinner-drum  was  the  signal  for  the 
barbarians  to  rise  from  their  cover  and  rush  to 
the  fort;  and  the  first  intimation  of  their  pres¬ 
ence  was  a  horrid  yell,  that  filled  the  air  as  they 
came  streaming  over  a  field  towards  an  open 
gate  of  the  fort.  Beasley  flew  to  close  it,  and 
the  soldiers  rnshed  with  their  arms  to  the  port¬ 
holes.  The  unarmed  men  and  the  women  and 
children,  pale  with  terror,  huddled  within  the 
houses  and  cabins  of  the  enclosure.  Beasley  was 
too  late.  He  was  felled  by  clubs  and  tomahawks, 
and  over  his  dead  body  the  terrible  torrent  rush¬ 
ed  into  the  new  enclosure.  The  soldiers  made  a 
gallant  tight  for  three  hours.  They  were  nearly 
all  slain.  The  unarmed  people  were  in  the  old 
enclosure,  with  a  picket  between  them  and  the 
slaughter.  The  Indians  became  weary,  and  slack¬ 
ened  their  fire.  The  people  in  the  main  fort 
hoped  the  savages  were  about  to  depart.  They 
were  disappointed.  Weathersford  was  not  a  man 
to  accept  half  a  victory  when  a  whole  one  was 
attainable.  His  people,  who  had  begun  to  carry 
away  plunder,  were  rebuked  by  him,  and  ex¬ 
horted  to  complete  the  work.  The  horrid  task 
was  resumed.  The  few  soldiers  left  made  stout 
resistance,  when  the  barbarians  sent  fire  on 
the  wings  of  arrows  to  the  roof  of  Mims’s  house, 
and  it  burst  into  a  flame.  Very  soon  the  whole 
“  fort”  was  in  flames.  The  Indians  pressed  into 
the  main  fort.  With  the  most  horrid  cruel¬ 
ties  they  murdered  the  defenceless.  Weathers¬ 
ford  begged  his  warriors  to  spare  the  women 
and  children,  but  they  refused.  He  had  raised 
the  storm,  but  was  not  able  to  control  it.  At 
sunset  four  hundred  of  the  inmates  of  Fort 
Mims  hiy  dead.  Not  a  white  woman  or  child 
escaped.  Twelve  of  the  soldiers  cut  their  way 
through  the  cordon  of  barbarians  and  escaped. 
Most  of  the  negroes  were  spared,  and  were  made 


514 


FORT  NIAGARA 


FORT  MOTTE,  CAPTURE  OF 


slaves  of  the  Indians.  A  negro  woman,  who  had 
received  a  hall  in  her  breast,  escaped  to  the  riv¬ 
er,  seized  a  canoe,  and  paddling  down  to  Fort 
St.oddart,  gave  to  General  Claiborne  there  the 
lirst  tidings  of  the  horrible  tragedy.  The  con¬ 
test  lasted  from  twelve  o’clock  until  five.  The 
barbarians  had  suffered  severely,  for  not  less 
than  four  hundred  Creek  warriors  were  killed 
or  wounded,  as  the  victims  had  sold  their  lives 
as  dearly  as  possible. 

Fort  Motte,  Capture  of  ( 1781).  This  fort  was 
simply  the  fine  residence  of  Rebecca  Motte,  near 
the  Congaree  River,  which  the  British  had  forti¬ 
fied.  Mrs.  Motte  was  the  widowed  mother  of 
six  children.  She  had  been  turned  out  of  her 
house,  and  taken  refuge  at  her  farm-house  on  a 
hill  near  by.  Marion  and  Lee  approached  with 
a  considerable  force,  but  having  no  artillery, 
could  not  dislodge  the  garrison  of  Fort  Motte. 


FORT  MOTTE. 


What  was  to  be  done  had  to  he  done  quickly, 
for  other  posts  required  their  attention.  Only 
by  setting  the  house  on  fire  could  the  British  be 
driven  out.  To  this  method  Mrs.  Motte  gave 
her  cheerful  assent.  She  brought  an  Indian 
bow  and  arrows.  To  the  latter  lighted  com¬ 
bustibles  were  affixed,  and  an  expert  fired  the 
arrows  into  the  roof  of  the  dwelling.  It  was 
soon  in  a  blaze,  when  the  garrison  were  com¬ 
pelled  to  sally  out  and  surrender.  The  patri¬ 
otic  owner  then  regaled  both  American  and 
British  officers  at  her  table.  Lee  then  pushed 
towards  the  Savannah  River,  to  assist  Pickens 
and  Clarke  in  holding  the  country  between  Fort 
Ninety-six  and  Augusta,  to  prevent  the  garrison 
of  either  place  joining  the  other. 

Fort  Moultrie,  Seizure  of  (1860).  Major 
Anderson  abandoned  weaker  Fort  Moultrie,  and 
went  to  stronger  Fort  Sumter,  on  the  evening 
of  Dec.  26,  1860.  (See  Anderson  in  Fort  Sumter.') 
He  left  officers  and  men  to  spike  the  gnus,  burn 
the  carriages,  and  cut  down  the  flag-staff,  that 
no  secession  banner  might  occupy  the  place  of 
the  national  flag.  The  bewildered  citizens  of 
Charleston  saw  the  smoke  of  the  burning  car¬ 
riages  at  dawn,  and  when  they  knew  its  origin, 
the  disunionists  were  greatly  exasperated.  The 
Secession  Convention  requested  Governor  Pick¬ 
ens  to  take  possession  of  the  government  prop¬ 
erty  in  and  around  Charleston.  The  arsenal, 
into  which  Floyd  had  crowded  arms,  was  seized 
in  the  name  of  the  State  of  South  Carolina,  and 
thus  seventy  thousand  stand  of  arms  and  avast 
amount  of  stores,  valued  at  $500,000,  were  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  enemies  of  the  government. 


Men  of  Charleston,  equipped  with  these  weap¬ 
ons,  went  in  two  armed  steam-vessels  and  seized 
Castle  Pinckney  (which  was  surrendered  by  its 
faithless  commander,  N.  L.  Coste),  and  took  pos¬ 
session  of  dismantled  Fort  Moultrie  in  the  name 
of  “  the  sovereign  State  of  South  Carolina.”  The 
fort  was  strengthened,  new  breastworks  were 
constructed,  and  heavy  guns  were  mounted. 

Fort  Necessity.  During  his  march  towards 
Fort  Duquesne,  Washington,  at  a  point  on  the 
Monongahela  River  less  than  forty  miles  from 
his  destination,  heard  of  the  approach  of  a  party 
of  French  and  Indians  to  intercept  him.  He  fell 
back  to  a  rich,  fertile  bottom  called  The  Great 
Meadows,  about  fifty  miles  from  Cumberland, 
where  he  hastily  erected  a  stockade,  which  he 
appropriately  called  Fort  Necessity.  While  en¬ 
gaged  in  this  work,  scouts  had  observed  the 
stealthy  approach  of  French  soldiers.  Word  to 
this  effect  was  sent  to  Washington  by  a  friend¬ 
ly  sachem  known  as  Half-king,  who  stated  that 
the  detachment  was  very  near  his  camp.  Put¬ 
ting  himself  at  the  head  of  forty  men,  he  set  off, 
in  the  intense  darkness,  at  nine  o’clock  at  night, 
for  the  encampment  of  Half-king.  The  rain  fell 
in  torrents,  and  they  did  not  reach  the  friendly 
Indians  until  just  before  sunrise  (May  28, 1754). 
Half-king  and  his  warriors  joined  Washington’s 
detachment,  and  when  they  found  the  enemy, 
in  a  secluded  spot  among  the  rocks,  they  imme¬ 
diately  attacked  them.  A  sharp  skirmish  en¬ 
sued.  Jumonville,  who  led  the  French,  and  ten 
of  his  men,  were  killed,  and  twenty-two  yere 
made  prisoners.  This  was  the  first  blood  shed 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Washington  had 
one  man  killed,  and  two  or  three  were  wounded. 
It  was  afterwards  ascertained  that  Jumonville 
was  the  bearer  of  a  summons  for  the  surrender 
of  Fort  Necessity.  Two  days  later  Colonel  Fry 
died  at  Cumberland.  Troops  hastened  forward 
to  join  Washington  at  Fort  Necessity.  On  him 
the  chief  command  now  devolved.  Reinforced, 
he  proceeded  towards  Fort  Duquesne  with  fonr 
hundred  men.  At  the  same  time  M.  de  Yilliers, 
brother  of  Jumonville,  was  marching,  at  the 
head  of  one  thousand  Indians  and  a  few  French¬ 
men,  to  avenge  his  kinsman’s  death.  Hearing 
of  this,  Washington  fell  back  to  Fort  Necessity, 
where,  on  the  3d  of  July,  he  was  attacked  by 
about  fifteen  hundred  of  the  foe.  After  a  con¬ 
flict  of  about  ten  hours,  De  Yilliers  proposed  an 
honorable  capitulation.  Washington  signed  it 
on  the  morning  of  the  4th  of  July.  Then  the 
troops  marched  out  with  the  honors  of  war,  and 
departed  for  their  homes. 

Fort  Niagara  is  on  the  east  side  of  Niagara 
River,  near  its  mouth.  Its  building  was  begun 
as  early  as  1673,  when  La  Salle  (which  see)  en¬ 
closed  a  small  spot  there  with  palisades.  In 
1687  De  Nonville  (which  see)  constructed  a 
quadrangular  fort  there,  with  four  bastions.  It 
was  enlarged  to  quite  a  strong  fortification  by 
the  French  in  1725.  It  was  taken  from  them,  in 
1759,  by  Sir  William  Johnson.  It  then  covered 
eight  acres.  During  the  Revolution  it  was  the 
rendezvous  of  British  troops,  Tories,  and  In¬ 
dians,  who  desolated  central  Newr  York,  and  sent 


FORT  NIAGARA,  BOMBARDMENT  OF  515 


FORT  ORANGE 


predatory  bands  into  Pennsylvania.  “Then,” 
says  De  Veanx,  “  civilized  Europe  revelled  with 
savage  Americans,  and  ladies  of  education  and 
refinement  mingled  in  the  society  of  those  whose 
only  distinction  was  to  wield  the  bloody  toma¬ 
hawk  and  the  scalping-knife.  Then  the  squaws 
of  the  forests  were  raised  to  eminence,  and  the 
most  unholy  unions  between  them  aud  officers 
of  highest  rank  were  smiled  upon  and  counte¬ 
nanced.”  Fort  Niagara  remained  in  possession 
of  the  British  until  the  frontier  posts  were  given 
up  to  the  Americans,  in  1796.  It  was  captured 
by  the  British  in  the  War  of  1812-15. 

Fort  Niagara,  Bombardment  of  (1812). 
Fort  Niagara,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niagara 
River,  at  its  mouth,  was  garrisoned  by  the  Amer¬ 
icans,  commanded  by  Lieutenant-colonel  George 
McFeely.  The  British  had  raised  breastworks 
in  front  of  the  village  of  Newark,  opposite  the 
fort,  at  intervals,  all  the  way  up  to  Fort  George, 
and  placed  behind  them  several  mortars  and  a 
lung  train  of  battering  cannons.  These  mortars 


exasperated  British  determined  on  retaliation. 
They  crossed  the  Niagara  River  on  the  black,  cold 
night  of  Dec.  18,  about  one  thousand  strong, 
regulars  aud  Indians,  under  Colonel  Murray. 
Gross  negligence  or  positive  treachery  had  ex¬ 
posed  the  fort  to  easy  capture.  It  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  Captain  Leonard.  When,  at  three  o’clock 
in  the  morning,  a  British  force  approached  to 
assail  the  main  gate,  it  was  standing  wide  open. 
Leonard  had  left  the  fort  on  the  evening  before, 
and  spent  the  night  with  his  family,  three  miles 
distant.  With  a  competent  and  faithful  com¬ 
mander  at  his  post,  the  fort,  with  its  garrison 
of  nearly  four  hundred  effective  men,  might 
have  been  saved.  The  fort  was  entered  with¬ 
out  resistance,  when  the  occupants  of  a  block¬ 
house  within  and  invalids  in  the  barracks  made 
a  stout  tight  for  a  while.  This  conflict  was  over 
before  the  remainder  of  the  garrison  were  fairly 
awake,  and  the  fort  in  possession  of  the  British. 
The  victory  might  have  been  almost  blood¬ 
less,  had  not  a  spirit  of  revenge,  instigated  by 


FORT  NIAGARA,  FROM  FORT  GEORGE,  IN  1812. 


began  a  bombardment  of  Fort  Niagara  on  the 
morning  of  Nov.  21, 1812,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
cannonade  was  opened  at  Fort  George  and  its 
vicinity.  From  dawn  until  twilight  there  was 
a  continuous  roar  of  artillery  from  the  line  of 
batteries  on  the  Canada  shore;  and  during  the 
day  two  thousand  red-hot  shot  were  poured  upon 
the  American  works.  The  mortars  sent  showers 
of  destructive  bomb-shells.  Buildings  in  the 
fort  were  set  on  fire  several  times,  and  were  ex¬ 
tinguished  by  great  exertions.  Meanwhile  the 
garrison  returned  the  assault  gallantly.  New¬ 
ark  was  set  on  lire  by  shells  several  times;  so, 
also,  were  buildings  in  Fort  George,  and  one  of 
its  batteries  was  silenced.  Shots  from  an  out¬ 
work  of  Fort  Niagara  (the  Salt  Battery)  sunk  a 
British  sloop  in  the  river.  Night  ended  this  fu¬ 
rious  artillery  duel. 

Fort  Niagara  captured  (1813).  When  Mc¬ 
Clure  abandoned  Fort  George  and  laid  Newark 
in  ashes  (see  Newark),  in  December,  1813,  the 


the  black  ruins  of  Newark,  prevailed.  A  large 
number  of  the  garrison,  part  of  them  invalids, 
were  bayoneted  after  resistance  had  ceased. 
This  horrid  work  was  performed  on  Sunday 
morning,  Dec.  19,  1813.  The  loss  of  the  Amer¬ 
icans  was  eighty  killed — many  of  them  hospital 
patients — fourteen  wounded,  and  three  hundred 
and  forty-four  made  prisoners.  The  British  loss 
was  six  men  killed,  and  Colonel  Murray,  three 
men,  and  a  surgeon  wounded.  The  British  fired 
a  signal-cannon,  announcing  their  success,  which 
put  in  motion  a  detachment  of  regulars  and  In¬ 
dians  at  Queenston  for  further  work  of  destruc¬ 
tion.  They  crossed  the  river  to  Lewiston,  and 
plundered  and  laid  waste  the  whole  New  York 
frontier  to  Buffalo. 

Fort  Orange  (Albany).  In  1614  Captain 
Christiansen,  who,  in  the  interest  ot  trade,  went 
up  the  Hudson  River  to  the  head  of  navigation, 
built  a  fortified  trading-house  on  an  island  just 
below  the  site  of  Albany,  which  he  called  Castle 


FORT  PICKENS 


516 


FORT  PICKENS 


Island.  The  spring  floods  made  the  place  un¬ 
tenable,  and  in  1617  a  new  fort  was  built  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tawaseutha  (“  place  of  mauy 
dead”),  or  Norman’s  Kill,  ou  the  west  side  of 
the  river.  There  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  al¬ 
liance  was  made  with  the  Five  Nations,  the  flrst 
ever  made  between  the  Indians  and  Hollanders. 
The  situation  of  the  new  fort  proving  to  be  in¬ 
convenient,  a  more  permanent  fortification  was 
built  a  few  miles  farther  north,  and  called  Fort 
Orange,  in  compliment  to  the  Stadtholder,  or 
chief  magistrate,  of  Holland.  Some  of  the  Wal¬ 
loons  settled  there,  and  held  the  most  friendly 
relations  with  the  Indians.  Near  the  fort  Kil¬ 
lian  van  Rensselaer,  a  wealthy  pearl  merchant 
of  Amsterdam,  purchased  from  the  Indians  a 
large  tract  of  land  iu  1630,  sent  over  a  colony  to 
settle  upon  it,  and  formed  the  “  Colonie  of  Reus- 
selaerswyck.”  (  See  Patroons. )  A  settlement 
soon  grew  around  Fort  Orange,  and  so  the  foun¬ 
dations  of  Albany  were  laid. 

Fort  Pickens,  ou  Santa  Rosa  Island,  com¬ 
manded  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Pensacola 
Bay.  Nearly  opposite,  but  a  little  farther  sea¬ 
ward,  on  a  low  sand -spit,  was  Fort  McRee. 
Across  from  Fort  Pickens,  on  the  main,  was 


mors  that  the  fort  was  to  be  attacked,  and  he 
took  immediate  measures  to  save  it  and  the 
other  forts  near.  He  called  on  Commodore 
Armstrong  (Jan.  7)  and  asked  his  co-operation, 
but,  having  no  special  order  to  do  so,  he  de¬ 
clined.  Ou  the  9th  Sleramer  received  instruc¬ 
tions  from  his  government  to  use  all  diligence 
for  the  protection  of  the  forts,  and  Armstrong 
was  ordered  to  co-operate  with  Slemmer.  It 
was  feared  that  the  small  garrison  could  not 
hold  more  than  one  fort,  and  it  was  resolved 
that  it  should  be  Pickens.  It  was  arranged  for 
Armstrong  to  send  the  little  garrison  at  the 
Barrancas  on  a  vessel  to  Fort  Pickens.  Arm¬ 
strong  failed  to  do  his  part,  for  he  was  sur¬ 
rounded  by  disunion  officers  who  were  plotting 
with  Secessionists.  But  Slemmer,  with  great 
exertions,  had  the  troops  of  Barrancas  carried 
over  to  Pickens,  with  their  families  and  much 
of  the  ammunition.  The  gnus  bearing  upon 
Pensacola  Bay  at  the  Barrancas  were  spiked; 
but  the  arrangement  for  the  vessels  of  war 
Wyandot  and  Supply  to  anchor  near  Fort  Pick¬ 
ens  was  not  carried  out.  To  Slemmer’s  aston¬ 
ishment,  these  vessels  were  ordered  away  to 
carry  coal  and  stores  to  the  home  squadron  on 


FORTS  PICKENS  AND  MCREE. 


Fort  Barrancas,  built  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
taken  from  them  by  General  Jackson.  Nearly 
a  mile  eastward  of  the  Barrancas  was  the  navy- 
yard,  then  in  command  of  Commodore  Arm¬ 
strong.  Before  the  Florida  Ordinance  of  Se¬ 
cession  was  passed  (Jan.  10,  1861)  the  governor 
of  the  state  (Perry)  made  secret  preparations 
with  the  governor  of  Alabama  to  seize  all  the 
national  property  within  the  domain  of  Florida 
— namely,  Fort  Jefferson,  at  the  Garden  Key, 
Tortugas ;  Fort  Taylor,  at  Key  West ;  Forts 
Pickens,  McRee,  and  Barrancas,  and  the  navy- 
yard  near  Pensacola.  Early  in  January  the 
commander  of  Fort  Pickens  (Lieutenant  Adam 
J.  Slemmer),  a  brave  Pennsylvanian,  heard  ra¬ 


the  Mexican  coast.  On  the  10th  the  navy-yard 
near  Pensacola  was  surrendered  to  Florida  and 
Alabama  troops,  and  these  prepared  to  bring 
gnus  to  bear  upon  Pickens  from  Fort  Barrancas. 
(See  Navy-yard  near  Pensacola  Seized.)  Slemmer 
was  now  left  to  his  own  resources.  His  was 
the  strongest  fort  in  the  Gulf,  but  his  garrison 
consisted  of  only  eighty-one  souls,  officers  and 
men.  These  labored  unceasingly  to  put  every¬ 
thing  in  working  order.  Among  the  workers 
were  the  heroic  wives  of  Lieutenants  Slemmer 
and  Gilmore — refined  and  cultivated  women — 
whose  labors  at  this  crisis  form  a  part  of  the 
history  of  Fort  Pickens.  On  the  12th  Captain 
Randolph,  Major  Marks,  and  Lieutenant  Rut- 


FORT  PICKENS,  SIEGE  OF  517  FORT  PILLOW,  CAPTURE  OF 


Jedge  appeared,  and,  in  the  name  of  the  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Florida,  demanded  a  peaceable  surren¬ 
der  of  the  fort.  It  was  refused.  “  I  recognize 
no  right  of  any  governor  to  demand  the  surren¬ 
der  of  United  States  property,”  said  Slennner. 
On  the  loth  Colonel  William  H.  Chase,  a  native 
of  Massachusetts,  in  command  of  all  the  insur¬ 
gent  troops  in  Florida,  accompanied  by  Farrand, 
of  the  navy-yard  near  Pensacola,  appeared,  and, 
in  friendly  terms,  begged  Slemmer  to  surrender, 
and  not  be  “guilty  of  allowing  fraternal  blood 
to  flow.”  The  tempter  did  not  succeed.  On 
the  18th  Chase  demanded  the  surrender  of  the 
fort,  and  it  was  refused.  Then  began  the  siege 
of  Fort  Pickens  (which  see). 

Fort  Pickens,  Siege  of.  Lieutenant  Slem¬ 
mer  had  held  Fort  Pickens  firmly  against  all 
hostile  forces  and  specious  persuasions,  sup¬ 
ported  by  a  loyal  little  garrison.  Insurgent 
forces  threatening  it  continually  increased.  On 
Jan.  18,  1861,  Colonel  Chase,  commander  of  the 
insurgents  near  Pensacola,  had  demanded  the 
surrender  of  Fort  Pickens,  and  it  had  been  re¬ 
fused.  Its  commandant,  Lieutenant  Slemmer, 
had  not  been  able  to  get  reinforcements  from 
the  government.  When  the  new  administra¬ 
tion  came  into  power  (March  4, 1861)  a  new  line 
of  policy  was  adopted.  The  government  re¬ 
solved  to  reinforce  with  men  and  supplies  both 
Sumter  and  Pickens.  ( See  Belief  of  Fort  Sum¬ 
ter.)  Between  the  6th  and  9th  of  April  the 
chartered  steamers  Atlantic  and  Illinois  and  the 
United  States  steam  frigate  Powhatan  left  New 
York  for  Fort  Pickens  with  troops  and  supplies. 
Lieutenant  John  L.  Worden  (see  Monitor  and 
Merrimac)  was  sent  by  land  with  au  order  to 
Captain  Adams,  of  the  Sabine,  then  in  command 
of  a  little  squadron  off  Fort  Pickens,  to  throw 
reinforcements  into  that  work  at  once.  Cap¬ 
tain  Braxton  Bragg,  late  of  the  United  States 
Army,  was  now  in  command  of  all  the  insur¬ 
gent  forces  in  the  vicinity,  with  the  commission 
of  brigadier- general  ;  and  Captain  Ingraham, 
late  of  the  United  States  Navy,  was  in  command 
of  the  navy-yard  near  Pensacola.  Bragg  had 
arranged  with  a  treasonable  sergeant  of  the 
garrison  to  betray  the  fort  on  the  night  of  the 
11th  of  April,  for  which  service  he  was  to  be  re¬ 
warded  with  a  large  sum  of  money  and  a  com¬ 
mission  in  the  Confederate  army.  He  had  se¬ 
duced  a  few  of  his  companions  into  complicity 
in  his  scheme.  A  company  of  one  thousand  in¬ 
surgents  were  to  cross  over  in  a  steamboat  and 
escalade  the  fort  when  the  sergeant  and  his 
confederates  would  be  on  guard.  The  plot  was 
revealed  to  Slemmer  by  a  loyal  man  in  the  in¬ 
surgent  camp  named  Richard  Wilcox,  and  the 
catastrophe  was  averted  by  the  timely  rein¬ 
forcement  of  the  fort  by  marines  and  artillery¬ 
men  under  Captain  Vogdes.  A  few  days  after¬ 
wards  the  Atlantic  and  Illinois  arrived  with  sev¬ 
eral  hundred  t  roops  under  the  command  of  Colo¬ 
nel  Henry  Brown,  with  ample  supplies  of  food 
and  munitions  of  war ;  and  Lieutenant  Slem¬ 
mer  and  his  almost  exhausted  little  garrison 
were  sent  to  Fort  Hamilton,  New  York,  to  rest. 
By  May  1  there  was  a  formidable  force  of  insur¬ 
gents  menacing  Fort  Pickens,  numbering  near¬ 


ly  seven  thousand,  arranged  in  three  divisions. 
The  first,  on  the  right,  was  composed  of  Missis- 
sippians,  under  Colonel  J.  R.  Chalmers  ;  the  sec¬ 
ond  wras  composed  of  Alabamians  and  a  Georgia 
regiment,  under  Colonel  Clayton  ;  and  the  third 
was  made  up  of  Louisianians,  Georgians,  and  a 
Florida  regiment  — the  whole  commanded  by 
Colonel  Gladdin.  There  were  also  five  hundred 
troops  at  Pensacola,  and  General  Bragg  was 
commander- in  -  chief.  Reinforcements  contin¬ 
ued  to  be  sent  to  Fort  Pickens,  and  in  June  Wil¬ 
son’s  Zouaves,  from  New  York,  were  encamped 
on  Santa  Rosa  Island,  on  which  Fort  Pickens 
stands.  During  the  ensuing  summer  nothing 
of  great  importance  occurred  in  connection  with 
Fort  Pickens,  and  other  efforts  afterwards  made 
by  the  insurgents  to  capture  it  failed. 

Fort  Pillow,  Capture  of  (1864).  This  fort 
was  garrisoned  by  about  five  hundred  and  fifty 
men,  including  two  hundred  and  sixty  colored 
soldiers,  under  the  command  of  Major  L.F.  Booth. 
Forrest  approached  Fort  Pillow  on  the  morning 
of  April  13, 1864,  drove  in  the  pickets,  and  began 
an  assault.  A  sharp  battle  ensued.  About  nine 
o’clock  Major  Booth  was  killed,  and  the  com¬ 
mand  devolved  on  Major  Bradford.  The  whole 
force  was  now  called  within  the  fort,  and  the 
fight  was  maintained  until  past  noon.  Mean¬ 
while  the  gunboat  New  Era,  of  the  Mississippi 
squadron,  lying  near,  had  taken  part  in  the  de¬ 
fence  of  the  fort,  but  the  height  of  the  bank 
prevented  her  doing  much  execution.  Forrest 
sent  a  flag  to  demand  an  instant  surrender. 
While  negotiations  were  going  on  Forrest  sent 
large  numbers  of  his  troops  to  favorable  posi¬ 
tions  for  attack,  which  could  not  have  been 
gained  while  the  garrison  was  free  to  fight.  By 
this  trick  he  gained  a  great  advantage.  Brad¬ 
ford  refused  to  surrender,  and  Forrest  gave  a 
signal,  when  his  men  sprang  from  their  hiding- 
places,  which  they  had  gained  by  treachery,  and, 
with  a  cry  of  “No  quarter!”  pounced  upon  the 
fort  at  different  points,  and  in  a  few  moments 
were  in  possession  of  it.  Generals  Forrest  and 
Chalmers  entered  the  fort  simultaneously  from 
opposite  sides.  The  surprised  and  overwhelmed 
garrison  threw  down  their  arms.  Some  of  them 
attempted  to  escape  down  the  steep  bank  of  the 
river  or  to  find  concealment  in  the  bushes.  The 
conquerors  followed  and  butchered  the  defence¬ 
less  men,  who  begged  for  quarter.  Within  the 
fort  like  scenes  were  exhibited.  Soldiers  and 
civilians — men,  women,  and  children,  white  and 
black — were  indiscriminately  slaughtered.  The 
massacre  continued  until  night,  and  was  renew¬ 
ed  in  the  morning.  Full  three  hundred  were 
murdered  in  cold  blood.  Major  Bradford,  who 
was  a  native  of  a  slave-labor  state,  was  a  spe¬ 
cial  object  of  Forrest’s  hatred.  He  regarded 
him  as  “a  traitor  to  the  South.”  While  on  his 
way  towards  Jackson,  Tenn.,  as  a  prisoner  of 
war,  the  day  after  the  Confederates  left  Fort 
Pillow,  the  major  was  taken  from  the  line  of 
march  and  deliberately  murdered.  So  testified 
one  of  Forrest’s  cavalry  before  a  Congressional 
committee.  Forrest  had  determined  to  strike 
terror  in  the  minds  of  colored  troops  and  their 
leaders.  This  seemed  to  be  his  chosen  method. 


FORT  PITT  THREATENED 


518 


Major  Charles  W.  Gibson,  of  Forrest’s  command, 
said  to  the  writer,  “  Forrest’s  motto  was,  War 
means  fight,  and  fight  means  kill — we  want  but 
few  prisoners.” 

Fort  Pitt  Threatened.  This  was  the  most 
important  military  post  of  the  English  west  of 
the  Alleghanies.  They  had  launch -boats  to 
bear  the  Englishmen  to  the  country  of  the  Illi¬ 
nois.  For  some  time  the  bitter  foes  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish —  the  Mingoes  and  Delawares  —  had  been 
seen  hovering  around  the  post.  On  May  27, 
1763,  they  exchanged  a  large  quantity  of  skins 
with  the  English  traders  for  powder  and  lead, 
and  then  suddenly  disappeared.  Towards  mid¬ 
night  Delaware  chiefs  warned  the  garrison  that 
danger  hovered  arouud  them,  and  warned  them 
to  fly,  offering  to  keep  the  property  safe.  Rut 
the  garrison  preferred  to  remain  in  their  strong 
fort ;  and  the  Indians,  after  murdering  a  whole 
family  near  the  fort  and  leaving  a  tomahawk  as 
a  declaration  of  war,  withdrew  and  threatened 
Fort  Ligonier.  (See  Pontiac's  War.) 

Fort  Pownall,  Erection  of.  Governor  Pow- 
nall,  of  Massachusetts,  took  ‘possession  of  the 
country  around  the  Penobscot  River  in  1759, 
and  secured  it  by  the  erection  of  a  fort  there. 
It  was  done  by  four  hundred  men  granted  by 
Massachusetts  for  the  purpose,  at  a  cost  of  about 
$15,000,  and  named  Fort  Pownall. 

Fort  Pulaski,  Capture  of.  At  the  close  of 
1861  the  National  authority  was  supreme  along 
the  coasts  from  Wassaw  Sound,  below  the  Sa¬ 
vannah  River,  to  the  North  Edisto,  well  up  tow¬ 
ards  Charleston.  General  T.  W.  Sherman  di¬ 
rected  his  chief-engineer,  General  Q.  A.  Gillmore, 
to  reconnoitre  Fort  Pulaski  and  report  upon  the 


feasibility  of  a  bombardment  of  it.  It  had  been 
seized  by  the  Secessionists  early  in  the  year. 
Gillmore  reported  that  it  might  be  done  by 
planting  batteries  of  rifled  guns  and  mortars  on 
Big  Tybee  Island.  A  New  York  regiment  was 
sent  to  occupy  that  island,  and  explorations 


FORT  SCHUYLER,  SIEGE  OF 

were  made  to  find  a  channel  by  which  gun¬ 
boats  might  get  in  the  rear  of  the  fort.  It  was 
found,  and  land -troops  under  General  Viele 
went  through  it  to  reconnoitre.  Another  expe¬ 
dition  went  up  to  the  Savannah  River  by  way 
of  Wassaw  Sound,  and  the  gunboats  had  a  skir¬ 
mish  with  Tatnall’s  “Mosquito  Fleet.”  (See 
Port  Royal.)  Soon  afterwards  the  Nationals 
erected  batteries  that  effectually  closed  the  Sa¬ 
vannah  River  in  the  rear  of  Pulaski,  and  at  the 
close  of  February,  1862,  it  was  absolutely  block¬ 
aded.  General  Gillmore  planted  siege-guns  on 
Big  Tybee  that  commanded  the  fort ;  and  on 
April  10,  1862,  after  General  Hunter  (who  had 
succeeded  General  Sherman)  had  demanded  its 
surrender,  and  it  had  been  refused,  thirty -six 
heavy  rifled  cannons  and  mortars  were  opened 
upon  it,  under  the  direction  of  Generals  Gill¬ 
more  and  Yiele.  It  was  gallantly  defended  un¬ 
til  the  12th,  when,  so  battered  as  to  be  unten¬ 
able,  it  was  surrendered.  This  victory  enabled 
the  Nationals  to  close  the  port  of  Savannah 
against  blockade-runners. 

Fort  Schuyler,  Siege  of  (1777).  On  the  site 
of  the  village  of  Rome,  Oneida  Co.,N.  Y.,  General 
Stanwix  built  a  fort  which  received  his  name. 
After  the  war  for  independence  began  it  was 
named  Fort  Schuyler.  In  the  Revolution  it 
was  on  the  western  borders  of  civilization. 
There  was  a  small  garrison  there  in  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1777,  commanded  by  Colonel  Peter  Gau- 
sevoort.  It  stood  as  a  sort  of  barrier  against 
hostile  tribes  of  the  Six  Nations.  The  little 
garrison  had  been  reinforced  by  the  regiment 
of  Colonel  Marinus  Willett,  and  was  well  pro¬ 
visioned.  Burgoyne  had  sent  Colonel  St.  Leger 
with  Canadians,  Tories,  and  Indians,  by  way  of 
Lake  Ontario,  to  penetrate  the 
Mohawk  Valley  and  make  his  way 
to  Albany,  there  to  meet  the  gen¬ 
eral.  St.  Leger  appeared  before 
Fort  Schuyler  on  Aug.  3, 1777.  The 
Tories  in  his  train  were  command¬ 
ed  by  Colonels  Johnson,  Claus, 
and  Butler,  and  the  Indians  by 
Brant.  On  receiving  news  that 
General  Herkimer  was  coming  to 
the  aid  of  the  garrison  with  the 
Tryon  County  militia  (see  Battle  of 
Oriskany),  a  larger  portion  within 
the  fort  made  a  sortie.  They 
fell  upon  the  camp  of  Johnson’s 
“Greens”  (see  Sir  John  Johnson) 
so  suddenly  and  furiously  that 
they  were  dispersed  in  great  con¬ 
fusion,  Sir  John  not  having  time 
to  put  ou  his  coat.  Papers,  cloth¬ 
ing,  stores,  and  other  spoils  of 
his  camp  sufficient  to  fill  twenty 
wagons  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Americans.  A  part  of  the  “  Greens” 
had  gone  to  oppose  the  advance  of 
Herki  mer,  approaching  at  that  moment.  St.  Leger 
continued  the  siege.  Colonel  Willett  stealthily 
left  the  fort  at  night  with  a  message  to  Schuyler, 
then  near  the  month  of  the  Mohawk,  asking  for 
relief.  Schuyler  called  for  a  volunteer  leader  to 
go  to  the  relief  of  Fort  Schuyler.  General  Arnold 


BREACH  IN  PORT  PULASKI. 


FORT  SCHUYLER,  TREATY  AT  519  FORT  STEPHENSON,  DEFENCE  OF 


responded,  and  beat  up  for  recruits.  Tlie  next 
day  (Aug.  15)  eight  hundred  strong  men  were 
following  Arnold  up  the  Mohawk  Valley.  At 
Fort  Dayton  he  pardoned  a  young  Tory  prisoner 
condemned  to  death,  on  condition  that  he  should 
go  into  the  camp  of  St.  Leger’s  savages  with  a 
friendly  Oueida  Indian,  represent  the  approach¬ 
ing  Americans  as  exceedingly  numerous,  and  so 
frighten  away  the  Indians.  It  was  done.  The 
Tory  had  several  shots  fired  through  his  cloth¬ 
ing.  Almost  breathless,  he  and  the  Oneida  en¬ 
tered  the  camp,  and  told  of  a  terrible  fight  they 
had  just  had  with  the  Americans,  w7ho  wTere  as 
numerous  as  the  leaves  on  the  trees.  The 
alarmed  Indians  immediately  lied  as  fast  as 
their  legs  could  carry  them  towards  the  west¬ 
ern  wilds,  followed  by  the  Canadians  and  To¬ 
lies  pell-mell  in  a  race  towards  Oswego.  So 
ended  the  siege,  and  so  did  Burgoyue  receive  a 
paralyzing  blow. 

Fort  Schuyler,  Treaty  at  (1784).  While  the 
British  retained  possession  of  the  western  fron¬ 
tier  posts  it  was  difficult  to  fix  by  treaty  the  Ind¬ 
ian  boundaries  and  open  the  western  lands  to  set¬ 
tlers.  But  a  treaty  made  at  Fort  Schuyler  (for¬ 
merly  Fort  Stamvix)  by  commissioners  of  the 
United  States  and  the  chiefs  and  warriors  of  the 
Six  Nations  gave  some  facilities  in  that  direc¬ 
tion.  By  this  treaty  the  Mohawks,  Onoudagas, 
Cayugas,  and  Senecas  w  ho  had  adhered  to  the 
British  duriug  the  war  consented  to  a  peace 
and  a  release  of  prisoners.  At  the  same  time 
they  ceded  all  their  territory  west  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

Fort  Stanwix  Built.  In  1758,  when  return¬ 
ing  with  a  detachment  of  provincial  troops  from 
Oswego,  Brigadier-general  Stanwix  constructed 
a  fort  on  the  Mohawk,  at  the  camping-place  be¬ 
tween  that  river  and  Wood  Creek,  that  empties 
into  Oneida  Lake,  for  the  security  of  the  In¬ 
dians  in  the  neighborhood  who  adhered  to  the 
English.  It  occupied  a  portion  of  the  site  of 
Rome,  in  Oneida  County.  In  honor  of  the  com¬ 
mander,  it  was  named  Fort  Stamvix.  After  its 
relief  from  capture  in  August,  1777,  through  the 
exertions  of  General  Schuyler,  it  wTas  named  Fort 
Schuyler. 

Fort  Stanwix,  Treaty  at  (1768).  Fort  Stan¬ 
wix  wras  built  by  General  Stanwix,  wdth  the  as¬ 
sistance  of  Colonel  Bradstreet  on  bis  return  from 
the  capture  of  Fort  Frontenac  in  1758.  (See  Fron- 
tenac.)  After  the  French  and  Indian  War  there 
were  various  projects  for  settlements  beyond 
the  mountains.  On  the  5th  of  November,  1768, 
a  treaty  was  held  at  Fort  Stanwix,  at  which  the 
Six  Nations,  in  consideration  of  the  payment  of 
a  little  over  !|50,0()0,  ceded  to  the  crown  all  their 
country  south  of  the  Ohio  as  far  as  the  Cherokee 
or  Tennessee  River.  So  much  of  this  region  as 
lay  south  of  the  Great  Kanawha  was  claimed  by 
the  Cherokees  as  their  hunting  ground. 

Fort  Steadman.  (See  Peter  nburg,  Final  Strug¬ 
gle  at.)  Lee  assigned  to  the  duty  of  assaulting 
Fort  Steadman  the  two  divisions  of  Gordon’s 
command,  w  ith  the  larger  portion  of  Bushrod  R. 
Johnston’s  command  in  support.  Behind  these 
he  massed  about  twenty  thousand  meu  to  break 


through  the  National  line  if  the  attack  should 
prove  successful.  They  w'ere  supplied  with 
provisions  and  ammunition  for  a  long  struggle. 
The  assault  began  at  four  o’clock  in  the  morn¬ 
ing  (March  25,  1865).  •  Its  garrison,  composed  of 
the  Fourteenth  New  York  Artillery,  had  no  sus¬ 
picion  of  danger  near.  The  fort  wTas  in  front 
of  the  Ninth  Corps,  forming  a  salient,  not  more 
than  one  hundred  yards  from  the  Confederate 
iutreuchments.  The  surprise  was  so  complete 
that  the  assailants  met  wdth  no  resistance.  A 
part  of  the  garrison  fled;  the  remainder  were 
made  prisoners.  A  brigade  of  the  Ninth  Corps 
met  the  same  fate,  and  abandoned  their  guns. 
Now  was  the  moment  when  Lee’s  army  might 
have  passed  through  the  National  line.  It  did 
not,  and  the  golden  moment  was  lost  forever. 
The  Confederates  attacked  Fort  Haskell,  near, 
but  were  repulsed.  Confederate  columns  press¬ 
ing  through  the  gap  were  assailed  by  a  murder¬ 
ous  fire  of  artillery;  and  an  assault  by  General 
Hartranft’s  division  of  the  Ninth  Corps,  wdth  an 
enfilading  fire  of  artillery,  caused  the  surrender 
of  nineteen  hundred  men.  Fort  Steadman  was 
recovered,  and  at  the  same  time  a  strongly  in¬ 
trenched  picket-line  of  the  Confederates  was 
seized  and  permanently  held.  Lee  was  dis¬ 
heartened  by  the  failure  and  losses. 

Fort  Stephenson,  Defence  of.  At  Lower 
Sandusky  (now  Fremont),  Ohio,  was  a  regular 
earthwork,  with  a  ditch,  circumvallating  pick¬ 
ets,  bastions,  and  block-houses,  called  Fort  Ste- 
phenson.  It  was  garrisoned  by  one  hundred 
and  sixty  men,  under  the  command  of  Major 
George  Croghan,  of  the  regular  army,  then  only 


GEORGE  CROGHAN. 


twenty-one  years  of  ago.  Tecmntha  had  urged 
Proctor  to  renew  the  siege  of  Fort  Meigs,  but 
that  timid  officer  hesitated  a  long  while.  Final¬ 
ly,  late  in  July,  he  appeared  before  the  fort 
(in  command  of  General  Clay)  with  his  own 


FORT  STEPHENSON,  DEFENCE  OF  520 


FORT  STEPHENSON,  DEFENCE  OF 


and  Tecumtha’s  followers,  about  four  thousand 
strong.  Satisfied  that  he  could  not  take  the 
tort,  Proctor  and  his  white  troops  embarked, 
with  their  stores  (July  28,1813)  for  Sandusky 
Bay,  with  the  intention  of  attacking  Fort  Ste¬ 
phenson.  The  Indians  marched  across  the  heav¬ 
ily  wooded  country  to  assist  iu  the  siege.  Cro- 


panied  by  the  usual  threat  of  massacre  by  the 
Indians  in  case  of  a  refusal.  Croghan  defied 
him,  and  immediately  a  cannonade  and  bom¬ 
bardment  were  commenced  from  the  gunboats 
and  from  howitzers  which  the  British  had  land¬ 
ed.  It  was  then  four  o’clock  in  the  afternoon. 
All  night  long  the  great  guns  assailed  the  fort 


SITE  OF  FOKT  STEFilENSON,  FREMONT,  OHIO,  IN  lOtiO. 


glian  was  vigilant.  He  had  been  advised  by 
his  superiors  to  evacuate  the  fort  when  it  was 
known  that  an  overwhelming  force  of  the  enemy 
was  approaching.  He  preferred  to  remain,  and 
did  so,  in  half  disobedience  of  orders.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  arrived  in  their  boats  on  the  31st,  when 
Croghan  perceived  that  the  woods  were  swarm¬ 
ing  with  Indians.  Tecumtha  had  concealed 


GOLD  MEDAL  AWARDED 


with  very  little  effect,  and  were  answered  occa¬ 
sionally  by  a  solitary  six-pounder  cannon,  which 
was  all  the  ordnance  possessed  by  the  little  gar¬ 
rison.  It  was  shifted  from  one  block-house  to 
another  to  make  the  enemy  believe  the  fort  was 
well  armed  with  several  great  guns.  During 
the  night  the  British  dragged  three  six-pounder 
cannons  to  a  point  higher  than  the  fort,  and 


TO  COLONEL  CROGHAN. 


about  two  thousand  of  them  in  the  forest  to 
watch  the  roads  along  whicli  reinforcements  for 
the  fort  might  approach.  Proctor  at  once  made 
a  demand  for  the  surrender  of  the  fort,  accorn- 


early  in  the  morning  (Aug.  1)  there  opened  fire 
on  the  works.  This  continued  several  hours, 
the  garrison  remaining  silent.  Proctor  became 
impatient,  and  his  barbarian  allies  were  becom- 


FORT  SUMTER,  FIRST  GUN  FIRED  AT  521  FORT  SUMTER,  REINFORCEMENT  OF 


ing  uneasy,  for  there  were  rumors  of  reinforce¬ 
ments  on  the  way  to  relieve  the  fort.  Proctor 
determined  to  storm  it,  and  at  five  o’clock  in 
the  afternoon,  while  a  thunder-storm  was  ap¬ 
proaching,  the  British  marched  in  two  columns 
to  assail  the  fort ;  at  the  same  time  British  gren¬ 
adiers  made  a  wide  circuit  through  the  woods  to 
make  a  feigned  attack  at  another  point.  As  the 
two  columns  advanced  the  artillery  played  in¬ 
cessantly  upon  the  fort,  and  under  cover  of 
this  tire  they  reached  a  point  within  fifteen  or 
twenty  paces  of  the  pickets  before  they  were 
discovered.  The  garrison  consisted  mostly  of 
Kentucky  sharpshooters.  These  now  opened  a 
deadly  tire  with  their  rifles.  The  British  lines 
wavered,  but  soon  rallied ;  and  the  first,  led  by 
Lieutenant-colonel  Short,  pushed  over  the  gla¬ 
cis,  leaped  into  the  ditch,  aud  were  about  to 
obey  their  commander,  who  shouted,  “  Cut  away 
the  pickets,  my  brave  boys,  and  show  the 
damned  Yankees  no  quarter!”  when  the  six- 
pounder  cannon,  mounted  and  masked  in  a 
block-house  that  commanded  the  moat,  opened 
a  terrible  storm  of  slugs  and  grape-shot,  which 
swept  along  the  living  wall  with  awful  effect. 
The  second  column,  led  by  Lieutenant  Gordon, 
leaped  into  the  ditch,  aud  met  with  a  similar 
reception.  Both  leaders  aud  many  of  their  fol¬ 
lowers  were  slain,  and  a  precipitate  and  con¬ 
fused  retreat  followed.  The  cowardly  Indians, 
who  were  always  afraid  of  cannons,  had  not 
joined  in  the  assault.  The  loss  of  the  British 
in  killed  and  wounded  was  one  hundred  and 
twenty-one  men  ;  the  garrison  lost  one  man 
killed  and  several  wounded.  For  this  gallant 
defence  Croghau  received  many  honors.  The 
ladies  of  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  presented  him  with 
an  elegant  sword.  Congress  gave  him  the  thanks 
of  the  nation  then,  and  twenty-two  years  after¬ 
wards  awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  This  gallant 
defence  had  a  powerful  effect  on  the  enemy. 

Fort  Sumter,  First  Gun  fired  at.  Edmund 
Ruffin,  a  Virginian,  seventy -five  years  of  age, 
with  long,  white,  flowing  locks,  was  at  the  bat¬ 
tery  on  Morris  Island  when  the  attack  on  Fort 


EDMUND  RUFFIN. 


Sumter  began.  (See  Fall  of  Sumter.)  At  his 
own  request  ho  was  permitted  to  fire  the  first 
shot.  Of  this  feat  he  boasted  much,  but  did 


not  appear  prominently  anywhere  else  during 
the  war.  He  survived  the  conflict,  in  which  he 
lost  all  his  property.  On  Saturday,  June  17, 
1865,  he  committed  suicide  by  blowing  off  the 
top  of  his  head  with  a  gun  at  the  residence  of 
his  son,  near  Danville,  Va.  He  left  a  note  in 
which  he  said :  “  I  cannot  survive  the  liberty  of 
my  country.”  The  wretched  man  was  then  al¬ 
most  eighty  years  of  age. 

Fort  Sumter,  First  Reinforcement  of. 
When  the  wife  of  Major  Anderson  (a  daughter 
of  General  D.  L.  Clinch)  heard  of  the  perilous 
position  of  her  husband  in  Fort  Sumter,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  foes,  and  uncertain  of  the  fidelity 
of  many  of  his  garrison,  she  wras  very  anxious 
that  he  should  have  a  tried  and  faithful  servant 
with  him.  She  was  then  in  New  York  city  and 
an  invalid  ;  but  she  resolved  to  take  an  old 
and  tried  sergeant,  who  had  served  her  husband 
in  the  war  with  Mexico,  into  Fort  Sumter.  His 
name  was  Peter  Hart,  and  she  heard  that  he 
was  somewhere  in  New  York  city.  After  search¬ 
ing  for  him  among  all  the  Harts  whose  names 
were  in  the  city  directory,  she  found  him  con¬ 
nected  with  the  police.  At  her  request  he  called 
upon  her,  accompanied  by  his  wife.  After  tell¬ 
ing  him  of  Major  Anderson’s  peril,  she  said,  “I 
want  you  to  go  with  me  to  Fort  Sumter.”  Hart 
looked  towards  his  young  wife,  a  warm-hearted 
Irishwoman,  for  a  moment,  and  then  said,  “  1 
will  go,  madam.”  “  But  I  want  you  to  stay  with 
the  major.”  Hart  looked  inquiringly  towards 
his  Margaret,  and  replied,  “  I  will  go,  madam.” 
u  But,  Margaret,”  said  Mrs.  Anderson,  “  what  do 
you  say  ?”  “  Indade,  ma’am,  it’s  Margaret’s  sor¬ 
ry  she  can’t  do  as  much  for  you  as  Pater  can,” 
was  the  good  woman’s  reply.  “  When  will  you 
go,  Hart?”  asked  Mrs.  Anderson.  “To-night, 
madam,  if  you  wish.”  “  To-morrow  night  at  six 
o’clock  I  will  be  ready,”  said  Mrs.  Anderson.  At 
that  hour,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  her 
physician,  the  devoted  wife  left,  New  York,  on 
Thursday  evening,  Jan.  3,  1861,  for  Charleston, 
accompanied  by  Peter  Hart  in  the  character  of 
a  servant,  ready  at  all  times  to  do  her  bidding. 
None  but  her  physician  knew  her  destination. 
They  travelled  without  intermission,  and  ar¬ 
rived  at  Charleston  late  on  Saturday  night.  She 
had  neither  eaten,  drunk,  nor  slept  during  the 
journey,  for  she  was  absorbed  with  the  subject 
of  her  errand.  From  Wilmington  to  Charleston 
she  was  the  only  woman  on  the  train.  Therein, 
and  at  the  hotel  in  Charleston,  she  continually 
heard  her  husband  cursed  and  threatened.  She 
knew  Governor  Pickens  personally,  and  t  he  next 
morning  she  sought  from  him  a  permit  for  her¬ 
self  and  Hart  to  go  to  Fort  Sumter.  He  could 
not  allow  a  man  to  be  added  to  the  garrison. 
Regarding  with  scorn  the  suggestion  that  the 
addition  of  one  man  to  a  garrison  of  seventy  or 
eighty,  when  thousands  of  armed  men  were  in 
Charleston,  could  imperil  the  “sovereign  State 
of  South  Carolina,”  Mrs.  Anderson  sent  a  mes¬ 
sage  to  the  governor,  saying,  “  I  shall  take  Hart 
with  me,  with  or  without  a  pass.”  Her  words 
of  scorn  and  her  message  were  repeated  to  the 
governor,  and  he,  seeing  the  absurdity  ot  his 
objection,  gave  a  pass  for  Hart.  At  ten  o’clock 


FORT  TICONDEROGA,  CAPTURE  OF  522  FORT  TICONDEROGA,  CAPTURE  OF 


on  Sunday  morning,  Jan.  6,  accompanied  by  a 
few  personal  friends,  Mrs.  Anderson  and  Peter 
Hart  went  in  a  boat  to  Fort  Sumter.  As  she 
saw  the  banner  over  the  fort  she  exclaimed, 
“The  dear  old  flag!”  and  burst  into  tears.  It 
w'as  the  first,  time  emotion  had  conquered  her  will 
since  she  left  New  York.  As  her  friends  carried 
her  from  the  boat  to  the  sally-port,  her  husband 
ran  out,  caught  her  in  his  arms,  and  exclaimed, 
in  a  vehement  whisper,  “My  glorious  wife!” 
and  carried  her  into  the  fort.  “I  have  brought 
you  Peter  Hart,”  she  said.  “The  children  are 
well.  I  return  to-night.”  In  her  husband’s 
quarters  she  took  some  refreshment.  The  tide 
served  in  the  course  of  two  hours,  and  she  re¬ 
turned  to  Charleston.  She  had  reinforced  Fort 


plain,  and  their  possession,  became  subjects  of 
earnest  consultation  among  patriots.  The  sub¬ 
ject  was  talked  of  in  the  Connecticut  Legislat¬ 
ure  after  the  affair  at  Lexington,  and  several 
gentlemen  formed  the  bold  design  of  attempt¬ 
ing  their  capture  by  surprise.  With  this  view, 
about  forty  volunteers  set  out  for  Bennington 
to  engage  the  co-operation  of  Ethan  Allen,  a 
native  of  Connecticut,  and  the  brave  leader  of 
the  “Green  Mountain  Boys”  (which  see).  He 
readily  seconded  their  views.  They  had  been 
joined  at  Pittsfield,  in  western  Massachusetts, 
by  Colonels  Easton  and  Brown,  with  about  forty 
followers.  Allen  was  chosen  the  leader  after 
the  whole  party  reached  Castletou,  at  twilight, 
on  the  7th  of  May  (1775).  Colonel  Easton  was 


Sumter  with 
Peter  Hart,  a 
more  efficient 
power  at  the  right  hand  of 
Major  Anderson  at  that  criti¬ 
cal  moment  than  a  hundred 
soldiers  would  have  been,  for 
he  was  ever  vigilant,  keen, 
faithful,  judicious,  and  brave,  and  was  the  ma¬ 
jor’s  trusted  friend  on  all  occasions.  On  a  bed 
placed  in  the  cars,  and  accompanied  by  Major 
Anderson’s  brother,  the  devoted  wife  started  for 
New  York  on  Sunday  evening.  She  was  insen¬ 
sible  when  she  reached  Washington.  A  dear 
friend  carried  her  into  Willard’s  Hotel.  Forty- 
eight  hours  afterwards  she  started  for  New  York, 
and  there  she  was  for  a  long  time  threatened 
with  brain  fever.  This  narrative,  in  more  mi¬ 
nute  detail,  is  from  the  lips  of  Mrs.  Anderson. 

Fort  Ticonderoga,  Capture  of  (1775).  When 
it  became  apparent  that  war  wTas  inevitable, 
the  importance  of  the  strong  fortresses  of  Ti¬ 
conderoga  and  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Cham¬ 


RTJINS  OF  FORT  TICONDEROGA,  IN  1848. 


chosen  to  be  Allen’s  lieutenant,  and  Seth  War¬ 
ner,  of  the  “Green  Mountain  Boys,”  was  made 
third  in  command.  At  Castleton  Colonel  Ar¬ 
nold  joined  the  party.  He  had  heard  the  proj¬ 
ect  spoken  of  in  Connecticut  just  as  he  was 
about  to  start  for  Cambridge.  He  proposed  the 
enterprise  to  the  Massachusetts  Committee  of 
Safety,  and  was  commissioned  a  colonel  by  the 
Provincial  Congress,  and  furnished  with  means 
and  authority  to  raise  not  more  than  four  hun¬ 
dred  men  in  western  Massachusetts  and  lead 
them  against  the  forts.  On  reaching  Stock- 
bridge,  he  was  disappointed  in  learning  that 
another  expedition  was  on  the  way.  He  hast¬ 
ened  to  join  it,  and  claimed  the  right  to  the 
chief  command  by  virtue  of  his  commission.  It 
was  emphatically  refused.  He  acquiesced,  but 
with  a  bad  grace.  On  the  evening  of  the  9th 
they  were  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  op¬ 
posite  Ticonderoga,  and  at  dawn  the  next  morn¬ 
ing  the  officers  and  eighty  men  were  on  the 
beach  a  few  rods  from  the  fortress,  sheltered  by 
a  bluff.  A  lad  familiar  with  the  fort  was  their 


FORT  WASHINGTON,  CAPTURE  OF  523  FORT  WAYNE,  ATTACK  UPON 


guide.  Following  liira,  they  ascended  stealthily 
to  the  sally-port,  where  a  sentinel  snapped  his 
musket  and  retreated  into  the  fort,  closely  fol¬ 
lowed  by  the  invaders,  who  quickly  penetrated 
to  the  parade.  With  a  tremendous  shout  the 
New-Englauders  awakened  the  sleeping  garri¬ 
son,  while  Allen  ascended  the  outer  staircase 
of  the  barracks  to  the  chamber  of  the  command¬ 
er  (Captain  Delaplace),  and  beating  the  door 
with  the  handle  of  his  sword,  cried  out  with  his 
loud  voice,  “I  demand  an  instant  surrender!” 
The  captain  rushed  to  the  door,  followed  by  his 
trembling  wife.  He  knew  Allen,  and  recognized 
him.  “  Your  errand  ?”  demanded  the  command¬ 
er.  Pointing  to  his  men,  Allen  said,  “I  order 
you  to  surrender.”  “  By  what  authority  do  you 
demand  it?”  inquired  Delaplace.  “By  the 
authority  of  the  Great  Jehovah  and  the  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress!”  answered  Allen,  with  empha¬ 
sis,  at  the  same  time  flourishing  his  broadsword 
over  the  head  of  the  terrified  commander.  De¬ 
laplace  surrendered  the  fort  and  its  dependen¬ 
cies,  and  a  large  quantity  of  precisely  such  mu¬ 
nitions  of  war  as  the  colonists'  needed — -one 
hundred  and  twenty  iron  cannons,  fifty  swivels, 
two  mortars,  a  howitzer,  a  cohorn,  a  large  quan¬ 
tity  of  ammunition  and  other  stores,  and  a  ware¬ 
house  full  of  naval  munitions,  with  forty-eight 
men,  women,  and  children,  who  were  sent  to 
Hartford.  Two  days  afterwards  (May  12)  Colo¬ 
nel  Seth  Warner  made  an  easy  conquest  of 
Crown  Point.  So,  at  the  outset,  the  colonists 
obtained  the  control  of  Lake  Champlain,  the 
open  door  through  which  to  enter  Canada. 

Fort  Washington,  Capture  op  (1776).  On 
the  day  of  the  Battle  of  White  Plains  (which  see), 
General  Kuyphausen,with  six  German  regiments, 
crossed  the  Harlem  River  and  encamped  on  the 
flat  below  Fort  Washington  and  King’s  Bridge. 
That  fort  was  a  strong  work,  supported  by  out¬ 
lying  redoubts.  It  was  ou  the  highest  point  of 
land  ou  Manhattan  Island.  When  Washington 
heard  of  the  peril  that  menaced  it,  he  advised 
General  Greene,  in  whose  charge  both  it  and 
Fort  Lee,  on  the  top  of  the  palisades  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river,  opposite,  had  been  left, 
to  withdraw  the  garrison  and  stores,  but  left 
the  matter  to  that  officer’s  discretion.  When 
he  arrived  there  (Nov.  15,  1776)  he  was  disap¬ 
pointed  in  not  finding  his  wishes  gratified. 
Greene  desired  to  hold  the  fort  as  a  protection 
to  the  river;  the  Congress  had  ordered  it  to  be 
held  till  the  last  extremity,  and  Colonel  Robert 
Magaw,  its  commander,  said  he  could  hold  out 
against  the  whole  British  army  until  December. 
Washington  was  not  satisfied  of  its  safety,  but 
yielded  his  judgment,  and  returned  to  Hacken¬ 
sack.  There,  at  sunset,  he  received  a  copy  of  a 
bold  reply  which  Magaw  had  made  to  a  sum¬ 
mons  to  surrender  sent  by  Howe,  accompanied 
by  a  threat  to  put  the  garrison  to  the  sword  in 
case  of  a  refusal.  Magaw  had  protested  against 
the  savage  menace,  and  refused  compliance. 
Washington  went  immediately  to  Fort  Lee. 
Greene  had  crossed  over  to  the  island.  Starting 
across  the  river  in  a  small  boat,  Washington 
met  Greene  and  Putnam  returning;  and  being 
informed  that  the  garrison  were  in  fine  spirits, 


and  could  defend  themselves,  he  went  bac  k  to 
Fort  Lee.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  16th 
(November)  Howe  opened  a  severe  cannonade 
from  the  heights  on  the  Westchester  shore.  Un¬ 
der  its  cover  the  attack  was  made  in  four  col¬ 
umns.  Knyphauseu,  with  his  Germans,  moved 
up  from  the  flats  along  the  rough  hills  nearest 
the  Hudson.  At  the  same  time  Lord  Percy  led 
a  division  of  English  and  German  troops  to  at¬ 
tack  the  lines  on  the  south.  General  Mathews, 
supported  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  crossed  the  Har¬ 
lem  near  King’s  Bridge,  with  guards,  light  in¬ 
fantry,  and  grenadiers;  while  Colonel  Sterling, 
with  Highlanders,  crossed  at  a  poiut  a  little 
above  the  present  High  Bridge.  The  outworks 
of  the  fort  were  defended  on  the  north  by  Colo¬ 
nel  Rawlings,  with  Maryland  riflemen  and  mili¬ 
tia  from  Mercer’s  Flying  Camp,  under  Colonel 
Baxter.  The  lines  towards  New  York  were  de¬ 
fended  by  Pennsylvanians,  commanded  by  Col¬ 
onel  Lambert  Cadwalader.  Magaw  commanded 
in  the  fort.  Rawlings  and  Baxter  occupied  re¬ 
doubts  ou  heavily  wooded  hills.  By  a  simulta¬ 
neous  attack  at  all  points,  the  battle  was  very 
severe  outside  of  the  fort.  The  British  and  Ger¬ 
man  assailants  pressed  hard  upon  the  fort,  and 
both  Howe  and  Knyphauseu  made  a  peremptory 
demand  for  its  surrender.  Resistance  to  pike, 
ball,  and  bayonet,  wielded  by  five  thousand  vet¬ 
erans,  was  in  vain,  and  Magaw  yielded.  At 
half-past  one  o’clock  (Nov.  17, 1776)  the  British 
flag  waved  in  triumph  over  Fort  Washington. 
The  Americans  lost  in  killed  and  wounded  not 
more  than  one  hundred  men,  while  the  British 
lost  almost  one  thousand.  The  garrison  that 
surrendered,  with  militia,  numbered  about  twro 
thousand  five  huudred,  of  whom  more  than  two 
thousand  were  disciplined  regulars.  Washing¬ 
ton,  standing  ou  the  brow  of  the  palisades  at 
Fort  Lee,  with  Thomas  Paine,  author  of  Common 
Sense,  saw  the  surrender.  The  name  of  the  for¬ 
tification  was  changed  to  Fort  Knyphausen. 
Its  garrison  soon  filled  the  prisons  on  land  and 
water  at  New  York.  (See  Prisons  and  Prison- 
ships.)  Recent  discoveries  show  that  the  fall 
of  Fort  Washington  was  accomplished  through 
the  agency  of  treason.  See  Edward  F.  Delan- 
cey’s  paper  on  Fort  Washington,  read  before  the 
New  York  Historical  Society  in  1878. 

Fort  Wayne,  Attack  upon  ( 1812  ).  Forts 
Wayne  and  Harrison,  the  former  at  the  junction 
of  the  St.  Joseph’s  and  St.  Mary’s  rivers,  where 
they  form  the  Maumee,  and  the  latter  on  the 
Wabash,  were  strongholds  of  the  Americans  in 
the  northwest.  General  Proctor,  in  command  at 
Fort  Malden,  resolved  to  reduce  them,  with  the 
assistance  of  Tecumtha,  whom  Brock  had  com¬ 
missioned  a  brigadier-general.  Major  Muir,  with 
British  regulars  and  Indians,  was  to  proceed  up 
the  Maumee  Valley  to  co-operate  with  other  In¬ 
dians,  and  the  1st  of  September  was  appointed 
tis  the  day  when  they  should  invest  Fort  Wayne. 
The  garrison  consisted  of  only  seventy  men,  un¬ 
der  Captain  James  Rhea.  The  Indians  prose¬ 
cuted  raids  in  other  directions  to  divert  atten¬ 
tion  from  FortsWayne  and  Harrison,  and  prevent 
theirbeing  reinforced.  A  scalping-party  fell  upon 
the  “Pigeon -roost  Settlement”  in  Scott  Couu- 


FORT  WILLIAM  IIENRY,  SIEGE  OF  524  FORTIFICATIONS,  FIRST 


ty,  Ind.  (Sept.  3,  1812),  and  during  the  twilight 
they  killed  three  men,  five  women,  and  sixteen 
children.  Similar  atrocities  were  committed  by 
these  sa  vage  allies  of  the  British  preparatory  to 
the  investment  of  Fort  Wayne.  For  several 
days  the  Indians  had  been  seen  hovering  in  the 
woods  around  the  fort,  and  on  the  night  of 
Sept.  5  they  attacked  the  sentinels.  The  treach¬ 
erous  Miamis,  who,  since  the  massacre  at  Chi¬ 
cago  (w  hich  see),  had  resolved  to  join  the  Brit¬ 
ish,  kept  up  a  zealous  pretence  of  friendship  for 
the  Americans,  hoping  by  this  to  get  possession 
of  the  fort  by  surprise.  They  joined  the  other 
Indians  in  an  attack  on  the  fort  on  the  night  of 
the  6th,  supposed  to  have  beeu  six  hundred 


daily  expresses  were  sent  to  Webb  asking  aid, 
but  none  was  furnished.  One  day  General  John¬ 
son,  with  a  corps  of  provincials  and  Putnam’s 
Rangers,  had  marched  a  few  miles  in  that  di¬ 
rection,  when  they  were  recalled,  and  Webb 
sent  a  letter  to  Munro  advising  him  to  surren¬ 
der.  This  letter  was  intercepted,  and  Mont¬ 
calm  sent  it  to  Munro,  with  a  peremptory  de¬ 
mand  for  his  instant  surrender.  Perceiving 
further  resistance  to  be  useless,  for  his  ammu¬ 
nition  was  exhausted,  he  yielded,  Montcalm 
agreeing  to  an  honorable  surrender,  and  a  safe 
escort  of  the  troops  to  Fort  Edward.  The  In¬ 
dians  were  disappointed,  for  they  expected 
blood  and  booty.  When  the  English  had  en- 


FOKT  WAYNE  IN  1012. 


strong.  They  attempted  to  scale  the  palisades, 
but  were  driven  back.  Then,  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  a  half-breed,  they  formed  two  logs  into 
the  shape  of  cannons,  and  demanded  the  instant 
surrender  of  the  fort,  which  would  be  battered 
down  in  case  of  a  refusal.  The  troops  were  not 
frightened.  They  knew  friends  were  on  their 
way  to  relieve  them.  The  besiegers  kept  up 
assaults  until  the  12th,  when  tney  lied  precipi¬ 
tately  on  the  approach  of  a  delivering  force  that 
night  which  saved  the  fort.  The  Indians  had 
destroyed  the  live-stock,  crops,  and  dwellings 
outside  of  the  fort.  The  city  of  Fort  Wayne 
stands  near  the  spot. 

Fort  William  Henry,  Siege  and  Capture 
of  (1757).  Montcalm  left  Ticonderoga  towards 
the  close  of  July,  1757,  with  nearly  nine  thou¬ 
sand  men,  of  whom  about  two  thousand  were 
Indians,  and  moved  against  Fort  William  Hen¬ 
ry,  built  by  Sir  William  Johnson,  at  the  head 
of  Lake  George.  It  was  garrisoned  by  about 
three  thousand  troops,  under  Colonel  Munro,  a 
brave  English  officer,  who  felt  strong  in  his  po¬ 
sition  because  of  the  close  proximity  of  four 
thousand  English  troops,  under  General  Webb, 
at  Fort  Edward,  only  fifteen  miles  distant. 
Webb  was  Munro’s  commanding  general.  When 
Montcalm  demanded  (Aug.  1, 1757)  the  surren¬ 
der  of  the  post  and  garrison,  the  colonel  refused, 
and  sent  an  express  to  General  Webb  for  aid. 
For  six  days  Montcalm  continued  the  siege,  and 


tered  the  woods  a  mile  from  Fort  William  Hen¬ 
ry,  the  savages  fell  upon  them,  and  slew  a  large 
number  of  men,  women,  and  children,  before 
Montcalm  could  stay  the  slaughter.  The  In¬ 
dians  pursued  the  terrified  garrison  (plundering 
them  in  their  flight)  to  within  about  cannon- 
shot  of  Fort  Edward.  Theu  Fort  William  Hen¬ 
ry  and  all  its  appendages  were  destroyed,  and 
it  was  never  rebuilt.  Now  (  1887)  the  Fort 
William  Henry  Hotel  stands  upon  its  site.  The 
fall  of  that,  fort  caused  greater  alarm  in  the 
colonies  than  the  loss  of  Oswego  the  year  be¬ 
fore.  Montcalm  retired  to  Canada. 

Fortifications,  First,  ordered  by  Congress. 
When  the  question  of  taking  measures  for  the 
defence  of  the  colonies  was  proposed  in  Con¬ 
gress,  a  discussion  arose  that  was  long  and  ear¬ 
nest,  for  many  members  yet  hoped  for  reconcilia¬ 
tion.  On  the  very  day  that  a  British  reinforce¬ 
ment  at  Boston,  with  Howe,  Clinton,  and  Bur- 
goyne,  entered  that  harbor,  Duane,  of  New  York, 
moved,  in  the  Committee  of  the  Whole,  the  open¬ 
ing  a  negotiation,  in  order  to  accommodate  the 
unhappy  disputes  existing  between  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  and  the  colonies,  and  that  this  be  made  a 
part  of  the  petition  to  the  king.  But  more  de¬ 
termined  spirits  prevailed,  and  a  compromise 
was  reached  late  in  May  (25th),  when  directions 
were  given  to  the  Provincial  Congress  at  New 
York  to  preserve  the  communications  between 
that  city  and  the  country  by  fortifying  posts  at 


FORTIFICATIONS  FOR  HARBORS  525  FORTS  CLINTON  AND  MONTGOMERY 


the  upper  eutl  of  New  York  Island,  near  King’s 
Bridge,  and  on  each  side  of  the  Hudson  River, 
on  the  Highlands.  They  were  also  directed  to 
establish  a  fort  at  Lake  George  and  sustain  the 
position  at  Ticonderoga,  on  Lake  Champlain, 
which  the  “Green  Mountain  Boys”  (which  see) 
and  others  had  seized  a  fortnight  before.  (See 
Ticonderoga.) 

Fortifications  for  Harbors,  First  Author¬ 
ized.  A  bill  for  this  purpose  was  reported 
(March  4, 1794)  by  a  committee  of  one  from  each 
state,  while  the  bill  for  the  construction  of  a 
navy  was  under  consideration.  The  act  author¬ 
ized  the  President  to  commence  fortifications  at 
Portland,  Portsmouth,  Gloucester,  Salem,  Bos¬ 
ton,  Newport,  New  London,  New  York,  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Wilmington,  Baltimore,  Alexandria,  Nor¬ 
folk,  Ocracoke  Inlet,  Cape  Fear  River,  George- 


completed  at  a  cost  of  $2,500,000  It  was 
named  in  honor  of  President  Monroe.  Its 
walls,  faced  with  heavy  blocks  of  granite,  were 
thirty-five  feet  in  thickness  and  casemated  be¬ 
low,  and  were  entirely  surrounded  by  a  deep 
moat  filled  with  water.  It  stands  upon  a  pe¬ 
ninsula  known  as  Old  Point  Comfort,  which  is 
connected  with  the  main  by  a  narrow  isthmus 
of  sand  and  by  a  bridge  in  the  direction  of  the 
village  of  Hampton.  There  were  sixty-five  acres 
of  land  within  its  walls,  and  it  was  armed  with 
almost  four  hundred  great  guns  when  the  war 
broke  out.  It  had  at  that  time  a  garrison  of 
only  three  hundred  men,  under  Colonel  Justin 
Dimick,  of  the  regular  army.  Its  possession 
was  coveted  by  the  insurgents,  but  Dimick  had 
turned  some  of  its  cannons  landward.  These 
taught  the  Confederates,  civil  and  military,  pru- 


FORTRESS  MONROE  IN  1861. 


town,  Charleston,  Savannah,  and  St.  Mary’s.  An¬ 
napolis  was  added  by  a  subsequent  act.  For 
this  purpose  only  $156,000  were  appropriated. 
The  President  was  authorized  to  purchase  200 
cannons  for  the  armament  of  the  new  fortifica¬ 
tions,  and  to  provide  150  extra  gun-carriages, 
with  250  tons  of  cannon-balls,  for  which  purpose 
$96,000  were  appropriated.  Another  act  appro¬ 
priated  $81,000  for  the  establishment  of  arse¬ 
nals  and  armories  in  addition  to  those  at  Spring- 
field  and  Carlisle,  and  $340,000  for  the  purchase 
of  arms  and  stores.  The  exportation  of  arms 
was  prohibited  for  one  year,  and  all  arms  im¬ 
ported  during  the  next  two  years  were  to  come 
in  free  of  duty. 

Fortress  Monroe,  in  1861,  was  the  most 
extensive  military  work  in  the  United  States. 
Its  construction  was  begun  in  1819,  and  was 


dence,  wisdom,  and  discretion.  General  B.  F. 
Butler,  having  been  appointed  commander  of 
the  Department  of  Virginia  (see  Baltimore  in  Pos¬ 
session  of  National  Troops ),  with  his  headquarters 
at  Fortress  Monroe,  arrived  there  on  May  22, 
1861,  and  took  the  chief  command,  with  troops 
sufficient  to  insure  its  safety  against  any  attacks 
of  the  insurgents.  Butler’s  first  care  was  to  as¬ 
certain  the  practicability  of  a  march  upon  and 
seizure  of  Richmond,  then  the  seat  of  the  Confed¬ 
erate  government.  Its  capture  was  desired  by 
the  National  government,  but  no  troops  could 
then  be  spared  from  Washington.  Fortress  Mon¬ 
roe  was  firmly  held  by  the  Nationals  during  the 
war.  It  was  an  important  post,  for  it  was  the 
key  to  the  principal  waters  of  Virginia. 

Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery,  Capture 
of  (1777).  While  Burgoyne  was  contending 


FORTS  CLINTON  AND  MONTGOMERY  526  FORTS  MORGAN  AND  GAINES  SEIZED 


■with  Gates  on  the  upper  Hudson,  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
tou  was  attempting  to  make  his  way  up  the 
river,  to  join  him  or  to  make  a  diversion  in  his 
favor.  Among  the  Hudson  Highlands  were 
three  forts  of  considerable  strength,  but  with 
feeble  garrisons  —  Fort  Constitution,  opposite 
West  Point,  and.  Forts  Clinton  and  Montgom¬ 
ery,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  at  the  lower 
entrance  to  the  Highlands,  standing  on  opposite 
sides  of  a  creek,  with  high,  rocky  shores.  From 
Fort  Montgomery,  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
stream,  to  Anthony’s  Nose,  opposite,  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  had  stretched  a  boom  and  chain  across  the 
river  to  prevent  the  passage  of  hostile  vessels 
up  that  stream.  Forts  Clinton  and  Montgom¬ 
ery  were  under  the  immediate  command  of  Gov¬ 
ernor  George  Clinton  and  his  brother,  General 
James  Clinton.  Tories  had  informed  Sir  Hen¬ 
ry  Clinton  of  the  weakness  of  the  garrisons,  and 
as  soon  as  expected  reinforcements  from  Europe 
had  arrived,  he  prepared  transports  to  ascend 
the  river.  He  sailed  (Oct.  4,  1777)  with  more  ! 
than  three  thousand  troops,  in  many  armed  and 
unarmed  vessels,  commanded  by  Commodore 
Hotham,  and  landed  them  at  Verplanck’s  Point, 
a  few  miles  below  Peekskill,  then  the  headquar¬ 
ters  of  General  Putnam,  the  supreme  commander 
of  the  Highland  posts.  He  deceived  Putnam  by 
a  feigned  attack  on  Peekskill,  but  the  more  saga¬ 
cious  Governor  Clinton  believed  he  designed  to  ■ 
attack  the  Highland  forts.  Under  cover  of  a 
dense  fog,  on  the  morning  of  the  6th,  Sir  Henry 
re-embarked  two  thousand  troops,  crossed  the 
river,  and  landed  them  on  Stony  Point,  making 
a  circuitous  march  around  the  Dunderberg  to 
fall  upon  the  Highland  forts.  At  the  same  time, 
his  armed  vessels  were  ordered  to  anchor  within 
point-blank-shot  distance  of  these  forts,  to  beat 
off  any  American  vessels  that  might  appear 
above  the  boom  and  chain.  Sir  Henry  divided 
his  forces.  One  party,  led  by  General  Vaughan, 
and  accompanied  by  the  baronet  (about  two 
hundred  strong),  went  through  a  detile  west  of 
the  Dunderberg,  to  strike  Fort  Clinton,  while  an-  | 
other  party  (nine  hundred  strong), led  by  Colonel 
Campbell,  made  a  longer  march,  back  of  Bear 
Mountain, to  fall  on  Fort  Montgomery  at  the  same 
time.  Vaughan  had  a  severe  skirmish  with  troops 
sent  out  from  Fort  Clinton,  on  the  borders  of 
Lake  Sinnipink,  near  it;  at  the  same  time  the 
governor  sent  a  messenger  to  Putnam  for  aid. 
The  messenger,  instead,  deserted  to  the  British. 
Campbell  and  his  men  appeared  before  Fort 
Montgomery  at  five  o’clock  P.M.  and  demanded 
the  surrender  of  both  forts.  It  was  refused, 
when  a  simultaneous  attack  by  both  divisions 
and  by  the  vessels  in  the  river  was  made.  The 
garrison  (chiefly  militia)  made  a  gallant  defence 
until  dark,  when  they  were  overpowered  and 
sought  safety  in  a  scattered  retreat  to  the  adja¬ 
cent  mountains.  The  governor  fled  across  the 
river,  and  at  midnight  was  in  the  camp  of  Put¬ 
nam,  planning  future  operations.  His  brother, 
badly  wmunded,  made  his  way  over  the  moun¬ 
tains  to  his  home  at  New7  Windsor.  Some  Ameri¬ 
can  vessels  lying  above  the  boom,  unable  to  es¬ 
cape,  w7ere  burned  by  their  crews.  By  the  light 
of  this  conflagration  the  fugitive  garrisons  found 


their  way  through  the  mountains  to  settlements 
beyond. 

Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  Surrender 
of.  Although  Farragut  had  passed  these  forts, 
and  the  Confederate  flotilla  had  been  destroyed, 
the  fortifications  were  still  firmly  held  by  the 
insurgents.  The  mortar-fleet  under  Porter  was 
yet  below  them.  General  Butler,  who  had  ac¬ 
companied  the  gunboats  on  their  perilous  pas¬ 
sage  (see  Naval  Battle  on  the  Mississippi)  on  the 
Saxon,  had  returned  to  his  transports,  and  in 
small  boats  his  troops,  under  the  general  pilot¬ 
age  of  General  Godfrey  Weitzel,  passed  through 
bayous  to  the  rear  of  Fort  St.  Philip.  When  he 
was  prepared  to  assail  it,  the  garrison  was  sur¬ 
rendered  without  resistance  (April  28),  for  they 
had  heard  of  the  destruction  of  the  Confederate 
flotilla.  The  commander  of  Fort  Jackson,  fear¬ 
ing  that  all  w  as  lost,  accepted  generous  terms  of 
surrender  from  Commodore  Porter.  The  prison¬ 
ers  taken  in  the  forts  and  at  the  quarantine  num¬ 
bered  about  1000.  The  entire  loss  of  the  Nationals 
from  the  beginning  of  the  contest  until  New  Or¬ 
leans  w  as  taken  was  40  killed  and  177  w'onuded. 

Forts  Jefferson  and  Taylor.  At  the  Gar¬ 
den  Key,  one  of  the  Tortugas  Islands,  oft-  the 
extremity  of  the  Florida  Peninsula,  was  Fort 
Jefferson  ;  and  at  Key  West  was  Fort  Taylor. 
Neither  of  these  forts  was  quite  finished  at  the 
beginning  of  1861.  The  Secessionists  early  con¬ 
templated  their  seizure,  but  the  laborers  em¬ 
ployed  on  them  by  the  United  States  govern¬ 
ment  were  chiefly  slaves,  and  their  masters 
wished  to  reap  the  fruit  of  their  labor  as  long  as 
possible.  It  wras  believed  these  forts  might  be 
seized  at  any  time  by  the  Floridians.  Captain 
Brannan,  with  a  company  of  artillery,  occupied 
barracks  about  half  a  mile  from  Fort  Taylor. 
Some  of  the  military  and  civil  officers  there  were 
Secessionists,  and  they  determined  to  oppose 
Captaiu  Brannan  if  he  should  attempt  to  take 
possession  of  that  fort.  Finally  Captain  Bran- 
nan  succeeded  by  a  stratagem  in  gaining  posses¬ 
sion.  The  steamer  Wyandot  lay  near  the  fort,  and 
her  guns  commanded  the  bridge  that  connected 
it  with  the  island.  One  Sunday  morning,  while 
the  inhabitants  were  at  church,  Captain  Bran¬ 
nan  marched  his  men  by  a  back  road,  crossed  the 
bridge,  and  entered  the  fort.  Supplies  had  al¬ 
ready  been  forwarded  by  water.  Both  forts  w  ere 
strengthened  and  were  lost  to  the  Confederates. 

Forts  Morgan  and  Gaines  Seized.  On  the 
night  of  Jan.  3,  1861,  Colonel  J.  B.  Todd,  under 
orders  of  Governor  Moore,  embarked  on  a  steam¬ 
boat,  with  four  companies  of  insurgent  volun¬ 
teers,  for  Fort  Morgan,  at  the  entrance  to  Mo¬ 
bile  harbor,  about  thirty  miles  below  the  city. 
They  reached  the  fort  at  about  three  o’clock 
iu  the  morning.  The  garrison  seems  to  have 
been  disloyal,  for  they  made  uo  resistance,  and 
cheered  the  flag  of  Alabama  when  it  was  put 
iu  the  place  of  the  banner  of  the  United  States. 
At  five  o’clock  the  fort  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
insurgents.  One  of  the  captors  wrote:  “We 
found  here  about  five  thousand  shot  and  shell; 
and  we  are  ready  to  receive  any  distinguished 
strangers  the  government  may  see  fit  to  send  on 


FOSTER 


527 


FOURTEENTH  AMENDMENT 


a  visit  to  us.”  Fort  Gaines,  on  Dauphin  Island, 
opposite  Fort  Morgan,  shared  the  fate  of  the  lat¬ 
ter.  That  morning  (Jan.  4,  1861)  the  United 
States  revenue  cutter  Lewis  Cass  was  surren¬ 
dered  to  the  collector  of  the  port  of  Mobile. 

Foster,  John  G.,  was  born  in  New  Hampshire 
in  1823  ;  died  at  Nashua,  N.  H.,  Sept.  2,  1874.  He 
graduated  at  West.  Point  in  1846,  entering  the 
engineer  corps.  He  served  in  the  war  with 
Mexico  and  was  breveted  captain  for  meritorious 
services.  For  two  years  (1855—57)  he  was  profess¬ 
or  of  engineering  at  West  Point;  made  captain  in 
the  United  States  Arm3r  in  July,  1860  ;  major  in 
March,  1863,  and  lieutenant-colonel  in  1867. 
Captain  Foster  was  one  of  the  garrison  of  Fort 
Sumter  during  the  siege,  and  was  made  briga¬ 
dier-general  of  volunteers  in  October,  1861.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  capture  of  Roanoke 
Island,  early  in  1862,  and  of  New  Berne,  N.  C.,  of 
which  he  was  made  governor  in  July.  He  was 
promoted  to  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  be¬ 
came  commander  of  the  Department  of  North 
Carolina,  and  defended  that  region  with  skill. 
In  July,  1863,  he  was  made  commander  of  the 
Department  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
with  his  headquarters  at  Fortress  Monroe.  He 
was  afterwards  in  command  of  the  Department 
of  Ohio,  of  which  he  was  relieved  on  account  of 
wounds  in  January,  1864.  He  afterwards  com¬ 
manded  the  departments  of  South  Carolina  and 
Florida.  He  was  breveted  major-general  of  the 
United  States  Army  for  services  during  the  Civil 
War. 

Fouchet,  Jean  Antoine  Joseph,  Baron,  was 
born  at  St.  Quentin,  France,  in  1763.  He  was  a 
law  student  at  Paris  when  the  Revolution  broke 
out,  and  published  a  pamphlet  iu  defence  of  its 
principles.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  appoint¬ 
ed  a  member  of  the  executive  council  of  the 
revolutionary  government,  and  was  French  am¬ 
bassador  to  the  United  States  in  1794-95.  Here 
his  behavior  was  less  offensive  than  that  of 
“  citizen  ”  Genet,  but  it  was  not  satisfactory, 
and  he  was  succeeded  by  Adet,  a  more  prudent 
man.  After  he  left  the  United  States,  the 
French  Directory  appointed  him  a  commission¬ 
er  to  St.  Domingo,  which  he  declined.  Under 
Bonaparte  he  was  prefect  of  Var,  and  in  1805  he 
was  the  same  of  Ain.  Afterwards  he  was  cre¬ 
ated  a  baron  and  made  commander  of  the  Le¬ 
gion  of  Honor.  He  remained  iu  Italy  until  the 
French  evacuated  it  in  1814.  On  Napoleon’s  re¬ 
turn  from  Elba  Fouchet  was  made  prefect  of  the 
Gironde.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

Four  New  Provinces  in  North  America. 

After  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  the  King  of  England, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Privy  Coun¬ 
cil  (which  see),  granted  letters  patent,  under 
the  great  seal,  to  erect  four  distinct  and  sepa¬ 
rate  governments,  styled  Quebec,  East  Florida, 
West  Florida,  and  Grenada.  The  government 
of  Quebec  was  bounded  on  the  Labrador  coast 
by  the  River  St.  John  ;  thence  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  head  of  that  river  to  the  south  end 
of  Lake  Nepissing,  where  the  line,  crossing 
the  River  St.  Lawrence  and  Lake  Champlain, 
iu  45°  north  latitude,  passes  along  the  high¬ 


lands  which  divide  the  streams  that  empty,  re¬ 
spectively,  into  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  sea; 
along  the  coast  of  the  Bay  de  Chaleurs  and  the 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Cape 
Rosiers,  and  thence  crossing  the  month  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  at  the  west  end  of  Anticosti  Isl¬ 
and,  to  the  place  of  beginning  at  the  River  St. 
John.  East  Florida  was  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Appalachicola 
River;  on  the  north  by  a  line  drawn  from  that 
part  of  the  Appalachicola  where  the  Chattahoo¬ 
chee  and  Flint  rivers  meet,  to  the  south  of  the 
St.  Mary’s  River,  and  by  the  course  of  that 
stream  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  and  eastward 
and  southward  by  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  including 
all  islands  within  six  leagues  of  the  sea-coast. 
West  Florida  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  including  all  islands  within  six 
leagues  of  the  coast,  from  the  Appalachicola  to 
Lake  Pontchartrain  ;  westward,  by  that  lake, 
the  Lake  Maurepas,  and  the  Mississippi  River; 
northward,  by  a  line  drawn  due  east  of  that 
part  of  the  Mississippi  which  lies  in  31°  north 
latitude,  to  the  Appalachicola,  and  to  the  east¬ 
ward  by  that  river.  The  government  of  Gre¬ 
nada  was  declared  to  “comprehend  the  island 
of  that  name,  together  with  the  Grenadines,  and 
the  islands  of  Dominica,  St.  Vincent,  and  Toba¬ 
go.”  At  the  same  time  the  whole  coast  from 
the  River  St.John  to  Hudson’s  Strait,  together 
with  the  islands  of  Anticosti  and  Madelaiue,  and 
all  other  smaller  islands  upon  that  coast,  were 
put  under  the  care  of  the  governor  of  New¬ 
foundland.  The  islands  of  St.  John  and  Cape 
Breton,  with  lesser  islands  adjacent,  were  an¬ 
nexed  to  Nova  Scotia;  and  all  the  lands  be¬ 
tween  the  rivers  Altamaha  and  St.  Mary  were 
annexed  to  Georgia.  Power  was  given  to  all 
these  new  colonies  to  call  assemblies,  and  exer¬ 
cise  political  functions,  similar  to  those  of  other 
English-American  colonies. 

Fourteenth  Amendment  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tion.  On  June  13, 1866,  the  following  Amend¬ 
ment  to  the  National  Constitution  was  adopted 
by  Congress,  by  joint  resolution:  “Article 
XIV.,  Section  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized 
in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the  juris¬ 
diction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  state  wherein  they  reside.  No  state 
shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citi¬ 
zens  of  the  United  States,  nor  shall  any  state 
deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protec¬ 
tion  of  the  laws.  Section  2.  Representatives 
shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting 
the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  state,  ex¬ 
cluding  Indians  not  taxed  ;  but  when  the  right 
to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  Elect¬ 
ors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  Representatives  iu  Congress,  the 
executive  and  judicial  officers  ot  a  state,  or  the 
members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to 
any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  state  (being 
twenty -one  years  of  age  and  citizens  of  the 
United  States),  or  in  any  way  abridged  except 


FOX 


FOURTH  OF  JULY,  ANNIVERSARY  OF  528 


for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the 
basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced 
in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such 
male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number 
of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such 
state.  Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or 
Representative  in  Congress,  or  Elector,  or  Pres¬ 
ident,  or  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil 
or  military,  under  theUnited  States,  or  under  any 
state,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as 
a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the 
United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legis¬ 
lature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any 
state,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  and 
comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof;  but  Congress 
may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  re¬ 
move  such  disability.  Section  4.  The  validity  of 
the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized 
by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment 
of  pensions  and  bounties,  for  services  in  sup¬ 
pressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be 
questioned ;  but  neither  the  United  States  nor 
any  state  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obli¬ 
gation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebel¬ 
lion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for 
the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave.  But  all 
such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void.  Section  5.  Congress  shall  have 
power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation,  the 
provisions  of  this  article.”  On  July  20, 1868,  the 
Secretary  of  State  proclaimed  that  the  requisite 
number  of  states  had  ratified  this  Aineudment. 

Fourth  of  July,  First  Anniversary  of  In¬ 
dependence  on  the.  The  first  anniversary  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  celebrated 
in  Philadelphia,  by  the  members  of  Congress  and 
patriotic  citizens,  in  1777.  The  bells  of  the  city 
rang  out  joyfully  nearly  all  day  and  all  the  even¬ 
ing.  On  the  Delaware  vessels  displayed  the 
just-adopted  flag  of  the  inchoate  nation  ;  and  at 
three  o’clock  there  was  a  dinner  at  the  city  tav¬ 
ern,  at  which  were  the  members  of  Congress 
and  officers  of  the  civil  government  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  Patriotic  toasts  were  offered,  and  the 
band  of  the  Hessians  captured  at  Trenton  gave 
stirring  music  for  the  occasion.  There  were 
military  parades  during  the  day,  and  at  night 
the  city  was  made  glorious  by  fireworks  and  a 
general  illumination.  The  day  was  celebrated 
in  Boston,  Annapolis,  Charleston,  and  smaller 
towns.  Three  mouths  afterwards  Philadelphia 
was  in  possession  of  the  British  troops. 

Fowle,  Daniel,  was  born  at  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  in  1715;  died  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in 
June,  1787.  He  learned  the  art  of  printing,  and 
began  business  in  Boston  in  1740,  where,  from 
1748  to  1750,  he  was  joint  partner  with  Gamaliel 
Rogers  in  publishing  the  Independent  Advertiser. 
They  had  published  the  American  Magazine  from 
1743  to  1746,  and  were  the  first  in  America  to 
print  the  New  Testament.  (See  First  Bible  printed 
in  America.)  Mr.  Fowle  settled  in  Portsmouth, 
N.  H. ;  and  there,  in  October,  1756,  began  the 
publication  of  the  Few  Hampshire  Gazette. 

Fox,  George,  founder  of  the  Society  of 


Friends,  or  Quakers,  was  born  at  Drayton,  Leices¬ 
tershire,  England,  in  July,  1624;  died  in  London, 
Jan.  13,  1691.  His  father,  a  Presbyterian,  was 
too  poor  to  give  his  sou  an  education  beyond 
reading  and  writing.  The  son,  who  was  grave 


GEORGE  FOX. 


and  contemplative  in  temperament,  was  appren¬ 
ticed  to  a  shoemaker,  and  made  the  Scriptures 
his  constant  study.  The  doctrines  he  afterwards 
taught  were  gradually  fashioned  in  his  mind  (see 
Quakers),  and  believing  himself  to  be  called  to 
disseminate  them,  he  abandoned  liis  trade  at  the 
age  of  nineteen,  and  began  his  spiritual  work, 
leading  a  wandering  life  for  some  years,  living 
in  the  woods,  and  practising  rigid  self-denial. 
He  first  appeared  as  a  preacher  at  Manchester, 
in  1648,  and  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  disturber 
of  the  peace.  Then  he  travelled  over  England, 
meeting  the  same  fate  everywhere,  but  gaining 
many  followers.  He  warmly  advocated  all  the 
Christian  virtues,  simplicity  in  worship,  and  in 
manner  of  living.  Brought  before  a  justice  at 
Derby,  in  1650,  he  told  the  magistrate  to  “quake 
before  the  Lord,”  and  thereafter  he  and  his  sect 
were  called  Quakers.  Taken  before  Cromwell, 
in  London,  that  ruler  not  only  released  him,  but 
declared  his  doctrines  were  salutary,  and  he  af¬ 
terwards  protected  him  from  persecution  ;  but 
after  the  Restoration  he  and  his  followers  were 
dreadfully  persecuted  by  the  Stuarts.  He  mar¬ 
ried  the  widow  of  a  Welsh  judge  in  1669,  and 
in  1672  he  came  to  America,  and  preached  in 
Maryland,  Long  Island,  and  New  Jersey,  visit¬ 
ing  Friends  wherever  they  were  seated.  Fox 
afterwards  visited  Holland  and  parts  of  Germa¬ 
ny.  His  writings  upon  the  subject  of  his  pecul¬ 
iar  doctrine — that  the  “light  of  Christ  within  is 
given  by  God  as  a  gift  of  salvation” — occupied, 
when  first  published,  three  folio  volumes. 

Fox,  George,  in  New  England.  The  found¬ 
er  of  the  sect  called  Friends,  or  Quakers,  visited 
New  England  in  1672,  but  being  more  discreet 
than  others  of  his  sect,  he  went  only  to  Rhode 
Island,  avoiding  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts. 
Roger  Williams,  who  denied  the  pretensions  to 


FRANCE 


529 


FRANCIS 


spiritual  enlightenment,  challenged  Fox  to  a  dis¬ 
putation.  Before  the  challenge  was  received, 
Fox  had  departed,  hut  three  of  his  disciples  at 
Newport  accepted  it.  Williams  went  there  in 
an  open  boat,  thirty  miles  from  Providence,  and, 
though  over  seventy  years  of  age,  rowed  the 
vessel  himself.  There  was  a  three  days’  dispu¬ 
tation,  which  at  times  was  a  tumultuous  quar¬ 
rel.  Williams  published  an  account  of  it,  with 
the  title  of  George  Fox  digged  out  of  Ms  Burr  owes  ; 
to  which  Fox  replied  in  a  pamphlet  entitled,  A 
New  England  Firebrand  Quenched.  Neither  was 
sparing  in  sharp  epithets. 

France,  Good  Newts  from.  In  the  winter  of 
1780  Lafayette  was  in  France,  urging  the  gov¬ 
ernment  to  send  ample  and  speedy  aid  to  the 
struggling  Americans.  He  had  been  received 
in  Paris,  on  his  return  from  the  United  States, 
with  intense  enthusiasm,  for  his  fame  as  a  sol¬ 
dier  was  universally  known.  His  personal  mag¬ 
netism  was  wonderful,  and  his  influence  at  court 
marvellous.  By  persevering  efforts,  he  obtain¬ 
ed  a  promise  of  not  only  a  supply  of  arms  and 
clothing,  but  also  that  a  French  land  and  naval 
force  should  be  sent  speedily  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Americans.  Old  Count  Maurepas,  who 
was  at  the  head  of  the  French  ministry,  said, 
“  It  is  fortunate  for  the  king  that  Lafayette  did 
not  take  it  into  his  head  to  strip  Versailles  of  its 
furniture  to  send  to  his  dear  America,  as  his 
majesty  would  have  been  unable  to  refuse  it.” 
The  good  tidings  of  French  aid  was  brought  to 
America  on  his  return  (April,  1780).  Supplies  for 
tlie  army  were  then  urgently  needed,  for  there 
was  almost  a  famine  in  the  American  camp. 

France,  Relations  with.  The  French  gov¬ 
ernment  was  pleased  when  the  breach  between 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  began,  and  sought 
to  widen  it.  England  had  stripped  France  of 
her  possessions  in  America,  and  France  sought  to 
dismember  the  British  empire,  and  cause  it  a 
greater  loss,  by  the  achievement  of  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  colonies.  Arthur  Lee,  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  being  in  London  soon  after  the  breaking- 
out  of  hostilities,  made  such  representations  to 
the  French  ambassador  there  that  the  Count  de 
Vergennes,  the  French  Minister  for  Foreign  Af¬ 
fairs,  sent  Caron  de  Beaumarchais,  a  well-known 
political  intriguer  and  courtier  (see  Beaumar¬ 
chais),  to  concert  measures  with  Lee  for  sending 
to  the  Americans  arms  and  military  stores  to  the 
amount  of  $200,000.  An  open  breach  with  the 
English  was  not  then  desirable,  and  the  French 
minister,  to  cover  up  the  transaction,  gave  it 
a  mercantile  feature,  by  having  Beaumachais 
transmit  the  supplies  under  the  fictitious  firm- 
name  of  Rodrique  Hortales  &  Co.  Before  the 
matter  was  completed,  Silas  Deane,  sent  by  the 
Committee  of  Secret  Correspondence  (which 
see),  arrived  in  Paris  (May,  1776),  in  the  dis¬ 
guise  of  a  private  merchant.  He  was  received 
kindly  by  Vergennes,  and  introduced  to  Beau¬ 
marchais.  It  was  agreed  that  Hortales  &  Co. 
should  send  the  supplies  by  way  of  the  West  In¬ 
dies,  and  that  Congress  should  pay  for  them  in  to¬ 
bacco  and  other  American  products.  When  the 
arrangement  was  completed,  Beaumarchais  de-, 
I.— 34 


spatched  vessels  from  time  to  time,  with  valua¬ 
ble  cargoes,  including  two  hundred  cannons  and 
mortars,  and  a  supply  of  small-arms  from  the 
French  arsenals ;  also  four  thousand  tents,  a*ul 
clothing  for  thirty  thousand  men.  Deane  was  sus¬ 
pected  of  some  secret  connection  with  the  French 
government,  and  was  closely  watched  by  British 
agents ;  and  the  French  court  would  trust  none 
of  its  secrets  to  the  Congress,  for  its  most  pri¬ 
vate  deliberations  (the  sessions  were  always  pri¬ 
vate)  leaked  out,  and  became  known  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish  ministry.  The  business  was  done  by  the  Se¬ 
cret  Committee.  Soon  after  the  declaration  of 
independence,  a  plan  of  treaties  with  foreigu 
nations  had  been  reported  by  a  committee  and 
accepted  by  Congress,  and  Franklin,  Deane,  and 
Jefferson  were  appointed  (Sept.  28,  1776)  com¬ 
missioners  to  the  court  of  France.  Jefferson  de¬ 
clined  the  appointment,  and  Arthur  Lee  was 
substituted.  They  were  directed  to  live  in  a 
style  “  to  support  the  dignity  of  their  public 
character”  (see  Diplomacy  of  the  Revolution),  and 
provision  was  made  for  their  maintenance. 
Franklin  arrived  at  Paris,  and  was  joined" by 
Deane  and  Lee  in  December.  The  commission¬ 
ers  were  courteously  received  by  Vergennes,  pri¬ 
vately,  but  without  any  recognition  of  their  dip¬ 
lomatic  character.  France  was  secretly  strength¬ 
ening  her  navy,  and  preparing  for  the  inevitable 
war  which  her  aid  to  the  revolted  colonies  would 
produce.  The  commissioners  received  from  the 
French  government  a  quarterly  allowance  of 
$400,000,  to  be  repaid  by  the  Congress,  with 
which  they  purchased  arms  and  supplies  for 
troops,  and  fitted  out  armed  vessels — a  business 
chiefly  performed  by  Deane,  who  had  been  a 
merchant,  and  managed  the  transactions  with 
Beaumarchais.  Out  of  these  transactions  grew 
much  embarrassment,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
misrepresentations  of  Arthur  Lee,  which  led 
Congress  to  believe  that  the  supplies  forwarded 
by  Beaumarchais  were  gratuities  of  the  French 
monarch.  This  belief  prevailed  until  the  close 
of  1778,  when  Franklin,  on  inquiry  of  Vergennes 
about  the  matter,  was  informed  that  the  king 
had  furnished  nothing ;  he  simply  permitted 
Beaumarchais  to  be  provided  with  articles  from 
the  arsenals  upon  condition  of  replacing  them. 
The  matter  becoming  a  public  question,  the 
startled  Congress,  unwilling  to  compromise  the 
French  court,  declared  (January,  1779)  that  they 
“had  never  received  any  species  of  military 
stores  as  a  present  from  the  court  of  France.” 
Then  Beaumarchais  claimed  payment  from  the 
Congress  for  every  article  he  had  forwarded. 
This  claim  caused  a  lawsuit  that  lasted  about 
fifty  years.  It  was  settled  in  1835,  by  the  pay¬ 
ment  by  the  United  States  government  to  the 
heirs  of  Beaumarchais  of  over  $200,000. 

Francis,  John  Wakefield,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
physician  and  biographer,  was  born  in  Now  York 
city,  Nov.  17, 1789;  died  there,  Feb.  8,  1861.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1811.  He  be¬ 
gan  business  life  as  a  printer,  but  commenced  the 
study  of  medicine,  in  1808,  under  Dr.  Hosack, 
and  was  his  partner  until  1820.  From  1810  un¬ 
til  1814  they  published  the  American  Medical  and 
Philosophical  Register.  He  occupied  the  chair  of 


FRANKING  FRIVILEGE 


530  FRANKLIN  AND  THE  CHESS-PLAYER 


Materia  Medica  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  and,  visiting  Europe,  was  a  pupil  of 
the  celebrated  Abernethy.  After  filling  various 
professorships  until  18*26,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  practice  of  his  profession  and  to  literary  pur¬ 
suits.  Dr.  Francis  was  probably  the  author  of 
more  biographies  and  memoirs  than  auy  Ameri¬ 
can  of  his  time,  and  was  active,  as  one  of  the 
founders,  in  the  promotion  of  the  objects  of  the 
New  York  Historical  Society  and  of  other  insti¬ 
tutions.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  New 
York  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  was  a  member 
of  numerous  scientific  and  literary  societies. 

Franking  Privilege,  The,  was  a  privilege  of 
sending  and  receiving  letters  post  free  given  to 
members  of  the  British  Parliament  and  of  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  to  certain 
public  functionaries.  This  privilege  was  abused, 
and  it  was  abolished  in  Great  Britain  in  1840. 
It  was  abolished  in  the  United  States  in  1873. 
The  mails  were  thus  greatly  relieved  of  a  dead 
weight,  and  money  was  saved  to  the  government 
amounting  to  at  least  $2,250,000  annually. 

Frankland.  In  1784,  North  Carolina  ceded 
her  western  lands  to  the  United  States.  The 
people  of  East  Tennessee,  piqued  at  being  thus 
disposed  of,  and  feeling  the  burdens  of  state 
taxation,  alleging  that  no  provision  was  made 
for  their  defence  or  the  administration  of  jus¬ 
tice,  assembled  in  convention  at  Jouesborough, 
to  take  measures  for  organizing  a  new  and  inde¬ 
pendent  state.  The  North  Carolina  Assembly, 
willing  to  compromise,  repealed  the  act  of  ces¬ 
sion  the  same  year,  made  the  Tennessee  coun¬ 
ties  a  separate  military  district,  with  John  Se¬ 
vier  brigadier-general,  and  also  a  separate  judi¬ 
cial  district,  with  proper  officers.  But  ambi¬ 
tious  men  urged  the  people  forward,  and  at  a 
second  convention,  at  the  same  place  (Dec.  14, 
1784),  they  resolved  to  form  an  independent 
state,  under  the  name  of  Frankland.  A  pro¬ 
visional  government  was  formed;  Sevier  was 
chosen  governor  (March,  1785);  the  machinery 
of  an  independent  state  was  put  in  motion,  and 
the  governor  of  North  Carolina  (Martin)  was  in¬ 
formed  that  the  counties  of  Sullivan,  Washing¬ 
ton,  and  Greene  were  no  longer  a  part  of  the 
State  of  North  Carolina.  Martin  issued  a  proc¬ 
lamation,  exhorting  all  engaged  in  the  move¬ 
ment  to  return  to  their  duty  ;  and  the  Assem¬ 
bly  passed  an  act  of  oblivion  as  to  all  who  should 
submit.  But  the  provisional  constitution  of 
Frankland,  based  upon  that  of  North  Carolina, 
was  adopted  (November,  1785)  as  a  permanent 
one,  and  the  new  state  entered  upon  an  inde¬ 
pendent  career.  Very  soon  rivalries  and  jeal¬ 
ousies  appeared.  Parties  arose,  and  divided  the 
people,  and  at  length  a  third  party,  favoring  ad¬ 
herence  to  North  Carolina,  led  by  Colonel  Tip- 
ton,  showed  much  and  increasing  strength.  The 
new  state  sent  William  Cocke  as  a  delegate  to 
the  Congress,  but  ho  was  not  received,  while  the 
North  Carolina  party  sent  a  delegate  to  the  Leg¬ 
islature  of  that  state.  Party  spirit  ran  high. 
Frankland  had  two  sets  of  officers,  and  civil 
war  was  threatened.  Collisions  became  fre¬ 
quent.  The  inhabitants  of  southwestern  Vir¬ 


ginia  sympathized  with  the  revolutionists,  and 
were  inclined  to  secede  from  their  own  state. 
Finally  an  armed  collision  between  men  under 
Tipton  and  Sevier  took  place.  The  latter  were 
defeated,  and  finally  arrested,  and  taken  to  pris¬ 
on  in  irons.  Frankland  had  received  its  death¬ 
blow.  The  Assembly  of  North  Carolina  passed 
an  act  of  oblivion,  and  offered  pardon  for  all  of¬ 
fenders  in  Frankland  in  1788,  and  the  trouble 
ceased.  Virginia,  alarmed  by  the  movement, 
hastened  to  pass  a  law  subjecting  to  the  penal¬ 
ties  of  treason  any  person  who  should  attempt 
to  erect  a  new  state  in  any  part  of  her  territory 
without  previous  permission  obtained  of  her 
Assembly. 

Franklin  and  Governor  Shirley.  At  the 

beginning  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  (1754) 
the  colonists,  as  well  as  the  royal  governors, 
saw  the  necessity  of  a  colonial  union  in  order 
to  present  a  solid  front  of  British  subjects  to 
the  French.  Dr.  Franklin  labored  earnestly  to 
this  end,  and  in  1755  he  went  to  Boston  to  con¬ 
fer  with  Governor  Shirley  on  the  subject.  At 
the  governor’s  house  they  discussed  the  subject 
long  and  earnestly.  Shirley  was  favorable  to 
union,  but  he  desired  it  to  be  effected  by  the 
fiat  of  the  British  government  and  by  the  spon¬ 
taneous  act  of  the  colonists.  Franklin,  ou  the 
contrary,  animated  by  a  love  of  popular  liberty, 
would  not  consent  to  that  method  of  forming  a 
colonial  union.  He  knew  the  true  source  of 
power  was  lodged  with  the  people,  and  that  a 
good  government  should  be  formed  by  the  peo¬ 
ple  for  the  people ;  and  he  left  Shirley  in 
disappointment.  Shirley  not  only  condemned 
the  idea  of  a  popular  colonial  government,  but 
assured  Franklin  that  he  should  immediately 
propose  a  plan  of  union  to  the  ministry  and 
Parliament,  and  also  a  tax  on  the  colonies. 

Franklin  and  the  Chess-player.  Franklin, 
in  England  in  1774,  was  a  perfect  enigma  to  the 
British  ministry.  They  were  perplexed  with 
doubts  of  the  intentions  of  the  defiant  colo¬ 
nists.  They  believed  Franklin  possessed  the 
coveted  secret,  and  tried  in  vain  to  draw  it 
from  him.  He  was  an  expert  chess-player,  and 
well  known  as  such.  Lord  Howe  (afterwards 
admiral  on  our  coast)  was  intimate  with  lead¬ 
ing  ministers.  His  sister-in-law,  Mrs.  Howe, 
was  also  an  expert  chess-player  and  an  adroit 
diplomatist.  She  sent  Franklin  an  invitation 
to  her  house  to  play  chess,  with  the  hope  that 
in  the  freedom  of  social  conversation  she  might 
obtain  the  secret.  He  went;  was  charmed  with 
the  lady’s  mind  and  manners ;  played  a  few 
games  ;  and  accepted  an  invitation  to  repeat 
the  visit  and  the  amusement.  On  his  second 
visit,  after  playing  a  short  time,  they  entered 
into  conversation,  when  Mrs.  Howe  put  ques¬ 
tions  adroitly  to  the  sage,  calculated  to  elicit 
the  information  she  desired.  He  answered  with¬ 
out  reserve  and  with  apparent  frankness.  He 
was  introduced  to  her  brother,  Lord  Howe,  and 
talked  freely  with  him  on  the  subject  of  the 
great  dispute;  but,  having  early  perceived  the 
designs  of  the  diplomatists,  his  usual  caution 
had  never  allowed  him  to  betray  a  single  secret 


FRANKLIN,  BATTLE  OF  531  FRANKLIN  BEFORE  PRIVY  COUNCIL 


■worth  preserving.  At  the  end  of  several  inter¬ 
views,  enlivened  by  chess-playing,  his  question¬ 
ers  were  uo  wiser  than  at.  the  beginning. 

Franklin,  Batti/e  of  (1864).  General  Tbomas 
had  sent  General  Schofield  southward  to  con¬ 
front  Hood’s  invasion  of  Tennessee  (which  see), 
and  he  took  post  south  of  Duck  River,  hoping 
to  fight  the  invaders  there.  But  two  divisions 
under  A.  J.  Smith,  coming  from  Missouri,  had 
not  arrived,  and  Schofield  fell  back,  first  to  Co¬ 
lumbia,  and  then  to  Franklin,  not  far  below 
Nashville,  General  Stanley  saving  his  train  from 
seizure  by  Forrest  after  a  sharp  fight  with  the 
guerilla  chief.  At  Franklin,  Schofield  disposed 
his  troops  in  a  curved  line  south  and  west  of 
the  town,  his  flanks  resting  on  the  Harpeth 
River.  He  cast  up  a  line  of  light  iutrench- 
ments  along  his  entire  front.  His  cavalry, 
with  Wood’s  division,  were  posted  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  river,  and  Fort  Granger,  on  a  bluff, 
commanded  the  gently  rolling  plain  over  which 
Hood  must  advance  in  a  direct  attack.  Scho¬ 
field  had  about  18,000  men.  At  four  o’clock  on 
the  afternoon  of  Nov.  30, 1864,  Hood  advanced  to 
the  attack  with  all  his  force.  A  greater  part 
of  his  cavalry,  under  Forrest,  was  on  his  right, 
and  the  remainder  were  on  his  left.  The  Con¬ 
federates  fell  fiercely  upon  Schofield’s  centre, 
composed  of  the  divisions  of  Ruger  and  Cox, 
about  10,000  strong.  Their  sudden  appearance 
was  almost  a  surprise.  Schofield  was  at  Fort 
Granger,  and  the  battle,  on  the  part  of  the  Na¬ 
tionals,  was  conducted  by  General  Stanley.  By 
a  furious  charge  Hood  hurled  back  the  Union 
advance  in  utter  confusion  upon  the  main  line, 
when  that,  too,  began  to  crumble.  A  strong  po¬ 
sition  on  a  hill  was  carried  by  the  Confederates, 
where  they  seized  eight  guns.  They  forced 
their  way  within  the  second  line  and  planted 
a  Confederate  flag  upon  the  intrench ments.  All 
now  seemed  lost  to  the  Nationals,  who,  as  their 
antagonists  were  preparing  to  follow  up  their 
victory,  seemed  about  to  break  and  fly,  when 
Stanley  rode  forward  and  ordered  Opdyke  to 
advance  with  his  brigade.  Swiftly  they  charged 
the  Confederate  columns  and  drove  them  back. 
Conrad,  close  by,  gave  assistance.  The  works 
and  the  guns  were  recovered;  300  prisoners  and 
ten  battle-flags  were  captured;  and  the  Union 
line  was  restored,  and  not  again  broken,  though 
Hood  hurled  strong  bodies  of  men  against  it. 
The  struggle  continued  until  long  after  dark; 
it  was  almost  midnight  when  the  last  shot  was 
fired.  The  advantage  lay  with  the  Nationals. 
The  result  was  disastrous  to  Hood.  His  men 
were  dispirited,  and  he  lost.  6253  soldiers,  of 
whom  1750  were  killed  and  702  made  prisoners. 
Schofield’s  loss  was  2326,  of  whom  180  were 
killed  and  1104  missing.  The  Nationals  with¬ 
drew  from  Franklin  a  little  after  midnight,  and 
fell  back  to  Nashville. 

Franklin  before  the  House  of  Commons. 

In  February,  1766,  Dr.  Franklin  was  examined 
before  the  House  of  Commons  relative  to  the 
Stamp  Act  (which  see).  At  that  examination 
he  fairly  illustrated  the  spirit  which  animated 
the  colonies.  When  asked,  “Do  you  think  the 


people  of  America  would  submit  to  the  stamp 
duty  if  it  was  moderated  ?”  he  answered,  “  No, 
never,  unless  compelled  by  force  of  arms.”  To 
the  question,  “What  was  the  temper  of  Amer¬ 
ica  towards  Great  Britain  before  the  year  1763 1” 
he  replied,  “  The  best  in  the  world.  They  sub¬ 
mitted  willingly  to  the  government  of  the  crown, 
and  paid,  in  their  courts,  obedience  to  the  acts 
of  Parliament.  Numerous  as  the  people  are  in 
the  old  provinces,  they  cost  you  nothing,  in  forts, 
citadels,  garrisons,  or  armies,  to  keep  them  in 
subjection.  They  were  governed  by  this  coun¬ 
try  at  the  expense  only  of  a  little  pen,  ink,  and 
paper;  they  were  led  by  a  thread.  They  had 
not  only  a  respect  but  an  affection  for  Great 
Britain — for  its  laws,  its  customs,  and  manners, 
and  even  a  fondness  for  its  fashions  that  great¬ 
ly  increased  the  commerce.  Natives  of  Britain 
were  always  treated  with  peculiar  regard.  To 
be  an  ‘Old  England  man’  was  of  itself  a  char¬ 
acter  of  some  respect,  and  gave  a  kind  of  rank 
among  us.”  It  was  asked,  “What  is  their  tem¬ 
per  now  ?”  and  Franklin  replied,  “Oh,  very  much 
altered.”  He  declared  that  all  laws  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  had  been  held  valid  by  the  Americans,  ex¬ 
cepting  such  as  laid  internal  taxes  ;  and  that 
its  authority  was  never  disputed  in  levying  du¬ 
ties  to  regulate  commerce.  When  asked,  “  Can 
you  name  any  act  of  assembly  or  public  act  of 
your  governments  that  made  such  distinction  ?” 
Franklin  replied,  “  I  do  not  know  that  there  was 
any;  I  think  there  never  was  occasion  to  make 
such  an  act  till  now  that  yon  have  attempted  to 
tax  us  ;  that  has  occasioned  acts  of  assembly  de¬ 
claring  the  distinction,  on  which,  I  think,  every 
assembly  on  the  continent,  and  every  member 
of  every  assembly,  have  been  unanimous.”  This 
examination  was  one  of  the  causes  which  led  to 
a  speedy  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act. 

Franklin  before  the  Privy  Council.  The 
exposure  of  the  letters  of  Hutchinson  and  his 
political  friends  (see  Hutchinson's  Letters)  created 
great  excitement  in  England.  Franklin,  to  pro¬ 
tect  innocent  parties  from  being  suspected  of 
revealing  them,  frankly  took  upon  himself  the 
whole  responsibility  of  the  act  of  sending  them 
to  America.  A  petition  for  the  recall  of  Hutch¬ 
inson  followed.  It  was  sent  to  Franklin  to  pre¬ 
sent  to  the  king.  His  request  to  do  so  was  not 
granted,  but  it  reached  the  monarch  through 
Lord  Dartmouth.  The  king  laid  it  before  the 
Privy  Council.  There  was  then  hot  indigna¬ 
tion  against  Franklin  in  court  circles.  He  was 
summoned  before  the  council  (Jan.  8,  1774)  to 
consider  the  petition.  He  appeared  with  coun¬ 
sel.  A  crowd  was  present — not  less  than  thirty- 
five  peers.  Wedderburn,  the  Solicitor-general 
(of  whom  the  king  said,  at  his  death,  “  He  has 
not  left  a  greater  knave  behind  him  in  my  king¬ 
dom  ”),  abused  Franklin  most  shamefully  with 
unjust  and  coarse  invectives,  while  not  an  emo¬ 
tion  was  manifested  in  the  face  of  the  abused 
statesman.  The  ill-bred  lords  of  that  day  sec¬ 
onded  Wedderburn’s  abuse  by  derisive  laughter, 
instead  of  treating  Franklin  with  decency.  At 
the  end  of  the  solicitor’s  ribald  speech  the  pe¬ 
tition  was  dismissed  as  “  groundless,  scandal¬ 
ous,  and  vexatious.”  “  I  have  never  been  so 


FRANKLIN 


532 


FRANKLIN 


sensible  of  the  power  of  a  good  conscience,” 
Franklin  said  to  Dr.  Priestley,  with  whom  he 
breakfasted  the  next  morning.  When  lie  went 
home  from  the  council  he  laid  aside  the  suit  of 
clothes  he  wore,  making  a  vow  that  he  would 
never  put  them  on  again  until  he  should  sign 
the  degradation  of  England  by  a  dismember¬ 
ment  of  tbe  British  empire  and  the  indepen¬ 
dence  of  America.  He  kept  his  word,  and,  as 
commissioner  for  negotiating  peace  almost  ten 
years  afterwards,  he  performed  the  act  that  per¬ 
mitted  him  to  wear  the  garments  again. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  Jan.  17, 1706 ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  April  17, 
1790.  His  father  was  from  England ;  his  mother 
was  a  daughter  of  Peter  Folger,  the  Quaker  poet 
of  Nantucket.  He  learned  the  art  of  printing 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 

with  his  brother;  but  they  disagreeing,  Benja¬ 
min  left  Boston  when  seventeen  years  of  age, 
sought  employment  in  New  York,  but,  not  suc¬ 
ceeding,  went  to  Philadelphia  and  there  found 
it.  He  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Govern¬ 
or  Keith  as  a  very  bright  lad,  who,  making  him 
a  promise  of  the  government  printing,  induced 
young  Franklin,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  to  go  to 
England  to  purchase  printing  material.  He  was 
deceived,  and  remained  there  eighteen  mouths, 
working  as  a  journeyman  printer  in  London. 
He  returned  to  Philadelphia  late  in  1726,  and  in 
1729  established  himself  there  as  a  printer.  He 
started  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  and  married 
Deborah  Read,  a  young  woman  whose  husband 
had  absconded.  For  many  years  he  published 
an  Almanac  under  the  assumed  name  of  Richard 
Saunders.  It  became  widely  known  as  “  Poor 
Richard’s  Almanac,”  as  it  contained  many  wise 
and  useful  maxims,  mostly  from  the  ancients. 
Franklin  was  soon  marked  as  a  wise,  prudent, 
and  sagacious  man,  full  of  well-directed  public 
spirit.  He  was  the  chief  founder  of  the  Phila¬ 
delphia  Library  in  1731.  He  became  clerk  of 
the  Provincial  Assembly  in  1736,  and  postmaster 
of  Philadelphia  the  next  year.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(which  see)  and  the  Philosophical  Society  of 
Philadelphia  in  1744,  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Provincial  Assembly  in  1750.  In  1753 
Franklin  was  appointed  deputy  postmaster  for 


the  English-American  colonies;  and  in  1754  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Colonial  Congress  of 
Albany  (which  see),  in  which  he  prepared  a 
plan  of  union  for  the  colouies,  which  was  the 
basis  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation  (which 
see)  adopted  by  Congress  more  than  twenty 
years  afterwards.  Franklin  had  begun  his  in¬ 
vestigations  and  experiments  in  electricity,  by 
which  he  demonstrated  its  identity  with  light¬ 
ning,  so  early  as  1746.  The  publication  of  his 
account  of  these  experiments  procured  for  him 
membership  in  the  Royal  Society,  the  Copley 
gold  medal,  and  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Ox¬ 
ford  and  Edinburgh  in  1762.  Harvard  and  Yale 
colleges  had  previously  conferred  upon  him  the 
degree  of  Master  of  Arts.  Franklin  was  for 
many  years  a  member  of  the  Assembly  and  ad¬ 
vocate  of  the  rights  of  the  people  iu  opposition 
to  the  claims  of  the  proprietaries ;  and  iu  1764 
he  was  sent  to  England  as  agent  of  the  popular 
legislature,  iu  which  capacity  he  afterwards 
acted  for  several  other  colonies.  His  represen¬ 
tation  to  the  British  ministry,  in  1765-66,  of  the 
temper  of  the  Americans  on  the  subject  of  taxa¬ 
tion  by  Parliament  did  much  in  effecting  the 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  He  tried  to  avert  the 
calamity  of  a  rupture  between  Great  Britain 
and  her  colonies;  but,  failing  in  this,  he  return¬ 
ed  to  America  in  1775,  after  which  he  was  con¬ 
stantly  employed  at  home  and  abroad  in  the 
service  of  his  countrymen  struggling  for  politi¬ 
cal  independence.  Iu  Congress,  he  advocated, 
helped  to  prepare,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  ;  and  iu  the  fall  of  1776  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  France,  as  the  col¬ 
league  of  Silas  Deane  and  Arthur  Lee.  To  him 
was  chiefly  due  the  successful  negotiation  of 
the  treaty  of  alliance  with  France  (which  see)  ; 
and  he  continued  to  represent  his  country  in 
that  kingdom  until  1785,  when  he  returned 
home.  While  Dr.  Franklin  was  in  France,  and 
residing  at  Passy  iu  1777,  a  medallion  likeness 
of  him  was  made  in  the  red  clay  of  that  region. 


The  engraving  of  it  here  given  is  about  half 
the  size  of  the  original.  He  took  an  important 
part  in  the  negotiation  of  the  treaties  of  peace. 


FRANKLIN  SENT  TO  FRENCH  COURT  533 


FRANKLIN 


In  1786  lie  was  elected  governor  of  Pennsylva-  !  vented 


nia,  and  served  one  term  ;  and  he  was  a  leading 
member  in  the  convention,  in  1787,  that  framed 
the  National  Constitution.  His  last  public  act 
was  the  signing  of  a  memorial  to  Congress  on 
the  subject  of  slavery  by  the  Abolitiou  Society 
of  Pennsylvania,  of  which  he  was  the  founder 
and  president.  Dr.  Franklin  performed  extraor¬ 
dinary  labors  of  usefulness  for  his  fellow-men. 
In  addition  to  scientific  and  literary  institu¬ 
tions,  he  was  the  founder  of  the  first  fire-com¬ 
pany  in  Philadelphia  in  1738 ;  organized  a  vol¬ 
unteer  military  association  for  the  defence  of 
the  province  in  1744  ;  and  was  colonel  of  a  regi¬ 
ment,  and  built  forts  for  the  defence  of  the 
frontiers  in  1755.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
Franklin  fireplace,  which,  in  modified  forms,  is 
still  in  use.  He  was  also  the  inventor  of  the 
lightning-rod.  Franklin  left  two  children — a 
son  and  a  daughter. 

Franklin  sent  to  the  French  Court.  Late 
in  the  autumn  of  1776  Dr.  Franklin  was  sent  as 
a  diplomatic  agent  to  France  in  the  ship  Repri¬ 
sal.  The  passage  occupied  thirty  days,  during 
which  that  vessel  had  been  chased  by  British 
cruisers  aud  had  taken  two  British  brigantines 
as  prizes.  He  landed  at  Nantes  on  Dec.  7.  Eu¬ 
rope  was  surprised,  for  no  notice  had  been  given 
of  his  coming.  His  fame  was  world-wide.  The 
courts  were  filled  with  conjectures.  The  story 
was  spread  in  England  that  he  was  a  fugitive 
for  safety.  Burke  said,  “  I  never  will  believe 
that  he  is  going  to  conclude  a  long  life,  which 
has  brightened  every  hour  it  has  continued, 
with  so  foul  and  dishonorable  a  flight.”  On 
the  Continent  it  was  rightly  concluded  that  he 
was  on  an  important  mission.  To  the  French 
people  he  spoke  frankly,  saying  that  twenty 
successful  campaigns  could  not  subdue  the 
Americans ;  that  their  decision  for  indepen¬ 
dence  was  irrevocable ;  and  that  they  would  be 
forever  independent  states.  On  the  morning 
of  Dec.  28  Franklin,  with  the  other  commis¬ 
sioners  (Silas  Deane  aud  Arthur  Lee),  waited 
upon  Vergennes,  the  French  Minister  for  For¬ 
eign  Affairs,  when  he  presented  the  plan  of  Con¬ 
gress  for  a  treaty.  (See  Treaty  with  France  pro¬ 
posed.)  Vergennes  spoke  of  the  attachment  of 
the  French  nation  to  the  American  cause;  re¬ 
quested  a  paper  from  Franklin  on  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  America;  and  that,  in  future,  intercourse 
with  the  sage  might  be  in  secret,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  third  person.  Personal  friend¬ 
ship  between  these  twro  distinguished  men  be¬ 
came  strong  and  abiding.  He  told  Franklin 
that  as  Spain  and  Fiance  were  in  perfect  ac¬ 
cord,  ho  might  communicate  freely  with  the 
Spanish  minister,  the  Count  de  Aranda.  With 
him  the  commissioners  held  secret  but  barren 
interviews,  for  Spain  was  indifferent.  Aranda 
would  only  promise  the  freedom  of  Spanish 
ports  to  American  vessels.  (See  France,  Rela¬ 
tions  with.) 

Franklin  Stove,  The.  The  manufacture  of 
apparatus  for  heating  and  cooking  is  an  impor¬ 
tant  item  in  our  industrial  operations.  The 
first  iron  fireplace  for  heating  rooms  was  in¬ 


ky  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  about  the  year 
1740,  aud  is  known  as  the  “Franklin  Stove”  to 
this  day.  It  is  an  open  fireplace  constructed 
of  iron,  and  portable,  so  that  it  may  be  used  in 
any  room  with  a  chimney.  It 
was  made  for  the  purpose  of 
better  warming  and  for  saving 
fuel.  He  refused  the  offer  of 
a  patent  for  it  by  the  governor 
of  Pennsylvania,  as  he  held 
that,  as  wre  profit  by  the  inven¬ 
tions  of  others,  so  we  should 
freely  give  what  we  may  for 
the  comfort  of  our  fellow-men.  He  gave  his 
models  to  Robert  Grace,  one  of  his  early  friends 
in  London,  who  had  an  iron-fouudery,  aud  he 
made  much  money  by  casting  these  stoves.  They 
were  in  general  use  in  all  the  rural  districts 
of  the  country  until  about  fifty  years  ago,  when 
anthracite  coal  began  to  take  the  place  of  wood 
as  fuel  and  required  a  different  kind  of  stove. 

Franklin,  William,  only  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin 
Franklin,  was  the  last  royal  governor  of  New 
Jersey.  He  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1729, 
an  illegitimate  son  ;  died  in  England,  Nov.  17, 
1813.  It  is  not  known  who  his  mother  was. 
About  a  year  after  his  birth  Franklin  was  mar¬ 
ried,  took  this  child  into  his  own  house,  aud 
brought  him  up  as  his  son.  He  held  a  captain’s 
commission  in  the  French  War  (1744-48).  From 
1754  to  1756  he  was  controller  of  the  Colonial 
Post-office,  and  clerk  to  the  Provincial  Assem¬ 
bly.  He  went  to  Loudon  with  his  father  in 
1757,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1758.  In 
1762  he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  Province 
of  New  Jersey,  remaining  loyal  to  the  crown 
when  the  Revolution  broke  out,  aud  in  Janu¬ 
ary,  1776,  a  guard  was  put  over  him  at  his  resi¬ 
dence  at  Perth  Amboy.  He  gave  his  parole 
that  he  would  not  leave  the  province.  In  June 
(1776)  he  called  a  meeting  of  the  Legislature  of 
New  Jersey,  for  which  offence — defiance  of  pub¬ 
lic  opinion — he  was  arrested  and  sent  to  Con¬ 
necticut,  where  for  more  than  two  years  he  was 
strictly  guarded,  when,  in  November,  1778,  he 
was  exchanged.  He  remained  in  New  York, 
and  was  active  as  President  of  the  Board  of  As¬ 
sociated  Loyalists  (which  see)  until  1782,  when 
ho  sailed  for  England,  where  he  was  allowed  by 
the  government  $9000  and  a  pension  of  $4000  a 
year.  His  father  willed  him  lands  in  Nova  Sco¬ 
tia  and  forgave  him  all  his  debts,  nothing  more. 
In  his  will,  Dr.  Franklin  observed  concerning 
this  son,  from  whom  he  was  estranged:  “The 
part  he  acted  against  me  in  the  late  war,  which 
is  of  public  notoriety,  will  account  for  my  leav¬ 
ing  him  no  more  of  an  estate  he  endeavored  to 
deprive  me  of.” 

Franklin,  William  Buel,  was  born  at  York, 
Penn.,  Feb.  27,  1823,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1843.  In  the  engineer  service,  he  was 
actively  engaged  when  the  war  with  Mexico 
broke  out.  He  served  on  the  staff  of  General 
Taylor  at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista  (which  see), 
and  was  breveted  first  lieutenant.  Serving  as 
professor  of  natural  and  experimental  philoso¬ 
phy  at  West  Point  for  four  years,  ho  occupied 


THE  FRANKLIN  STOVE. 


FRANKLIN’S  COURAGE 


534  FRANKLIN’S  MOTION  FOR  PRAYERS 


tlie  same  chair,  and  that  of  civil  engineering,  in 
the  New  York  City  Free  Academy  in  1852.  In 
May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  a  new 
regiment,  and  in  July  was  assigned  the  com¬ 
mand  of  a  brigade  in  Heintzelmau’s  division. 


WILLIAM  BUEL  FRANKLIN. 


He  was  in  the  hottest  of  the  fight  at  Bull’s  Run  ; 
made  a  brigadier  of  volunteers  in  September, 
and  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  division  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Franklin  did  excel¬ 
lent  service  in  the  campaign  of  the  Virginia  Pen¬ 
insula,  and  on  July  4,  1862,  was  promoted  to 
major-general.  He  served  under  McClellan  in 
Maryland,  and  under  Burnside  at  Fredericks¬ 
burg,  and  in  1863  was  assigned  to  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Gulf,  under  Banks.  In  March,  1865, 
he  was  breveted  major-general  of  the  United 
States  Army,  and  resigning  in  March,  1866,  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  vocations  of  civil  life. 

Franklin’s  Courage  and  Magnanimity.  A 
Duel.  Late  in  1773  Dr.  Franklin  presented  to 
Lord  Dartmouth,  to  be  laid  before  the  king,  a 
petition  from  Massachusetts  for  the  removal  of 
Governor  Hutchinson  and  Chief-justice  Oliver 
from  office.  They  were  charged  with  conspir¬ 
acy  against  the  colony,  as  appeared  by  certain 
letters  which  had  been  published.  (See  Hutch¬ 
inson’s  Letters.')  A  rumor  found  utterance  in 
the  newspapers  that  the  letters  had  been  dis¬ 
honestly  obtained  through  John  Temple,  who 
had  been  permitted  to  examine  the  papers  of 
the  deceased  Mr.  Whately,  to  whom  the  letters 
were  addressed.  That  permission  had  been 
given  by  William  Whately,  brother  and  execu¬ 
tor  of  the  deceased.  Whately  never  made  a  sug¬ 
gestion  that  Temple  had  taken  the  letters  away, 
but  he  published  such  an  evasive  card  that  it 
seemed  not  to  relieve  Temple  from  the  implica¬ 
tion.  The  latter  challenged  Whately  to  mortal 
combat.  They  fought,  but  were  unhurt.  An¬ 
other  duel  was  likely  to  ensue,  when  Dr.  Frank¬ 
lin,  to  prevent  bloodshed,  publicly  said:  “ I 
alone  am  the  person  who  obtained  and  trans¬ 
mitted  to  Boston  the  letters  in  question.”  This 
frank  and  courageous  avowal  drew  upon  him 
the  wrath  of  the  ministry.  (See  Franklin  before 
the  Privy  Council.) 

Franklin’s  First  Mission  to  England.  The 


Pennsylvania  Assembly,  yielding  to  the  urgency 
of  public  affairs  in  the  midst  of  war,  voted  a 
levy  of  $500,000  without  insisting  upon  their 
claim  to  tax  the  proprietary  estates.  They  pro¬ 
tested  that  they  did  it  through  compulsion  ;  and 
they  sent  Franklin  to  England  (1752)  as  their 
agent  to  urge  their  complaint  against  the  pro¬ 
prietaries. 

Franklin’s  Frankness.  Mr.  Strahan,  of  Lon¬ 
don,  had  been  a  sort  of  go-between  through 
whom  Dr.  Frauklin  had  communicated  with 
Lord  North.  On  July  5, 1776,  Franklin  wrote  to 
him  :  “  You  are  a  member  of  Parliament,  and 
one  of  that  majority  which  has  doomed  my 
country  to  destruction.  You  have  begun  to 
buru  our  towus  and  murder  our  people.  Look 
upon  your  hands ;  they  are  stained  with  the 
blood  of  your  relations!  You  and  I  were  long 
friends ;  yon  are  now  my  enemy,  and  I  am 
yours. — B.  Franklin.” 

Franklin’s  Hints.  While  the  Continental 
Congress  was  in  session  iu  the  fall  of  1774,  much 
anxiety  was  felt  in  political  circles  in  England 
concerning  the  result,  and  the  real  intention  of 
the  Americans.  The  ministry,  in  particular,  were 
anxious  to  know.  (See  Franklin  and  the  Chess¬ 
player.)  It  was  believed  that  Franklin  was  a  de¬ 
positary  of  the  important  secret,  and  he  was  so¬ 
licited  by  persons  high  in  authority  to  promul¬ 
gate  the  extent  of  the  demands  of  his  country¬ 
men.  So  urgent  were  these  requests,  that, 
without  waiting  to  receive  a  record  of  the  pro¬ 
ceedings  of  the  Congress,  he  prepai’ed  a  paper 
entitled  Hints  for  Conversation  upon  the  Subject 
of  Terms  that  may  probably  produce  a  durable  Union 
between  Britain  and  the  Colonies,  in  seventeen  prop¬ 
ositions.  The  substance  of  the  whole  was,  that 
the  colonies  should  be  reinstated  in  the  posi¬ 
tion  which  they  held  in  relation  to  the  imperial 
government  before  the  obnoxious  acts  then  com¬ 
plained  of  became  laws,  by  a  repeal,  and  by  a 
destruction  of  the  whole  brood  of  enactments  in 
reference  to  America  hatched  since  the  acces¬ 
sion  of  George  III.  In  a  word,  he  proposed  that 
English  subjects  in  America  should  enjoy  all  the 
essential  rights  and  privileges  claimed  as  the 
birthright  of  subjects  in  England.  Nothing 
came  of  the  “  Hints.” 

Franklin’s  Motion  for  Prayers.  In  the  con¬ 
vention  that  framed  the  National  Constitution 
very  slow  progress  towards  anything  definite 
was  made  for  some  time.  There  were  such  di¬ 
versities  of  opiuion  that  it  seemed,  after  being 
several  days  in  session,  the  convention  must,  of 
necessity,  dissolve  without  accomplishing  any¬ 
thing.  Some  proposed  a  final  adjournment,  and 
a  part  of  the  New  York  delegation,  disgusted, 
withdrew  and  went  home.  At  this  momentous 
crisis  Dr.  Franklin  arose  and  said  to  the  Presi¬ 
dent :  “How  has  it  happened,  sir,  that  while 
groping  so  long  in  the  dark,  divided  in  our 
opinions,  and  now  ready  to  separate  without 
accomplishing  the  great  objects  of  our  meeting, 
we  have  hitherto  not  once  thought  of  humbly 
applying  to  the  Father  of  Lights  to  illuminate 
our  understandings?  Iu  the  beginning  of  the 
contest  with  Great  Britain,  when  we  were  sen- 


FRANKLIN’S  VOLUNTEER  MILITIA  535  FREDERICKSBURG.  BATTLE  AT 


sible  of  danger,  we  had  daily  prayers  in  this 
room  for  divine  protection.  Our  prayers,  sir, 
were  heard,  and  graciously  answered.”  After  a 
few  more  remarks,  he  moved  that  “  henceforth, 
prayers,  imploring  the  assistance  of  Heaven  and 
its  blessings  on  our  deliberations,  be  held  in  this 
assembly  every  morning  before  we  proceed  to 
business.”  The  convention,  excepting  three  or 
four  members,  thought  prayers  were  unneces¬ 
sary,  because  in  this  case  they  would  be  mere¬ 
ly  formal.  Objections  were  also  made  because 
there  were  no  funds  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
such  clerical  services.  The  motion  was  not 
adopted. 

Franklin’s  Volunteer  Militia.  Franklin 
proposed  a  plan,  which  was  adopted,  to  raise  a 
military  force  to  protect  the  provinces  when 
threatened  by  the  Indians  iu  1747.  He  was  the 
sole  author  of  two  lotteries  that  raised  more 
than  £6000  in  money  to  pay  the  cost  of  erecting 
batteries  on  the  river ;  and  by  a  volunteer  system 
he  caused  the  raising  of  one  hundred  and  twen¬ 
ty  companies  of  militia,  of  which  Philadelphia 
raised  ten,  of  one  hundred  men  each.  The  wom¬ 
en  were  so  zealous  that  they  furnished  ten  pairs 
of  silk  colors,  wrought  with  various  mottoes. 
Many  of  the  Quakers  admitted  the  propriety  of 
self-defence,  and  approved  Franklin’s  measures. 
This  was  the  first  military  organization  ever 
formed  in  Pennsylvania. 

Fraser,  Simon,  a  British  brigadier- general, 
was  born  in  Scotland  and  killed  in  the  first  battle 
on  Bemis’s  Heights  in  September,  1777.  He  had 
served  with  distinction  in  Germany,  and  was 
appointed  brigadier  by  Governor  Carleton  Sept. 
6,  1776.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  at  Hubbardtou  (which  see)  in  July,  1777. 
He  was  shot  by  one  of  Morgan’s  riflemen. 

Fredericksburg,  Battle  at.  Lee’s  evacua¬ 
tion  of  Maryland  after  the  battle  on  Antietam 
Creek  occurred  on  the  19th  and  20th  of  Septem¬ 
ber,  1862.  Lee  rested  a  few  days  on  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  side  of  the  Potomac,  and  then  marched 
leisurely  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  McClellan 
did  not  pursue,  but,  after  twice  calling  for  rein¬ 
forcements,  he  declared  his?  intention  to  stand 
where  he  was,  on  the  defensive,  and  “  attack 
the  enemy  should  he  attempt  to  recross  into  Ma¬ 
ryland.”  The  government  and  the  loyal  people, 
impatient  of  delay,  demanded  an  immediate 
advance.  On  Oct.  6  the  President  instructed 
McClellan  to  “  cross  the  Potomac  and  give  bat¬ 
tle  to  the  enemy,  or  drive  him  South.  Your 
army  must  now  move,”  he  said,  “while  the 
roads  are  good.”  Twenty-four  days  were  spent 
in  correspondence  before  the  order  was  obeyed, 
the  general  complaining  of  a  lack  of  men  and 
supplies  to  make  it  prudent  to  move  forward. 
At  length,  when  beautiful  October  had  nearly 
passed  by  and  Lee’s  army  was  thoroughly  rest¬ 
ed  and  reorganized,  and  communications  with 
Richmond  were  re-established,  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  began  to  cross  the  river  (Oct.  26), 
100,000  strong.  The  Nationals  were  led  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  but  failed  to 
strike  the  retreating  Confederates  over  the 
mountain  in  llauk  or  to  get  ahead  of  them; 


and  Lee  pushed  Longstreet’s  troops  over  the 
Blue  Ridge  to  Culpepper  Court-house,  between 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  Richmond,  ready 
to  dispute  the  advance  of  the  Nationals.  Quick 
and  energetic  movements  were  now  necessary 
to  sever  and  defeat,  in  detail,  Lee’s  army.  On 
Nov.  5  McClellan  was  relieved  of  command,  and 
General  Burnside  was  put  in  his  place.  A  sense 
of  responsibility  made  the  latter  commander  ex¬ 
ceedingly  cautious.  Before  he  moved  he  en¬ 
deavored  to  get  his  120,000  men  well  in  hand. 
Aquia  Creek  was  made  his  base  of  supplies,  and 
he  moved  the  army  towards  Fredericksburg 
on  Nov.  10.  Sumner  led  the  movement  down 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rappahannock  By  the 
20th  a  greater  portion  of  Burnside’s  forces  were 
opposite  Fredericksburg,  and  their  cannons  com¬ 
manded  the  town.  Sumner  demanded  the  surren¬ 
der  of  the  city  (Nov.  21).  It  was  refused.  The 
bridges  had  been  destroyed.  A  greater  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  now  fled,  and  the  town  was 
occupied  by  Confederate  troops.  Lee’s  army, 
80,000  strong,  was  upon  and  near  the  Heights  of 
Fredericksburg  by  the  close  of  November,  and 
had  planted  strong  batteries  there.  The  army 
lay  in  a  semicircle  around  Fredericksburg,  each 
wing  resting  upon  the  Rappahannock,  its  right 
at  Port  Royal  and  its  left  six  miles  above  the 
city.  Pontoons  for  the  construction  of  bridges 
across  the  Rappahannock  were  not  received  by 
Burnside  until  the  first  week  in  December. 
Then  60,000  National  troops  under  Sumner  and 
Hooker  lay  in  front  of  Fredericksburg,  with  150 
cannons,  commanded  by  General  Hunt.  The 
corps  of  Franklin,  about  40,000  strong,  was  en¬ 
camped  about  two  miles  below.  On  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  Dec.  11  the  engineers  went  quietly  to 
work  to  construct  five  pontoon  bridges  for  the 
passage  of  the  National  army.  Sharpshooters 
assailed  the  engineers.  The  heavy  ordnance 
of  the  Nationals  on  Stafford  Heights  opened 
upon  the  town,  set  it  on  fire,  and  drove  out 
many  troops.  The  sharpshooters  remained. 
They  were  dislodged  by  a  party  that  crossed 
the  river  in  boats,  the  bridges  were  rebuilt,  and 
by  the  evening  of  the  12th  a  greater  portion  of 
the  National  army  occupied  Fredericksburg,  and 
on  the  morning  of  the  13th  made  a  simultane¬ 
ous  assault  all  along  the  line.  The  Confeder¬ 
ates,  with  300  cannons,  were  well  posted  on  the 
heights  and  ready  for  action.  The  battle  was 
beguu  by  a  part  of  Franklin’s  corps  —  Meade’s 
division — supported  by  Gibbon’s,  with  Double¬ 
day’s  in  reserve.  Meade  soon  silenced  a  Con¬ 
federate  battery,  but  very  soon  a  terrible  storm 
of  shells  and  canister-shot,  at  near  range,  fell 
upon  him.  He  pressed  on,  and  three  of  the  as¬ 
sailing  batteries  were  withdrawn.  Jackson’s  ad¬ 
vanced  line,  under  A.  P.  Hill,  was  driven  back 
and  200  men  made  prisoners,  with  several  bat¬ 
tle-flags  as  trophies.  Meade  still  pressed  on, 
when  a  fierce  assault  by  Early  compelled  him  to 
fall  back.  Gibbon,  who  came  up,  was  repulsed, 
and  the  shattex-ed  forces  fled  in  confusion ;  but 
the  pursuers  were  checked  by  General  Birney’s 
division  of  Stoneman’s  corps.  The  Nationals 
could  not  advance,  for  Stuart’s  cavalry,  on  Lee’s 
right,  strongly  menaced  the  Union  left.  Final- 


FREE  NEGROES 


536 


FREEDMEN’S  BUREAU 


ly,  Reynolds,  with  reinforcements,  pushed  back 
the  Confederate  right  to  the  Massaponax,  where 
the  contest  continued  until  dark.  Meanwhile, 
Couch’s  corps  had  occupied  the  city,  with  Wil¬ 
cox’s  between  his  and  Franklin’s.  At  noon 
Couch  attacked  the  Confederate  front  with 
great  vigor.  Kimball’s  brigade,  of  French’s  di¬ 
vision,  led,  Hancock’s  following.  Longst-reet 
was  posted  on  Marye’s  Hill,  just  back  of  the 
town.  Upon  his  troops  the  Nationals  fell  heavi¬ 
ly,  while  missiles  from  the  Confederate  cannons 
made  great  lanes  through  their  ranks.  After  a 
brief  struggle,  French  was  thrown  back,  shat¬ 
tered  and  broken,  nearly  one  half  of  his  com¬ 
mand  disabled.  Hancock  advanced,  and  his  bri¬ 
gades  fought  most  vigorously.  In  fifteen  min¬ 
utes,  Hancock,  also,  was  driven  back.  Of  5000 
veterans  whom  he  led  into  action,  2013  had 
fallen,  and  yet  the  struggle  was  maintained. 
Howard’s  division  came  to  the  aid  of  French 


and  Hancock;  so  also  did  those  of  Sturgis  and 
Getty.  Finally,  Hooker  crossed  the  river  with 
three  divisions.  He  was  so  satisfied  of  the 
hopelessness  of  any  further  attacks  upon  the 
strong  position  of  the  Confederates  that  he 
begged  Burnside  to  desist.  He  would  not  yield. 
Hooker  sent  4000  men  in  the  track  of  French, 
Hancock,  and  Howard,  to  attack  with  bayonets 
only.  These  were  hurled  back  by  terrific  vol¬ 
leys  of  rifle-balls,  leaving  1700  of  their  number 
prostrate  on  the  field.  Night  soon  closed  the 
awful  conflict,  when  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
had  15,000  less  of  effective  men  than  it  had  the 
day  before.  Burnside,  intent  on  achieving  a  vic¬ 
tory,  proposed  to  send  his  old  corps  (the  Ninth) 
against  the  fatal  barrier  (a  stone  wall)  on  Marye’s 
Hill,  but  Sumner  dissuaded  him,  and,  on  the  14th 
and  15th,  his  troops  were  withdrawn  to  the  north 
side  of  the  Rappahannock,  with  all  his  guns,  tak¬ 
ing  up  his  pontoon  bridges.  Then  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  reoccupied  Fredericksburg. 

Free  Negroes.  The  alarm  expressed  in  de¬ 
bates  on  the  act  prohibiting  the  slave-trade, 


in  1809,  because  of  the  increase  and  influence  of 
free  negroes,  was  manifested  in  the  legislation 
of  several  states  immediately  afterwards.  In¬ 
deed,  such  fears  had  existed  earlier.  In  1796 
North  Carolina  passed  an  act  prohibiting  eman¬ 
cipation,  except  for  meritorious  services,  and  by 
allowance  of  the  county  courts.  South  Caro¬ 
lina  had  passed  a  similar  act  in  1800;  also  an¬ 
other  act  the  same  year,  declaring  it  unlawful 
for  any  number  of  free  negroes,  mulattoes,  or 
mestizos  to  assemble  together,  even  though  in 
the  presence  of  white  persons,  “for  mental  in¬ 
struction  or  religious  worship.”  There  had  been 
two  alarms  of  insurrection  in  Virginia  (1799  and 
1801),  and  in  1805  the  freedom  of  emancipation, 
allowed  by  an  act  in  1782,  was  substantially 
taken  away,  by  a  provision  that,  thenceforward, 
emancipated  slaves  remaining  in  the  state  one 
year  after  obtaining  their  freedom  should  be  ap¬ 
prehended  and  sold  into  slavery  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poor  of  the  county.  Over¬ 
seers  of  the  poor,  binding  out  black 
or  mulatto  orphans  as  apprentices, 
were  forbidden  to  require  their 
masters  to  teach  them  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic,  as  in  the 
case  of  white  orphans ;  and  free 
blacks  coming  into  the  state  were 
to  be  sent  back  to  the  places 
whence  they  came.  The  Legisla¬ 
ture  of  Kentucky  in  1808  passed 
a  law  that  free  negroes  coming 
into  that  state  should  give  secu¬ 
rity  to  depart  within  twenty  days, 
and  on  failure  to  do  so  should  be 
sold  for  one  year,  the  same  process 
to  be  repeated,  if,  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  they  should  be  found  in 
the  state  twenty  days  afterwards. 
This  law  remained  in  force  until 
the  breaking-out  of  the  late  Civil 
War. 

Free  Postage  for  ex -Presi¬ 
dents.  Congress  bestowed  upon 
Washington,  on  his  retirement 
from  the  office  of  President  of  the  Republic,  the 
privilege  of  receiving  his  letters  free  of  postage 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  This  privilege  has 
been  extended  to  all  subsequent  presidents,  and 
also  to  their  widows. 

Fiee  School,  The  First,  in  Charleston. 
Several  benevolent  persons  having,  by  their  last 
wills,  left  sums  of  money  for  the  foundation  of 
a  free  school  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  province  of  South  Carolina,  the  Assembly 
passed  an  act  in  1712  for  erecting  a  free  school 
in  Charleston  ;  for  which  purpose  the  governor, 
with  fifteen  other  persons,  were  incorporate^  as 
commissioners. 

Free  Schools  in  Maryland.  In  1694  a  law 
was  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  Maryland,  as¬ 
sembled  at  Annapolis,  the  new  capital,  for  es¬ 
tablishing  free  schools  in  that  province.  They 
appropriated  towards  their  endowment  sundry 
imposts  on  negroes  and  spirits  imported,  and  on 
skins,  furs,  beef  and  pork  exported. 

Freedmen’s  Bureau.  Early  in  1865  Cou- 


SCENE  IN  FREDERICKSBURG  ON  THE  MORNING  ON  DEC.  12,  1862. 


FREEDOM  OF  A  CITY' 


537 


FREEDOM  OF  THE  PRESS 


gress  established  a  Bureau  of  Freedmeu,  Refu¬ 
gees,  and  Abandoned  Lands,  attached  to  the 
War  Department ;  and  early  in  May  General  O. 
O.  Howard  was  appointed  Commissioner  or  bead 
of  this  bureau.  He  appointed  eleven  assistant 
commissioners,  all  army  officers;  namely — for 
the  District  of  Columbia,  General  John  Eaton, 
Jr.;  Virginia,  Colonel  O.  Brown;  North  Caroli¬ 
na,  Colonel  E.  Whittlesey;  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  General  R.  Saxton  ;  Florida,  Colonel  T. 
W.  Osborne ;  Alabama,  General  W.  Swayne ; 
Louisiana,  first  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Conway,  and  then 
General  A.  Baird  ;  Texas,  General  E.  M.  Gregory  ; 
Mississippi,  Colonel  S.  Thomas  ;  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  General  C.  B.  Fiske;  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  General  J.  W.  Sprague.  The  bureau 
took  under  its  charge  the  freedmen,  the  refu¬ 
gees,  and  the  abandoned  lauds  in  the  South,  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  freedmen  and  the 
refugees  in  their  rights,  and  returning  the  lands 
to  their  proper  owners.  In  this  work  right  and 
justice  were  vindicated.  To  make  the  opera¬ 
tions  of  the  bureau  more  efficient  and  benefi¬ 
cent,  an  act  was  passed  (Feb.  19,  1866)  for  en¬ 
larging  its  powers.  President  Johnson  inter¬ 
posed  his  veto,  but  it  beeame  a  law,  and  per¬ 
formed  its  duties  well  so  long  as  they  were 
required. 

Freedom  of  a  City.  The  conferring  of  all 
the  privileges  of  ft,  citizen  upon  a  stranger,  or 
one  not  entitled  to  such  privileges  because  of 
non-residence,  is  an  ancient  way  of  conferring 
honors  upon  one  for  meritorious  services.  When 
the  eminent  lawyer  of  Pennsylvania,  Andrew 
Hamilton,  had  ably  defended  the  liberty  of  the 
press  in  the  case  of  John  Peter  Zenger  (which 
see),  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  New  York 
conferred  the  freedom  of  that  city  upon  him. 
The  certificate  of  such  honor  is  usually  enclosed 
in  a  gold  box,  bearing  ou  the  underside  of  the 


lid  an  inscription  indicative  of  the  event.  I 
give  the  form  of  such  a  document  in  a  copy  of 
the  certificate  of  freedom  which  the  corporation 
of  the  city  of  New  York  gave  to  General  Jacob 
Brown,  after  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Lun¬ 
dy’s  Lane,  in  the  summer  of  1814,  as  follows : 

«  To  nil  to  whom  those  presents  shall  come,  no  Witt  Clinton. 
Esq.,  Mayor,  and  the  Aldermen  of  tho  city  of  New  York,  send 
greeting:  At  a  meeting  of  the  Common  Council,  held  at  tho 


Common  Council  chamber  in  the  City  Hall  of  the  city  of  New 
York,  the  following  resolutions  were  unanimously  agreed  to: 
1  Whereas  the  Corporation  of  the  city  entertains  the  most 
lively  sense  of  the  late  brilliant  achievements  of  General  Jacob 
Brown  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  considering  them  as  proud 
evidences  of  the  skill  and  intrepidity  of  the  hero  of  Chippewa 
and  his  brave  companions  in  arms,  and  affording  ample  proof 
of  the  superior  valor  of  our  hardy  farmers  over  the  veteran 
legions  of  the  enemy,  Resolved ,  That,  as  a  tribute  of  respect  to 
a  gallant  officer  and  his  intrepid  associates,  who  have  added 
such  lustre  to  our  arms,  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  New  York 
be  presented  to  General  Jacob  Brown,  that  his  portrait  be  ob¬ 
tained  and  placed  in  the  gallery  of  portraits  belonging  to  this 
city,  and  that  the  thanks  of  this  corporation  be  tendered  to 
the  officers  and  men  under  his  command.’  Know  ye  that 
Jacob  Brown,  Esquire,  is  admitted  and  allowed  a  freeman  and 
a  citizen  of  the  said  city,  to  have,  to  hold,  to  use,  and  enjoy 
the  freedom  of  the  city,  together  with  all  the  benefits,  priv¬ 
ileges,  franchises,  and  immunities  whatsoever  granted  or  be¬ 
longing  to  the  said  city.  By  order  of  the  mayor  and  aldermen. 
In  testimony  whereof  the  said  mayor  and  aldermen  have 
caused  the  seal  of  the  said  city  to  be  hereunto  affixed.  Wit¬ 
ness:  De  Witt  Clinton,  Esquire,  Mayor,  the  fourth  day  of  Feb¬ 
ruary,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
fifteen,  and  of  the  independence  and  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States  the  thirty-ninth.  Dk  Witt  Clinton.” 

Freedom  of  Speech  and  of  the  Press.  The 

first,  amendment  to  the  National  Constitution, 
ratified  in  December,  1791,  after  forbidding  Con¬ 
gress  to  make  any  law  respecting  an  establish¬ 
ment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exer¬ 
cise  thereof,  says,  “  or  abridging  the  freedom 
of  speech  or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the 
people  to  peaceably  assemble,  and  to  petition 
the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances.” 
This  secures  the  invaluable  right  of  utterance 
of  opinions,  and  reserves  to  all  citizens  the  priv¬ 
ilege  of  making  their  grievances  known  to  the 
National  government. 

Freedom  of  the  Press  in  Massachusetts. 

The  controversies  carried  on  through  pamphlets 
in  Massachusetts  in  discussious  of  the  subjects 
of  paper-money,  the  small-pox,  and  the  quarrels 
between  the  governor  (Shute)  and  the  repre¬ 
sentatives,  had  exhibited  so  much  freedom  that 
James  Franklin  was  encouraged  to  set  up  a 
newspaper  at  Boston,  called  the  New  England 
Courant.  The  first  number  was  dated  Aug.  6, 
1721.  It  was  designed  as  a  medium  of  public 
discussion,  to  take  the  place  of  pamphlets,  and 
was  the  first  newspaper  in  America  that  aspired 
to  this  eminence.  Its  freedom  of  speech  made 
the  authorities  uneasy ;  and  one  of  its  articles, 
in  relation  to  the  fitting-out  of  a  vessel  to  cruise 
against  pirates,  was  construed  as  contempt  of 
the  General  Court,  for  which  Franklin  was  im¬ 
prisoned.  His  brother  Benjamin,  then  a  youth 
of  sixteen,  published  in  it  some  mild  essays  on 
religious  hypocrisy,  which  gave  greater  offence. 
It  was  charged  that  the  paper  had  a  “  tendency 
to  mock  religion  ;”  that  it  profanely  abused  the 
Holy  Scriptures;  injuriously  reflected  upon  the 
ministers  of  the  Gospel  and  “on  his  majesty’s 
government,”  and  disturbed  the  peace  and  good 
order  of  the  province.  James  Franklin  was  for¬ 
bidden  to  publish  a  newspaper,  pamphlet,  or 
anything  else  unless  it  should  be  approved  and 
licensed  by  the  colonial  secretary.  This  order 
was  evaded  by  the  Courant  being  published  in 
the  name  of  his  brother  Benjamin,  but  the  cau¬ 
tion  necessary  to  be  used  made  contributors  shy. 
They  gradually  ceased  to  write,  and  the  paper, 
losing  interest,  finally  perished  for  lack  of  sup¬ 
port.  Such  was  the  fate  of  the  first  nominally 
free  press  in  America. 


FREEDOM  OF  PRESS  VINDICATED  533 


FREE-TRADE  PROPOSED 


Freedom  of  the  Press  Vindicated.  (See 

Zenger’s  Trial.) 

Free -soil  Party,  The,  was  founded  in  1848 
upon  the  principle  of  the  non-extension  of  the 
slave  system  iu  the  territories.  It  was  an  out¬ 
growth  of  the  Liberty  Party  of  1846.  The  imme¬ 
diate  cause  of  its  organization  was  the  acquisi¬ 
tion  of  new  territory  at  the  close  of  the  war  with 
Mexico,  which  would,  if  not  prevented,  become 
slave  territory.  Iu  a  bill  appropriating  mouey  for 
the  negotiation  of  peace  with  Mexico,  submitted 
to  Congress  in  1846,  David  Wilmot,  a  Democratic 
member  from  Pennsylvania,  offered  an  amend¬ 
ment,  “ Provided  that  there  shall  be  neither  slav¬ 
ery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in  any  territory 
on  the  continent  of  America  which  shall  hereafter 
be  acquired  by  or  annexed  to  the  United  States 
by  virtue  of  this  appropriation,  or  in  any  other 
manner,  except  for  crime,”  etc.  It  was  carried 
iu  the  House,  but  failed  in  the  Senate  ;  and  in  the 
next  session  it  was  defeated  in  both  branches. 
This  was  the  famous  Wilmot  Proviso  (which  see). 
Resolutions  to  this  effect  were  offered  in  both  the 
Democratic  and  Whig  conventions  in  1846,  but 
were  rejected.  A  consequence  of  such  rejection 
was  a  considerable  secession  of  prominent  men, 
and  many  others,  from  both  parties,  especially 
in  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Ohio.  In  New 
York  the  seceding  Democrats  wr ere  called  “Barn¬ 
burners,”  and  the  two  classes  of  seceders  com¬ 
bined  were  called  “  Free  -  soilers.”  The  two 
combined,  and  at  a  convention  held  at  Buffalo, 
Aug.  9,  1848,  they  formed  the  Free-soil  Party. 
The  convention  was  composed  of  delegates  from 
all  the  free -labor  states,  and  from  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  District  of  Colum¬ 
bia.  They  nominated  Martin  Van  Buren  for 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  Charles 
Francis  Adams  for  Vice-President.  The  ticket 
received  a  popular  anti-slavery  vote  of  two  hun¬ 
dred  and  ninety-one  thousand,  but  did  not  re¬ 
ceive  a  single  electoral  vote.  The  Free-soil  Con¬ 
vention  at  Pittsburgh  in  1852  nominated  John 
P.  Hale  for  President,  and  George  W.  Julian  for 
Vice-President,  who  received  a  popular  vote  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty -seven  thousand.  The 
compromise  measures  of  1850,  and  the  virtual 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  (which  see), 
in  the  act  for  the  creation  of  the  territories  of 
Kausas  and  Nebraska  in  1854,  greatly  increased 
the  strength  of  the  Free-soil  party,  and  it  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  historical  Republican  party 
in  1856,  when  the  Free-soilers,  as  a  distinct  par¬ 
ty,  disappeared. 

Free-stone  State.  A  name  sometimes  given 
to  Connecticut  because  of  its  free-stone  quar¬ 
ries.  It  is  also  called  the  “  Land  of  Steady 
Habits”  and  the  “Nutmeg  State.”  It  received 
the  first  of  the  latter  names  in  allusion  to  the 
moral  character  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  sec¬ 
ond  because  of  the  ingenuity  and  shrewdness 
of  the  people,  who  were  jocosely  charged  with 
making  and  selling  nutmegs  made  of  wood  for 
genuine  ones. 

Free-thinkers  in  America.  The  freedom  of 
thought  and  expression  on  theological  subjects 
which  now  happily  prevails  did  not  exist  in  the 


last  century.  Then  a  person  who  openly  op¬ 
posed  the  accepted  tenets  of  orthodoxy  was  os¬ 
tracized,  and  hence  it  is  that,  even  in  this  day, 
Franklin  and  Jefferson  are  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  infidels  (that  is,  opposers  of  the  Christian 
religion) — a  charge  cruelly  unjust.  They  were 
simply  free-thinkers — men  who  indulged  in  the 
exercise  of  reason  iu  dealing  with  the  theology 
of  the  day.  The  first  American  free-thinker 
was  Jeremiah  Dummer,  for  many  years  colonial 
agent  in  England  of  Connecticut,  and  author  of 
the  Defence  of  the  New  England  Charters.  Frank¬ 
lin  was  one  of  his  converts,  yet  never  carried 
his  views  so  far  as  to  deny,  as  Dummer  did,  the 
supernatural  origin  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Franklin  was  no  propagandist  of  his  peculiar 
theological  views.  He  thought  religion  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  good  of  individuals  and  society,  os¬ 
tensibly  adhered  to  the  Church  of  England,  and 
never  countenanced  attacks  upon  current  relig¬ 
ious  ideas.  The  first  work  of  a  free-thinker 
published  iu  America  wras  Ethan  Allen’s  Oracles 
of  Religion.  From  passages  in  his  Notes  on  Vir¬ 
ginia,  published  iu  London,  1787,  it  is  evident 
that  Jefferson  was  of  similar  mind  in  many 
things,  yet  his  views  of  the  necessity  and  good¬ 
ness  of  the  Christian  religion  were  similar  to 
those  of  Franklin.  Paine  was  of  a  different 
stamp,  and  ought  not  to  be  mentioned  in  asso¬ 
ciation  with  Franklin  and  Jefferson.  He  made 
coarse  attacks  upon  the  Christian  religion,  and 
nothing  was  too  sacred  in  the  later  years  of  his 
life,  when  his  mind  became  imbruted  by  intem¬ 
perance,  to  escape  the  wrath  of  his  pen.  His 
indecent  attack  upon  Washington,  and  his  scoff¬ 
ing  essay  against  Christianity,  left  his  other¬ 
wise  bright  name  under  a  cloud. 

Free  -  trade  between  New  England  and 
Canada  Proposed.  D’Aulnay, in  Acadia, claimed 
for  the  Company  of  Newr  France  the  country 
east  of  Pemaquid,  and  had  his  trading -house 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Penobscot,  near  (present) 
Castine.  (See  La  Tour.)  In  consequence  of 
D’Aulnay’s  jealous  exclusion  of  the  English  col¬ 
onists  from  the  French  territory,  a  messenger 
was  sent  (1651)  by  the  commissioners  of  the 
United  Colonies  to  the  Governor  of  Canada  at 
Quebec  to  propose  free-trade  between  that  prov¬ 
ince  and  Newr  England.  Two  Canadian  priests 
brought  a  reply,  after  long  delay,  but  it  was 
evident  that  they  were  more  intent  on  obtain¬ 
ing  assistance  iu  a  bloody  war  with  the  Five 
Nations,  in  which  Canada  was  then  engaged, 
than  in  arrangements  for  prosecuting  the  arts 
of  peace.  They  asked  permission  for  war  par¬ 
ties  of  converted  Indians  to  pass  through  the 
territories  of  the  United  Colonies  on  their  way 
against  the  Five  Nations.  These  envoys  ap¬ 
pealed  to  the  New-Englanders  as  “  fellow-Cliris- 
tians,”  aud  with  this  endearing  epithet,  and 
touching  descriptions  of  the  distress  of  their 
Indian  converts  and  the  danger  to  the  Jesuit 
missions,  they  tried  to  persuade  the  Puritans  to 
assist  them  iu  their  war  with  the  great  Indian 
confederacy.  Trade  was  hardly  alluded  to  by 
them.  There  was  no  sympathy  between  Puri¬ 
tans  and  Jesuits,  and  the  envoys  were  dismissed 
with  a  civil  refusal.  This  was  the  first  connnu- 


FREE-TRADE  IN  NEGROES 


539 


FREMONT 


ideation  on  record  between  New  England  and 
Canada. 

Free  -  trade  in  Negroes  (1750).  To  com¬ 
pletely  enslave  the  English-American  colonies, 
.  the  British  Parliament,  in  1750,  gave  liberty  to 
trade  in  negroes,  as  slaves,  to  and  from  any  part 
of  Africa  between  Sallee,  in  South  Barbary,  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  all  the  subjects  of 
the  King  of  England.  This  was  designed  to  fill 
the  colonies  with  slaves,  who  should  neither 
trouble  Great  Britain  with  fears  of  encouraging 
political  independence  nor  compete  with  then- 
industry  with  British  workshops ;  neither  would 
they  leave  their  employers  the  entire  security 
that  might  enable  them  to  prepare  a  revolt. 

Frelinghuysen,  Frederick,  was  born  in  New 
Jersey,  April  13,  1753;  died  April  13,  1804.  He 
graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1770, 
and  became  an  eminent  lawyer.  He  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Continental  Congress  much  of  the 
time  during  the  war,  and  sersmd  as  a  captain  in 
the  army.  Afterwards  he  filled  various  state 
and  county  offices,  and  in  1790  was  appointed 
by  Washington  to  lead  an  expedition  against  the 
western  Indians,  with  the  rank  of  major-general. 
In  1793  he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator,  and 
served  three  years. 

Frelinghuysen,  Theodore,  LL.D.,  was  born 
at  Millstone,  N.  J.,  March  28, 1787  ;  died  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  April  12, 1862.  He  graduated 
at  the  College  of  Princeton,  in  1804,  and  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1808.  In  the  War  of  1812- 
15  he  commanded  a  company  of  volunteers,  and 
in  1817  became  attorney-general  of  New  Jersey, 
which  post  he  held  until  1829,  when  he  was 
chosen  a  United  States  Senator.  In  1838  he 
was  chosen  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  New 
York,  and  made  his  residence  in  that  city  ;  and 
in  1844  he  was  nominated  for  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States,  with  Henry  Clay  for  Presi¬ 
dent.  Mr.  Frelinghuysen  left  the  University  of 
New  York  in  1850  to  become  President  of  Rut¬ 
gers  College  (which  see),  in  his  native  state, 
which  position  he  held  until  his  death. 

Fremont  in  Missouri  (1861).  John  C.  Fre¬ 
mont  was  in  Europe  when  the  Civil  War  broke 
out.  He  was  commissioned  major-general  of 
volunteers  (May  14,  1861),  and  leaving  Europe 
on  receiving  notice  of  his  appointment,  he  re¬ 
turned  home,  bringing  with  him  arms  for  his 
government.  He  arrived  in  Boston  on  June  27, 
and  July  6  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Western  Department  (which  see),  just 
created.  He  arrived  at  St.  Louis  July  26,  where 
ho  made  his  headquarters.  He  found  disorder 
everywhere.  The  terms  of  enlistment  of  Home 
Guards,  or  three  -  months’  men,  were  expiring, 
and  they  were  unwilling  to  re-enlist.  He  had 
very  little  money  or  arms  at  his  disposal,  and 
was  unable  to  send  aid  to  General  Lyon,  in  the 
southwestern  portion  of  the  state,  battling  with 
the  insurgents.  He  resolved  to  assume  grave  re¬ 
sponsibilities.  He  applied  to  the  United  States 
Treasurer  at  St.  Louis  for  a  portion  of  $300,000 
in  his  hands,  but  was  refused.  He  was  about 
to  seize  $100,000  of  it,  when  the  officer  yielded; 
and  with  the  money  Fremont  secured  the  re¬ 


enlistment  of  many  of  the  Home  Guards.  He 
strongly  fortified  St.  Louis,  and  prepared  to 
place  the  important  post  at  Cairo  in  a  position 
of  absolute  security.  With  nearly  four  thou¬ 
sand  troops  on  steamers,  he  proceeded  to  Cairo 
with  such  a  display  that  the  impression  was 
general  that  he  had  twelve  thousand.  Although 
large  bodies  of  Confederate  troops  in  Kentucky 
and  Missouri  were  gathered  for  the  purpose  of 
seizing  Cairo  and  Bird’s  Point,  Frdmont  was  not 
molested  in  this  mission,  and  Prentiss,  at  the 
former  place,  was  amply  strengthened.  Pillow 
and  Thompson  and  Hardee,  who  had  advanced 
in  that  direction,  fell  back  (see  Army  of  Libera, - 
tion  in  Missouri),  and  became  very  discreet.  Fre¬ 
mont  returned  to  St.  Louis  on  Aug.  4,  having 
accomplishedhis  wishes  and  spread  alarm  among 
the  Confederates.  Polk,  at  Memphis,  ordered 
Pillow  to  evacuate  New  Madrid  with  his  men 
and  heavy  guns,  and  hasten  to  Randolph  and 
Fort  Pillow,  on  the  Tennessee  shore.  When 
news  of  the  battle  at  Wilson’s  Creek  and  the 
death  of  Lyon  reached  St.  Louis,  the  Secession¬ 
ists  were  jubilant.  (See  Wilson’s  Creek.)  Fre¬ 
mont  immediately  proclaimed  martial  law,  and 
appointed  a  provost-marshal.  Some  of  the  most 
active  Secessionists  were  arrested,  and  the  pub¬ 
lication  of  newspapers  charged  with  disloyalty 
was  suspended.  But  the  coudition  of  public  af¬ 
fairs  in  Missouri  was  becoming  more  and  more 
alarming.  The  provisional  government  was  al¬ 
most  powerless.  Fremont  took  all  authority 
into  his  own  hands.  Secessionists  were  arrest¬ 
ed  and  imprisoned,  and  disloyalty  of  every  kind 
felt  the  force  of  his  powrnr.  He  proclaimed  that 
the  property,  real  and  personal,  of  all  persons  in 
Missouri  who  should  be  proven  to  have  taken 
an  active  part  with  the  enemies  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  in  the  field  should  be  confiscated  to  the 
public  use,  and  their  slaves,  if  they  had  any, 
should  thereafter  be  free  men.  As  he  acted 
promptly  in  accordance  with  his  xiroclamation, 
great  consternation  began  to  prevail.  At  that 
moment  his  hand  was  stayed.  Because  of  his 
avowed  determination  to  confiscate  the  property 
and  free  the  slaves  of  the  disloyalists,  a  storm 
of  indignation  suddenly  arose  in  the  border 
slave-states,  which  alarmed  the  national  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  the  President,  wishing  to  placate 
the  rebellious  spirit  of  those  states,  requested 
Fremont  to  modify  his  proclamation  on  those 
points.  He  declined  to  do  so,  when  the  Presi¬ 
dent,  at  Fremont’s  request,  issued  an  order  for 
such  a  modification.  Fremont  could  not,  for  it 
would  imply  that  he  thought  the  measure  wrong, 
which  he  did  not. 

Fremont,  John  Charles,  was  born  in  Savan¬ 
nah,  Ga.,  Jan.  21, 1813,  and  graduated  at  Charles¬ 
ton  College  in  1830.  His  father  was  a  French¬ 
man,  and  his  mother  a  Virginian.  He  was  in¬ 
structor  in  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
Navy  from  1833  to  1835.  Engaged  in  surveying 
the  Cherokee  country  in  the  winter  of  1837-38, 
he  began  his  famous  explorations,  first  in  the 
country  between  the  Missouri  River  and  the 
British  possessions.  He  had  been  appointed 
second  lieutenant  of  Topographical  Engineers 
in  July.  In  1841  he  married  a  daughter  of  Sen- 


FREMONT 


540  FREMONT'S  EMBARRASSMENTS 


ator  Thomas  H.  Benton,  and  in  May,  1842,  he 
began,  under  the  authority  of  the  government, 
the  exploration  of  an  overland  route  to  the  Pa¬ 
cific  Ocean.  He  ascended  the  highest  peak  of 
the  Wind  River  Mountains,  which  was  after¬ 
wards  named  “  Frfimont’s  Peak.”  He  explored 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  region  in  1843,  and  pene¬ 
trated  to  the  Pacific  near  the  mouth  of  the  Co¬ 
lumbia  River.  In  1845  he  explored  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  in  California,  and  in  1846  became  in¬ 
volved  in  hostilities  with  the  Mexicans  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  He  assisted  in  the  conquest  of 


JOHN  CHARLES  FREMONT. 


California,  was  appointed  its  military  governor, 
and,  after  its  admission  as  a  state,  became  one 
of  its  first  United  States  Senators.  He  had  con¬ 
tinued  his  explorations  after  the  war.  For  his 
scientific  researches,  Fremont  received,  in  1850, 
a  gold  medal  from  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  an¬ 
other  from  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of 
London.  He  had  already  received  from  his 
countrymen  the  significant  title  of  “  The  Path¬ 
finder.”  At  his  own  expense  he  made  a  fifth 
exploration,  in  1853,  and  found  a  new  route  to 
the  Pacific.  In  1856,  the  newly  formed  Repub¬ 
lican  party  nominated  him  for  the  Presidency 
of  the  United  States,  and  he  received  114  elec¬ 
toral  votes  against  174  given  for  Buchanan.  Re¬ 
turning  from  Europe  in  May,  1861,  on  being 
appointed  major-general  in  the  United  States 
Army,  he  was  assigned  to  command  the  West¬ 
ern  Department;  but,  through  the  intrigues  of 
ambitious  politicians,  was  removed  from  the 
command  in  the  course  of  six  months,  while 
successfully  prosecuting  a  campaign  he  had 
planned.  He  was  in  command  of  another  de¬ 
partment,  but.  resigned  in  1862,  declining  to 
serve  under  an  officer  inferior  to  him  in  rank. 
Radical  Republicans  nominated  him  for  the 
Presidency  in  1864,  after  which  he  took  leave 
of  political  life;  but  he  became  active  in  pro¬ 
moting  the  construction  of  a  transcontinental 
railway. 

Fremont,  John  C.,  in  California.  Captain 
Fremont  was  sent  by  his  government,  in  the 
spring  of  1845,  to  explore  the  great  basin  and 
the  maritime  region  of  Oregon  and  California. 


He  crossed  the  Sierra  Nevada,  in  the  dead  of 
winter,  from  Great  Salt  Lake  into  California, 
with  between  sixty  and  seventy  men,  to  obtain 
supplies.  Leaving  them  in  the  Valley  of  the 
San  Joaquin,  he  went  to  Monterey,  then  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  California,  to  obtain 
permission  from  the  Mexican  authorities  to  con¬ 
tinue  his  explorations.  It  was  given,  but  was 
almost  immediately  withdrawn,  and  he  was  per¬ 
emptorily  ordered  to  leave  the  country  without 
delay.  He  refused,  when  General  de  Castro,  the 
Mexican  governor,  mustered  the  forces  of  the 
province  to  expel  him.  At  length  he  was  per¬ 
mitted  to  go  on  with  his  explorations  without 
hinderance.  On  May  9,  1846,  he  received  de¬ 
spatches  from  his  government,  directing  him  to 
watch  the  movements  of  the  Mexicans  in  Cali¬ 
fornia,  who  seemed  disposed  to  hand  the  prov¬ 
ince  over  to  the  British  government.  It  wras 
also  rumored  that  General  de  Castro  intended  to 
destroy  all  the  American  settlements  on  the  Sac¬ 
ramento  River.  Fremont  hurried  back  to  Cali¬ 
fornia,  and  found  De  Castro  on  the  march  against 
the  settlements.  The  settlers  flew  to  arms,  and 
joined  Frfimont’s  camp,  and,  under  his  leader¬ 
ship,  these  settlements  were  not  only  saved,  but 
the  Mexican  authorities  were  driven  out  of  Cali¬ 
fornia.  Frfimout  and  his  followers  metGeneral  de 
Castro  and  his  forces,  strong  in  numbers,  when 
Fremont  retired  about  thirty  miles,  to  a  moun¬ 
tain  position,  where  he  called  around  him  the 
American  settlers  in  that  region.  With  these  he 
captured  a  Mexican  post  at  Sonoma  Pass  (June 
15,  1846),  with  nine  cannons  and  two  hundred 
and  fifty  muskets.  De  Castro  was  routed,  and  on 
the  5th  of  July  the  Americans  in  California  de¬ 
clared  themselves  independent,  and  elected  Frfi- 
mont  governor  of  the  province.  He  then  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  join  the  American  naval  forces  at 
Monterey,  under  Commodore  Stockton,  who  had 
lately  arrived,  with  authority  from  Washington 
to  conquer  California.  Fremont  appeared  there 
with  one  hundred  and  sixty  mounted  riflemen. 
On  Aug.  17  (1846),  Stockton  and  Frfimont  took 
possession  of  the  city  of  Los  Angelos  (city  of  the 
angels),  now  the  capital  of  Los  Angelos  County, 
Cal. ;  and  at  that  place  General  Kearney,  who 
had  just  taken  possession  of  New  Mexico,  joined 
Stockton  and  Fremont,  Dec.  27,  1846.  Kearney 
would  not  sanction  the  election  of  Fremont  as 
governor  of  California,  and  on  Feb.  8,  1847,  as¬ 
suming  that  office  himself,  he  declared  the  an¬ 
nexation  of  California  to  the  United  States. 
Frfimont  refused  to  obey  General  Kearney,  his 
superior  officer,  who  sent  him  to  Washington 
under  arrest,  where  he  was  tried  by  a  court- 
martial,  which  sentenced  him  to  be  dismissed 
from  the  service,  but  recommended  him  to  the 
clemency  of  the  President.  The  penalty  was 
remitted,  and  in  October,  1848,  FrOnont  entered 
upon  his  fourth  exploration  among  the  far  west¬ 
ern  mountains.  He  was  the  real  liberator  of 
California.  The  Legislat  ure  of  that  state  elect¬ 
ed  him  one  of  its  first  United  States  Senators. 

Fremont’s  Embarrassments.  Frfimont  was 
censured  for  his  failure  to  reinforce  Colonel 
Mulligan  at  Lexington.  The  public  knew  very 
little  of  his  embarrassments  at  that  time.  Press- 


FREMONT’S  PLAN 


541 


FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR 


ing  demands  came  for  reinforcements  from  Gen¬ 
eral  Grant  at  Paducah.  At  various  points  in 
his  department  were  heard  cries  for  help,  and  a 
peremptory  order  came  from  General  Scott  for 
him  to  forward  five  thousand  troops  immediate¬ 
ly  to  Washington  city,  notwithstanding  McClel¬ 
lan  numbered  seventy-five  thousand  within  easy 
call  of  the  capital.  Frfimont’s  force,  never  ex¬ 
ceeding  fifty-six  thousand,  was  scattered  over 
his  department.  Chafing  under  unjust  com- 
plaiuts,  he  proceeded  to  put  into  execution  his 
plan  of  ridding  the  Mississippi  Valley  of  Con¬ 
federates.  (See  Fremont’s  Flan.)  More  than 
twenty  thousand  soldiers  were  set  in  motion 
(Sept.  27, 1861)  southward  (five  thousand  of  them 
cavalry),  under  the  respective  commands  of  Gen¬ 
erals  Hunter,  Pope,  Sigel,  McKinstry,  and  As- 
both,  accompanied  by  eighty-six  heavy  guns. 
These  were  moving  southward  early  in  Octo¬ 
ber;  and  on  the  11th,  when  his  army  was  thirty 
thousand  strong,  he  wrote  to  his  government: 
“  My  plan  is,  New  Orleans  straight ;  I  would 
precipitate  the  war  forward,  and  end  it  soou 
victoriously.”  He  was  marching  with  confi¬ 
dence  of  success,  and  bis  troops  were  winning 
little  victories  here  and  there,  when,  through 
the  influence  of  men  jealous  of  him  and  his  po¬ 
litical  enemies,  Fremont’s  career  was  suddenly 
checked.  False  accusers,  public  and  private, 
caused  General  Scott  to  send  an  order  for  him< 
to  turn  over  his  command  to  General  Hunter, 
tlieu  some  distance  in  the  rear.  Hunter  arrived 
just  as  the  troops  were  about  to  attack  Price. 
He  took  the  command,  and  countermanded  Fr6- 
mout’s  orders  for  battle ;  and  nine  days  after¬ 
wards  General  H.  W.  Halleck  was  placed  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Department  of  Missouri.  The  dis¬ 
appointed  and  disheartened  army  were  turned 
back,  and  marched  to  St.  Louis  in  sullen  sad¬ 
ness.  Soou  afterwards  an  elegant  sword  was 
presented  to  Frdmont,  inscribed,  “To  the  Path¬ 
finder,  by  the  Men  of  the  West.” 

Fremont’s  Plan.  When  General  Fremont 
took  charge  of  the  Western  Department  (which 
see),  he  formed  a  plan  for  ridding  not  only  Mis¬ 
souri,  but  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley,  of  armed 
insurgents,  and  for  opening  the  navigation  of 
this  great  river,  then  obstructed  by  Confederate 
batteries  at  Memphis  and  elsewhere.  His  plan 
contemplated  the  capture  or  dispersion  of  troops 
under  General  Price  in  Missouri,  and  the  seizure 
of  Little  Rock,  Ark.  By  so  doing,  Fr6mont  ex¬ 
pected  to  turn  the  position  of  Pillow  and  others 
in  the  vicinity  of  New  Madrid  (see  Army  of  Lib¬ 
eration),  cut  off  the  supplies  from  the  southwest, 
and  compel  them  to  retreat,  at  which  time  a  flo¬ 
tilla  of  gunboats,  then  building  near  St.  Louis, 
might  descend  the  Mississippi,  and  assist  in  mil¬ 
itary  operations  against  the  batteries  at  Mem¬ 
phis.  In  the  event  of  this  movement  being  suc¬ 
cessful,  he  proposed  to  push  on  towards  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  with  his  army,  and  take  posses¬ 
sion  of  New  Orleans. 

French  and  English  Settlers  in  South  Car¬ 
olina.  There  were  warm  collisions  between  the 
French  and  English  settlers  in  South  Carolina, 
mostly  on  political  grounds,  until  1696,  when  the 


|  refugees,  or  Huguenots,  there  were  admitted  to 
full  citizenship  on  certain  conditions,  among 
them  that  of  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
King  William.  After  that,  the  people  of  those 
two  nationalities  lived  in  peace  and  harmony. 

French  and  Indian  War.  A  fourth  interco¬ 
lonial  war  between  the  English  and  French  col¬ 
onies  in  America  was  begun  in  1754,  in  which 
the  Indians,  as  usual,  bore  a  conspicuous  part. 
The  English  population  (white)  in  the  colonies 
was  then  a  little  more  than  one  million,  planted 
along  the  seaboard.  The  French  were  one  hun¬ 
dred  thousand  strong,  and  occupied  the  regions 
of  Nova  Scotia,  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  a  line  of  trading-posts  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
latter,  as  chiefly  traders,  had  gained  great  influ¬ 
ence  over  many  of  the  Indian  tribes.  There  was 
outward  peace,  but  inward  war,  between  the 
colonists,  and  it  needed  only  a  small  matter  to 
kindle  a  flame  of  hostilities.  After  the  capture 
of  Louisburg  (1745),  the  French  had  taken  meas¬ 
ures  to  extend  and  strengthen  their  dominion 
in  America.  Their  power  became  aggressive, 
and  early  in  1754  it  was  evident  that  they  in¬ 
tended  to  hold  military  possession  of  the  Ohio 
and  the  region  around  its  head- waters.  The 
English  attempted  to  build  a  fort  at  the  forks 
of  the  Ohio.  The  French  seized  the  post,  and 
completed  the  fortification.  (See  Duquesne,  Fort.) 
Washington  led  provincial  troops  to  recapture 
it,  but  was  unsuccessful.  The  colonists  appealed 
to  the  British  government,  and  received  prom¬ 
ises  of  its  aid  in  the  impending  war;  and  in 
1755  General  Edward  Braddock  was  sent  with 
regular  troops  to  command  any  forces  that  might 
be  raised  in  America  to  resist  the  French  and 
their  Indian  allies.  Three  separate  expeditions 
were  planned — one  against  Fort  Duquesne,  an¬ 
other  against  forts  on  or  near  Lake  Ontario,  and 
a  third  against  French  forts  on  Lake  Champlain. 
An  expedition  against  Acadia  was  also  under¬ 
taken.  The  three  expeditions  failed  to  accom¬ 
plish  their  full  purposes.  In  May,  1756,  Eng¬ 
land  declared  war  against  Frauce,  and  sent  Lord 
Loudoun  aschief  commanderin  the  colonies,  with 
General  Abercrombie  as  his  lieutenant.  Expe¬ 
ditions  similar  to  those  of  1755  were  planned, 
but  failed  in  the  execution.  The  skilled  sol¬ 
dier  the  Marquis  de  Montcalm,  commanding  the 
French  and  Indians,  captured  Oswego,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  Loudoun  pro¬ 
posed  to  confine  the  campaign  of  1757  to  the 
capture  of  Louisburg,  on  Cape  Breton.  ( See 
Louisburg.)  Going  there  with  a  large  land  and 
naval  armament,  he  was  told  that  the  French 
were  too  strong  for  him.  He  believed  it,  with¬ 
drew,  and  returned  to  New  York.  Meanwhile 
Montcalm  had  strengthened  Fort  Ticonderoga, 
on  Lake  Champlain,  and  captured  and  destroyed 
the  English  fort,  William  Henry,  at  the  head  of 
Lake  George  (August,  1757);  and  so  ended  the 
campaign  and  the  leadership  of  the  inefficient 
Lord  Loudoun.  William  Pitt  took  the  chief  con¬ 
trol  of  public  affairs  in  England,  and  prepared 
to  prosecute  the  war  in  America  with  vigor. 
General  James  Abercrombie  was  placed  in  chief 
command  in  America  in  1758,  and  Admiral  Bos- 


FRENCH  AND  SPANISH  FLEETS 


542 


cawen  was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  co-operate.  Lou- 
isburg,  Fort  Ticonderoga,  and  Fort  Duquesne 
were  to  be  attacked.  Louisburg  was  captured, 
but  Abercrombie,  who  led  the  troops  towards 
Lake  Champlain,  was  unsuccessful  in  bis  attack 
on  Ticonderoga.  The  French  fort  Frontenac,  at 
the  foot  of  Lake  Ontario,  was  captured  ;  so,  also, 
was  Fort  Duquesne,  and  its  name  was  changed 
to  Fort  Pitt,  iu  compliment  to  the  great  prime- 
minister.  These  successes  so  alarmed  the  In¬ 
dians  that  they  agreed,  in  council,  not  to  fight 
the  English  any  more.  Pitt  now  resolved  to 
conquer  Canada.  General  Amherst  was  placed 
in  chief  command  in  America  in  the  spring  of 
1759,  and  a  land  and  naval  force  was  sent  over 
from  England.  Again  three  expeditions  were 
put  in  motion — one  to  go  np  the  St.  Lawrence, 
to  capture  Quebec;  another  to  drive  the  French 
from  Lake  Champlain,  and  force  them  back  to 
Canada ;  and  a  third  to  attack  Fort  Niagara,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  River.  General  Wolfe 
commanded  the  expedition  against  Quebec,  Gen¬ 
eral  Amherst  led  the  troops  against  the  French 
on  Lake  Champlain,  and  General  Prideanx  com¬ 
manded  the  expedition  against  Fort  Niagara. 
Prideaux  was  killed  in  besieging  Fort  Niagara, 
but  it  was  captured  under  the  lead  of  Sir  Will¬ 
iam  Johnson,  his  lieutenant,  in  July.  Amherst 
drove  the  French  from  Lake  Champlain  into 
Canada,  and  they  never  came  back ;  and  he 
built  the  strong  fortress  on  Crown  Point,  whose 
picturesque  ruins  still  attract  the  attention  of 
the  tourist.  Wolfe  attacked  Quebec,  and  at  the 
moment  of  victory  he  was  killed.  Montcalm, 
the  commander  of  the  French,  also  perished  on 
the  field.  In  1760  the  French  tried  to  recapture 
Quebec,  but  were  unsuccessful.  Early  in  Sep¬ 
tember  Amherst  went  down  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  captured  Montreal.  The  conquest  of  Can¬ 
ada  was  now  completed,  and  the  French  and 
Indian  War  was  essentially  ended.  The  last  act 
iu  it  wTas  a  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  iu  Paris  in 
1763. 

French  and  Spanish  Fleets  in  English  Wa¬ 
ters.  The  French  and  Spanish  armada,  com¬ 
posed  of  about  fifty  ships-of-war,  appeared  oft' 
the  English  coast  in  August,  1779.  The  English 
fleet  to  oppose  them  consisted  of  not  more  than 
forty  ships  of  the  line,  commanded  by  Sir  Charles 
Hardy.  The  combined  fleets  were  commanded 
by  French  and  Spanish  leaders  respectively,  and 
therefore  lacked  the  unity  necessary  for  perfect 
co-operation.  On  Aug.  16  they  appeared  off 
Plymouth,  but  did  not  attack  the  town.  Two 
days  later  a  gale  drove  the  armada  westward ; 
when  it  ceased,  the  scattered  ships  were  rallied, 
and,  sailing  up  the  channel,  made  the  English 
fleet  retreat  before  them.  The  French  and  Span¬ 
ish  officers  could  not  agree  upon  aline  of  action, 
and  there  was  delay.  Then  a  deadly  malady 
ravaged  the  French  ships  and  infected  the  Span¬ 
iards,  and  the  French  returned  to  port,  where 
they  remained.  The  Spanish  vessels  sailed  for 
Cadiz,  cursiug ‘their  allies.  Not  even  English 
merchant-vessels  on  return  voyages  had  been 
harmed  by  this  immense  armament.  The  whole 
scheme  of  invading  England  was  a  failure.  Hop¬ 
ing  to  produce  a  revolt  in  discontented  Ireland, 


FRENCH  CREEK,  AFFAIR  AT 

both  Vergennes  aud  Blanca  sent  agents  there ; 
the  latter  to  the  Irish  Roman  Catholics.  His 
emissary  was  a  priest,  who  was  promised  a  bish¬ 
opric  if  he  should  succeed  in  creating  a  revolt. 
Vergennes  relied  more  upon  the  Presbyterians  iu 
Irelaud  than  upon  the  Roman  Catholics.  But 
neither  party  in  Ireland  could  be  relied  upon 
as  allies  of  France  and  Spain. 

French  Army,  Departure  of  (1782).  The 
headquarters  of  the  American  army  were  at  Ver- 
planck’s  Point  at  the  beginning  of  autumn,  1782, 
where(about  ten  thousand  strong)  it  was  joined 
by  the  French  army  ou  its  return  from  Virginia, 
iu  September.  The  latter  encamped  on  the  left 
of  the  Americans,  at  Crompond,  about  ten  miles 
from  Verplanck’s  Poiut.  They  had  received  or¬ 
ders  to  proceed  to  Boston  and  there  embark  for 
the  West  Indies.  They  left  their  encampment 
near  Peekskill  Oct.  22,  aud  marched  by  way  of 
Hartford  aud  Providence.  Rocbambeau  there 
left  the  army  in  charge  of  Baron  de  Viomenil 
and  returned  to  Washington’s  headquarters  on 
his  way  to  Philadelphia.  The  French  troops 
reached  Boston  the  first  week  iu  December.  On 
the  24th  they  sailed  from  Boston,  having  been  in 
the  United  States  two  and  a  half  years.  Ro- 
chambeau  sailed  from  Annapolis  for  France, 
Jan.  11,  1783. 

French  Consuls  Warned.  As  the  French 
consuls  and  vice-consuls  to  whom  the  French  Re¬ 
public,  through  “  citizeu  ”  Genet,  committed  the 
functions  of  admiralty  courts,  were  disposed  to 
continue  the  exercise  of  their  admiralty  jurisdic¬ 
tion,  after  the  action  of  the  United  States  gov¬ 
ernment  against  them,  a  circular  letter  was  is¬ 
sued  (Sept.  7,  1793)  threaten iug  to  revoke  the 
exequatur,  or  recognition  of  a  consul,  of  any 
officer  who  might  persist  iu  such  usurpation. 
The  French  consul  at  Boston  defied  the  menace, 
and,  with  the  help  of  a  Freucli  frigate  at  auchor 
in  the  harbor,  he  had  the  insolence  to  rescue  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  United  States  marshal  a  ves¬ 
sel  brought  in  as  a  French  prize,  but  upon  which 
process  had  been  served  at  the  suit  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  owners,  who  claimed  that  she  had  been  ille¬ 
gally  captured  within  the  waters  of  the  United 
States.  The  friends  of  the  French  cause  thwart¬ 
ed  all  atempts  to  obtain  an  indictment  against  the 
deposed  consul.  (See  Genet  in  the  United  States.) 

French  Creek,  Affair  at  (1813).  The  troops 
collected  by  Wilkinson  on  Grenadier  Island  (see 
Expedition  down  the  St.  Lawrence)  suffered  much, 
for  storm  after  storm  swept  over  Lake  Ontario, 
and  snow  fell  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches.  A 
Canadian  winter  was  too  near  to  allow  delays 
on  account  of  the  weather,  and  on  Oct.  29  Gen¬ 
eral  Brown,  with  his  division,  moved  forward  in 
boats,  in  the  face  of  great  peril,  in  a  tempest. 
He  landed  at  French  Creek  (now  Clayton)  and 
took  post  iu  a  wood.  The  marine  scouts  from 
Kingston  discovered  Browm  ou  the  afternoon  of 
Nov.  1,  and  two  brigs,  two  schooners,  and  eight 
gunboats,  filled  with  infantry,  bore  down  upon 
him,  at  sunset.  Brown  had  planted  a  battery 
of  three  18-pounders  on  a  high  wooded  bluff  ou 
the  western  shore  of  French  Creek,  at  its  mouth, 
aud  with  it  the  assailants  were  driven  away. 


FRENCH  DOMAIN  IN  AMERICA 


FRENCH  CRUISERS,  DEPREDATIONS  OF  543 


The  conflict  was  resumed  at  dawn  the  next 
morning,  with  the  same  result.  The  British 
lost  many  men  ;  the  Americans  only  two  killed 
and  four  wounded.  Meanwhile,  troops  were 
coming  down  the  river  from  Grenadier  Island, 
and  there  landed  on  the  site  of  Clayton.  Wil¬ 
kinson  arrived  there  on  Nov.  3,  and  on  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  the  5th  the  army,  in  three  hundred  ba¬ 
teaux  and  other  boats,  moved  down  the  river. 


French  Cruisers,  Depredations  op  (1811). 
While  discussions  were  yet  in  progress  concern¬ 
ing  the  repeal  (arrest)  of  the  Freuch  decrees, 
privateers  of  that  nation  on  the  North  Sea  and 
the  Baltic  were  as  active  against  American  com¬ 
merce  as  ever.  They  captured  every  American 
vessel  found  in  these  waters,  in  the  hope  of  ef¬ 
fecting  a  ransom  or  a  compromise.  The  con¬ 
duct  of  the  few  French  national  vessels  then  at 
sea  was  no  better.  Some  French  frigates,  bound 
to  the  Mauritius,  robbed  in  succession  three  in¬ 
nocent  American  vessels,  burning  two  of  them 
and  sparing  the  third  only  as  a  means  of  getting 
rid  of  their  prisoners.  These  acts  were  aggra¬ 
vated  by  the  refusal  of  Napoleon  to  make  any 
compensation  for  the  robberies  under  the  Ram- 
bouillet  Decree  (which  see). 

French  Decrees.  The  presence  of  Jay  in 
England  to  make  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
aroused  the  French  to  a  sense  of  the  importance 
of  observing  its  own  treaty  stipulations  with 
the  United  States,  which  had  been  utterly  dis¬ 
regarded  since  the  war  with  England  began. 
On  Jan.  4, 1795,  a  new  decree  was  issued,  giving 
full  force  and  effect  to  those  clauses  of  the  trea¬ 
ty  of  commerce  (1778)  with  the  United  States 
respecting  contraband  and  the  carriage  of  ene¬ 
mies’  goods.  When  news  of  the  failure  of  the 
Americans  to  elect  Jefferson  President  reached 
France,  the  Directory  issued  a  decree  (March  2, 
1797)  purporting  to  define  the  authority  grant¬ 
ed  to  French  cruisers  by  a  former  decree.  It 
was  intended  to  annihilate  American  commerce 
in  European  waters.  The  treaty  with  America  | 


was  declared  to  be  so  modified  as  to  make  Amer¬ 
ican  vessels  and  their  cargoes  liable  to  capture 
for  any  cause  recognized  as  lawful  ground  of 
capture  by  Jay’s  treaty.  They  also  decreed  that 
any  Americans  found  serving  on  board  hostile 
armed  vessels  should  be  treated  as  pirates,  even 
t  hough  they  might  plead  imprisonment  and  com¬ 
pulsion  as  an  excuse  ;  in  other  words,  American 
seamen,  impressed  by  the  British,  were  made  lia¬ 
ble  to  be  hanged  by  the  French. 
On  Jan.  18,  1798,  a  sweeping 
decree  against  American  com¬ 
merce  was  promulgated  by  the 
French  Directory.  It  declared 
to  be  good  prizes  all  vessels  hav¬ 
ing  merchandise  on  board  the 
production  of  England  or  her 
colonies,  whoever  the  owner  of 
the  merchantman  might  be ;  and 
forbade,  also,  the  entrance  into 
any  French  port  of  any  vessel 
which,  at  any  previous  part  of 
her  voyage,  had  touched  at  any 
English  possession. 

French  Depredations.  On 

Feb.  27,  1797,  the  Secretary  of 
State  laid  before  Congress  a  full 
exhibit  of  the  wrongs  inflicted 
by  the  French  on  American  com¬ 
merce.  Skip  with,  American  con¬ 
sul-general  in  France,  had  pre¬ 
sented  to  the  Directory  (which 
see)  one  hundred  and  seventy 
claims,  many  of  them  for  provisions  furnished, 
examined,  and  allowed;  for  one  hundred  jjpd 
three  vessels  embargoed  at  Bordeaux,  for  which 
promised  indemnity  had  never  been  paid ;  and 
to  these  wrongs  were  added  enormous  depreda¬ 
tions  then  going  on  in  the  West  Indies,  seizing 
and  confiscating  the  property  of  Americans 
without  restraint.  American  vessels  were  capt¬ 
ured  and  their  crews  treated  with  indignity  and 
cruelty.  Encouraged  by  the  accession  of  Spain 
to  their  alliance  and  the  victories  of  Bonaparte 
in  Italy,  the  French  Directory  grew  every  day 
more  insolent.  They  were  countenanced  by  a 
great  party  in  the  United  States,  which  had 
•failed  by  only  two  votes  to  give  a  President  to 
the  American  Republic. 

French  Domain  in  America,  How  Divided. 
On  the  7th  of  October,  1763,  the  King  of  England 
(George  III.),  by  proclamation,  erected  out  of  the 
territory  acquired  from  the  French  by  the  Trea¬ 
ty  of  Paris  three  provinces  on  the  continent — - 
namely,  East  Florida,  West  Florida,  and  Que¬ 
bec ;  and  an  insular  province  styled  Grenada. 
East  Florida  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
St.  Mary’s  River,  the  intervening  region  thence 
to  the  Altamaha  being  annexed  to  Georgia.  The 
boundaries  of  West  Florida  were  the  Appalaclii- 
cola,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Mississippi,  and 
lakes  Pontchartrain  and  Maurepas  ;  and  on  the 
north  by  a  line  due  east  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Yazoo  River,  so  as  to  include  the  French  settle¬ 
ments  near  Natchez.  The  boundaries  of  the 
Province  of  Quebec  were  in  accordance  with  the 
claims  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  being  a 


MOUTH  OP  FRENCH  CREEK. 


FRENCH  EMISSARY  IN  AMERICA  544 


FRENCH  FORTS  IN  THE  WEST 


line  from  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Nepissing, 
striking  the  St.  Lawrence  at  45°  north  latitude 
and  following  that  parallel  across  the  foot  of 
Lake  Champlain  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Con¬ 
necticut  River,  and  thence  along  the  highlands 
which  form  the  water-shed  between  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  and  the  sea.  Grenada  was  composed  of 
the  islands  of  St.  Vincent,  Dominica,  and  To¬ 
bago. 

French  Emissary  in  America.  Vergennes, 
the  French  minister,  felt  very  anxious  to  know 
the  exact  state  of  public  opinion  in  America, 
and  in  1775  he  employed  De  Bouvoloir,  a  French 
gentleman  of  great  discretion,  who  had  been  in 
the  colonies.  He  was  despatched  with  the  con¬ 
sent  of  the  king ;  and  this  was  the  beginning  of 
French  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  during  the  old  war  for  independence.  De 
Bouvoloir  was  introduced  to  Franklin  and  oth¬ 
er  members  of  Congress  at  the  close  of  1775. 
With  them  he  held  several  conferences,  by 
night.  The  members  inquired  of  him  whether 
France  was  disposed  to  aid  the  Americans,  and 
at  what  price ;  and  whether  it  would  be  pru¬ 
dent  to  send  a  plenipotentiary  to  the  French 
court.  Bouvoloir  replied  that  France  was  well 
disposed  towards  the  Americans ;  that  if  she 
should  give  them  her  aid,  it  would  be  on  just 
and  equitable  conditions.  “  Make  your  pro¬ 
posals,”  he  said,  “and  I  will  present  them.” 
He  thought  it  would  be  precipitate,  and  even 
hazardous,  to  make  any  arrangements  just  then, 
“  for,”  he  said,  “  what  passes  in  France  is  known 
in  London.”  Bouvoloir  reported  to  Vergennes 
that  the  Americans  were  united  in  loud  com¬ 
plaints  against  the  injustice  of  the  British  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  almost  wholly  so  in  a  determined 
opposition  to  its  rule. 

French  Fleet,  Arrival  of  (1778).  In  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  treaty  of  alli¬ 
ance  with  France  (Feb.  6, 1778),  a  French  fleet 
was  speedily  fitted  out  at  Toulon.  ‘It  consisted 
of  twelve  ships  of  the  line  and  four  frigates, 
commanded  by  the  Count  D’Estaing.  This 
fleet  arrived  in  the  Delaware  on  July  8,  1778, 
bearing  four  thousand  French  troops.  With  it 
came  M.  Gerard,  the  first  French  minister  ac¬ 
credited  to  the  United  States.  Silas  Deane  also 
returned  from  his  mission  in  France  in  the  same 
vessel  (the  Languedoc ),  the  flag-ship.  Having 
sent  his  passengers  up  to  Philadelphia  in  a  frig¬ 
ate,  D’Estaing  sailed  for  Sandy  Hook,  and  came 
to  anchor  off  the  harbor  of  New  York.  Lord 
Howe,  who  had  fortunately  for  himself  left  the 
Delaware  a  few  days  before  D’Estaing’s  arrival, 
was  now  with  his  fleet  in  Raritan  Bay,  whither 
the  heavy  French  vessels  could  not  safely  fol¬ 
low.  On  July  22  he  sailed,  with  his  squadron, 
to  co-operate  with  General  Sullivan  against  the 
British  in  Rhode  Island. 

French  Fleet,  Attempted  Interception  of. 
When  vessels  left  England  with  Braddock’s 
troops,  the  French,  ever  vigilant,  sent  a  fleet 
with  four  thousand  soldiers,  under  the  Baron 
Dieskau,  to  reinforce  their  army  on  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence.  Admiral  Boscawen  was  sent  with  an 
English  fleet  to  intercept  the  French  armament. 


They  came  together  south  of  Newfoundland. 
“Are  we  at  peace  or  war?”  asked  the  French 
commander.  He  was  answered  by  the  thunder 
of  Boscaweu’s  cannons,  and  two  of  the  French 
vessels  were  captured ;  the  remainder  escaped, 
and  passed  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
through  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  Dieskau  was 
accompanied  by  Vaudreuil,  the  successor  of  Du- 
quesne  as  governor  of  Cauada.  The  French 
fleet  had  left  one  thousand  soldiers  at  Louis- 
burg.  The  hostile  movements  of  the  English 
caused  the  French  ambassador  at  London  to  be 
recalled.  To  this  the  English  retorted  by  issu¬ 
ing  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal.  These  and 
other  irritations  caused  a  declaration  of  war  be¬ 
tween  the  two  countries  the  next  year. 

French  Fleet,  The,  and  Arnold.  At  the 
solicitation  of  Washington,  the  French  fleet  at 
Newport  sailed  for  the  Virginia  waters  to  as¬ 
sist  in  capturing  Arnold,  then  marauding  in  Vir¬ 
ginia.  The  fleet  was  to  co-operate  with  Lafay¬ 
ette,  whom  Washington  had  sent  to  Virginia 
for  the  same  purpose.  The  British  blockading 
squadron,  which  had  made  its  winter-quarters 
in  Gardiner’s  Bay,  at  the  eastern  end  of  Long 
Island,  pursued  the  French  vessels,  and  off  the 
capes  of  Virginia  a  sharp  naval  engagement 
occurred,  in  which  the  latter  were  beaten  and 
returned  to  Newport.  This  failure  on  the  part 
of  the  French  fleet  caused  Lafayette  to  halt 
in  his  march  at  Annapolis,  Md.  Two  of  the 
French  vessels,  taking  advantage  of  a  storm 
that  disabled  the  blockading  squadron,  entered 
Chesapeake  Bay  (February,  1781).  Thus  threat¬ 
ened  by  land  and  water,  Arnold  withdrew  to 
Portsmouth,  so  far  up  the  Elizabeth  River  as  to 
be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  French  ships.  There 
he  was  reinforced  by  troops  under  General  Phil¬ 
lips,  of  the  Convention  troops,  who  had  been  ex¬ 
changed  for  General  Lincoln.  The  French  ships 
soon  returned  to  Newport,  after  making  some 
prizes. 

French  Forces,  Arrival  of  (1780).  On  the 
10th  of  July,  1780,  a  powerful  French  fleet,  com¬ 
manded  by  the  Chevalier  de  Teruay,  arrived  at 
Newport,  R.  I.  It  was  composed  of  seven  ships 
of  the  line,  besides  frigates  and  transports.  The 
latter  bore  a  French  army,  six  thousand  strong, 
commanded  by  Lieutenant-general  the  Count  de 
Rochambeau.  This  was  the  first  division  in¬ 
tended  for  the  American  service,  and  was  the 
first-fruit  of  Lafayette’s  persistent  personal  ef¬ 
forts  at  the  French  court.  With  wise  fore¬ 
thought  the  official  relations  between  Washing¬ 
ton  and  Rochambeau  had  been  settled  by  the 
French  government.  In  order  to  prevent  any 
difficulties  in  relation  to  command  between  the 
French  and  American  officers,  the  French  gov¬ 
ernment  commissioned  Washington  a  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  empire.  This  allowed  him  to  take 
precedence  of  Rochambeau  and  made  him  com¬ 
mander  of  the  allied  armies.  On  all  points  of 
precedence  and  etiquette  the  French  officers 
were  to  give  place  to  the  American  officers. 
(See  Newport,  French  Fleet  and  Army  at.) 

French  Forts  in  the  West.  The  French,  for 
the  security  of  the  interior  territory  of  America, 


I'll 


FRENCH  INTEREST 


545  FRENCH  MILLS,  AMERICAN  ARMY  AT 


built  a  fort  in  the  Illinois  country,  in  latitude 
41°  30',  as  a  check  upon  the  several  tribes 
of  the  Sioux  who  were  not  in  alliance  with 
them.  They  also  built  a  fort  at  the  junction 
of  the  Illinois  and  a  large  tributary,  and  five 
other  forts  from  the  junction  of  the  Missouri 
and  Mississippi  rivers  to  Kaskaskia.  The  fort 
at  the  latter  place  was  regarded  as  of  great  im¬ 
portance,  because  it  was  “the  pass  and  outlet 
of  the  convoys  of  Louisiana  and  of  the  traders 
and  hunters  of  the  post  at  Detroit,  and  that  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  savage  nations.”  An¬ 
other,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  Tennessee  River,  was  considered 
“  the  key  of  the  colony  of  Louisiana,”  and  would 
obstruct  the  designs  of  the  English  in  alienat¬ 
ing  the  Indians  of  the  Ohio.  It  would  also, 
Vaudreuil  thought,  restrain  the  incursions  of 
the  Cherokees  on  the  Wabash  and  Mississippi 
rivers,  check  the  Chickasaws,  and  by  this  means 
secure  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  and  a 
free  communication  between  Louisiana  aud  Can¬ 
ada.  There  were  at  that  time  about  sixty  forts 
iu  Canada,  most  of  which  had  around  them  fine 
self-supporting  settlements;  and  the  establish¬ 
ments,  posts,  and  settlements  in  Louisiana  at 
that  time  (1756)  employed 
about  two  thousand  soldiers. 

French  Interest  in  the 
American  Union.  When, 
on  the  2d  of  June,  1779,  the 
Legislature  of  Virginia 
unanimously  ratified  the 
treaties  of  alliance  aud  com¬ 
merce  between  France  an<l 
the  United  States,  and  the 
governor  had  informed  the 
French  minister  at  Phila¬ 
delphia  of  the  fact,  that 
functionary  at  once  notified 
liis  government.  Vergennes, 
on  September  27,  instructed 
the  minister  at  Philadelphia 
(Luzerne)  in  these  words: 

“During  the  war  it  is  es¬ 
sential,  both  for  the  United 
States  and  for  us,  that  their 
union  should  be  as  perfect 
as  possible.  When  they 
shall  be  left  to  themselves, 
the  general  confederation 
will  have  much  difficulty  in  maintaining  itself, 
and  will,  perhaps,  be  replaced  by  separate  con¬ 
federations.  Should  this  revolution  take  place, 
it  will  weaken  the  United  States,  which  have 
not  now,  aud  never  will  have,  real  and  re¬ 
spectable  strength  except  by  their  union.  But 
it  is  for  themselves  alone  to  make  these  re¬ 
flections.  We  have  no  right  to  present  them 
for  their  consideration,  and  we  have  no  interest 
whatever  to  see  America  play  the  part  of  a 
power.  The  possibility  of  a  dissolution  of  the 
Union  (see  Dissolution  of  the  Union  Threatened), 
and  the  consequent  suppression  of  Congress, 
leads  us  to  think  that  nothing  can  be  more  con¬ 
formable  to  our  political  interest  than  separate 
acts  by  which  each  state  shall  ratify  the  trini¬ 
ties  concluded  with  France;  because  iu  this 
I.— 35 


way  every  state  will  be  found  separately  con¬ 
nected  with  us,  whatever  may  be  the  fortune 
of  the  general  confederation.”  The  policy  of 
the  French,  as  well  as  the  Spaniards,  towards 
the  United  States  was  purely  selfish  from  be¬ 
ginning  to  end.  The  two  Bourbon  monarchs 
hated  republicanism,  and  feared  the  revolution 
as  menacing  thxones ;  and  the  chief  motive  in 
favoring  the  Americans,  especially  of  France, 
was  to  injure  England,  humble  her  pride,  and 
weaken  her  power. 

French  Mills,  American  Army  in  Winter- 
quarters  at.  After  the  battle  at  Chrysler’s 
Field  (which  see)  the  American  army  went  into 
winter-quarters  at  French  Mills,  on  the  Salmon 
River.  The  waters  of  that  stream  were  freez¬ 
ing,  for  it  was  late  iu  November  (1813).  Gen¬ 
eral  Brown  proceeded  to  make  the  troops  as 
comfortable  as  possible.  Huts  were  construct¬ 
ed,  yet,  as  the  winter  came  on  very  severe,  the 
soldiers  suffered  much;  for  many  of  them  had 
lost  their  blankets  and  extra  clothing  in  the 
disasters  near  Grenadier  Island,  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  their  voyage  down  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  in  the  battle  at  Chrysler’s  Field.  Until 
the  huts  were  built,  even  the  sick  had  no  shel¬ 


LAN DING- PLACE  OP  TROOPS  ON  THE  SALMON  RIVER. 


ter  but  tents.  Provisions  were  scarce,  and  the 
surrounding  country  was  a  wilderness.  They 
were  in  the  midst  of  the  cold  of  a  Canadian  win¬ 
ter,  for  they  were  on  the  45tli  degree  of  north 
latitude.  Iu  their  distress  they  were  tempted 
by  British  emissaries,  who  circulated  placards 
among  the  soldiers  containing  the  following 
words:  “Notice.- — All  American  soldiers  who 
may  wish  to  quit  the  unnatural  war  in  which 
they  are  at  present  engaged  will  receive  the  ar¬ 
rears  due  them  by  the  American  government,  to 
the  extent  of  five  months’  pay,  on  their  arrival 
at  the  British  outposts.  No  man  shall  be  re¬ 
quired  to  serve  against  his  own  country.”  It  is 
believed  that  not  a  single  soldier  of  American 
birth  was  enticed  away  by  this  allurement.  In 
February,  1814,  the  army  began  to  move  away 


FRENCH  NEUTRALvS 


546  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS  IN  THE  WEST 


from  tlieir  winter  encampment.  The  flotilla 
was  destroyed  and  the  barracks  were  burned. 
Brown,  with  a  larger  portion  of  the  troops, 
marched  for  Sackett’s  Harbor,  and  the  remain¬ 
der  accompanied  Wilkinson,  the  commander-in- 
chief,  to  Plattsbnrg. 

French  Neutrals.  (  See  Acadians,  and  Aca¬ 
dia,  English  Settlers  in.) 

French  Politics  in  America.  The  progress 
of  the  French  Revolution,  decisively  begun  at  the 
meeting  of  the  States-General  (May  5, 1789)  was 
contemporaneous  with  the  organization  of  the 
American  Republic  under  the  new  Constitution. 
The  Americans  naturally  sympathized  with  the 
French  people  avowedly  struggling  to  obtain 
political  freedom  ;  and  the  influence  of  that 
sympathy  was  speedily  seen  in  the  rapid  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  Republican  party  in  the  United 
States.  The  supposed  advent  of  Liberty  in 
France  had  been  hailed  with  enthusiasm  in 
America,  but  common -sense  and  a  wise  pru¬ 
dence  caused  many  thinking  Americans  to 
doubt  the  genuineness  of  French  democracy. 
This  tended  to  a  more  distinct  defining  of  par¬ 
ty  lines  between  the  Federalists  and  Republi¬ 
cans.  This  enthusiasm  was  shown  by  public 
festivals  in  honor  of  the  French  revolutionists. 
At  a  celebration  in  honor  of  the  temporary  con¬ 
quest  of  the  Austrian  Netherland  by  Dumouriez 
( 1792),  held  in  Boston,  Jan.  24,  1793,  a  select 
party  of  three  hundred  sat  down  to  a  feast  in 
Faneuil  Hall,  over  which  Samuel  Adams,  then 
Lieutenant-governor  of  Massachusetts,  presid¬ 
ed.  Speeches,  toasts,  music  —  all  were  indica¬ 
tive  of  sympathy  for  the  French  cause.  The 
children  of  the  Boston  schools  were  paraded  in 
the  streets,  and  to  each  one  was  given  a  cake 
imprinted  with  the  words  “Liberty  and  Equal¬ 
ity.”  Similar  celebrations  were  held  in  other 
places;  and  the  public  feeling  in  favor  of  the 
French  was  intensified  by  the  arrival  of  M.  Ge¬ 
net  as  representative  of  the  French  Republic. 
That  was  on  the  9th  of  April,  1793.  He  brought 
with  him  news  of  the  declaration  of  wrar  against 
England.  It  had  reached  New  York  five  days 
before.  More  fiercely  than  ever  the  two  parties 
were  arrayed  against  each  other;  and  now  the 
Federalists  were  first  called  the  “  British  party,” 
and  the  Republicans  the  “  French  party.”  So 
long  as  the  French  Republic,  so  miscalled,  last¬ 
ed,  the  politics  of  France  exerted  marked  influ¬ 
ence  in  the  United  States.  (See  Genet  in  the 
■United  States.) 

French  Privateers.  On  the  arrival  of  Cit¬ 
izen  Genet  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  he  fitted  out 
privateers  to  depredate  on  British  commerce, 
issued  commissions  for  their  commanders,  and 
conferred  authority  upon  French  consuls  each 
to  create  himself  into  an  admiralty  court  to  de¬ 
cide  upon  the  disposition  of  prizes  brought  into 
port  by  French  cruisers.  Genet  had  commis¬ 
sioned  two,  when  the  United  States  government 
interfered.  He  persisted,  in  defiance  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  very  soon  quite  a  number  were 
afloat  —  namely,  Sans  Culotte,  Citizen  Genet,  Cin- 
einnatus,  Yainqueur  do  la  Bastile,  L’Emhuscade, 
Anti- George,  Carmagniole,  Boland,  and  Concord. 


L’Embuscade,  the  frigate  that  brought  Genet  to 
America,  and  the  Genet,  were  both  fitted  out  as 
privateers  at  Charleston.  The  others  went  out 
of  the  ports  of  Savannah,  Boston,  and  Philadel¬ 
phia.  These  captured  more  than  fifty  English 
vessels,  quite  a  number  of  them  within  Ameri¬ 
can  waters.  After  Geuet  had  been  warned  that 
the  fitting-out  of  privateers  in  American  ports 
was  a  violation  of  law,  he  had  the  Little  Sarah 
(a  vessel  captured  by  one  of  the  privateers  and 
sent  to  Philadelphia)  made  into  a  letter- of- 
marque  under  the  very  eyes  of  the  government, 
and  called  the  vessel  The  Little  Democrat.  Gov¬ 
ernor  Mifflin  prepared  to  seize  the  vessel  before 
it  should  leave  port,  when  Jefferson,  tender  tow¬ 
ards  the  French  minister,  waited  on  Genet  in 
person  to  persuade  him  not  to  send  the  vessel 
to  sea.  Genet  stormed,  and  declared  his  crew 
would  resist.  He  finally  promised  that  the  ves¬ 
sel  should  only  drop  down  the  river  a  little 
way.  That  “little  way”  was  far  out  of  the 
reach  of  militia  or  other  forces.  Very  soon  af¬ 
terwards,  in  violation  of  his  solemn  assurance, 
Genet  ordered  The  Little  Democrat  to  go  to  sea, 
and  others  followed.  In  the  last  year  of  John 
Adams’s  administration,  and  before  there  was  a 
final  settlement  of  difficulties  with  France,  quite 
a  large  number  of  French  privateers  yet  at  sea 
fell  into  the  hands  of  American  cruisers.  These, 
with  others  previously  taken,  made  the  number 
captured  about  fifty.  There  were  also  recapt¬ 
ures  of  numerous  merchant  vessels  which  had 
been  previously  taken  by  the  French. 

French  Refugees  in  America.  The  colony 
of  Huguenots  planted  in  America  by  Coligni 
(see  Huguenots  in  America)  disappeared,  but  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (which  see) 
in  1685  caused  another  and  larger  emigration  to 
America.  The  refugees  in  England  had  been 
kindly  assisted  there,  and  after  the  accession  of 
William  and  Mary  Parliament  voted  $75,000  to 
be  distributed  “  among  persons  of  quality  and 
all  snch  as,  through  age  or  infirmity,  were  un¬ 
able  to  support  themselves.”  The  king  sent  a 
large  body  of  them  to  Virginia,  and  lands  were 
allotted  them  on  the  James  River;  others  pur¬ 
chased  lands  of  the  proprietaries  of  Carolina, 
and  settled  on  the  Santee  River;  while  others 
—merchants  and  artisans — settled  in  Charles¬ 
ton.  These  Huguenots  were  a  valuable  acqui¬ 
sition  to  the  colonies.  In  the  South  they  plant¬ 
ed  vineyards  and  made  wine.  A  large  number 
of  them  settled  in  the  province  of  New  York, 
chiefly  in  Westchester  aud  Ulster  counties,  and 
in  the  city  of  New  York.  (See  Leisler.) 

French  Settlements  in  the  West.  Cal- 
lieres,  who  succeeded  Frontenac  as  governor  of 
Canada  in  1699,  sent  messages  to  the  Five  Na¬ 
tions  with  the  alternative  of  peace  or  an  exter¬ 
minating  war,  against  which,  it  was  alleged, 
the  English  could  not  render  them  assistance. 
Their  jealousy  had  been  excited  against  the  lat¬ 
ter  by  a  claim  of  Bellomont  to  build  forts  on 
their  territory,  and  they  were  induced  to  send  a 
deputation  to  a  grand  assembly  at  Montreal  of 
all  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French.  There  a 
treaty  of  frieudship  was  concluded;  and  so  the 


FKENCH  SPOLIATIONS 


547 


FKENCH  WEST  INDIES 


French,  who  had  been  restrained  by  the  hostil¬ 
ity  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy,  secured  a  free 
passage  towards  the  Mississippi.  Almost,  im¬ 
mediately  one  hundred  settlers,  with  a  Jesuit 
leader,  were  sent  to  take  possession  of  the  strait 
between  lakes  Erie  and  St.  Clair.  They  built 
a  fort,  aud  called  the  spot  Detroit,  the  French 
name  for  a  strait  or  sound.  It  soon  became  the 
favorite  settlement  of  western  Canada.  Vil¬ 
lages  of  French  settlers  soon  grew  up  around 
the  Jesuit  missionary  stations  at  Kaskaskia 
and  Cahokia,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Illinois  and 
Ohio.  These  movements  occasioned  no  little 
alarm  to  the  English  in  New  York  aud  New 
England. 

French  Spoliations.  The  United  States 
made  claims  upon  the  government  of  France 
from  time  to  time  for  depredations  committed 
upon  American  commerce  under  the  rule  of  the 
Directory  (which  see),  the  First  Consul,  and  the 
Empire.  Negotiations  to  this  end  had  been 
long  continued  by  various  ministers  from  the 
United  States,  but  nothing  satisfactory  had 
been  obtained  or  definitely  settled.  The  change 
in  the  government  of  France  by  the  Revolution 
of  1830  was  a  favorable  time  for  Mr.  Rives,  the 
American  minister  to  France,  to  again  propose 
a  settlement.  The  French  had  set  up  a  counter¬ 
claim  of  the  non-fulfilment  of  the  treaty  of 
1778 ;  but  the  American  government  argued 
that  subsequent  events  had  exonerated  the 
United  States  from  all  demands  under  that 
treaty.  Mr.  Rives  succeeded  in  negotiating  a 
treaty  by  which  the  long-pending  controversy 
was  closed.  By  it  the  French  government 
agreed  to  pay  to  the  United  States,  in  complete 
satisfaction  of  all  claims  of  American  citizens 
for  spoliations,  nearly  $5,000,000,  in  six  annual 
instalments,  $300,000  to  be  allowed  by  the 
American  government  to  France  for  French 
citizens  for  ancient  supplies  (see  Beaumarchais), 
accounts,  or  other  claims.  The  United  States 
Senate  ratified  the  treaty,  but  the  French  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Deputies  refused  to  make  the  appropria¬ 
tion  to  carry  it  out,  and  an  unpleasant  dispute 
arose  between  the  two  governments.  The  mat¬ 
ter  was  finally  settled  on  the  basis  of  the  treaty 
in  1836. 

French,  The,  and  the  Chickasaws.  For  a 
long  time  the  Chickasaws,  who  were  friendly 
with  the  English,  and  obstinately  opposed  the 
progress  of  the  French  up  the  Mississippi  River, 
presented  the  only  obstacle  to  a  regular  com¬ 
munication  between  Louisiana  and  Canada.  In 
1736  an  expedition,  consisting  of  two  hundred 
Frenchmen  and  four  hundred  Indians,  was  sent 
from  Canada  to  meet  a  party  from  New  Orleans 
for  the  purpose  of  extirpating  the  Chickasaws. 
The  party  from  below  not  coming  up  in  time,  and 
the  party  from  Canada,  looking  with  contempt 
upon  the  Chickasaws,  began  the  war  on  their 
own  account  by  attacking  the  Chickasaw  towns. 
Three  hundred  warriors  instantly  gathered,  gave 
battle  to  their  assailants,  and  completely  defeat¬ 
ed  them.  Full  forty  Frenchmen  and  eigh4s  of 
their  Indian  allies  were  killed,  and  the  remain¬ 


der  were  made  prisoners  and  afterwards  tort¬ 
ured  at  the  stake. 

French,  The,  First  Collision  of,  with  New- 
Englanders.  Nova  Scotia  (see  Acadia),  grant¬ 
ed  to  Sir  William  Alexander,  passed  into  the 
hands  of  a  joint-stock  association  of  French 
merchants,  called  “The  Hundred  Associates,  or 
Company  of  New  France,”  at  the  head  of  which 
was  Cardinal  Richelieu.  In  1629,  by  the  aid  of 
a  fleet  under  Sir  David  Kertk,  who  captured  Que¬ 
bec  (see  Canada,  Conquest  of ),  Sir  William  gained 
temporary  possession  of  Nova  Scotia ;  but  it, 
with  Canada  and  Cape  Breton,  was  restored  to 
the  French  (1632)  by  treaty.  The  Hundred  As¬ 
sociates  sent  a  governor  to  rule  Nova  Scotia,  or 
Acadia,  whose  western  limits  were  undefined. 
Meanwhile  enterprising  Plymouth  colonists  had 
obtained  a  grant  on  the  Kennebec,  and  were 
carrying  on  a  profitable  trade  with  the  Indians. 
Thus  encouraged,  they  pushed  eastward  aud  es¬ 
tablished  a  trading-post  on  the  Penobscot,  and 
another  still  farther  east,  at  Macliias.  The 
French  regarded  this  movement  as  an  intru¬ 
sion,  aud  sent  a  pinnace  to  the  Penobscot  to 
“  displant”  the  English  there.  The  people  of 
Plymouth  sent  two  armed  vessels  to  recover 
the  post,  but  failed.  The  same  fate  overtook 
the  one  at  Machias  the  next  year  (1633).  The 
French  gave  bills  on  France  for  the  goods,  but 
drove  away  the  settlers.  The  New-Englanders 
were  notified  by  the  French  commander  that 
they  would  not  be  allowed  to  trade  eastward 
of  Pemaquid  Point,  a  promontory  about  half¬ 
way  between  the  Kennebec  and  the  Penobscot. 
(See  Pemaquid.)  Too  feeble  to  resist,  the  Plym¬ 
outh  people  withdrew. 

French  Treaties  Declared  Void.  The 

French  republic  having  repeatedly  violated  the 
treaties  between  France  and  the  United  States 
made  in  1778,  the  Congress,  by  act  passed  July 
6, 1798,  declared  those  treaties  void. 

French  Vessels  Captured  (1747).  A  fleet 
of  thirty-eight,  sail  was  sent  from  France,  under 
M.  de  la  Jonqniere,  a  part  of  which  was  appoint¬ 
ed  to  convoy  six  East  India  ships,  and  the  rest, 
with  transports  and  merchantmen  full  of  stores, 
goods,  and  merchandise,  were  destined  for  Can¬ 
ada  and  Nova  Scotia.  English  fleets,  under  Ad¬ 
mirals  Anson  and  Warren,  that,  sailed  in  pursuit 
of  the  French  vessels,  fell  in  with  them  on  May 
3,  aud,  after  a  sharp  battle,  captured  six  of  the 
French  men-of-war,  all  their  merchant  vessels, 
and  took  nearly  five  thousand  prisoners.  About 
seven  hundred  of  the  French  and  five  hundred 
of  the  English  were  killed  and  wounded.  The 
treasure  taken  by  these  admirals  was  afterwards 
conveyed  in  twenty  wagons  to  the  Bank  of  Eng¬ 
land.  The  estimated  loss  of  the  French  was 
over  $7,000,000. 

French  West  Indies,  British  make  War 
UPON  the.  Canada  conquered,  the  British  turn¬ 
ed  their  arms  against  the  French  West  India  isl¬ 
ands,  in  which  the  colonies  participated.  Guade¬ 
loupe  had  already  been  taken.  General  Monck- 
t.on,  after  submitting  his  commission  as  govern¬ 
or  to  the  Council  of  New  York,  sailed  from  that 
port  (January,  1762)  with  two  line-of- battle 


543 


FRENCHTOWN,  MASSACRE  AT 


FRENCHTOWN,  MASSACRE  AT 


ships,  one  hundred  transports,  and  twelve  hun¬ 
dred  regulars  and  colonial  troops.  Major  Gates 
(afterwards  adjutant-general  of  the  Continental 
army)  went  with  Monckton  as  aide-de-camp, 
and  carried  to  England  the  news  of  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  Martinique.  Richard  Montgomery  (after¬ 
wards  a  general  in  the  Continental  army)held  the 
rank  of  captain  in  this  expedition.  The  Colonial 
troops  were  led  by  General  Phiueas  Lyman. 
(See  Crown  Point ,  Expedition  against..')  Grenada, 
St.  Lucia,  and  St. Vincent’s — indeed, every  island 
in  the  Carribbean  group  possessed  by  t lie  French 
— fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  (See  Treaty 
of  Paris. )  The  French  fleet  was  ruined,  and 
French  merchantmen  were  driven  from  the  seas. 
British  vessels,  including  those  of  New  York  and 
New  England,  now  obtained  the  carrying-trade 
of  those  islands;  also,  under  safe  conducts  and 
flags  of  truce,  that  of  Santo  Domingo. 

Frenchtown  (Raisin  River),  Massacre  at. 
In  the  middle  of  December,  1812,  General  Har¬ 
rison  wrote  to  the  War  Department  that  if  no 
political  or  other  necessity  existed  for  the  re¬ 
covery  of  Michigan  and  the  invasion  of  Canada, 
the  enormous  expense  of  transportation  and  the 
sufferings  of  men  and  beasts  in  the  task  pleaded 
for  a  remission  of  efforts  to  attain  that  recovery 
until  spring.  He  was  directed  to  use  his  own 
judgment  in  the  matter,  and  was  assured  that 
immediate  measures  would  be  taken  for  recov- 


Virginia,  and  one  from  Ohio,  under  General  Si¬ 
mon  Perkins,  as  the  right  wing  of  the  army; 
and  the  Kentuckians,  under  General  James  Wil¬ 
kinson,  as  the  left  wing.  So  arranged,  the  arjuj 
pressed  forward  towards  the  rapids  of  the  Mau¬ 
mee,  the  designated  general  rendezvous.  Win¬ 
chester,  with  eight  hundred  young  Kentuckians, 
reached  there  on  the  10th  of  January,  1813,  and 
established  a  fortified  camp,  when  he  learned 
that  a  party  of  British  and  Indians  were  occu¬ 
pying  Frenchtown,  on  the  Raisin  River  (now 
Monroe,  Mich.),  twenty  miles  south  of  Detroit. 
He  sent  a  detachment,  under  Colonels  Allen  and 
Lewis,  to  protect  the  inhabitants  in  that  region, 
w  ho  drove  the  enemy  out  of  the  hamlet  of  about 
thirty  families,  and  held  it  until  the  arrival  of 
Winchester  on  the  20th  with  about  three  hun¬ 
dred  men.  General  Proctor  was  then  at  Fort 
Malden,  eighteen  miles  distant,  with  a  consider¬ 
able  body  of  British  and  Indians.  With  fifteen 
hundred  of  these  he  crossed  the  Detroit  River 
and  marched  stealthily  at  night  to  destroy  the 
Americans.  Winchester  wTas  informed  late  in 
the  evening  of  the  21st  that  a  foe  was  approach¬ 
ing.  He  did  not  believe  it,  and  at  midnight  was 
in  perfect  repose.  The  sentinels  were  posted, 
but,  the  weather  being  intensely  cold,  pickets 
were  sent  out  upon  roads  leading  to  the  town. 
Just  as  the  drummer-boy  was  beating  the  re¬ 
veille  in  the  gray  twilight  of  the  22d,  the  sharp 


ering  the  control  of  Lake  Erie  to  the  Ameri¬ 
cans.  He  was  instructed,  in  case  he  should 
penetrate  Canada,  not  to  offer  the  inhabitants 
anything  but  protection  ;  and,  secondly,  not  to 
make  temporary  acquisitions,  but  to  proceed  so 
surely  that  he  might  hold  fast  any  territory  he 
should  acquire.  Other  troops  having  arrived, 
Harrison  resolved  to  attempt  the  capture  of 
Fort  Malden.  His  whole  effective  force  did  not 
exceed  six  thousand  three  hundred  men.  He 
designated  the  brigades  from  Pennsylvania  and 


crack  of  a  rifle,  followed  by  the  rattle  of  mus¬ 
ketry,  awoke  the  sleepers.  Bomb-shells  and  can¬ 
ister-shot  immediately  succeeded  in  a  shower 
upon  the  camp.  The  Americans,  seizing  their 
arms,  tried  to  defend  themselves.  Very  soon 
the  soldiers  fled  to  the  woods,  when  the  sav¬ 
ages,  who  swarmed  there,  smote  them  fearful¬ 
ly  with  gleaming  hatchets.  The  British  and 
their  dusky  allies  made  it  a  war  of  extermina¬ 
tion.  Winchester  was  captured,  aud  he  con¬ 
cluded  an  arrangement  with  Proctor  to  surren- 


FRENEAU 


549 


FROBISHER 


derhis  troops  on  condition  that  ample  provision 
should  be  made  for  their  protection  against  the 
barbarians.  The  promise  was  given  and  im¬ 
mediately  violated.  Proctor,  knowing  Harrison 
(who  had  advanced  to  the  Maumee)  to  be  near, 
hastened  towards  Malden  with  his  captives, 
leaving  the  sick  and  wounded  prisoners  behind. 
The  Indians  followed  awhile,  when  they  turned 
back,  murdered  and  scalped  those  who  were  un¬ 
able  to  travel  as  captives,  set  tire  to  the  houses, 
and  took  many  prisoners  to  Detroit  to  procure 
exorbitant  prices  for  their  ransom.  Proctor’s 
indifference  to  this  outrage,  and  the  dreadful 
suspicion,  which  his  character  warranted,  that 
he  encouraged  the  butchery  of  the  defenceless 
people,  was  keenly  felt  all  through  the  West, 
particularly  in  Kentucky,  for  most  of  the  vic¬ 
tims  were  of  the  flower  of  society  in  that  state; 
and  for  a  long  time  afterwards  the  most  inspir¬ 
iting  war-cry  of  the  Kentucky  soldiers  was, 
“  Remember  the  River  Raisin !” 

Freneau,  Philip,  called  “  the  Poet  of  the 
Revolution,”  was  born  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  2, 
1752;  died  iu  Monmouth  County,  N.  J.,  Dec.  18, 
1832.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  iu  1771.  He  was  of  Huguenot  descent, 
and  evinced  a  talent  for  rhyming  as  early  as  the 
age  of  seventeen  years,  when  he  wrote  a  poeti¬ 
cal  History  of  the  Prophet  Jonah.  He  was  in  the 
West  Indies  during  a  part  of  the  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence,  and  while  on  a  voyage  in  1780  he  was 
captured  by  a  British  cruiser.  After  his  release 
he  wrote  many  patriotic  songs,  and  was  engaged 
in  editorial  duties,  notably  ou  the  Democratic 
National  Gazette ,  of  Philadelphia,  the  organ  of 
Mr.  Jefferson  and  his  party.  He  continued  to 
edit  aud  publish  newspapers.  His  productions 
contributed  largely  to  animate  his  countrymen 
while  struggling  for  independence.  An  edi¬ 
tion  of  his  lievolutionary  Poems,  with  a  Memoir 
and  Notes,  by  E.  A.  Duyckinck,  was  published 
in  New  York  in  1865.  His  poetry  was  high¬ 
ly  commended  by  Scotch  and  English  literary 
critics. 

Friendly  Association.  In  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  the  descendants  of  William  Penn, 
who  succeeded  to  the  proprietorship  ot  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  departed  from  the  just  course  pursued 
by  the  great  founder  of  the  commonwealth 
towards  the  Indians  and  the  white  people,  and 
exasperated  both  by  their  greed  and  covetous¬ 
ness.  The  Indians  were  made  thoroughly  dis¬ 
contented  by  the  frauds  practised  upon  them  in 
the  purchase  of  lands  and  the  depredations  of  a 
banditti  called  traders.  (See  Walking  Purchase.) 
So  much  had  they  become  alienated  from  the 
English  that  in  1755  the  Delawares  and  others 
joined  the  French  in  making  war.  For  some 
time  the  Friends,  or  Quakers,  had  observed  with 
sorrow  the  treatment  of  the  Indians  by  Thomas 
and  John  Penn  and  the  traders,  and,  impelled 
by  their  uniform  sympathy  with  the  oppressed, 
they  formed  a  society  in  1756  called  “  The 
Friendly  Association  for  Regaining  and  Pre¬ 
serving  Peace  with  the  Indians  by  Pacific  Meas¬ 
ures.”  The  society  was  a  continual  thorn  in 
the  sides  of  the  proprietors  and  Indian  trad¬ 


ers,  for  the  active  members  of  the  association 
watched  the  interests  of  the  red  men  with  keen 
vigilance,  attended  every  treaty,  and  prevented 
a  vast  amount  of  fraud  and  cheating  iu  the 
dealings  of  the  white  people  with  the  natives. 
Charles  Thomson,  afterwards  secretary  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  was  an  efficient  co-work¬ 
er  with  them,  making  truthful  reports  of  the 
proceedings  at  treaties,  aud  preventing  false 
or  garbled  statements.  (See  Easton ,  Treaties 
at.)  The  Friendly  Association  continued  until 
1764. 

Fries’s  Insurrection.  A  second  insurrection 
broke  out  in  Pennsylvania  early  in  1799.  A  di¬ 
rect  tax  had  been  levied,  among  other  things, 
on  houses,  arranged  in  classes.  A  means  for 
making  that  classification  was  by  measuring 
windows.  The  German  inhabitants  of  North¬ 
ampton,  Bucks,  and  Montgomery  counties  made 
such  violent  opposition  to  this  measurement  that 
those  engaged  in  it  were  compelled  to  desist. 
Warrants  were  issued  for  the  arrest  of  opposers 
of  the  law  ;  and  in  the  village  of  Bethlehem  the 
marshal,  having  about  thirty  prisoners,  was  set 
upon  by  a  party  of  full  fifty  horsemen,  headed 
by  a  man  named  Fries.  The  President  sent 
troops  to  maintain  the  laws.  No  opposition  was 
made  to  them,  and  Fries  and  about  thirty  others 
were  arrested  and  taken  to  Philadelphia,  where 
their  leader  was  indicted  for  treason,  tried  twice, 
each  time  found  guilty,  but  finally  pardoned. 
Several  others  were  tried  for  the  same  offence. 
While  these  trials  were  going  on,  Duane,  editor 
of  the  Aurora  (Bache  had  died  of  yellow  fever), 
abused  the  officers  and  troops,  who,  finding  no 
law  to  touch  him,  sent  a  deputation  of  their  own 
number  to  chastise  him,  which  they  did  on  his 
own  premises. 

Frobisher,  Martin,  was  born  at  Doncaster, 
Yorkshire,  England;  died  at  Plymouth,  Nov.  7, 
1594.  He  was  a  mariner  by  profession,  aud 
yearned  for  an  opportunity  to  go  in  search  of  a 
northwest  passage  to  India.  For  fifteen  years 


MARTIN  FROBISHER. 

lie  tried  in  vain  to  get  pecuniary  aid  to  fit  out 
ships.  At  length  the  Earl  of  Warwick  and  oth¬ 
ers  privately  fitted  out  two  small  barks  ot  twen¬ 
ty-five  tons  each  and  a  pinnace,  with  the  ap¬ 
proval  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  with  these  ho 


550 


FRONTIERS  PROTECTED 


FRONT  ROYAL,  BATTLE  AT 

sailed  from  Deptford  in  June,  1576,  declaring 
that  he  would  succeed  or  never  come  back  alive. 
As  the  flotilla  passed  the  palace  at  Greenwich, 
the  queen,  sitting  at  au  open  window,  waved 
her  hand  towards  the  commander  in  token  of 
good-will  and  farewell.  Touching  at  Greenland, 
Frobisher  crossed  over  and  coasted  up  the  shores 
of  Labrador  to  latitude  63°,  where  he  entered 
what  he  supposed  to  be  a  strait,  but  which  was 
really  a  bay,  which  yet  bears  the  name  of  Fro¬ 
bisher’s  Inlet.  He  landed,  and  promptly  took 
possession  of  the  country  around  in  the  name 
of  his  queen.  Trying  to  sail  farther  northward, 
he  was  barred  by  pack-ice,  when  he  turned  and 
sailed  for  England,  bearing  a  heavy  black  stone 
which  he  believed  contained  metal.  He  gave 
the  stone  to  a  man  whose  wife,  in  a  passion, 
cast  it  into  the  fire.  The  husband  snatched  the 
glowing  mineral  from  the  flames  and  quenched 
it  in  some  vinegar,  when  it  glittered  like  gold. 
On  fusing  it,  some  particles  of  the  precious  metal 
were  found.  When  this  fact  became  known  a 
gold  fever  was  produced.  Money  was  freely 
offered  for  fitting-out  vessels  to  go  for  more  of 
tlie  mineral.  The  queen  placed  a  ship  of  the 
royal  navy  at  Frobisher’s  disposal,  and  he  sailed, 
with  two  other  vessels  of  thirty  tons  each,  from 
Harwich  in  1577,  instructed  to  search  for  gold, 
and  not  for  the  northwest  passage.  The  vessels 
were  laden  with  the  black  ore  on  the  shores  of 
Frobisher’s  Inlet,  and  on  the  return  of  the  ex¬ 
pedition  to  England  a  commission  was  appoint¬ 
ed  to  determine  the  value  of  the  discovery. 
Very  little  gold  was  found  in  the  cargoes,  yet 
faitii  was  not  exhausted,  and  Frobisher  sailed 
in  May,  1578,  with  fifteen  ships  in  search  of  the 
precious  metal.  Storms  dispersed  the  fleet. 
Some  turned  back,  two  of  them  went  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  and  three  or  four  of  them  re¬ 
turned  laden  with  the  worthless  stones.  Fro¬ 
bisher  had  won  the  honor  of  a  discoverer,  and  as 
the  first  European  who  penetrated  towards  the 
Arctic  circle  to  the  sixty-third  degree.  For  these 
exploits,  and  for  services  in  fighting  the  Spanish 
armada,  he  was  knighted  by  Elizabeth,  and  iu 
1590-92  he  commanded  a  squadrou  sent  against 
the  Spaniards.  Iu  1594  he  was  sent  with  two 
ships  to  help  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  in  a  battle 
at  Brest  (Nov.  7)  he  was  mortally  wounded. 

Front  Royal,  Battle  at.  On  May  23,  1862, 
General  Ewell  fell  with  crushing  force,  almost 
without  warning,  upon  the  little  garrison  of 
one  thousand  men,  under  Colonel  Kenly,  at 
Front  Royal.  Kenly  was  charged  with  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  the  roads  and  bridges  between  Front 
Royal  and  Strasbnrg.  His  troops  were  chiefly 
New-Yorkers  and  Pennsylvanians.  Kenly  made 
a  gallant  defence,  but  was  driven  from  the  town. 
He  made  another  stand,  but  was  pushed  across 
the  Shenandoah.  He  attempted  to  burn  the 
bridge  behind  him,  but  failed,  when  Ewell’s  cav¬ 
alry  in  pursuit  overtook  him.  Kenly  again  gave 
battle,  in  which  he  was  severely  wounded,  when 
seven  hundred  of  his  men,  with  a  section  of  ri¬ 
fled  ten-pounders  and  his  whole  supply  train, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Confederates. 

Frontenac,  Four  (or  Cataraquoi),  Capture  ■ 


OF.  After  the  repulse  of  the  English  at  Ticon- 
deroga  (July  8,  1758),  Colonel  John  Bradstreet 
urged  Geueral  Abercrombie  to  send  an  expedi¬ 
tion  against  Fort  Frontenac,  at  the  foot  of  Lake 
Ontario.  He  detached  three  thousand  men  for 
the  purpose,  and  gave  Colonel  Bradstreet  com¬ 
mand  of  the  expedition.  He  went  by  the  way 
of  Oswego,  and  crossed  the  lake  iu  bateaux, 
having  with  him  three  hundred  bateau -men. 
His  troops  were  chiefly  provincials,  and  were 
furnished  with  eight  pieces  of  cannon  and  two 
mortars.  They  landed  within  a  mile  of  the 
fort  on  the  evening  of  Aug.  25,  constructed  bat¬ 
teries,  and  opened  them  upon  the  fort  at  short 
range  two  days  afterwards.  Finding  the  works 
untenable,  the  garrison  surrendered  (Aug.  27) 
without  much  resistance.  The  Indians  having 
previously  deserted,  there  were  only  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  ten  prisoners.  The  spoils  were  sixty 
cannons,  sixteen  mortars,  a  large  quantity  of 
small-arms,  provisions  and  military  stores,  and 
nine  armed  vessels.  On  his  return,  Bradstreet  as¬ 
sisted  in  building  Fort  Stanwix,  in  the  Mohawk 
Valley,  on  the  site  of  Rome,  Oneida  County. 

Frontenac,  Louis  df.  Buade  (Count  de),  was 
born  in  France  in  1620;  died  at  Quebec,  Nov. 
28,  1698.  Iu  the  military  service,  he  was  made 
a  colonel  at  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  was  an 
eminent  lieutenant-general  at  twenty-nine,  and 
covered  with  decorations  and  scars.  Selected 
by  Marshal  Tnrenne  to  lead  troops  sent  for  the 
relief  of  Canada,  he  was  made  governor  of  that 
province  in  1672,  and  built  Fort  Frontenac  (now 
Kingston),  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Ontario,  in  1673. 
(See  La  Salle.)  He  was  recalled  in  1682,  but 
was  reappoiuted  in  1689,  when  the  French  do¬ 
minions  in  America  were  on  the  brink  of  ruin. 
With  great  energy  he  carried  on  war  agaiust 
the  English  in  New  York  and  New  England, 
and  their  allies  the  Iroquois.  Early  in  1690  an 
expedition  which  he  sent  towards  Albany  deso¬ 
lated  Schenectady;  and  the  same  year  he  suc¬ 
cessfully  resisted  a  land  and  naval  force  sent 
agaiust  Canada.  He  was  in  Montreal  when  an 
Indian  runner  told  him  of  the  approach  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  of  Colonel  Schuyler.  (See  King 
William’s  War.)  Frontenac,  then  seventy  years 
of  age,  called  out  his  Indian  allies,  and,  taking 
a  tomahawk  in  his  hand,  he  danced  the  war- 
dance,  and  chanted  the  war-song  in  their  pres¬ 
ence  and  then  led  them  successfully  against  the 
foe.  He  afterwards  repulsed  Phipps  at  Quebec 
(see  Phipj)s),  having  been  informed  of  his  expe¬ 
dition  by  an  Indian  runner  from  Pemaqnid.  So 
important  was  that  repulse  considered  that 
King  Louis  caused  a  medal  to  be  struck  with 
the  legend,  “  France  victorious  in  the  New 
World.”  This  success  was  followed  by  au  ex¬ 
pedition  sent  by  Frontenac  against  the  Mohawks 
in  1696;  and  he  led  forces  iu  person  against  the 
Onondagas  the  same  year.  Frontenac  was  the 
terror  of  the  Iroquois,  for  his  courage  and  activ¬ 
ity  were  wonderful.  He  restored  the  fallen  fort¬ 
unes  of  France  iu  America,  and  died  soon  after¬ 
wards. 

Frontiers  Protected.  The  English  frontier 
settlements  iu  the  West  and  South  needed  pro- 


FRONTIERS  THREATENED  501  FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW.  THE  FIRST 


tection  in  1757.  Colonel  Stanwix  was  ordered, 
with  nearly  two  thousand  men,  composed  of  a 
battalion  of  Royal  Americans,  and  Pennsylva¬ 
nia,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  provincials,  to  the 
defence  of  the  Western  frontiers;  and  a  part  of 
a  battalion  of  Royal  Americans,  with  some  pro¬ 
vincial  troops,  under  Colonel  Bouquet,  were  sent 
to  protect  the  frontiers  of  the  Caroliuas. 

Frontiers  Threatened  (1755).  After  Dim- 
bar’s  precipitate  retreat  to  Philadelphia,  on  the 
defeat  of  Braddock  (which  see),  the  frontiers  of 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  were  un¬ 
covered,  and  war  parties  in  the  interest  of  the 
French  took  advantage  of  this  weakness  and  be¬ 
gan  hostilities.  The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania 
(Morris)  called  loudly  for  men  and  money  to  de¬ 
fend  the  frontiers  of  that  province.  Philadel¬ 
phians  urged  the  Assembly  to  make  a  liberal 
grant.  Instead  of  that  they  voted  a  tax  of 
£50,000  to  be  levied  on  real  and  personal  estates, 
“not  excepting  those  of  the  proprietaries” — a 
course  which  they  well  knew  to  be  contrary  to 
the  governor’s  instructions.  (See  Proprietary 
Innovations .)  Wealthy  Philadelphians  offered  to 
pay  the  amount  of  the  proportion  of  the  tax  that 
might  be  levied  on  the  proprietors,  but  there  was 
a  principle  involved,  and  the  Assembly  evaded 
the  offer.  The  governor  stood  out,  and  the  bill 
failed  to  pass.  Dunbar’s  regiment  went  back 
towards  the  frontiers  and  afforded  temporary 
protection. 

Fruit  Culture  in  the  United  States  has  had 

an  amazing  growth.  Until  within  about  sixty 
years  it  was  hardly  deserving  of  notice  in  the 
census.  It  is  said  that  a  little  more  than  fifty 
years  ago  (1826)  there  was  not  a  nursery  for  the 
sale  of  fruit-trees  in  all  New  England,  and  the 
neglected  gardens  yielded  only  a  small  quantity 
of  small  fruit,  chiefly  currants.  The  first  horti¬ 
cultural  society  in  the  country  was  founded  in 
1829.  Now  (1886)  fruit-raising  of  every  kind  is 
becoming  an  important  industry.  The  products 
of  our  orchards  aunually  amount  in  value  to 
full  $55,000,000. 

Fry,  Joseph,  was  born  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in 
April,  1711 ;  died  at  Fryeburg,  Me.,  in  1794.  He 
was  an  ensign  in  the  army  that  captured  Louis- 
burg  in  1745,  and  a  colonel  in  the  British  army 
at  the  capture  of  Fort  William  Henry  (which 
see)  by  Montcalm  in  1757.  He  escaped  and 
reached  Fort  Edward.  In  1775  Congress  ap¬ 
pointed  him  brigadier-general,  but  in  the  spring 
of  1776  he  resigned  on  account  of  infirmity. 

Fry,  Joshua,  was  born  in  Somersetshire, 
England;  died  in  Maryland,  May  31, 1754.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  College  of  William  and 
Mary,  in  Virginia.  He  served  in  public  civil  life 
in  Virginia,  and  in  1754  was  intrusted  with  the 
command  of  an  expedition  against  the  French 
on  the  head- waters  of  the  Ohio.  He  died  at  a 
place  at  the  month  of  Will’s  Creek  (now  Cum¬ 
berland)  while  conducting  the  expedition.  He 
bad  been  colonel  of  the  militia  (1750)  and  a 
member  of  the  governor’s  council. 

Frye,  James,  was  born  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in 


1709;  died  Jan.  8,  1776.  He  served  in  several 
local  offices,  and  in  the  army  at  the  capture  of 
Louisburg  in  1755.  At  the  opening  of  the  Rev¬ 
olution  he  commanded  the  Essex  Regiment 
(Massachusetts),  taking  an  active  part  in  the 
Battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill.  He  afterwards  com¬ 
manded  a  brigade  of  the  army  investing  Boston. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law  (1818).  The  domestic 
slave-trade  increased  the  liability  of  free  per¬ 
sons  of  color  being  kidnapped,  uuder  the  pro¬ 
visions  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act  of  1793.  A 
petition  was  presented  to  Congress  from  the 
Yearly  Meeting  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  at  Bal¬ 
timore,  praying  for  further  provisions  for  pro¬ 
tecting  free  persons  of  color.  This  had  followed 
a  bill  brought  in  by  a  committee  at  the  instiga¬ 
tion  of  Pindall,  a  member  from  Virginia,  for  giv¬ 
ing  new  stringency  to  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act. 
While  this  bill  was  pending,  a  member  from 
Rhode  Island  (Burritt)  moved  to  instruct  the 
committee  on  the  Quaker  memorial  to  inquire 
into  the  expediency  of  additional  provisions  for 
the  suppression  of  the  foreign  slave-trade.  Piu- 
dall’s  bill  was  warmly  opposed  by  members  from 
the  free-labor  states  as  goiug  entirely  beyond 
the  constitutional  provision  on  the  subject  of 
fugitives  from  labor.  They  conteuded  that  the 
personal  rights  of  one  class  of  citizens  were  not 
to  be  trampled  upon  to  secure  the  rights  of  prop¬ 
erty  of  other  citizens.  The  bill  was  supported 
by  the  Southern  members  and  a  few  Northern 
“doughfaces”  (which  see);  also  by  Speaker 
Henry  Clay;  and  it  passed  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives  by  a  vote  of  eighty-four  to  sixty-nine. 
Among  the  yeas  were  ten  from  New  York,  five 
from  Massachusetts,  four  from  Pennsylvania, 
and  one  from  New  Jersey.  It  passed  the  Sen¬ 
ate,  after  several  important  amendments,  by  a 
vote  of  seventeen  to  thirteen.  Meauwhile  some 
of  its  Northern  supporters  seem  to  have  been 
alarmed  by  thunders  of  indignation  from  their 
constituents,  and  when  it  reached  the  House  it 
was  laid  on  the  table,  and  was  there  allowed  to 
die. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law  ( Personal  Liberty 
Bills),  The  First.  In  1793  an  act  was  passed  by 
Congress  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves.  It 
provided  that  the  owner  of  the  slave,  or  “  ser¬ 
vant,”  as  it  was  termed  in  the  act,  his  agent  or 
attorney,  might  seize  the  fugitive  and  carry 
him  before  any  United  States  judge,  or  before 
any  magistrate  of  the  city,  town,  or  county  in 
which  the  arrest  was  made;  such  magistrate, 
on  being  satisfied  that  the  charges  against  the 
fugitive  were  true,  should  give  a  certificate  to 
that  effect,  which  was  a  sufficient  warrant  for 
remanding  the  person  seized  back  to  slavery. 
Any  person  in  any  way  obstructing  such  seizure 
or  removal,  or  harboring  or  concealing  such  fu¬ 
gitive,  was  liable  to  a  penalty  of  $500.  For 
some  time  the  law  attracted  very  little  atten¬ 
tion,  but  finally  this  summary  violation  of  the 
right  of  personal  liberty  without  a  trial  by  jury, 
or  any  appeal  on  points  of  law,  was  denounced 
as  dangerous  and  unconstitutional ;  and  most  of 
the  free-labor  states  passed  acts  forbidding  their 
magistrates,  under  severe  penalties,  to  take  any 


552 


FULTON 


FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW,  THE 

part  in  carrying  this  law  into  effect.  It  became 
a  dead  letter  until  revived  in  1850. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law,  The  (1850).  One  of 
the  acts  contemplated  by  Mr.  Clay’s  “Omnibus 
Bill  ”  (which  see)  was  for  the  rendition  of  fu¬ 
gitive  slaves  to  their  owners,  under  the  provi¬ 
sion  of  clause  3,  section  2,  article  4  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Constitution.  In  September,  1850,  a  bill 
to  that  effect  was  passed,  and  became  a  law  by 
the  signature  of  President  Fillmore.  The  bill 
was  drawn  up  by  Senator  James  M.  Mason,  of 
Virginia,  and  in  some  of  its  features  was  made 
very  offensive  to  the  sentiments  and  feelings  of 
the  people  of  the  free-labor  states.  It  provided 
that  the  master  of  a  fugitive  slave,  or  his  agent, 
might  go  into  any  state  or  territory  of  the  Re¬ 
public  and,  with  or  without  legal  warrant  there 
obtained,  seize  such  fugitive  aud  take  him  forth¬ 
with  before  any  judge  or  commissioner,  whose 
duty  it  should  be  to  hear  and  determine  the 
case.  On  satisfactory  proof  being  furnished  the 
judge  or  commissioner,  such  as  the  affidavit,  in 
writing,  or  other  acceptable  testimony,  by  the 
pursuing  owuer  or  agent,  that  the  arrested  per¬ 
son  “owes  labor”  to  the  party  that  arrested 
him,  or  his  principal,  it  was  made  the  duty  of 
such  judge  or  commissioner  to  use  the  power  of 
his  office  to  assist  the  claimant  to  take  the  fugi¬ 
tive  back  into  bondage.  It  was  further  provid¬ 
ed  that  iu  no  hearing  or  trial  under  the  act 
should  the  testimony  of  such  alleged  fugitive  he  ad¬ 
mitted  in  evidence;  and  that  the  parties  claim¬ 
ing  the  fugitive  should  not  be  molested  in  their 
work  of  carrying  the  person  back  “  by  any  proc¬ 
ess  issued  by  any  court,  judge,  or  magistrate, 
or  any  person  whomsoever;”  and  any  citizeu 
might  be  compelled  to  assist  in  the  capture  and 
rendition  of  a  slave.  This  last  clause  of  the  act 
was  so  offensive  to  every  sentiment  of  humanity 
aud  justice,  so  repugnant  to  the  feelings  of  the 
people  of  the  free-labor  states,  and  so  contrary  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  principle  of  fair  play,  that,  while 
the  habitual  respect  for  law  by  the  American  peo¬ 
ple  caused  a  general  acquiescence  in  the  require¬ 
ments  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  there  was  re¬ 
bellion  against  it  in  every  Christian  heart.  It 
was  seen  that  free  negroes  might,  by  the  perjury 
of  kidnappers  and  the  denial  of  the  right  to  de¬ 
fence  allowed  to  the  vilest  criminal,  be  carried 
away  into  hopeless  slavery,  beyond  the  reach  of 
pity,  mercy,  or  law.  This  perception  of  possible 
wrong  that  would  follow  the  execution  of  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  caused  several  free-labor 
states  to  pass  la  ws  for  the  protection  of  their 
colored  population.  (See  Personal  Liberty  Laws.) 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret,  a  vigorous  and  lu¬ 
minous  writer  on  social  subjects,  was  born  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  May  23,  1810;  drowned,  July 
16,  1850.  A  bright  girl,  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
she  read  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  aud  German 
fluently.  She  became  a  teacher  in  Boston  in 
1835,  and,  two  years  later,  in  Providence,  R.  I. 
She  formed  classes  for  young  ladies  in  Boston 
for  training  in  conversation,  and  the  next  year 
(1840)  became  editor  of  the  Dial,  the  organ  of 
the  Transcendentalists  (which  see),  to  which 
she  contributed  articles  on  the  social  condition 


of  women.  In  1844  she  became  literary  editor 
of  the  New  York  Tribune.  Miss  Fuller  travelled 
in  Europe,  and,  visiting  Italy  in  1847,  she  mar¬ 
ried  the  Marquis  D’  Ossoli.  In  1850,  returning 
to  her  native  country  with  her  husband  and 
child,  the  vessel  was  wrecked  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Long  Island,  and  all  three  were  drowned. 
Her  writings  are  held  in  the  highest  estimation, 
and  have  made  a  deep  impression  upou  features 
of  social  life  in  America. 

Fulton,  Robert,  was  born  at  Little  Britain, 
Lancaster  Co.,  Penn.,  in  1765;  died  in  New  York, 
Feb.  21,  1815.  He  received  a  common-school  ed¬ 
ucation,  became  a  miniature  painter,  and,  at  the 
age  of  twenty,  was  practising  that  profession  in 


ROBERT  FULTON. 


Philadelphia,  by  which  he  made  enough  money 
to  buy  a  small  farm  iu  Washington  County,  on 
which  he  placed  his  mother.  Then  he  went 
to  England,  studied  painting  under  Benjamin 
West,  became  a  civil  engineer,  aud  made  him¬ 
self  familiar  with  the  steam-engine,  then  just 
improved  by  Watt.  He  devised  various  ma¬ 
chines,  among  them  an  excavator  for  scooping 
out  the  channels  of  aqueducts.  He  wrote  and 
published  essays  on  canals  and  canal  naviga¬ 
tion  in  1795-96.  He  went  to  Paris  iu  1797,  and 
remained  there  seven  years  with  Joel  Barlow, 
studying  languages  and  sciences,  and  invented 
a  torpedo.  This  he  offered  to  the  French  and 
English  governments,  but  both  rejected  the  in¬ 
vention,  and  in  December,  1806,  he  arrived  in 
New  York.  He  went  to  the  seat,  of  government, 
where  the  models  and  drawings  of  his  torpedo 
made  a  favorable  impression.  In  1807  he  per¬ 
fected  his  steamboat  for  navigating  the  Hud¬ 
son,  having  been  aided  by  Robert  R.  Livingston, 
with  whom  he  had  been  acquainted  iu  Paris. 
Livingston  had  made  experiments  in  steam¬ 
boating  as  early  as  1798,  when  he  was  granted 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  navigating  the  waters 


FULTON’S  TORPEDOES 


553 


FULTON’S  TORPEDOES 


of  the  state  by  steam.  Fulton  was  finally  in¬ 
cluded  in  the  provisions  of  the  act,  and  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1807,  the  Clermont ,  the  first  steamboat 
that  navigated  the  Hudson,  made  a  successful 
voyage  from  New  York  to  Albany  and  back. 
She  travelled  at  the  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour. 
At  the  same  time,  Fulton  regarded  his  torpedo 
as  the  greater  and  more  beneficial  invention,  as 
he  believed  it  would  establish  the  “liberty  of 
the  seas.”  His  government,  in  1810,  appropri¬ 
ated  $5000  to  enable  him  to  try  further  experi- 


fulton’s  birthplace. 


ments  with  his  torpedo;  but  a  commission  de¬ 
cided  against  it,  and  he  was  compelled  to  aban¬ 
don  his  scheme.  Steam  navigation  was  a  suc¬ 
cess.  He  built  ferry-boats  to  run  across  the 
North  (Hudson)  and  East  rivers,  and  built  ves¬ 
sels  for  several  steamboat  companies  in  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  the  United  States.  In  1814  he  was 
appointed  by  the  government  engineer  to  super¬ 
intend  the  construction  of  one  or  more  floating 
batteries.  He  built  a  war  steamer  (the  first 
ever  constructed),  which  he  called  the  Demolo- 
f/os.  She  had  the  speed  of  two  and  a  half  miles 
an  hour,  and  was  deemed  a  marvel.  Fulton  died, 
and  she  was  named  Fulton  the  First,  taken  to  the 
Brooklyn  Navy-yard  and  there  used  as  a  receiv¬ 
ing-ship  until  January,  1829,  when  she  was  acci¬ 
dentally  blown  up. 

Fulton’s  Torpedoes.  While  in  France,  Rob¬ 
ert  Fulton  had  pondered  the  idea  of  destroying 
ships  by  introducing  floating  mines  under  their 
bottoms,  in  submarine  boats.  The  idea  was 
doubtless  suggested  by  a  contrivance  of  the  kind 
by  David  Buslinell,  a  young  man  of  Connecticut, 
exhibited  in  the  harbor  of  New  York  in  1776. 
Fulton  was  filled  with  the  benevolent  idea  that 
the  introduction  of  such  secret  and  destructive 
agencies  would  have  a  tendency  to  do  away  with 
naval  warfare,  and  thus  would  be  established 
what  he  called  the  “liberty  of  the  seas.”  Im¬ 
pelled  by  this  idea,  he  left  France  and  went  to 
England,  in  1804,  to  offer  his  invention  to  the 
British  government.  By  permission,  he  success¬ 
fully  exhibited  his  “  infernal  machine,”  by  blow¬ 
ing  up  the  Dorothen,  an  old  Danish  brig  (Oct.  15, 
1805),  in  Walmor  Road,  not  far  from  Deal.  In 


the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  naval  officers 
and  others,  he  sent  his  torpedo  under  the  vessel, 
which  was  raised  about  six  feet  by  the  explo¬ 
sion  of  the  floating  mine  and  broken  in  two  in 
the  middle,  and  in  a  few  minutes  nothing  wras 
seen  of  her  but  some  floating  fragments.  The 
torpedo  was  composed  of  a  cylinder  containing 
one  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  of  gunpowder. 
Clock-work  was  affixed,  which,  at  the  end  of  a 
given  time,  caused  a  gun-flint-lock  to  strike  fire 
and  ignite  the  powder.  The  torpedo  was  made 
to  float  under  the  vessel  with  the  tide.  The 
experiment  was  perfectly  satisfactory,  but  the 
British  government  would  not  adopt  the  imple¬ 
ment,  because  it  might  give  to  weaker  mari¬ 
time  nations  a  system  of  naval  warfare  that 
would  make  them  equal  in  strength  to  Great 
Britain,  the  mistress  of  the  seas.  In  1810  Ful¬ 
ton  laid  the  matter  before  the  government  of 
the  United  States.  The  subject  caused  much 
discussion  ;  very  successful  experiments  were 
tried,  aud  Fulton  proposed  a  “torpedo  war” 
against  England.  This  discussion  produced 
some  agitation  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  gov¬ 
ernment  was  reproached  for  allowing  snch  an 
invention  to  go  to  America.  But  the  United 
States  government,  after  appropriating  $5000  to 
try  experiments,  failed  to  perceive  the  useful¬ 
ness  of  the  torpedo,  and  Fulton’s  application 
failed  here  also.  Fulton  felt  so  certain  that 
the  torpedo  would  yet  play  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  history  of  nations,  that,  after  he  had  com¬ 
pleted  his  experiments  in  steam  navigation,  and 
had  seen  the  triumph  of  his  genius,  he  wrote  to 
Joel  Barlow,  giving  an  account  of  it,  and  said  : 
“However,  I  will  not  admit  that  it  [steam  nav¬ 
igation]  is  half  so  important  as  the  torpedo  sys¬ 
tem  of  defence  and  attack,  for  out  of  it  will 
grow  the  liberty  of  the  seas,  an  object  of  infi¬ 
nite  importance  to  the  welfare  of  America  and 
every  civilized  country.”  Fulton’s  torpedoes 
were  of  various  constructions.  The  one  which 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  DOROTHEA. 


he  considered  the  most  effective  was  a  contriv¬ 
ance  to  be  exploded  by  means  of  clock-work. 
He  proposed  to  fill  a  copper  case  with  one  hun¬ 
dred  pounds  or  more  of  gunpowder,  with  a  cork 


FUNDAMENTAL  CONSTITUTIONS  554 


FUNDING  SYSTEM  ADOPTED 


cushion  to  buoy  it  up.  A  gun-lock  was  to  be 
so  attached  as  to  be  operated  upon  by  the  clock¬ 
work.  The  latter  was  so  made  as  to  ran  a  cer¬ 
tain  number  of  minutes  before  operating  upon 
the  lock.  The  torpedo  was  to  be  suspended  in 
a  water-tight  pine  box.  This  was  to  be  con¬ 
nected  with  a  harpoon  by  a  line  of  such  length 
that  when  the  harpoon  should  be  bred  from  a 
gun  in  the  stern  of  a  row-boat  into  the  bow  of 
an  enemy’s  vessel,  the  torpedo  or  mine  would 
swing  around  to  a  position  under  the  bottom 
of  the  sliip-of-war,  about  amidships.  The  oper¬ 
ation  of  attack  is  shown  in  the  annexed  draw¬ 
ing,  in  which  A  is  a  platform  on  which  the  tor¬ 
pedo  rests  in  the  boat;  B  is  the  torpedo,  and  C 
the  water-tight  pine  box ;  D  is  the  pin  to  be 
drawn  to  allow  the  clock-work  to  start.  The 
liarpooner  stationed  at  the  gun  steers  the  boat 
and  hres  according  to  bis  judgment.  The  dia¬ 
gram  on  the  lower  part  of  the  drawing  shows  a 
bird’s-eye  view  of  a  vessel  (A)  at  anchor ;  B,  her 
cable;  E,  F,  two  torpedoes;  C,  D,  the  coupling¬ 


lines,  twelve  feet  long.  On  touching  the  ves-  j 
set’s  cable,  the  torpedoes  were  drawn  under  her 
by  the  tide.  In  this  way  the  Dorothea  was  at¬ 
tacked. 

Fundamental  Constitutions.  The  proprie¬ 
tors  of  the  Carolinas,  wishing  to  establish  an  ar¬ 
istocratic  government,  in  feudal  form,  employed 
the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  and  John  Locke  to  frame 
one.  They  completed  the  task  in  March,  1669, 
and  named  the  instrument  “Fundamental  Con¬ 
stitutions.”  It  provided  for  two  orders  of  no¬ 
bility  :  the  higher  to  consist  of  landgraves,  or 
earls,  the  lower  of  caciques,  or  barons.  The 
territory  was  to  be  divided  into  counties,  each 
containing  four  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
acres,  with  one  landgrave  and  two  caciques. 
There  were  also  to  be  lords  of  manors,  who,  like 
the  nobles,  might  hold  courts  and  exercise  judi¬ 
cial  functions,  but  could  never  attain  to  a  high¬ 


er  rank.  The  four  estates  —  proprietors,  earls, 
barons,  and  commoners — were  to  sit  in  one  lesris- 
lative  chamber.  The  proprietors  were  always 
to  be  eight  in  number,  to  possess  the  whole  ju¬ 
dicial  power,  and  have  the  supreme  control  of 
all  tribunals.  The  commons  were  to  have  four 
members  in  t  he  legislat  ure  to  every  three  of  the 
nobility.  Every  form  of  religion  was  professed¬ 
ly  tolerated,  but  the  Church  of  England  only 
was  declared  to  be  orthodox.  In  the  highest 
degree  monarchical  in  its  tendency,  this  form  of 
government  was  distasteful  to  the  people;  so, 
after  a  contest  of  about  twenty  years  between 
them  and  the  proprietors,  the  absurd  scheme 
was  abandoned.  It  had  never  been  put  into 
use. 

Funding  System  Adopted.  On  Aug.  4, 
1790,  an  act  was  adopted  for  funding  the  public 
debt  of  the  United  States.  It  authorized  the 
President  of  the  United  States  to  borrow  $12,- 
000,000,  if  so  much  was  found  necessary,  for  dis¬ 
charging  the  arrears  of  interest  and  the  over¬ 
due  instalments  on  the 
foreign  debt,  and  for  pay¬ 
ing  off  the  whole  of  that 
debt,  could  it  be  effected 
on  advantageous  terms ; 
the  money  thus  borrowed 
to  be  reimbursed  within 
fifteen  years.  A  new  loan 
was  also  to  he  opened, 
payable  in  certificates  of 
the  domestic  debt, at  their 
par  value,  and  in  Conti¬ 
nental  bills  of  credit, 
“  new  tenor  ”  (see  Old  and 
New  Tenor),  at  the  rate  of 
one  hundred  dollars  for 
one.  The  act  also  author¬ 
ized  an  additional  loan, 
payable  in  certificates  of 
the  state  debts,  to  the 
amount  of  $21, 500, 000 ;  but 
no  certificates  were  to  he 
received  excepting  such 
as  had  heeu  issued  for 
services  and  supplies  dur¬ 
ing  the  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence.  For  payment  of 
the  interest  and  principal  on  the  public  debt 
—the  foreign  debt  having  the  preference,  and 
then  the  Continental  loan — a  pledge  was  made 
of  the  income  of  the  existing  tonnage  and  im¬ 
port  duties,  after  an  annual  deduction  of  $600,000 
for  current  expenses.  The  faith  of  the  United 
States  was  also  pledged  to  make  up  all  de¬ 
ficiencies  of  interest.  The  proceeds  of  the  sales 
of  Western  lands  then  belonging  to,  or  which 
might  belong  to,  the  United  States,  were  spe¬ 
cially  and  exclusively  appropriated  towards  the 
discharge  of  the  principal.  For  superintending 
these  loans  and  for  the  general  management  of 
the  public  debt,  the  old  Continental  system  of  a 
loan-office  commission  in  each  state  was  contin¬ 
ued.  The  funding  system  was  very  beneficial  to 
the  country.  The  result  of  its  satisfactory  op¬ 
eration  on  the  business  of  the  nation  w  as  the 
re-establishment  of  commerce. 


TORPEDOES. 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES  OF  INDIANS  555 


GAGE  TO  ARREST  PATRIOTS 


Funeral  Ceremonies  of  Indians  in  the 
Gulf  Region.  The  sun-worsliippers,  who  in¬ 
habited  the  region  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  now 
in  our  Southern  States  (see  Sun- ivor shippers),  had 
peculiar  ceremonies  at  funerals,  especially  of 
that  of  a  chief.  The  body  underwent  a  sort  of 
embalming,  when  it  was  placed  on  the  grouud, 
in  a  sitting  position,  by  the  nearest  relatives 
of  the  deceased.  Then  food  and  money  were 
placed  by  its  side,  and  a  conical  mound  of  earth 
piled  over  it,  at  the  foot  of  which  was  made  a 
paling  of  arrows  stuck  in  the  grouud.  Around 
this  tomb  the  people  gathered  in  great  num¬ 
bers,  some  standing,  some  sitting,  and  all  howl¬ 
ing.  This  ceremony  continued  three  days  and 
nights,  after  which,  for  a  long  time,  chosen  wom¬ 
en  visited  the  tomb  three  times  a  day,  morning, 
noon,  and  night. 

Fur-trade,  The  American.  While  the  Eng- 
lish-American  colonies  remained  dependents  of 
Great  Britain,  they  derived  very  little  advan¬ 
tage  from  the  extensive  fur-trade  with  the  In¬ 
dians,  for  the  Hudson’s  Bay  Company  absorbed 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  traffic.  It  was  conten¬ 
tion  between  the  French  and  English  colonists 
for  the  control  of  this  trade  that  was  a  pow¬ 
erful  element  among  the  causes  that  brought  on 
the  French  and  Indian  War.  In  1762  a  fur  com¬ 
pany  was  organized  in  New  Orleans  for  carry¬ 
ing  on  the  fur-trade  extensively  with  the  West¬ 
ern  Indians.  It  was  started  by  the  Director- 
general  of  Louisiana.  A  trading  expedition 
was  fitted  out,  and  under  the  direction  of  Pierre 
Ligueste  Laclede,  the  principal  projector  of  the 
enterprise,  it  went  to  the  Missouri  region,  and 
established  its  chief  depot  on  the  site  of  the 
city  of  St.  Louis,  which  name  was  then  given  to 
that  locality.  There  furs  were  gathered  from 
the  regions  extending  eastward  to  Mackinaw, 
and  westward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Their 
treasures  went  in  boats  down  the  Mississippi  to 
New  Orleans,  and  thence  to  Europe ;  or  up  the 
Illinois  River,  across  a  portage  to  Lake  Michi¬ 
gan,  and  by  way  of  the  chain  of  great  lakes  and 


the  St.  Lawrence  to  Montreal  and  Quebec.  In 
the  pathway  of  this  trade  and  transportation 
were  planted  the  seeds  of  many  of  our  Western 
settlements,  which  have  grown  into  great  com¬ 
monwealths.  The  Rocky  Mountains  were  at 
length  passed,  and,  early  in  the  present  century, 
fur-trading  posts  had  been  established  on  the 
Columbia  River  and  other  waters  that  empty 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  1784  John  Jacob  As- 
tor,  an  enterprising  young  German  merchant  of 
New  York,  embarked  in  the  fur-trade.  He  pur¬ 
chased  furs  in  Montreal  and  sold  them  in  Ena:- 
land  ;  and  after  the  treaty  of  1795  he  introduced 
them  into  the  city  of  New  York  and  thence 
shipped  them  to  different  European  ports.  In 
this  trade,  chiefly,  he  amassed  a  fortune  of  $250,- 
000,  when  he  embarked  in  a  scheme  for  making 
a  great  fur  depot  on  the  Pacific  coast.  He  was 
then  competing  with  the  great  fur  companies  of 
the  Northwest,  under  a  charter  in  the  name  of 
the  “American  Fur  Company,”  for  which  he 
furnished  the  entire  capital.  Mr.  Astor  made 
an  earnest  effort  to  carry  on  the  business  be¬ 
tween  the  Pacific  coast  of  America  and  China, 
founding  the  town  of  Astoria  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia  River.  The  bad  faith  of  a  busi¬ 
ness  partner  broke  up  that  establishment  in 
1813,  who  sold  it  out  for  a  nominal  sum  and 
placed  it  under  British  control.  After  that  Mr. 
Astor  carried  on  his  operations  in  the  region  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  his  chief  post  at 
Mackinaw.  Alaska,  acquired  in  1867  by  pur¬ 
chase,  has  opened  a  new  field  for  the  American 
fur-trade.  The  furs  from  that  region  are  main¬ 
ly  those  of  the  fur-seal ;  there  are  also  those  of 
the  beaver,  ermine,  fox,  otter,  marten,  and  other 
animals.  The  annual  fur-trade  of  Alaska  is  es¬ 
timated  at  fully  $2,000,000  in  value,  the  monop¬ 
oly  of  the  seal-fur-trade  being  in  the  hands  of 
the  Alaska  Commercial  Company  of  San  Fran¬ 
cisco,  Cal.  The  number  of  seals  to  be  taken 
each  year  is  limited  to  one  hundred  thousand. 
The  company  has  twenty  trading-posts  on  the 
shores  and  islands  of  Alaska. 


G. 


Gadsden,  Christopher,  was  born  in  Charles¬ 
ton,  S.  C.,  in  1724  ;  died  there,  Aug.  28, 1805.  He 
was  educated  in  England,  became  a  merchant 
in  Charleston,  and  a  sturdy  champion  of  the 
rights  of  the  colonies.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Stamp  Act  Congress  (which  see),  and  ever 
advocated  openly  republican  principles.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  First  Continental  Con¬ 
gress  (which  see).  Chosen  a  colonel  in  1775,  he 
was  active  in  the  defence  of  Charleston  in  1776, 
when  he  was  made  a  brigadier -general.  He 
was  active  in  civil  affairs,  and  was  one  of  the 
many  civilians  made  prisoners  by  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  and  carried  to  St.  Augustine.  (See 
Sieye  of  Charleston.)  He  was  exchanged  in  1781 
and  carried  to  Philadelphia.  In  1782  he  was 
elected  governor  of  his  state,  but  declined  on 
account  of  infirmity. 

Gaelic  Preaching  in  Georgia.  The  trustees 
of  the  province  of  Georgia,  desirous  that  the 


Highlanders  of  Scotland  residing  there  should 
have  a  Presbyterian  minister  to  preach  to  them 
in  Gaelic,  and  to  teach  and  catechise  their  chil¬ 
dren  in  English,  sent  over  John  McLeod  in  1736, 
and  gave  to  him  and  his  successors,  in  perpetu¬ 
ity,  three  hundred  acres  of  land.  Mr.  McLeod 
was  a  native  of  the  Isle  of  Skye.  He  was  al¬ 
lowed  from  the  Provincial  Fund  $250  a  year  un¬ 
til  the  colony  should  be  able  to  maintain  him  at 
their  sole  expense.  This  mission  was  so  sup¬ 
ported  until  1740,  when  a  greater  part  of  the 
men  of  the  Highland  settlement  had  perished 
in  war  with  the  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine,  and 
Mr.  McLeod  left  Georgia. 

Gage  Instructed  to  Arrest  Patriots.  When 
Gage’s  demand  for  twenty  thousand  armed  men 
at  Boston  was  received  by  the  ministry  they 
laughed  in  derision,  believing  that  a  few  sol¬ 
diers  could  accomplish  all  that  was  necessary 
to  make  the  patriots  cower.  Lord  Dartmouth 


GAGE 


556  GAGE’S  OPINION  OF  THE  AMERICANS 


wrote  to  Gage,  in  the  king’s  name,  that  the  dis¬ 
turbers  of  the  peace  in  Boston  appeared  to  him 
like  a  rude  rabble  “without  a  plan,  without 
concert,  and  without  conduct,”  and  thought  a 
small  force  would  be  able  to  encounter  them. 
He  instructed  him  that  the  first  step  to  be  taken 
towards  the  re-establishment  of  government 
would  be  to  arrest  and  imprison  the  principal 
actors  and  abettors  in  the  Provincial  Congress, 
whose  proceedings  appeared  like  rebellion  and 
treason.  He  suggested  that  the  measure  must 
be  kept  a  secret  until  the  moment  of  execution. 
“  If  it  cannot  be  accomplished,”  said  Dartmouth, 
“  without  bloodshed,  and  should  be  a  signal  for 
hostilities,  I  must  again  repeat,  that  any  efforts 
of  the  people,  unprepared  to  encounter  with  a 
regular  force,  cannot  be  very  formidable.”  This 
was  written  only  a  few  weeks  before  the  affairs 
at  Lexington  and  Concord  (which  see).  Dart¬ 
mouth  continued,  “  The  charter  of  Massachusetts 
empowers  the  governor  to  use  and  exercise  the 
law  martial  in  time  of  rebellion.”  It  appears, 
from  statements  in  official  despatches,  he  be¬ 
lieved  there  was  an  “actual  and  open  rebellion” 
in  that  province,  and  therefore  the  exercise  of 
his  powers  named  were  justifiable.  The  move¬ 
ments  of  ministers  were  keenly  watched.  “Your 
chief  dependence,”  wrote  Franklin  to  Massachu¬ 
setts,  “must  be  on  your  own  virtue  and  unanim¬ 
ity,  which,  under  God,  will  bring  you  through  all 
difficulties.”  Gamier,  the  Freucli  ambassador 
at  London,  wrote  to  Vergennes,  “  The  minister 
must  recede  or  lose  America  forever.” 

Gage  Lampooned.  The  Whig  press  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  boldly  lampooned  General  Gage.  On 
his  dismissal  of  John  Hancock  from  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Governor’s  Independent  Cadets, 
the  following  appeared  in  the  Massachusetts  Spy, 
with  the  title,  “  A  Sample  of  Gubernatorial  Elo¬ 
quence,  as  Lately  Exhibited  to  the  Company  of 
Cadets 

“Your  Colonel  H — n — k.  by  neglect 
Has  been  deficient  in  respect; 

As  he  my  sovereign  toe  ne’er  kissed, 

’Twas  proper  he  should  be  dismissed; 

I  never  was  and  never  will 
By  mortal  man  be  treated  ill. 

I  never  was  nor  ever  can 
Be  treated  ill  by  mortal  man. 

Oh,  had  I  but  have  known  before 
That  temper  of  your  factious  corps. 

It  should  have  been  my  greatest  pleasure 
To  have  prevented  that  bold  measure. 

To  meet  with  such  severe  disgrace — 

My  stand ird  flung  into  my  face! 

Disband  yourselves!  so  cursed  stout! 

Oh,  had  I,  had  I,  turned  you  out!" 

Gage,  Thomas,  was  born  in  England  about 
1720 ;  died  there,  April  2, 1787.  He  was  second 
'son  of  Viscount  Gage,  and  entered  the  army  in 
his  youth.  He  was  with  Braddock  at  his  de¬ 
feat  on  the  Monongahela  (which  see),  when  he 
was  lieutenant  -  colonel,  and  led  the  advance. 
In  that  hot  encounter  he  was  wounded.  Late 
in  1758  he  married  a  daughter  of  Peter  Kemble, 
President  of  the  Council  of  New  Jersey.  His 
widow  lived  until  1824,  when  she  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety  years.  Gage  served  under  Am¬ 
herst  in  northern  New  York  and  Canada,  and 
on  the  capture  of  Montreal  by  the  English  in 
1760  he  was  made  military  governor  of  that 
city.  (  See  Montreal. )  He  was  promoted  to 


major-general,  and  in  1763  succeeded  Amherst 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in 
North  America.  In  1774  he  succeeded  Hutchin¬ 
son  as  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  occupied 
Boston  with  troops,  much  to  the  annoyance  and 
irritation  of  the  inhabitants.  Acting  under  in¬ 
structions  from  his  government  rather  than  in 
accordance  with  his  conscience  and  judgment, 
he  took  measures  which  brought  on  armed  re¬ 
sistance  to  British  rule  in  the  colonies.  After 
the  affairs  at  Lexington,  Concord,  and  Bunker’s 
Hill  he  was  ungenerously  held  responsible  for 
the  blunders  of  the  ministry,  and  resigned  his 
command  in  October,  1775,  when  he  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  General  William  Howe  as  chief  of 
the  forces  in  America. 

Gage’s  Alarm  -  tricks.  General  Gage,  per¬ 
forming  no  act  of  courage  during  the  summer 
of  1775,  while  Washington  was  besieging  Bos¬ 
ton,  endeavored  to  terrify  the  Americans  and  to 
keep  up  the  spirits  of  his  own  soldiers  by  warn¬ 
ing  the  former  that  thousands  of  veteran  war¬ 
riors  were  coming  from  Russia  and  the  German 
principalities  to  crush  the  “  unnatural  rebell¬ 
ion.”  He  vented  his  ill-humor  upon  American 
prisoners  in  his  hands,  casting  into  prison  offi¬ 
cers  of  high  rank,  thinking  thus  to  terrify  the 
common  soldiery,  whose  intelligence  and  cour¬ 
age  he  entirely  underrated  in  reality,  though 
praising  them  when  it  suited  his  purpose.  (See 
Gage's  Beal  Opinion  of  the  Americans.)  Against 
this  treatment  Washington  remonstrated ;  but 
Gage  insolently  scorned  to  promise  “reciprocity 
with  rebels,”  and  replied :  “  Britons,  ever  pre-em¬ 
inent  in  mercy,  have  overlooked  the  criminal  in 
the  captive ;  your  prisoners,  whose  lives,  by  the 
laws  of  the  laud,  are  destined  to  the  cord,  have 
hitherto  been  treated  with  care  and  kindness — - 
indiscriminately,  it  is  true,  for  I  acknowledge 
no  rank  that  is  not  derived  from  the  king.” 
Washington  remembered  that  Gage’s  want  of 
presence  of  mind  had  lost  the  battle  of  the  Mo¬ 
nongahela  (which  see),  and  replied,  in  a  digni¬ 
fied  manner,  “  I  shall  not  stoop  to  retort  and  in¬ 
vective.  You  affect,  sir,  to  despise  all  rank  not. 
derived  from  the  same  source  as  your  own.  I 
cannot  conceive  one  more  honorable  than  that 
which  flows  from  the  un corrupted  choice  of  a 
brave  and  free  people,  the  purest  source  and 
original  fountain  of  all  power.  Far  from  mak¬ 
ing  it  a  plea  for  cruelty,  a  mind  of  true  mag¬ 
nanimity  would  comprehend  and  respect  it.” 

Gage’s  Real  Opinion  of  the  Americans.  In 

his  report  of  the  battle  on  Bunker’s  (Breed’s) 
Hill,  General  Gage  said  to  Lord  Dartmouth, 
“  The  trials  we  have  had  show  the  rebels  are 
not  the  despicable  rabble  too  many  have  sup¬ 
posed  them  to  be;  and  I  find  it  owing  to  a  mil¬ 
itary  spirit  encouraged  among  them  for  a  few 
years  past,  joined  with  uncommon  zeal  and  en¬ 
thusiasm.  They  intrench  and  raise  batteries — 
they  have  engineers.  They  have  fortified  all 
the  heights  and  passes  around  this  town  [Bos¬ 
ton],  which  it  is  not  impossible  for  them  to  an¬ 
noy.  The  conquest  of  this  country  is  not  easy  ; 
you  have  to  cope  with  vast  numbers.  In  all 
their  wars  against  the  French  they  never  showed 


GAINES 


557 


so  much  conduct,  attention,  and  perseverance  as 
they  do  now.  I  think  it  is  my  duty  to  let  your 
lordship  know  the  true  situation  ot'  affairs.” 
Franklin  wrote  to  his  English  friends,  “  Ameri¬ 
cans  will  fight;  England  has  lost  her  colonies 
forever.” 

Gaines,  Edmund  Pendleton,  was  born  in 
Culpepper  County,  Va.,  March  20, 1777  ;  died  in 
New  Orleans,  June  6,  1849.  The  family  moved 
to  Tennessee  in  1790.  Edmund  entered  the 


EDMCND  PENDLETON  GAINES. 


army  as  ensign  in  1799,  and  was  promoted  to 
lieutenant-colonel  in  the  summer  of  1812.  He 
rose  to  brigadier-general  in  March,  1814;  and 
after  his  gallant  conduct  at  Fort  Erie  in  Au¬ 
gust,  that  year,  he  was  breveted  major-general. 
For  that  exploit,  and  his  general  good  services 
during  the  war,  Congress  gave  him  thanks  and 
a  gold  medal.  Gaines  served  under  Jackson  in 


GAINES'S  MILLS,  BATTLE  OF 

came  famous  for  her  successful  persistence  m 
litigation  to  secure  her  rights. 

Gaines’s  Mills,  Battle  of.  General  McClel¬ 
lan  transferred  his  army  from  the  Chickahom- 
iuy  and  his  stores  from  the  Pamnnky  to  the 
James  River.  He  ordered  the  stores  and  muni¬ 
tions  of  war  to  be  sent  to  Savage’s  Station,  and 
what  could  not  be  removed  to  be  burned,  and 
supplies  to  be  sent  to  the  James  as  speedily  as 
possible.  He  also  sent  his  wounded  to  the  same 
station,  and  prepared  to  cross  the  Chickahominy 
for  the  flight  with  the  right  wing — a  perilous  un¬ 
dertaking,  for  Jackson  and  Ewell  were  prepared 
to  fall  on  Porter’s  flank.  This  movement  was  so 
secretly  and  skilfully  made,  however,  that  Lee 
was  not  informed  of  the  fact  until  twenty-four 
hours  after  it  was  actually  begun  on  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  the  27th  of  June.  The  duty  of  protect¬ 
ing  the  stores  in  their  removal  was  assigned  to 
General  Porter.  His  corps  (the  Fifth)  was  also 
charged  with  the  duty  of  carrying  away  the 
siege-guns  and  covering  the  army  in  its  march 
to  the  James.  These  troops  were  accordingly 
Arrayed  on  the  rising  ground  near  Gaines’s 
Mills,  on  the  arc  of  a.  circle  between  Cool  Ar¬ 
bor  and  the  Chickahominy,  wheu  they  were  at¬ 
tacked  by  a  Confederate  force,  in  the  after 
noon  (June  27, 1862),  led  by  Generals  Longstreet 
and  A.  P.  Hill.  A  few  of  the  siege-guns  were 
yet  in  position.  Morell’s  division  occupied  the 
left,  Sykes’s  regulars  and  Duryea’s  Zouaves  the 
right,  and  McCall’s  division  formed  a  second 
line,  his  left  touching  Butterfield’s  right.  Sey¬ 
mour’s  brigade  and  horse-batteries  commanded 
the  rear,  and  cavalry  under  General  Philip  St. 
George  Cooke  were  on  flanking  service  near  the 
Chickahominy.  The  brunt  of  the  battle  first 
fell  upon  Sykes,  who  threw  the  assailants  back 
in  confusion  with  great  loss.  Longstreet  push¬ 
ed  forward  with  his  veterans  to  their  relief,  and 
was  joined  by  Jackson  and  D.  H.  Hill.  Ewell’s 


GENERAL  GAINES’S  MEDAL. 


the  Creek  War  (which  see),  and  fought  the  Scm- 
inoles  in  1836.  (See  Seminole  War.)  Late  in  life 
he  married  Myra  Clarke,  of  New  Orleans,  heir¬ 
ess  of  a  large  estate,  who,  after  his  death,  bo- 


division  also  came  into  action.  The  Confeder¬ 
ate  line,  now  in  complete  order,  made  a  general 
advance.  A  very  severe  battle  ensued.  Slo¬ 
cum’s  division  was  sent  to  Porter’s  aid  by 


GALLATIN 


558 


GALLATIN 


McClellan,  making  his  entire  force  about.  35,000. 
For  hours  the  struggle  along  the  whole  line 
was  tierce  and  persistent,  and  for  a  long  time 
the  issue  was  doubtful.  At  five  o’clock  Porter 
called  for  more  aid,  aud  McClellan  sent  him  the 
brigades  of  Meagher  and  French,  of  Richard¬ 
son’s  division.  The  Confederates  were  making 
desperate  efforts  to  break  the  line  of  the  Na¬ 
tionals,  but  for  a  long  time  it  stood  firm,  though 
continually  growing  thinner.  Finally  a  furious 
assault  by  Jackson  aud  the  divisions  of  Long- 
street  and  Whiting  was  made  upon  Butterfield’s 
brigade,  which  had  long  been  fighting.  It  gave 
way  aud  fell  back,  and  with  it  several  batteries. 
Then  the  whole  line  fell  back.  Porter  called 
up  all  of  his  reserves  and  remaining  artillery 
(about  eighty  guns),  covered  the  retreat  of  his 
infantry,  aud  checked  the  advance  of  the  vic¬ 
tors  for  a  moment.  Just  then  General  Cooke, 
without  orders,  attacked  the  Confederate  flank 
with  his  cavalry,  which  was  repulsed  aud  thrown 
into  disorder.  The  horses,  terrified  by  the  tre¬ 
mendous  roar  of  nearly  two  hundred  cannons 
and  the  rattle  of  thousands  of  muskets,  rushed 
back  through  the  Uniou  batteries,  giving  the 
impression  that  it  was  a  charge  of  Confederate 
cavalry.  The  artillerists  recoiled,  and  Porter’s 
whole  force  was  pressed  back  to  the  river. 
While  flying  in  fearful  disorder,  French  and 
Meagher  appeared,  and,  gathering  up  the  vast 
multitude  of  stragglers,  checked  the  flight.  Be¬ 
hind  these  the  shattered  brigades  were  speedily 
formed,  while  National  batteries  poured  a  de¬ 
structive  storm  of  shot  and  shell  upon  the  head 
of  the  Confederate  column.  Seeing  fresh  troops 
on  their  front,  and  ignorant  of  their  number,  the 
Confederates  fell  back  and  rested  upon  the  field 
they  had  won  at  a  fearful  cost.  In  this  sangui¬ 
nary  battle  the  Nationals  lost  about  8000  men, 
of  whom  6000  were  killed  or  wounded.  The 
loss  of  the  Confederates  was  about  5000.  Gen¬ 
eral  Reynolds  was  made  prisoner.  Porter  lost 
twenty-two  siege-guns.  During  the  night  he 
withdrew  to  the  right  side  of  the  Cliickahom- 
iny,  destroying  the  bridges  behind  him. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  Jan.  20, 1761 ;  died  at  Astoria,  L.  I., 
Aug.  12,  1819.  He  was  a  graduate  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Geneva.  Both  of  his  parents  were  of 
distinguished  families,  and  died  while  he  was 
an  infant.  Feeling  great  sympathy  for  the 
Americans  struggling  for  liberty,  he  came  to 
Massachusetts  in  1780,  entered  the  military  ser¬ 
vice,  aud  for  a  few  months  commanded  the  post 
at  Passamaquoddy.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
taught  French  at  Harvard  University.  Having 
received  his  patrimonial  estate  in  1784,  he  in¬ 
vested  it  in  land  in  western  Virginia;  and  in 
1786  he  settled  on  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Mo- 
liongaliela,  in  Fayette  County,  Penn.,  which  he 
had  purchased,  and  became  naturalized.  Hav¬ 
ing  served  in  the  Pennsylvania  State  Conven¬ 
tion  and  in  the  Legislature  (1789  and  1790-92), 
he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator  in  1793, 
but  was  declared  ineligible  on  the  ground  that 
he  had  not  been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States 
the  required  nine  years.  He  was  instrumental 
in  bringing  about  a  peaceful  termination  of  the 


“  Whiskey  Insurrection”  (which  see),  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives  in  1795.  An  active  member  of  the  Repub¬ 
lican,  or  Democratic,  party,  he  even  went  so  far, 
in  a  speech  in  Congress  (  1796),  as  to  charge 
Washington  and  Jay  with  having  pusillani- 
mously  surrendered  the  honor  of  their  country. 


ALBERT  GALLATIN. 

(  See  Jay's  Treaty.)  This,  from  the  lips  of  a 
young  foreigner,  exasperated  the  Federalists. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  Democrats  in  the  House, 
and  directed  his  attention  particularly  to  finan¬ 
cial  matters.  Mr.  Gallatin  remained  in  Con¬ 
gress  until  1801,  when  President  Jefferson  ap¬ 
pointed  him  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  which 
office  he  held  until  1813,  and  obtaiued  the  credit 
of  being  one  of  the  best  financiers  of  the  age. 
His  influence  was  felt  in  other  departments  of 
the  government  and  in  the  politics  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  Opposed  to  going  to  war  with  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  in  1812,  he  exerted  all  his  influence  to  avert 
it.  In  March,  1813,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
envoys  to  Russia  to  negotiate  for  the  mediation 
of  the  Czar  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  He  sailed  for  St.  Petersburg,  but  the 
Senate,  in  special  session,  refused  to  ratify  his 
appointment  because  he  was  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  The  attempt  at  mediation  was  un¬ 
successful.  When,  in  January,  1814, Great  Britain 
proposed  a  direct  negotiation  for  peace,  Galla¬ 
tin,  who  was  still  abroad,  was  appointed  one  of 
the  United  States  Commissioners  to  negotiate. 
He  resigned  his  secretaryship.  In  1815  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  France,  where  he  remain¬ 
ed  until  1823.  He  refused  a  seat  in  the  cabinet 
of  Monroe  on  his  return,  and  declined  to  be  a 
candidate  for  Vice-President,  to  which  the  dom¬ 
inant  Democratic  party  nominated  him.  Pres¬ 
ident  Adams  appointed  him  minister  to  Great 
Britain,  where  he  negotiated  several  important 
commercial  conventions.  Returning  to  Amer¬ 
ica  in  1827,  he  took  up  his  residence  in  the  city 
of  New  York.  There  he  was  engaged  in  public 
services,  in  various  ways,  until  1839,  when  he 
withdrew  from  public  duties  and  directed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  to  literary  pursuits,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  field  of  history  and  ethnology.  He 
was  the  chief  founder  (1842)  and  first  president 
of  the  American  Ethnological  Society,  and  was 


GALLATIN’S  FINANCIAL  PLAN  559  GALVESTON,  SURRENDER  OF 


president  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society 
from  1843  until  his  death,  six  years  afterwards. 
Although  strictly  in  private  life,  Mr.  Gallatin 
took  special  interest  in  the  progress  of  the 
country,  and  wrote  much  on  the  subject.  So 
early  as  1823  he  wrote  an  essay  ou  the  ethno¬ 
logical  and  philosophical  characteristics  of  the 
North  Americau  Indians,  at  the  request  of  Hum¬ 
boldt. 

Gallatin’s  Financial  Plan.  The  opponents 
of  Jefferson’s  administration  complained  vehe¬ 
mently,  in  1808,  that  the  country  was  threat¬ 
ened  with  direct  taxation  at  a  time  when  the 
sources  of  its  wealth,  by  the  orders  and  de¬ 
crees  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  were  drying 
up.  Albert  Gallatin,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas¬ 
ury,  replied  to  these  complaints  by  reproducing 
a  flattering  but  delusive  suggestion  contained 
in  his  auuual  report  the  preceding  year.  He 
suggested  that,  as  the  United  States  were  not 
likely  to  be  involved  in  frequent  wars,  a  reve¬ 
nue  derived  solely  from  duties  on  imports,  even 
though  liable  to  diminution  during  war,  would 
yet  amply  suffice  to  pay  off,  during  long  inter¬ 
vals  of  peace,  the  expenses  of  such  wars  as  might 
be  undertaken.  Should  the  United  States  be¬ 
come  involved  in  war  with  both  France  and 
Great  Britain,  no  internal  taxes  would  be  neces¬ 
sary  to  carry  it  on,  nor  any  other  financial  expe¬ 
dient,  beyond  borrowing  money  and  doubling 
the  duties  on  import.  The  scheme,  afterwards 
tried,  bore  bitter  fruit. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  Hopkins,  LL.D.,  instruct¬ 
or  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  was  born  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Penn.,  Dec.  10,  1787  ;  died  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  Sept.  9, 1851.  He  graduated  at  Yale  Col¬ 
lege,  in  1805,  where  he  was  a  tutor  for  a  while. 
At  Andover  Theological  Seminary  he  prepared 
for  the  ministry,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1814.  Becoming  interested  in  the  deaf  aud 
dumb,  he  began  his  labors  for  their  instruction 
in  1817,  with  a  class  of  seven  pupils.  He  be¬ 
came  one  of  the  most  useful  men  of  his  time, 
labored  incessantly  for  the  benefit  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  first  in¬ 
stitution  in  America  for  their  instruction.  He 
was  president  ofit  until  1830,  when  he  resigned. 
The  asylum  was  located  at  Hartford,  where  Dr. 
Gallaudet  became  chaplain  for  the  Connecticut 
Retreat  for  the  Insane,  in  1833,  which  office  he 
retained  until  his  death.  Dr.  Gallaudet  pub¬ 
lished  several  works  for  the  instruction  of  the 
young,  besides  other  books.  He  was  of  Hugue¬ 
not  descent.  His  two  sous,  Thomas  and  Ed¬ 
ward  Miner,  have  devoted  their  lives  to  the  in¬ 
struction  of  the  deaf  aud  dumb.  The  former, 
an  Episcopal  clergyman,  has  been  instrumental 
in  organizing  churches  for  the  deaf  and  dumb; 
and  the  latter  established  (1857),  in  Washing¬ 
ton,  an  institution  for  them  and  the  blind.  In 
18(14  he  originated  measures  for  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  deaf-mute  college,  of  which  he  was 
made  professor  of  moral  and  political  science. 

Galloway,  Joseph,  LL.D.,  was  an  eminent 
lawyer  of  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  and  a  loyalist. 
He  was  born  in  Maryland  about  1730;  died  in 
England,  Aug.  29,  1803.  He  was  a  member  of 


the  Pennsylvania  Assembly  in  1764,  aud  was  at 
one  time  speaker,  and,  with  Franklin,  advocated 
a  change  of  the  government  of  Pennsylvania 
from  the  proprietary  to  the  royal  form.  A  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  First  Continental  Congress,  he  was 
conservative  in  his  views,  yet  his  line  of  argu¬ 
ment  in  his  first  debates  tended  towards  polit¬ 
ical  independeuce.  He  proposed  a  plau  of  colo¬ 
nial  government,  which  was  rejected.  (See  Gal¬ 
loway’s  Plan.)  Finally,  after  the  question  of  in¬ 
dependence  began  to  be  seriously  agitated,  he 
abandoned  the  Whig,  or  Republican,  cause,  and 
was  thenceforward  an  uncompromising  Tory. 
When  the  British  army  evacuated  Philadelphia, 
in  1778,  he  left  his  country,  with  his  daughter, 
went  to  England,  and  never  returned.  He  was 
a  leading  American  loyalist  in  England,  and 
wrote  and  published  several  political  pam¬ 
phlets. 

Galloway’s  Plan  of  Government.  Joseph 
Galloway,  an  eminent  lawyer  of  Philadelphia, 
proposed,  in  the  First  Continental  Congress,  a 
plan  for  a  union  of  the  colonies  which  had  been 
foreshadowed  by  others  long  before.  It  con¬ 
templated  a  government  with  a  president-gen¬ 
eral  appointed  by  the  king,  and  a  Grand  Coun¬ 
cil,  chosen  every  three  years  by  the  colonial  as¬ 
semblies,  who  were  to  be  authorized  to  act  joint¬ 
ly  with  Parliament  in  the  regulation  of  the  af¬ 
fairs  of  the  colonies.  Parliament  was  to  have 
superior  authority,  with  a  right  to  revise  all  acts 
of  the  Grand  Council,  which,  in  turn,  was  to 
have  a  negative  in  British  statutes  relating  to 
the  colonies.  This  plau  was,  at  first,  favorably 
considered  by  many  in  the  Congress ;  but  it  was 
rejected,  and  not  permitted  to  be  entered  on 
the  minutes  of  the  journal. 

Galveston,  Battle  at.  This  place  was  taken 
possession  of  by  Commodore  Renshaw  (Oct.  8, 
1862).  To  hold  the  city  more  securely,  a  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  regiment,  under  Colonel  Burrill,  was 
sent  there  from  New  Orleans.  In  front  of  the 
town  (Dec.  28)  lay  six  National  war-vessels,  un¬ 
der  the  command  of  Renshaw.  General  Magrn- 
der,  of  the  Confederate  army,  then  in  command 
of  the  Department  of  Texas,  collected  a  land  and 
naval  force  near  Galveston,  and  before  daylight 
on  Jan.  2, 1863,  he  attacked  the  National  forces 
by  land  and  water.  At  first,  the  men  from  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  repulsed  those  of  Magruder,  but,  Con¬ 
federate  vessels  coming  up  with  a  fresh  supply, 
the  National  soldiers  were  overpowered.  After 
a  brief  action,  the  Harriet  Lane  (one  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  vessels)  was  captured,  and  the  Westfield, 
Reushaw’s  flag-ship,  was  blown  up  by  his  order, 
to  prevent  her  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Con¬ 
federates.  The  firing  of  the  magazine  of  the 
Westfield  was  done  prematurely,  by  an  intoxi¬ 
cated  man,  and  Commodore  Renshaw,  a  lieuten¬ 
ant,  and  an  engineer,  with  about  a  dozen  of  her 
crew,  perished  by  the  explosion.  Nearly  its  many 
officers  and  men  were  killed  in  a  gig  lying  by  the 
side  of  the  Westfield.  Magruder’s  victory  was  al¬ 
most  a  barren  one,  for  Farragut  re-established 
the  blockade  before  the  Harriet  Lane  could  be 
converted  into  a  Confederate  cruiser. 

Galveston,  Surrender  of.  Attempts  were 


GANSEVOORT 


560  GARRISON 


made  to  “repossess”  important  posts  in  Texas, 
especially  Galveston.  On  May  17,  1862,  Henry 
Eagle,  in  command  of  war- vessels  in  front  of 
Galveston,  demanded  its  surrender,  under  a 
threat  of  an  attack  from  a  large  land  and  naval 
force  that  would  soon  appear.  “  When  those 
forces  appear,”  said  the  authorities,  “  we  shall 
reply.”  So  matters  remained  until  Oct.  8,  when 
Galveston  was  formally  surrendered  by  its  civil 
authorities  to  Commodore  Reushaw,  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Navy,  the  Confederate  troops  retiring. 
It  was  held  by  the  Nationals  ever  afterwards. 

Gansevoort,  Henry  Sandford,  was  born  at 
Albany,  Dec.  15,  1835.  He  was  a  grandson  of 
Colonel  Gansevoort,  of  Fort  Stanwix  fame.  In 
April,  1861,  he  entered  the  regular  artillery  ser¬ 
vice,  and  fought  gallantly  during  the  Peninsular 
campaign  of  1862,  and  in  several  battles  after¬ 
wards.  He  first  became  lieutenant-colonel  and 
then  colonel  of  the  13th  N.  Y.  Volunteer  Cav¬ 
alry,  with  which  he  performed  gallant  service 
in  Virginia.  In  1865  he  was  breveted  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  “for  faithful  and  merito¬ 
rious  services,”  and  became  captain  of  artillery. 
His  health  failed,  and  when  returning  from  the 
Bahama  Islands  he  died,  April  12, 1871,  when  al¬ 
most  within  sight  of  the  city  of  his  birth.  He 
was  greatly  beloved  by  all  who  knew  him. 

Gansevoort,  Peter,  Jr.,  was  born  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  July  17, 1749;  died  July  2, 1812.  He  was 
appointed  major  of  a  New  York  regiment  in  July, 
1775,  and  in  August  he  joined  the  army,  under 
Montgomery,  that  invaded  Canada.  He  rose  to 


colonel  the  next  year ;  and  in  April,  1777,  he  was 
put  in  command  of  Fort  Schuyler  (see  Fort  Stan¬ 
wix),  which  he  gallantly  defended  against  the 
British  and  Indians  in  August.  He  most  effect¬ 
ually  co-operated  with  Sullivan  in  his  campaign 
in  1779,  and  afterwards  in  the  Mohawk  region. 
In  1781  he  received  from  the  Legislature  of 
New  York  the  commission  of  a  brigadier-general. 
General  Gansevoort  filled  civil  offices,  particu¬ 
larly  that  of  Commissioner  for  Indian  Affairs, 
with  great  fidelity.  In  1803  he  was  made  mili¬ 


tary  agent  and  brigadier-general  in  the  United 
States  Army. 

Garfield,  James  Abram,  was  born  in  Cuya¬ 
hoga  County,  Ohio,  Nov.  19,  1831.  Left  an 
orphan,  his  childhood  and  youth  were  spent  al¬ 
ternately  in  school  and  in  labor  for  his  support. 
He  drove  horses  on  the  Ohio  Canal ;  learned  the 
carpenter’s  trade ;  worked  at  it  during  school 
vacations ;  entered  the  Geaugu  Academy  at 
Chester,  Ohio,  in  1850,  and,  at  the  end  of  four 
years,  had  fitted  himself  for  junior  in  college. 
He  entered  Williams  College,  Mass.,  that  year; 
graduated  in  1856;  gave  his  first  vote  for  the 
Republican  candidates,  and  took  part  in  the 
canvass  as  a  promising  orator.  He  was  tutor 
and  student  in  a  collegiate  institute  at  Hiram, 
Ohio  ;  studied  law ;  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio 
State  Senate  in  1859,  and  often  preached  to  con¬ 
gregations  of  the  Disciples’  Church,  of  which  he 
was  a  member.  A  firm  supporter  of  the  govern¬ 
ment,  Garfield  entered  the  military  service  in 
its  defence,  and  in  Eastern  Kentucky  and  else¬ 
where  proved  himself  a  skilful  soldier.  In 
December,  1863,  he  took  bis  seat  in  Congress  as 
a  representative  of  the  district  of  the  Western 
Reserve.  In  that  body  his  career  as  a  states¬ 
man  was  marvellous.  He  grasped  every  topic 
in  debate  with  a  master’s  hand.  In  1880  he  was 
chosen  to  a  seat  in  the  National  Congress.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  elected  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  entered  upou  its  duties  on 
March  4, 1881.  After  an  administration  of  four 
months  he  was  shot  by  an  assassin  at  Washing¬ 
ton,  July  2, 1881,  and  lingered  until  the  19tli  of 
September  following,  when  he  died  at  Elberou, 
on  the  seashore,  in  New  Jersey.  His  death  was 
sincerely  mourned  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized 
world.  The  monarchs  of  three  kingdoms  di¬ 
rected  their  courts  to  wear  mourning  for  the 
dead  statesman  for  a  specified  time. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  leader  in  the 
movement  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Newburyport,  Mass., 
Dec.  12,  1804 ;  died  May  24,  1879.  He  was  a 


WILLIAM  LLOYD  GARRISON. 

shoemaker’s  apprentice,  but  finally  learned  the 
art  of  printing,  and  became  a  contributor  to  the 
press  in  early  life.  In  all  his  writings  he  showed 


GAS-LIGHT 


561 


a  philanthropic  spirit,  and  a  sympathy  for  the 
oppressed  everywhere.  In  1827  he  edited  the 
National  Philanthropist,  in  Boston  ;  and,  as  assist¬ 
ant  editor  of  a  Baltimore  paper,  he  denounced  the 
taking  of  a  cargo  of  slaves  from  that  city  to  New 
Orleans  as  “  domestic  piracy.”  For  this  he  was 
fined,  and  imprisoned  forty-nine  days,  until  Ar¬ 
thur  Tappau,  of  New  York,  paid  the  tine.  On  Jan. 
1, 1831,  he  began  the  publication  of  his  famous 
Liberator,  a  weekly  newspaper  and  uncompro¬ 
mising  opponent  of  slavery,  which  was  discon¬ 
tinued  in  1835,  when  the  result  for  which  he  had 
devoted  the  best  energies  of  his  life  had  been  ef¬ 
fected  by  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  (which 
see)  of  President  Lincoln.  Mr.  Garrison  was  a 
founder  (1832)  of  the  American  Antislavery  So¬ 
ciety,  and  was  its  president  from  that  time  un¬ 
til  1865.  Attending,  as  a  delegate,  the  World’s 
Antislavery  Convention,  iu  London  (1840),  he 
refused  to  take  his  seat,  because  the  feminine 
delegates  from  America  were  refused  seats  in 
that  body.  Iu  1866  he  received  about  $30,000 
as  a  national  testimonial  from  his  friends  for  his 
arduous  labors  iu  the  cause  of  humanity. 

Gas-light.  The  first  attempts  to  introduce 
nas  as  an  illuminator  in  the  United  States  were 

o 

made  in  Baltimore,  between  1816  and  1820.  They 
failed ;  but  it  was  successfully  introduced  into 
Boston  in  1822.  The  next  year  the  first  gas¬ 
light  company  was  formed  in  New  York — -the 
“New  York  Gas-light  Company.”  They  began 
operations  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000.  But  the 
people  were  so  slow  to  adopt  the  new  illumina¬ 
tor  that  the  company  were  not  in  full  operation 
until  1827,  when  the  population  was  about  one 
hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand.  Gas  for  illu¬ 
mination  was  first  introduced  into  Philadelphia 
in  1835,  when  the  population  of  that  city  was 
about  eighty-five  tliousaud. 

Gaspee,  A  Commission  of  Inquiry.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  Gaspee,  a  commission,  com¬ 
posed  of  Admiral  Montague,  the  vice-admiralty 
judge  at  Boston,  the  chief-justices  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  (Peter  Oliver),  New  York  (D.  Horsmanden), 
and  New  Jersey  (F.  Smyth),  and  the  governor 
of  Rhode  Island  (J.  Wanton),  met  at  Newport 
to  inquire  into  the  affair.  Robert  Auchmuty 
took  the  place  of  Montague.  The  commission¬ 
ers  were  notified  that  there  had  been  no  neglect 
of  duty  or  connivance  on  the  part  of  the  provin¬ 
cial  government,  and  it  was  intimated  that  this 
special  court  was  unnecessary  and  alarming. 
The  Assembly  of  Rhode  Island  met  at  East- 
Green  wich  to  watch  the  commissioners,  and 
Governor  Wanton  laid  before  it  his  instructions 
to  arrest  offenders,  and  send  them  to  England 
for  trial.  Chief-justice  Stephen  Hopkins  asked 
the  Assembly  how  he  should  act.  They  left  it 
to  his  discretion,  for  they  were  assured  of  his 
patriotism  and  sound  judgment.  “Then,” said 
Hopkins,  in  the  presence  of  both  Houses,  “for 
the  purpose  of  transportation  for  trial  I  will 
neither  apprehend  any  person  by  my  own  order, 
nor  suffer  any  executive  officer  in  the  colony  to 
do  it.”  The  commissioners  adjourned  without- 
eliciting  any  positive  knowledge  of  the  persons 
who  destroyed  the  Gaspee  in  June,  1772. 

I.— 36 


GASPEE,  AFFAIR  OF  THE 

Gaspee,  Affair  of  the.  An  armed  schooner 
in  the  British  revenue  service  called  the  Gaspee 
had  given  great  annoyance  to  the  American 
navigators  in  Narraganset  Bay  by  her  com¬ 
mander  haughtily  demanding  the  lowering  of 
their  Hags  whenever  they  passed  her,  in  token 
of  submission.  They  often  disobeyed.  For  this 
disobedience  a  Providence  sloop  was  chased  by 
the  schoouer.  The  former,  by  taking  a  peculiar 
course,  caused  the  latter  to  run  aground  upon  a 
low  sandy  point  (ever  since  known  as  “  Gaspee 
Point”)  on  the  west  side  of  Narraganset  Bay. 
The  same  night  (June  9, 1772)  sixty-four  armed 
men  went  dowu  from  Providence  iu  boats,  capt¬ 
ured  the  people  on  board  the  Gaspee,  and  burned 
the  vessel.  A  large  reward  was  offered  for  the 
discovery  of  the  perpetrators  (who  were  well 
known  in  Providence),  but  they  were  not  be¬ 
trayed.  Joseph  Wanton,  the  royal  governor  of 
Rhode  Island,  issued  a  proclamation  ordering 
diligent  search  for  the  perpetrators  of  the  act. 
Admiral  Montague  made  endeavors  towards  the 
same  end,  and  the  home  governmeut  offered  a 
reward  of  $5000  for  the  leader,  with  the  promise 
of  a  pardon  if  the  informer  should  be  an  accom¬ 
plice.  Not  one  of  the  men  betrayed  their  trust¬ 
ed  leader,  Abraham  Whipple,  afterwards  a  com¬ 
modore  iu  the  Continental  Navy.  A  commission 
of  inquiry  was  established  under  the  great  seal 
of  England,  but  it  availed  nothing.  These  com¬ 
missions  closed  their  labors  on  June  23,  and  no 
further  inquiry  was  attempted.  When,  subse¬ 


quently,  the  colonists  were  at  war  with  Great 
Britain,  the  act  of  Captain  Whipple  was  avowed, 
and  Sir  James  Wallace,  in  command  of  a  British 
ship  of  war  iu  Narraganset  Bay,  wrote  as  follows 


GASTON 


562 


GATES 


to  the  perpetrator  of  the  act:  “You,  Abraham 
Whipple,  ou  the  9th  of  Juue,  1772,  burned  his 
majesty’s  vessel,  the  Gaspee,  aud  I  will  hang  you 
at  the  yard-arm.”  Whipple  coolly  replied:  “Sir, 
always  catch  your  man  before  you  hang  him.” 
A  ballad  was  written  at  the  time,  containing 


placed  General  Schuyler.  He  gained  undeserved 
honors  as  commander  of  the  troops  that  defeat¬ 
ed  and  captured  Burgoyne  and  his  army  in  the 
fall  of  1777.  He  soon  afterwards  intrigued  for 
the  position  of  Washington  as  commander-in¬ 
chief,  using  his  power  as  president  of  the  Board 


GASPEE  POINT. 


fifty-eight  lines  of  doggerel  verse,  which  ended 
as  follows : 

“  Now,  for  to  find  these  people  out, 

King  George  has  offered  very  stout. 

One  thousand  pounds  to  find  out  one 
That  wounded  William  Duddington. 

One  thousand  more  he  says  he’ll  spare 
For  those  who  say  the  sheriff’s  were. 

One  thousand  more  there  doth  remain 
For  to  find  out  the  leader’s  name  ; 

Likewise  five  hundred  pounds  per  man 
For  any  one  of  all  the  clan. 

But,  let  him  try  his  utmost  skill, 

I’m  apt  to  think  he  never  will 
Find  out  any  of  those  hearts  of  gold, 

Though  he  should  offer  fifty-fold.” 

Gaston,  William,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  New 
Berue,  N.  C.,  Sept.  19, 1778 ;  died  at  Kaleigh,  N.  C., 
Jau.  23, 1844.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of 
New  Jersey  in  1796,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1798,  when  he  soon  became  the  leading 
lawyer  in  his  state.  Serving  in  his  state  Legis¬ 
lature,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1812,  and 
remained  in  that  body  until  1817.  The  laws 
and  judicial  organization  of  his  state  hear  marks 
of  his  wisdom.  He  was  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  North  Carolina  from  1834  till  his  death. 
Judge  Gaston  was  an  advocate  of  free  suffrage 
for  colored  men. 

Gates,  Horatio,  was  born  at  Maldon,  Essex 
Couuty,  England,  in  1728;  died  in  New  York 
city,  April  10, 1806.  He  was  a  godson  of  Horace 
Walpole.  He  entered  the  British  army  in  his 
youth,  and  rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of  major. 
Gates  came  to  America,  was  severely  wounded 
at  Braddock’s  defeat  ( 1755 ),  and  was  aid  to 
General  Mouckton  in  the  expedition  against 
Martinique  in  1762.  After  the  peace,  he  bought 
an  estate  in  Virginia,  and  when  the  war  for  in¬ 
dependence  broke  out  Congress  appointed  him 
(June,  1775)  adjutant -general  of  the  Continen¬ 
tal  Army,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- general. 
In  1776-77  he  was  twice  in  command  of  the 
Northern  Army,  having,  through  intrigue,  dis- 


of  War  for  the  purpose,  hut  ignominiously  failed. 
In  June,  1780,  he  was  made  commander  of  the 
Southern  Department,  but  made  a  disastrous 
campaign,  his  army  being  utterly  defeated  and 
routed  by  Cornwallis  near  Canuleu,  S.  C.,  in  Au¬ 
gust,  1780.  This  defeat  terminated  Gates’s  mil¬ 
itary  career.  He  was  removed  from  command 
and  suspended  from  service,  hut  w  as  finally  vin¬ 
dicated,  and  reinstated  in  command  in  1782.  He 
retired  to  his  estate  in  Virginia,  and  in  1790 
made  his  residence  in  New  York  city,  having 
first  emancipated  all  his  slaves,  and  provided 


HORATIO  GATES. 


for  such  of  them  as  could  not  take  care  of  them¬ 
selves.  He  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  elected  to  the  state 
Legislature,  hut  declined  to  serve. 


GEARY 


563 


GENET 


Geary,  John  W.,  was  born  in  Westmoreland 
County,  Penn.,  about  1820;  died  at  Harrisburg, 
Penn.,  very  suddenly,  Feb.  9, 1873.  He  became 
a  civil  engineer,  and  served  as  lieutenant-colonel 
of  a  Pennsylvania  regiment  of  voluuteers  in  the 
war  with  Mexico,  wherein  he  was  wounded,  and 
for  gallant  services  was  made  colonel  of  his  regi¬ 
ment.  He  was  first  commander  of  the  city  of 
Mexico  after  its  capture.  He  went  to  San  Fran¬ 
cisco  in  1848,  and  was  the  first  mayor  of  that  city. 
Returning  to  Pennsylvania,  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Kansas  in  July,  1856,  and  early  in 
1861  raised  and  equipped  a  regiment  of  volun¬ 
teers.  In  the  spring  of  1862  he  became  brigadier- 
general,  and  did  good  service  throughout  the 
war,  becoming,  at  the  end  of  Sherman’s  march 
from  Atlanta  to  the  sea,  military  governor  of 
Savannah.  In  1867  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Pennsylvania. 

General  Armstrong,  The  Privateer.  The 
merchants  of  New  York  fitted  out  no  less  than 
twenty-six  fast-sailing  privateers  and  letters-of- 
marque  within  one  hundred  and  twenty  days 
after  the  declaration  of  war(1812), carrying  about 
two  hundred  pieces  of  artillery,  and  manned  by 
over  two  thousand  seamen.  Among  the  most 
noted  of  these  privateers  was  the  General  Arm¬ 
strong,  a  moderate-sized  schooner,  mounting  a 
“Long  Tom”  forty-two-pounder  and  eighteen 
carronades.  Her  complement  was  one  hundred 
and  forty  men.  Her  first  commander  was  Captain 
Barnard  ;  her  second,  Captain  G.  R.  Champlin. 
Early  in  March,  1813,  while  Champlin  was  cruis¬ 
ing  off  the  Surinam  River,  on  the  coast  of  South 
America,  he  gave  chase  to  the  British  sloop-of- 
war  Coquette,  mounting  twenty-seven  guns  and 
manned  by  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  men 
and  boys.  They  engaged  in  conflict  between 
nine  and  ten  o’clock  (March  11, 1813).  Suppos¬ 
ing  his  antagonist  to  be  a  British  letter-of- 
rnarque,  Champlin  ran  the  Armstrong  down 
upon  her,  with  the  intention  of  boarding  her. 
When  it  was  too  late,  Champlin  discovered  that 
she  was  a  heavier  vessel  than  he  suspected. 
They  poured  heavy  shot  into  each  other,  and 
for  a  while  the  fight  was  very  obstinate,  within 
pistol-shot  distance.  Champlin  was  wounded 
and  his  vessel  severely  bruised,  but,  getting  free 
from  the  Coquette  by  a  vigorous  use  of  sweeps, 
the  Armstrong  escaped  under  a  heavy  fire  from 
her  antagonist.  The  Tammany  Society  of  New 
York  gave  the  captain  an  elegant  sword,  and 
voted  thanks  to  his  companions  in  the  fight. 
In  1814  the  General  Armstrong  was  under  .the 
command  of  Captain  Samuel  C.  Reid,  and  in 
September  she  was  in  the  harbor  of  Fayal,  one 
of  the  islands  of  the  Azores,  belonging  to  Portu¬ 
gal.  It  was  a  neutral  port,  and  Reid  did  not 
expect  to  be  disturbed  there  by  British  vessels. 
He  was  mistaken.  On  the  26th  Commodore 
Lloyd  appeared  off  the  harbor  with  his  flag-ship, 
the  Plantagenet,  74  guns ;  the  frigate  Kota,  44, 
Captain  Somerville;  and  the  brig  Carnation,  18, 
Captain  Bentham— each  with  a  full  complement 
of  men.  The  Armstrong  had  only  seven  guns 
and  ninety  men,  including  her  officers.  In  vio¬ 
lation  of  the  laws  and  usages  of  neutrality, 
Lloyd  sent  into  the  harbor,  at  eight  o’clock  in 


the  evening,  four  large  aud  well-armed  launch¬ 
es,  manned  by  about  forty  meu  each.  At  that 
time  Reid,  suspecting  mischief,  was  warping  his 
vessel  under  the  guns  of  the  castle.  The  moon 
was  shining  brightly.  The  barges  and  the  pri¬ 
vateer  opened  fire  almost  simultaneously,  and 
the  launches  were  driven  off  with  heavy  loss. 
At  midnight  fourteen  launches  were  sent  in, 
manned  by  about  five  hundred  men.  A  terrible 
conflict  ensued,  which  lasted  forty  minutes,  when 
the  launches  were  again  repulsed,  with  a  loss 
of  one  hundred  aud  twenty  killed  and  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  thirty  wounded.  At  daylight  (Sept. 
27)  a  third  attack  was  made  by  the  brig  Carna¬ 
tion,  which  opened  heavily,  but  was  soon  so  cut 
up  by  the  well-directed  guns  of  the  Armstrong 
that  she  hastily  withdrew.  The  privateer  was 
also  much  damaged,  aud  it  being  evident  that 
she  could  not  endure  a  fourth  attack,  Captain 
Reid  directed  her  to  be  scuttled  to  prevent  her 
falling  into  the  hands  of  tbe  British.  She  was 
then  abandoned,  when  the  British  boarded  her 
and  set  her  on  fire.  While  the  British  lost  over 
three  hundred  men  in  the  three  attacks,  the 
Armstrong  lost  only  two  men  killed  and  seven 
wounded  during  the  ten  hours.  To  Captain 
Reid  aud  his  brave  men  is  justly  due  the  credit 
of  saving  New  Orleans  from  capture.  Lloyd’s 
squadron  was  a  part  of  the  expedition  then  gath¬ 
ering  at  Jamaica  for  the  invasion  of  Louisiana 
(which  see).  The  object  of  the  attack  on  the 
Armstrong  was  to  capture  her,  aud  make  her  a 
useful  auxiliary  in  the  work.  She  so  crippled 
her  assailants  that  they  did  not  reach  Jamaica 
until  full  ten  days  later  than  the  expedition  in¬ 
tended  to  sail  from  there.  It  had  waited  for 
Lloyd,  and  when  it  approached  New  Orleans 
Jackson  had  made  ample  arrangements  to  re¬ 
ceive  the  invaders.  Had  they  arrived  ten  days 
sooner  the  city  must  have  fallen.  The  State  of 
New  York  gave  Captain  Reid  thanks  and  a 
sword,  and  he  was  greeted  with  enthusiasm  on 
his  return  to  the  United  States.  The  Portu¬ 
guese  government  demanded  and  received  from 
the  British  an  apology  for  the  violation  of  neu¬ 
trality,  and  restitution  for  the  destruction  of 
Portuguese  property  at  Fayal  during  the  action. 
That  government  also  demanded  satisfaction 
and  indemnification  for  the  destruction  of  the 
American  vessel  in  their  neutral  port.  This  was 
refused,  aud  neither  the  owners  of  the  vessel 
nor  their  heirs  have  ever  received  indemnifi¬ 
cation  for  their  losses  either  from  Great  Britain 
or  Portugal. 

Genet,  Edmond  Charles,  was  born  at  Ver¬ 
sailles,  France,  Jan.  8, 1763 ;  died  at  Greenbush, 
opposite  Albany,  N.  Y.,  July  14, 1834.  His  liter¬ 
ary  talent  was  early  developed.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  years  he  received  from  the  King  of  Swe¬ 
den  a  gold  medal  for  a  translation  of  the  history 
of  Eric  XIV.  into  Swedish,  with  notes  by  him¬ 
self.  He  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  Ma¬ 
dame  Campan,  and  was  brought  up  in  the  French 
court;  yet  he  was  a  republican.  Attached  to 
the  embassies  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  London,  and 
St.  Petersburg,  he  maintained  his  republican 
bias,  and  on  his  return  from  the  Russian  court 
(1792)  was  appointed  minister  to  the  United 


i 


GENET  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  564  GENET  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


States.  He  bad  already  been  made  adjutant- 
general  of  tbe  armies  of  France  and  minister  to 
Holland  by  tbe  revolutionists,  and  employed 
in  revolutionizing  Geneva  and  annexing  it  to 
France.  His  diplomatic  career  in  tbe  United 
States  was  very  offensive  to  the  government, 
and  be  was  recalled.  (See  Genet  in  the  United 
States .)  At  about  that  time  a  change  of  faction 
bad  taken  place  in  bis  country,  and  be  did  not 
think  it  prudent  to  return.  He  never  went  back 


EDMOND  CHARLES  GENET. 


to  France.  Marrying  tbe  daughter  of  Governor 
George  Clinton,  be  became  a  naturalized  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  and  an  ornament  to  socie¬ 
ty  here.  He  was  twice  married,  bis  second  wife 
being  a  daughter  of  Mr.  Osgood,  the  first  Post¬ 
master  -  general  under  the  new  Constitution. 
Fond  of  agriculture,  be  took  great  interest  in 
its  pursuit;  and  bis  last  illness  was  occasioned 
by  attendance  at  a  meeting  of  an  agricultural 
society  of  which  he  was  presideut.  He  was 
known  as  “Citizen  Genet,”  a  title  assumed  by 
the  French  revolutionists,  and  imitated  by  their 
American  admirers.  Tbe  Philadelphia  newspa¬ 
pers  often  contained  notices  of  the  marriage  of 
“  citizen”  Smith  or  Jones  and  “  citesse”  Roseberry 
or  Lavender. 

Genet  in  the  United  States.  The  French 
revolutionists  affected  a  simplicity  of  manner 
in  all  things,  consistent  with  their  battle-cry  in 
the  forum  and  in  the  field — “  Liberty,  Equality, 
and  Fraternity !”  They  addressed  the  highest 
functionary  as  “citizen;”  and  Edmond  Charles 
Genet,  sent  to  the  United  States  as  the  repre¬ 
sentative  of  the  French  Republic,  was  designat¬ 
ed  as  “  Citizen  Genet.”  He  arrived  at  Charles¬ 
ton,  S.  C.,  April  9, 1793.  He  was  received  with 
open  arms  by  the  Republican,  or  Democratic,  par¬ 
ty.  He  was  disposed  to  treat  the  United  States 
government  with  contempt,  believing  the  peo¬ 
ple  would  not  sustain  it  in  its  coldness  towards 
the  French  revolutionists.  He  came  with  blank 
commissions  for  naval  and  military  service,  and 
before  he  proceeded  to  the  seat  of  government 
to  present  his  credentials  he  fitted  out  two  pri¬ 


vateers  at  Charleston  to  prey  on  British  com¬ 
merce,  and  gave  authority  to  every  French  con¬ 
sul  in  America  to  constitute  himself  a  court 
of  admiralty  to  dispose  of  prizes  brought  into 
American  ports  by  French  cruisers.  One  of  these 
vessels  (L7 Embuscade)  went  prowling  up  the 
coast,  seizing  several  small  vessels,  and  finally 
capturing  a  British  merchantman  within  the 
capes  of  the  Delaware,  when  she  proceeded  in 
triumph  to  Philadelphia,  where  she  was  received 
with  acclamations  of  joy  by  the  excited  people. 
U pon  the  bow  of  L’ Embuscade,  her  foremast,  and 
her  stern, liberty-caps  were  conspicuous,  and  the 
British  colors  were  reversed  in  the  prize,  with 
the  Freucli  colors  flying  above  them.  Fourteen 
days  later  Genet  arrived  by  land  at  Philadel¬ 
phia,  where,  according  to  preconcert,  a  number 
of  citizens  met  him  at  the  Schuylkill  and  es¬ 
corted  him  into  the  city,  while  caunous  roared 
and  church-bells  rang  out  merry  peals  of  wel¬ 
come.  There  he  received  addresses  from  various 
societies,  aud  so  anxious  were  his  admirers  to 
do  homage  to  the  representative  of  the  authors 
of  the  Reign  of  Terror  in  France  that  they  in¬ 
vited  him  to  a  public  dinner  before  he  had  pre¬ 
sented  his  credeutials  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  Genet  presented  his  credentials 
to  Washington  in  person  (April  19,  1793),  and 
found  himself  in  an  atmosphere  of  the  most  pro¬ 
found  dignity.  He  felt  his  own  littleness  as  a 
mere  political  enthusiast  while  standing  before 
the  representative  of  true  democracy  in  Amer¬ 
ica.  and  of  the  soundest  principles  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Republic.  He  withdrew  from  the  audience 
abashed  aud  subdued.  He  had  heard  expres¬ 
sions  of  sincere  regard  for  the  people  of  France 
that  touched  the  sensibilities  of  his  heart,  and 
he  had  felt,  in  the  courtesy  and  severe  simplic¬ 
ity  and  frankness  of  the  President’s  manner, 
wholly  free  from  effervescent  enthusiasm,  a 
withering  rebuke,  not  only  of  the  adulators  iu 
public  places,  but  also  of  his  own  pretensions, 
aspirations,  and  offensive  conduct.  Once  out 
of  the  preseuce  of  Washington,  he  became  the 
same  defiant  champion  of  the  “rights  of  the 
people,”  affecting  to  be  shocked  at  the  evi¬ 
dences  of  monarchical  sympathies  in  the  Presi¬ 
dent’s  house.  He  there  saw  a  bust  of  Louis 
XVI.,  and  declared  its  presence  in  the  house  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States  was  an  “in¬ 
sult  to  France,”  and  he  was  “  astonished”  to  find 
that  relatives  of  Lafayette  had  lately  been  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  presence  of  the  President.  His 
feelings  were  speedily  soothed  iu  a  great  ban¬ 
quet-hall  of  his  republican  friends  (May  23, 
1793),  where  his  ears  were  greeted  with  the 
Marseilles  Hymn,  and  his  eyes  delighted  with 
a  “  tree  of  Liberty  ”  on  the  table.  His  heart  was 
made  glad  by  having  the  red  cap  of  Liberty 
placed  on  his  own  head  first  aud  then  upon  the 
head  of  each  guest,  while  the  wearer,  under  the 
inspiration  of  its  symbolism,  uttered  some  pa¬ 
triotic  sentiment.  At  dinner,  at  which  the  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Pennsylvania  (Mifflin)  was  present,  a 
roasted  pig  received  the  name  of  the  murdered 
French  king,  and  the  head,  severed  from  his 
body,  was  carried  around  to  each  of  the  guests, 
who,  after  placing  the  cap  of  Liberty  on  his 


GENET’S  MISCHIEVOUS  SCHEMES  565 


GEORGE  I. 


own  head,  pronounced  the  word  “  tyrant,”  and 
proceeded  to  mangle  with  his  knife  that  of  the 
poor  pig.  One  of  the  Republican  taverns  in 
Philadelphia  displayed  as  a  sign  a  revolting 
picture  of  the  mutilated  and  blood  -  stained 
corpse  of  Queen  Marie  Antoinette.  This  mad¬ 
ness  ran  a  short  course,  and  its  victims  became 
heartily  ashamed  of  it.  Genet  took  this  for  a 
genuine  and  settled  feeling,  aud  acted  upon  it. 
Meanwhile  the  insulted  government  took  most 
dignified  action.  The  captured  British  mer¬ 
chantman  was  restored  to  its  owners,  and  the 
privateers  were  ordered  out  of  American  waters. 
Orders  Were  sent  to  the  collectors  at  all  Ameri¬ 
can  ports  to  seize  all  vessels  fitted  out  as  priva¬ 
teers,  aud  to  prevent  the  sale  of  any  prize  capt¬ 
ured  by  such  vessels.  Chief-justice  Jay  declared 
it  to  be  the  duty  of  grand-juries  to  present  all 
persons  guilty  of  such  violation  of  the  laws  of 
nations  with  respect  to  any  of  the  belligerent 
powers.  The  French  ambassador  and  his  friends 
were  greatly  irritated.  He  protested,  and  the 
Secretary  of  State  (Jefferson),  who  had  favored 
the  enthusiasm  of  Genet’s  reception,  finding  he 
had  a  troublesome  friend  on  his  hands,  plainly 
told  Genet  that  by  commissioniug  privateers 
he  had  violated  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States.  With  offensive  pertinacity,  Genet  denied 
this  doctrine  as  contrary  to  right,  justice,  and 
the  laws  of  nations,  and  threatened  to  “appeal 
from  the  President  to  the  people and  in  this 
the  Republican  newspapers  sustained  him.  Se¬ 
cret  Democratic  societies  which  had  been  formed 
became  more  bold  and  active,  and  Genet,  mis¬ 
taking  the  popular  clamor  for  the  deliberate 
voice  of  the  nation,  actually  undertook  to  fit 
out  a  privateer  at  Philadelphia,  iu  defiance  of 
the  government,  during  the  President’s  absence 
at  Mount  Vernon.  It  was  a  vessel  captured  by 
L’Embuacade,  aud  Genet  named  her  The  Little 
Democrat.  Governor  Mifflin,  like  Jefferson,  had 
become  sick  of  the  “Citizen,”  and  he  interfered. 
Genet  would  not  heed  his  threats  nor  the  per¬ 
suasions  of  Jefferson.  He  denounced  the  Presi¬ 
dent  as  unfaithful  to  the  wishes  of  the  people, 
and  resolved  to  force  him  to  call  Congress  to¬ 
gether.  Washington,  on  his  return  to  Philadel¬ 
phia,  and  informed  of  the  insolence  of  Genet, 
exclaimed,  “  Is  the  minister  of  the  French  Re¬ 
public  to  set  the  acts  of  the  government  at  defi¬ 
ance  with  impunity?”  His  cabinet  answered 
“No!”  The  most  exacting  country  could  not 
counsel  longer  forbearance,  and  the  French  gov¬ 
ernment  was  requested  (July,  1793)  to  recall  its 
minister ;  and  it  was  done.  There  was  a  reaction 
in  the  public  mind  towards  a  more  patriotic  at¬ 
titude.  The  insolence  of  Genet  had  shocked  the 
national  pride.  On  the  22d  of  April  (1793)  the 
President  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality 
(which  see),  which  the  radical  Democrats  de¬ 
nounced  as  au  “  edict  of  royalty.”  Genet — suc¬ 
ceeded  by  M.  Fouchet,  a  man  equally  indiscreet 
_ did  not  leave  the  country,  but  became  an  ex¬ 
cellent  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  died  here. 

Genet’s  Mischievous  Schemes.  It  wns  not 

only  in  American  waters  and  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  that  it  became  necessary  to  watch 


“Citizen”  Genet’s  mischievous  schemes.  He 
projected  an  invasion  of  Florida,  the  expedition 
for  which  was  to  be  organized  in  South  Caro¬ 
lina  and  to  rendezvous  in  Georgia.  Another  of 
his  schemes  projected  a  like  movement  against 
New  Orleans,  to  be  set  on  foot  iu  Kentucky. 
George  Rogers  Clarke,  who  had  done  good  ser¬ 
vice  in  the  Revolution,  but  who,  through  intem¬ 
perance  and  other  causes,  had  become  impover¬ 
ished,  lent  himself  to  be  the  leader  of  the  expe¬ 
dition  from  Kentucky.  Genet  found  a  willing¬ 
ness  among  the  Kentuckians  to  engage  in  such 
au  enterprise,  because  Spain  had  refused  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  The  “Dem¬ 
ocratic  Society”  at  Lexington  had  taken  this 
matter  in  hand.  French  emissaries  were  em¬ 
ployed  in  Kentucky  and  South  Carolina,  and 
commissions  were  issued;  but  both  enterprises 
failed  for  want  of  money.  At  one  time  Genet 
had  two  thousand  seamen  and  soldiers  on  his 
hands  to  support.  These  and  other  efforts  of 
Genet  to  set  the  neutral  policy  of  the  United 
States  at  defiance,  aud  his  geueral  insolence  of 
conduct  in  trying  to  stir  up  the  people  and  the 
state  governments,  caused  serious  thoughts  iu 
the  mind  of  Washington  of  abruptly  dismissing 
him  and  ordering  him  to  leave  the  country. 
But  a  wise  forbearance  undoubtedly  accom¬ 
plished  good  results  in  a  better  way. 

Geneva  Award.  (See  Tribunal  of  Arbitra¬ 
tion.) 

George  Griswold,  The  Relief -ship.  The 
blockade  of  Southern  ports  caused  a  lack  of  the 
cotton  supply  iu  England  and  the  running  of 
mills  on  half-time  or  the  shutting  them  up  alto¬ 
gether.  This  produced  wide-spread  distress  iu 
the  manufacturing  districts.  In  Lancashire 
alone  one  million  stomachs  depended  for  bread 
on  the  mills.  Iu  1862  a  pitiful  cry  of  distress 
came  over  the  sea.  It  was  heard  by  the  loyal 
people  of  the  North,  who,  repressing  their  just 
resentment  against  the  British  government  for 
the  “  aid  and  comfort”  it  had  given  to  the  ene¬ 
mies  of  the  Republic,  heeded  the  cry,  aud  the 
George  Grisivold  was  laden  at  New  York,  chiefly 
through  the  liberality  of  merchants  there,  with 
food  for  the  starving  English  opei’atives  of  the 
value  of  more  than  $200,000.  With  her  was 
sent  a  government  war-vessel  as  a  convoy  to 
protect  her  precious  freight  from  the  touch  of 
the  Anglo-Confederate  cruiser  Alabama,  which 
was  then  lighting  the  ocean  with  the  blaze  of 
American  merchant -vessels  which  she  had  set 
on  fire.  (See  Alabama,  Destruction  of  the.) 

George  (Lewis)  I.,  King  of  Great  Britain,  was 
born  in  Osnabrtiek,  Hanover,  May  28, 1660 ;  died 
near  that  place,  June  10,  1727.  Eldest  sou  of 
Ernest  Augustus,  Elector  of  Hanover,  he  was 
the  first  sovereign  of  the  Hanoverian  line.  His 
mother  was  Sophia,  daughter  of  James  I.  of 
England.  In  1681  he  went  to  England  to  seek 
the  hand  of  his  cousin,  the  Princess  Anne  (af¬ 
terwards  queen), iu  marriage, but,  being  ordered 
by  his  father  not  to  proceed  in  the  business,  he 
returued,  and  married  his  cousin  Sophia  Doro¬ 
thea.  By  act  of  the  Convention  Parliament 
(see  English  Revolution)  iu  1689,  and  by  Parlia- 


GEORGE  II. 


566 


GEORGE  III. 


ment  in  1701,  the  succession  of  the  English 
crown  was  so  fixed  that  in  the  event  of  a  fail¬ 
ure  of  heirs  by  William  and  Mary,  and  Anne,  it 
should  be  limited  to  the  Electress  Sophia  of 
Hanover,  George’s  mother,  passing  over  nearer 
heirs  who  were  Roman  Catholics.  By  the  trea¬ 
ty  of  union  with  Scotland  (1707)  the  same  suc¬ 
cession  was  secured  for  its  crown.  By  the  death 
of  Sophia,  three  months  before  Queen  Aune  died, 
George  became  heir-apparent  to  the  throue  of 
the  latter  because  of  failure  of  heirs,  and  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  her.  His  son,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  be¬ 
came  openly  hostile  to  his  father  in  1718,  and  at 
Leicester  House  he  established  a  sort  of  rival 
court.  This  eumity  arose  from  the  treatment 
of  the  priuce’s  mother,  the  unfortunate  Sophia 
Dorothea  (to  whom  he  was  much  attached),  who, 
accused  of  intrigue  with  Count  Kdnigsmarck, 
was  divorced  in  1694,  and  imprisoned  from  that 
time  until  her  death  in  1726.  George  I.  was  a  man 
of  moderate  intellectual  ability,  a  cruel  husband, 
a  bad  father,  but  not  a  bad  sovereign,  for  he  al¬ 
lowed  able  meu  to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  king¬ 
dom.  He  was  taken  with  a  fit  in  his  carriage, 
while  on  his  way  to  Osuabriick,  and  died  before 
he  reached  that  place.  His  son  (George)  by  the 
uufortuuate  Sophia  succeeded  him. 

George  (Augustus)  II.,  King  of  England,  son 
of  the  preceding  and  Sophia  Dorothea,  was  born 
in  Hanover,  Oct.  30,  1683;  died  in  Kensington 
Palace,  Oct.  25,  1760.  In  his  childhood  and 
youth  he  was  ueglected  by  his  father,  and  was 
brought  up  by  his  grandmother,  the  Electress 
Sophia.  In  1705  he  married  a  daughter  of  the 
Margrave  of  Braudenburg-Anspach,  a  woman  of 
superior  character  and  ability.  He  was  made  a 
peer  of  England  the  uext  year,  with  the  chief 
title  of  Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  was  a  brave 
soldier  UDder  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  Iu 
1714  he  accompanied  his  father  to  England,  and 
was  proclaimed  Prince  of  Wales  Sept.  22.  The 
prince  and  his  father  hated  each  other  cordial¬ 
ly,  and  he  was  made  an  instrument  of  intrigue 
against  the  latter.  The  Priucess  ofVales  was 
very  popular,  and  the  father  also  hated  her.  At 
one  time  the  king  proposed  to  send  the  prince 
to  America,  there  to  be  disposed  of  so  that  he 
should  have  no  more  trouble  with  him.  He 
was  crowned  king  Oct.  11, 1727.  His  most  able 
minister  was  Walpole  (as  he  was  of  George  I.), 
and  he  and  the  clever  queen  ruled  the  realm  for 
fourteen  years.  He,  in  turn,  hated  his  son  Fred¬ 
erick,  Priuce  of  Wales,  as  bitterly  as  he  had  beeu 
hated  by  his  father.  It  was  during  the  later 
years  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  that  the  “War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession”  and  the  French  and 
Indian  War  (in  which  the  English  -  American 
colonies  were  conspicuously  engaged)  occurred. 
During  that  reign  England  had  grown  amazing¬ 
ly  in  material  and  moral  strength  among  the 
nations.  The  wisdom  of  William  Pitt  had  done 
much  towards  the  acquirement  of  the  fame  of 
Eugland,  which  had  never  been  greater  than  in 
1760.  George  died  suddenly,  like  his  father,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-seven  years.  He  had  never, 
been  popular  with  the  English  people. 

George  (William  Frederick)  III.,  King  of 


Englaud,  was  born  June  4, 1738;  died  in  Wind¬ 
sor  Castle,  Jan.  29, 1820.  His  mind  was  narrow, 
his  disposition  was  crafty  and  arbitrary,  and 
during  his  long  reign,  while  he  was  saue,  his 
years  w'ere  passed  in  continual  combat  against 
the  growing  liberal  spirit  of  the  age.  Being  a 
native  of  Eugland  (which  his  two  royal  pred 
ecessors  were  not),  and  young  and  moral,  he 
was  at  first  popular  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  (Oct.  26,  1760).  In  his  first  speech  iu 


GEORGE  III.  AT  THE  TIME  OP  HIS  ACCESSION. 

(From  an  anonymous  print.) 


Parliament  he  expressed  pride  in  his  English 
birth,  and  thereby  great  enthusiasm  in  his  fa¬ 
vor  was  excited.  On  Sept.  8,  1761,  he  married 
Charlotte  Sophia,  sister  of  the  Duke  of  Meck¬ 
lenburg  -  Strelitz,  who  shared  his  throne  fifty- 
seven  years,  and  bore  him  fifteen  children,  all 
but  two  of  whom  grew  to  maturity.  Unfortu¬ 
nately  for  his  kingdom,  he  neglected  the  wise 
counsels  of  Pitt,  aud  made  his  preceptor,  the 
Scotch  Earl  of  Bute,  his  prime -minister  aud 
confidential  friend.  The  minister  and  his  mas¬ 
ter  became  very  unpopular,  and  in  1763  Bute 
resigned,  aud  was  succeeded  by  George  Gren¬ 
ville,  who  inaugurated  the  Stamp  Act  policy 
and  other  obnoxious  measures  towards  the  Eng- 
lish-American  colonies,  which  caused  great  dis¬ 
content,  a  fierce  quarrel,  a  long  war,  the  final  dis¬ 
memberment  of  the  British  empire,  and  the  po¬ 
litical  independeuce  of  the  colonies.  With  the 
Stamp  Act  began  the  terribly  stormy  period  of 
the  reign  of  George  III.  In  1783  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  his 
lost  American  colonies.  Then  he  had  continual 
quarrels  with  his  ministry,  and  talked  of  leav¬ 
ing  England  aud  retiring  to  his  little  king¬ 
dom  of  Hanover,  but  refrained  on  being  assured 
that  it  would  be  much  easier  for  him  to  leave 
England  than  to  return  to  it.  Like  his  two 
royal  predecessors,  George  hated  his  oldest  son, 
the  Priuce  of  Wales,  because  he  was  generally 
in  political  opposition  to  him  and  led  a  loose 
life.  After  a  serious  dispute  with  Russia,  which 
threatened  to  seize  Turkey,  and  another  with 
Spain,  war  with  revolutionized  France  began  in 
1793,  and  the  most  arbitrary  rule  was  exercised 
iu  Englaud,  driving  the  people  at  times  to  the 


GEORGE  III.  AND  ENGLISH  OPINION  567  GEORGE  THE  THIRD’S  FIRST  BLUNDER 


verge  of  revolution.  Ireland  was  goaded  into 
rebellion,  which  was  suppressed  by  the  most 
cruel  methods — equal  iu  atrocity  to  any  perpe¬ 
trated  by  the  French  in  La  Vendee  and  Brit¬ 
tany.  The  union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
was  effected  in  1800,  the  parliament  of  the  lat¬ 
ter  ceasing  to  exist.  Against  the  king’s  wishes, 
peace  was  made  with  France  iu  1802;  but  war 
was  again  begun  the  next  year.  Then  came 
the  struggle  with  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  which 
lasted  until  the  overthrow  of  that  ruler  at  Wa¬ 
terloo  (June,  1815).  In  1810  the  king  lost  his 
youngest  and  favorite  daughter — Amelia — by 
death.  His  anxiety  during  her  illness  deprived 
him  of  reason.  He  had  been  threatened  with 


USUAL  APPEARANCE  OF  GEORGE  III.  ABOUT  1776. 
(From  a  sketch  by  Gear.) 


insanity  once  or  twice  before;  now  his  mind 
was  clouded  forever.  The  first  indication  of 
his  malady  appeared  on  the  day  of  the  comple¬ 
tion  of  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  reign— Oct.  25, 
1810.  From  that  date  his  reign  ceased  in  fact, 
and  his  son  George,  Prince  of  Wales,  was  made 
regent  of  the  kingdom  (Feb.  5, 1811).  For  near¬ 
ly  nine  years  the  care  of  his  person  was  intrust¬ 
ed  to  the  faithful  queen.  In  1819  the  Duke  of 
York  assumed  the  responsibility.  The  queen 
was  simple  in  her  tastes  and  habits,  rigid  in  the 
performance  of  moral  duties,  kind  and  benevo¬ 
lent.  Their  lives  were  models  of  moral  purity 
and  domestic  happiness. 

George  III.  and  English  Opinion  concern¬ 
ing  America.  The  great  landholders  in  England, 
as  well  as  the  more  warlike  classes,  had  become 
sick  of  trying  to  tax  the  Americans  without 
their  consent.  Indeed,  all  classes  were  con¬ 
vinced  of  its  futility,  and  yearned  for  a  change 


in  the  policy.  Even  the  stubborn  king,  though 
unrelenting  in  his  purpose  to  bring  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  into  submission,  declared  that  the  man 
who  should  approve  the  taxing  of  them,  iu  con¬ 
nection  with  all  its  consequences,  was  “  more 
fit  for  a  madhouse  than  for  a  seat  iu  Parlia¬ 
ment.”  In  the  House  of  Commons  (June,  1779), 
Lord  John  Cavendish  moved  for  orders  to  with¬ 
draw  the  British  forces  employed  iu  America; 
and  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  proposed  a  total  change  of  measures  in 
America  and  Ireland.  In  both  houses  these  sen¬ 
sible  measures  were  supported  by  increasing 
numbers.  North  was  frequently  dropping  hints 
to  the  king  that  the  advantages  to  be  gained 
by  continuing  the  war  would  never  repay  its 
expenses.  The  king,  disturbed  by  these  prop¬ 
ositions  and  the  yielding  disposition  of  his  chief 
minister,  summoned  them  all  to  his  library 
(June  21,  1779),  where,  in  a  speech  of  more 
than  an  hour  in  length,  he  expressed  to  them 
“  the  dictates  of  his  frequent  and  severe  self- 
examination.”  He  declared  his  firm  resolution 
to  carry  on  the  war  against  America,  France, 
and  Spain  ;  and  that,  “  before  he  would  hear  of 
any  man’s  readiness  to  come  into  office,  he 
would  expect  to  see  it  signed,  under  his  own 
hand,  that  he  was  resolved  to  keep  the  empire 
entire,  and  that,  consequently,  no  troops  should 
be  withdrawn  from  America,  nor  its  indepen¬ 
dence  ever  be  allowed.”  Stubbornly  blind  to 
well-known  facts,  he  persisted  iu  believing  that, 
“  with  the  activity  of  Cliuton,  and  the  Indians 
in  their  rear,  the  provinces,  even  now,  would 
submit.”  This  obstinacy  left  him  only  weak 
men  to  support  him  ;  for  it  ranged  every  able 
statesman  aud  publicist  in  the  kingdom  on  the 
side  of  the  opposition. 

George  the  Third's  first  Official  Blunder. 

There  were  members  of  the  aristocracy  that, 
through  envy,  hated  Pitt,  who,  in  spite  of  them, 
had  been  called  to  the  highest  offices  in  the 
kingdom.  When  young  Prince  George  heard 
of  the  death  of  the  king,  he  went  to  Carleton 
House,  the  residence  of  his  mother,  and  sent  for 
Newcastle,  Pitt’s  political  enemy.  He  and  Lord 
Bute  prevailed  upon  the  young  king  to  discard 
Pitt  and  favor  their  own  schemes.  Newcastle 
prepared  the  first  speech  from  the  throne  of 
George  III. ;  and  when  Pitt,  as  prime-minister, 
went  to  him  and  presented  the  draft  of  an  ad¬ 
dress  to  be  pronounced  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Privy  Council,  he  was  politely  informed  that 
the  speech  was  already  prepared  and  the  pre¬ 
liminaries  were  arranged.  Pitt  immediately 
perceived  that  the  king’s  tutor  and  warm  per¬ 
sonal  friend  of  the  young  king’s  mother,  the 
Scotch  Earl  of  Bute,  had.  made  the  arrange¬ 
ments,  and  would  occupy  a  conspicuous  place 
in  the  administration.  George  clioso  Bute  for 
his  counsellor  and  guide,  and  Pitt,  to  whom 
England  more  than  to  any  other  man  owed  its 
present  power  and  glory,  was  allowed  to  retire 
and  have  his  place  filled  by  this  Scotch  advent¬ 
urer.  The  people  of  England  were  disgusted, 
and  by  this  blunder  George  created  a  power¬ 
ful  opposition  party  at  the  beginning  of  his 
reign. 


GEORGETOWN,  CAPTURE  OF  568  GEORGIA  COAST,  CONQUEST  OF  THE 


Georgetown  (S.  C.),  Capture  of.  In  June, 
1781,  General  Marion  moved  against  George¬ 
town,  on  Winyaw  Bay.  The  garrison  made 
very  slight  resistance,  and  then  fled  down  the 
hay  and  hurried  to  Charleston.  He  had  not 
men  enough  to  garrison  Georgetown,  so  he 
moved  the  spoils  up  the  Pedee  to  his  old  en¬ 
campment  at  Snow’s  Island.  (See  Marion’s 
Camp.) 

Georgia,  Colony  of,  was  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  states  of  the  Union,  and  was  the  latest 
settled.  When,  in  1729,  the  proprietors  of  the 
Carolinas  surrendered  their  charter  to  the 
crown,  the  whole  country  southward  of  the 
Savannah  River  to  the  vicinity  of  St.  Augus¬ 
tine  was  a  wilderness,  peopled  by  native  tribes, 
and  was  claimed  by  the  Spaniards  as  a  part  of 
Florida.  The  English  disputed  the  claim,  and 
war-clouds  seemed  to  he  gathering.  At  that 
juncture  General  James  Edward  Oglethorpe, 
commiserating  the  wretched  condition  of  pris¬ 
oners  for  debt  who  crowded  the  English  pris¬ 
ons,  proposed  in  Parliament  the  founding  of  a 
colony  in  America,  partly  for  the  benefit  of  this 
unfortunate  class,  and  as  an  asylum  for  op¬ 
pressed  Protestants  of  Germany  and  other  Con¬ 
tinental  states.  A  committee  of  inquiry  re¬ 
ported  favorably,  and  the  plan,  as  proposed  by 
Oglethorpe,  was  approved  by  King  George  II. 
A  royal  charter  was  obtained  for  a  corporation 
(June  9,  1732)  for  twenty-one  years,  “  in  trust 
for  the  poor,”  to  establish  a  colony  in  the  dis¬ 
puted  territory  south  of  the  Savannah,  to  be 
called  Georgia,  in  honor  of  the  king.  Individ¬ 
uals  subscribed  largely  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  emigrants,  and  within  two  years  Parliament 
appropriated  $160,000  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  trustees,  appointed  by  the  crown,  possessed 
all  legislative  and  executive  power,  and  there 
was  no  political  liberty  for  the  people.  In  No¬ 
vember,  1732,  Oglethorpe  left  England  with  one 
hundred  and  twenty  emigrants,  and,  after  a  pas¬ 
sage  of  fifty-seven  days,  touched  at  Charleston, 
giving  great  joy  to  the  inhabitants,  for  he  was 
about  to  erect  a  barrier  between  them  and  the 
Indians  and  Spaniards.  Landing  a  large  por¬ 
tion  of  the  emigrants  on  Port  Royal  Island,  he 
proceeded  to  the  Savannah  River  with  the  re¬ 
mainder,  and  upon  Yamacraw  Bluff  (the  site  of 
Savannah)  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  future 
state  in  the  ensuiug  spring  of  1733.  The  rest  of 
the  emigrants  soon  joined  him.  They  built  a 
fort,  and  called  the  place  Savannah,  the  Indian 
name  of  the  river,  and  there  he  held  a  friendly 
conference  with  the  Indians  (see  To-rno-chi-chi), 
with  whom  satisfactory  arrangements  for  ob¬ 
taining  sovereignty  of  the  domain  were  made. 
Within  eight  years  twenty-five  hundred  emi¬ 
grants  were  sent  over  from  England  at  an  ex¬ 
pense  to  the  trustees  of  $400,000.  The  condi¬ 
tion  upon  which  the  lands  were  parcelled  out 
was  military  duty ;  and  so  grievous  were  the  re¬ 
strictions,  that  many  colonists  went  into  South 
Carolina,  where  they  could  obtain  land  in  fee. 
Nevertheless,  the  colony  increased  in  numbers, 
a  great  many  emigrants  coming  from  Scotland 
and  Germany.  Oglethorpe  went  to  England  in 
1734,  and  returned  in  1736  with  three  hundred 


emigrants,  among  them  one  hundred  and  fifty 
Highlanders  skilled  in  military  affairs.  John 
and  Charles  Wesley  and  George  Whitefield  came 
to  spread  the  gospel  among  the  people  and  the 
surrounding  heathen.  (See  Whitefietd.)  Mora¬ 
vians  had  also  settled  in  Georgia  (see  Moravi¬ 
ans),  but  the  little  colony  was  threatened  with 
disaster.  The  jealous  Spaniards  at  St.  Augus¬ 
tine  showed  signs  of  hostility.  Against  this 
expected  trouble  Oglethorpe  had  prepared  by 
building  forts  in  that  direction.  Finally,  in 
1739,  war  broke  out  between  England  and 
Spain,  and  Oglethorpe  was  made  commander  of 
the  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  troops.  With 
one  thousand  men  and  some  Indians  he  invaded 
Florida,  but  returned  unsuccessful.  In  1742  the 
Spaniards  retaliated,  and,  with  a  strong  laud 
and  naval  force,  threatened  the  Georgia  colony 
with  destruction.  Disaster  was  averted  by  a 
stratagem  employed  by  Oglethorpe,  and  peace 
was  restored.  ( See  Oglethorpe.)  Slavery  was 
prohibited  in  the  colony,  and  the  people  mur¬ 
mured.  Many  settlements  were  abandoned,  for 
tillers  of  the  soil  were  few.  Finally,  in  1750,  the 
restrictions  concerning  slavery  were  removed ; 
and  in  1752,  the  trustees  having  surrendered 
their  charter  to  the  crown,  Georgia  became  a 
royal  province,  with  privileges  similar  to  the 
others.  A  general  assembly  was  established 
in  1755,  and  in  1763  all  the  lands  between  the 
Savannah  and  St.  Mary  rivers  were,  by  royal 
proclamation,  anuexed  to  Georgia.  The  colony 
prospered  from  the  time  of  the  transfer  to  the 
crown.  The  Georgians  sympathized  with  their 
northern  brethren  in  their  political  grievances, 
and  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  war  for  in¬ 
dependence.  A  state  constitution  was  adopted 
by  a  convention  on  the  5th  of  February,  1777, 
and  Georgia  took  its  place  among  the  indepen¬ 
dent  states  of  the  Union,  with  Button  Gwinnett, 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence,  as  acting  governor. 

Georgia  Adopts  the  “American  Associa¬ 
tion.”  A  new  Provincial  Convention  met  in 
Georgia  July  4, 1775,  and  adopted  the  American 
Association.  This  hitherto  “  defective  link  in 
the  American  chain”  now  took  its  place  firmly. 
The  convention  appointed  delegates  to  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress.  Lyman  Hall,  already  there 
from  St.John’s  Parish  (which  see),  was  appoint¬ 
ed,  with  Archibald  Bullock,  Dr.  Jones,  John 
Houstoun,  and  Rev.  Dr.  Zubley,  a  Swiss  by 
birth,  and  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
at  Savannah.  A  meeting  at  Savannah  had  al¬ 
ready  appointed  a  Committee  of  SafetjL 

Georgia  Coast,  Conquest  of  the.  Late  in 
November,  1861,  Commodore  Dupont  went  down 
the  coast  from  Port  Royal  (which  see)  with  a 
part  of  his  fleet,  and  with  equal  ease  took  pos¬ 
session  of  Big  Tybee  Island,  at  the  month  of 
the  Savannah  River,  from  which  Fort  Pulaski, 
which  was  within  easy  mortar  distance,  might 
be  assailed,  and  the  harbor  of  Savannah  perfect¬ 
ly  sealed  against  blockade-ruuners.  On  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  the  National  gunboats  the  defences 
were  abandoned,  and  on  Nov.  25  Dupont  wrote 
to  the  Secretary  of  War :  “  The  flag  of  the  United 


GEORGIA,  FLIGHT  OF  GOVERNOR  OF  569  GEORGIA  ORDINANCE  OF  SECESSION 


Slates  is  flying  over  the  territory  of  Georgia.” 
Before  the  close  of  the  year  the  National  au¬ 
thority  was  supreme  from  Warsaw  Sound,  be¬ 
low  the  mouth  of  the  Savannah,  to  the  North 
Edisto  River,  below  Charleston.  Every  fort  on 
the  islands  of  that  region  had  been  abandoned, 
and  there  was  nothing  to  make  serious  opposi¬ 
tion  to  National  authority.  When  the  Nation¬ 
al  forces  reached  those  sea  islands  along  the 
coasts  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  there  was 
a  vast  quantity  of  valuable  sea-island  cotton, 
gathered  and  uugathered,  upon  them.  When  the 
first  panic  was  over  the  Confederates  returned, 
stealthily,  and  applied  the  torch  to  millions  of 
dollars’  worth  of  this  staple. 

Georgia,  Flight  of  the  Royal  Governor 
of.  Sir  James  Wright  was  appointed  royal 
governor  of  Georgia  in  1764.  He  ruled  wisely, 
hut  was  a  warm  adherent  of  the  royal  cause. 
His  influence  kept  down  open  resistance  to  the 
acts  of  Parliament  for  some  time ;  but  when 
that  resistance  became  strong,  it  was  suddenly 
overpowering.  In  January,  1776,  Joseph  Haber¬ 
sham,  a  member  of  the  Assembly,  raised  a  party 
of  volunteers  and  made  Governor  Wriglit  a  pris¬ 
oner,  but  set  him  free  on  his  parole  not  to  leave 
his  own  house.  This  parole  he  violated.  A  sen¬ 
tinel  was  placed  before  his  door,  and  all  inter¬ 
course  between  Wright  and  friends  of  the  crown 
Avas  forbidden.  One  stormy  night  (Feb.  11, 1776) 
Governor  Wright  escaped  from  a  back  window 
of  his  house,  with  an  attendant,  fled  to  a  boat  at 
the  river-side,  and  went  down  the  Savannah  five 
miles  to  Bonaventure,  the  residence  of  his  com¬ 
panion;  thence  he  was  conveyed  before  day¬ 
light  to  the  British  armed  ship  Scarborough,  in 
Tybee  Sound.  So  ended  the  rule  of  the  last 
royal  governor  in  Georgia.  Sir  James  was  a  na¬ 
tive  of  Charleston,  S.  C.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
chief-justice  (Robert  Wright)  of  that  province. 
Sir  James  was  agent  of  the  province  in  Great 
Britain,  and  attorney-general;  and  in  1760  was 
appointed  chief-justice  and  lieutenant-governor. 
In  1772  he  was  created  a  baronet.  After  his  es¬ 
cape  from  Savannah  he  retired  to  England,  los¬ 
ing  all  his  large  estate  in  Georgia  by  confisca¬ 
tion.  He  died  in  1786. 

Georgia,  Invasion  of,  by  Spaniards.  In 
1742  the  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine  determined 
to  invade, seize, and  hold  Georgia,  and  capture  or 
drive  the  English  settlers  from  it.  With  a  fleet 
of  thirty-six  vessels  from  Cuba  and  a  land-force 
about  three  thousand  strong,  they  entered  the 
harbor  of  St.Simon’s  in  July.  Oglethorpe,  always 
vigilant,  had  learned  of  preparations  for  this  ex¬ 
pedition,  and  he  was  on  St.  Simon’s  Island  before 
them,  but  with  less  than  one  thousand  men,  in¬ 
cluding  Indians,  for  the  governor  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina  had  failed  to  furnish  men  or  supplies.  The 
task  of  defending  both  provinces  from  invasion 
devolved  upon  the  Georgians.  When  the  Spanish 
fleet  appeared  Oglethorpe  went  on  board  his  own 
little  vessels  and  addressed  the  seamen  with  en¬ 
couraging  Avoids;  but  when  he  saw  the  ships 
of  the” enemy  pass  the  English  batteries  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  island,  he  knew  resistance 
would  be  in  A'aiu,so  he  ordered  his  squadron  to 


run  up  to  Frederica,  while  he  spiked  the  guns  at 
St.  Simon’s  and  retreated  with  his  troops.  There, 
Avaiting  for  reinforcements  from  South  Carolina 
(which  did  not  come),  he  was  annoyed  by  at¬ 
tacks  from  Spanish  detachments,  but  always  re¬ 
pulsed  them.  Finally,  he  proceeded  to  make  a 
night  attack  on  the  Spanish  camp  at  St.  Simon’s. 
When  near  the  camp  a  Frenchman  in  his  army 
ran  ahead,  fired  his  musket,  and  deserted  to  the 
enemy.  The  Spaniards  Avere  aroused,  and  Ogle¬ 
thorpe  fell  back  to  Frederica,  aud  accomplished 
the  punishment  of  the  deserter  in  a  novel  way. 
He  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Frenchman  as  a  spy 
in  the  Spanish  camp,  telling  him  to  represent  the 
Georgians  asveryAveak  in  numbers  and  arms,  and 
to  advise  the  Spaniards  to  attack  them  at  once ; 
and  if  they  would  not  do  so,  to  try  and  persuade 
them  to  remain  at  St.  Simon’s  three  days  longer; 
for  within  that  time  a  British  fleet,  with  two 
thousand  land-troops,  would  arrive  to  attack  St. 
Augustine.  This  letter  was  sent  to  the  deserter 
by  a  Spanish  prisoner,  Avho,  as  it  was  expected 
he  would,  carried  it  to  the  Spanish  commander. 
The  Frenchman  was  put  in  irons,  and  after¬ 
wards  hanged.  A  council  of  war  was  held,  and 
Avliile  it  Avas  in  session  Aressels  from  Carolina, 
seen  at  sea,  Avere  mistaken  for  the  British  fleet 
alluded  to.  The  Spaniards  determined  to  at¬ 
tack  Oglethorpe  immediately,  and  then  hasten 
to  the  defence  of  St.  Augustine.  They  advanced 
on  Frederica,  along  a  narrow  road  flanked  by  a 
forest  and  a  morass;  and  when  within  a  mile 
of  the  fort  Oglethorpe  and  his  Highlanders,  ly¬ 
ing  in  ambush,  fell  upon  them  furiously.  Near¬ 
ly  the  Avhole  of  the  advanced  division  were 
killed  or  captured,  and  a  second,  pressing  for- 
Avard,  shared  their  fate.  The  Spaniards  re¬ 
treated  in  confusion,  leaving  about  two  hun¬ 
dred  dead  on  the  field.  They  fled  to  their 
ships,  and  in  them  to  St.  Augustine,  to  find  that 
they  had  been  outgeneralled  by  Oglethorpe. 
The  place  of  the  slaughter  is  called  “  Bloody 
Marsh  ”  to  this  day.  This  stratagem  probably 
saved  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  from  utter 
destruction. 

Georgia  Ordinance  of  Secession.  On  Jan. 
2, 1861,  elections  were  held  in  Georgia  for  mem¬ 
bers  of  a  convention  to  consider  the  subject  of 
secession.  The  people,  outside  of  the  leading 
politicians  and  their  followers,  were  opposed 
to  secession ;  and  Alexander  II.  Stephens,  the 
most  consistent  and  able  statesman  in  Georgia, 
though  believing  in  the  right  of  secession,  op¬ 
posed  the  measure  as  unnecessary  and  full  of 
danger  to  the  public  welfare.  On  the  other 
hand,  Robert  Toombs,  a  shallow  but  popular 
leader,  unscrupulous  in  methods  of  leadership, 
goaded  the  people  on  to  disaster  by  harangues, 
telegraphic  despatches,  circulars,  etc.  He  was 
then  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  conspirators 
in  the  National  Congress,  and  worked  night  and 
day  to  precipitate  his  state  into  revolution.  The 
vote  at  the  election  Avas  from  25,000  to  30,000  less 
than  usual,  and  there  was  a  decided  majority  of 
the  members  elected  against  secession.  The  con¬ 
vention  assembled  at  Milledgeville,  the  capital 
of  the  state,  on  Jan.  16.  There  Avere  295  mem¬ 
bers  present,  who  chose  Mr.  Crawford  to  pre- 


GEORGIA  PAPER  CURRENCY 


570 


side.  “  With  all  the  appliances  brought  to  hear, 
with  all  the  tierce,  rushing,  maddening  events 
of  the  hour,”  said  a  writer  of  the  day,  “  the  Co- 
operationists  had  a  majority,  notwithstanding 
the  falling-off  of  nearly  30,000,  and  an  absolute 
majority  of  elected  delegates  of  twenty-nine. 
But,  upon  assembling,  by  coaxing,  bullying,  and 
all  other  arts,  the  majority  was  changed.”  On 
the  18th  a  resolution  was  passed  by  a  vote  of 
165  against  130,  declaring  it  to  be  the  right  and 
duty  of  the  state  to  withdraw  from  the  Union. 
On  the  same  day  they  appointed  a  committee  to 
draft  an  ordinance  of  secession.  It  was  report¬ 
ed  almost  immediately,  and  was  shorter  than 
any  of  its  predecessors.  It  was  in  a  single  par¬ 
agraph,  and  simply  declared  the  repeal  and  ab¬ 
rogation  of  all  laws  which  bound  the  common¬ 
wealth  to  the  Union,  and  that  the  State  of 
Georgia  was  in  “  full  possession  and  exercise  of 
all  the  rights  of  sovereignty  which  belong  and 
appertain  to  a  free  and  independent  state.” 
The  ordinance  elicited  many  warm  expressions 
of  Union  sentiments.  Mr.  Stephens  made  a  tell¬ 
ing  speech  in  favor  of  the  Union,  and  he  and  his 
brother  Linton  voted  against  secession  in  every 
form.  But  he  did  not  take  the  exalted  position 
of  Henry  Clay,  who,  on  one  occasion  in  Congress, 
said  :  “If  Kentucky  to-morrow  unfurls  the  ban¬ 
ner  of  resistance,  I  will  never  fight  under  that 
banner.  I  owe  a  paramount  allegiance  to  the 
whole  Union ;  a  subordinate  one  to  my  own 
state.”  When,  at  two  o’clock  in  the  afternoon 
of  Jan.  19, 1861,  the  Ordinance  of  Secession  was 
adopted,  by  a  vote  of  208  against  89,  Stephens 
declared  that  he  should  go  with  his  state,  and, 
in  accordance  with  a  resolution  adopted,  he 
signed  the  ordinance.  A  resolution  to  submit 
the  ordinance  to  the  people  of  the  state  for  rat¬ 
ification  or  rejection  was  rejected  by  a  large 
majority.  At  that  stage  of  the  proceedings,  a 
copy  of  a  resolution  passed  by  the  Legislature 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  tendering  to  the  Pres¬ 
ident  of  the  United  States  all  the  available 
forces  of  the  state,  to  enable  him  to  enforce 
the  laws,  was  received,  and  produced  much  ex¬ 
citement.  Toombs  immediately  offered  the  fol¬ 
lowing  resolution,  which  was  adopted  unani¬ 
mously:  “As  a  response  to  the  resolution  of 
New  York,  that  this  convention  highly  approves 
of  the  energetic  and  patriotic  conduct  of  the 
Governor  of  Georgia  in  taking  possession  of 
Fort  Pulaski  (which  see)  by  Georgia  troops, 
and  requests  him  to  hold  possession  until  the 
relations  of  Georgia  with  the  Federal  Govern¬ 
ment  he  determined  by  this  convention,  and 
that  a  copy  of  this  resolution  be  ordered  to  be 
transmitted  to  the  governor  of  New  York.”  The 
convention  chose  delegates  to  the  proposed  gen¬ 
eral  convention  at  Montgomery. 

Georgia  Paper  Currency.  In  1760  the  Leg¬ 
islature  authorized  the  issuing  of  the  sum  of 
$37,000  in  hills  of  credit. 

Georgia,  Subjugation  of  (1779).  General 
Liucoln  was  sent  to  Georgia  to  take  the  place  of 
General  Howe.  General  Prevost,  commanding 
the  British  forces  in  East  Florida,  was  ordered  to 
Savannah,  to  join  Lieutenant-colonel  Campbell 


GEORGIA,  THE  STATE  OF 

for  the  subjugation  of  Georgia  to  British  rule. 
On  his  way,  Prevost  captured  Sunbury  (Jan.  9, 
1779)  and  took  two  hundred  Continental  pris¬ 
oners.  As  soon  as  he  reached  Savannah  he 
sent  Campbell  against  Augusta,  which  was 
abandoned  by  the  garrison,  who  escaped  across 
the  river.  The  state  now  seemed  at  the  mercy 
of  the  invader.  An  invasion  of  South  Carolina 
was  anticipated.  The  militia  of  that  state  were 
summoned  to  the  field.  Lincoln  was  at  Charles¬ 
ton.  With  militia  lately  arrived  from  North 
Carolina  and  the  fragments  of  Howe’s  force,  he 
had  about  fourteen  hundred  men,  whom  he  sta¬ 
tioned  to  guard  the  fords  of  the  Savannah.  The 
force  uuder  Prevost  was  much  larger,  but  he 
hesitated  to  cross  the  river,  the  marshy  borders 
of  which  were  ofteu  overflowed  to  the  width  of 
three  or  four  miles,  threaded  only  at  one  or  two 
points  by  a  narrow  causeway.  A  detachment 
sent  by  Prevost  to  take  possession  of  Port 
Royal  Island  was  repulsed  by  Colonel  Moultrie. 
Lincoln,  being  reinforced,  sent  Colonel  Ashe,  of 
North  Carolina,  with  fourteen  hundred  troops, 
to  drive  the  British  from  Augusta.  The  British 
fled  down  the  Georgia  side  of  the  river  at  his 
approach.  He  crossed  and  pursued,  and  at  Brier 
Creek,  about  half-way  to  Savannah,  he  lay  en¬ 
camped,  when  he  was  surprised,  and,  after  a 
sharp  skirmish,  was  defeated,  and  his  troops 
dispersed.  (See  Brier  Creek.)  The  British  re¬ 
occupied  Augusta  and  opened  a  communication 
with  the  South  Carolina  Tories  and  the  friendly 
Creek  Indians.  Now  secured  in  the  quiet  pos¬ 
session  of  Georgia,  Prevost  issued  a  proclama¬ 
tion  reinstating  Sir  James  Wright  as  governor, 
and  the  laws  as  they  had  been  before  1775.  Sa¬ 
vannah  became  the  headquarters  of  the  British 
army  in  the  South. 

Georgia,  The  Provincial  Congress  of,  as¬ 
sembled  at  Tondee’s  Long  Room,  at  Savannah, 
July  4,  1775,  at  which  delegates  from  fourteen 
districts  and  parishes  were  in  attendance  — 
namely,  from  the  districts  of  Savannah,  Vernon- 
burg,  Acton,  Sea  Island,  and  Little  Ogeechee, 
and  the  parishes  of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Philip, 
St.  George,  St.  Andrew,  St.  David,  St.  Thomas, 
St.  Mary,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  John.  Archibald 
Bullock  was  elected  president  of  the  Congress, 
and  George  Walton  secretary.  The  Congress 
adopted  the  “  American  Association,”  and  ap¬ 
pointed  as  delegates  to  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress  Lyman  Hall  (already  there),  Archibald 
Bullock,  Dr.  Jones,  John  Houstouu,  and  Rev.  Dr. 
Zubley,  a  Swiss  by  birth,  who  soon  became  a 
Tory.  Sir  James  Wright  (the  governor)  issued 
proclamations  to  quench  the  flames  of  patriot¬ 
ism,  but  in  vain.  His  power  had  departed  for¬ 
ever. 

Georgia,  The  State  of,  was  the  latest  settled 
of  the  original  thirteen.  It  framed  its  first  state 
constitution  in  1777,  its  second  in  1789,  and  a 
third  in  1798,  which  was  several  times  amend¬ 
ed.  On  June  2,  1788,  Georgia  ratified  the  Na¬ 
tional  Constitution.  The  settlers  on  the  fron¬ 
tier  suffered  much  from  incursions  of  the  Creek 
and  Cherokee  Indians,  but  their  friendship  was 
secured  by  treaties  in  1790-91.  By  a  treaty  in 


GEORGIA,  TRUSTEES’  GOVERNMENT  OF  571  GEORGIA,  TRUSTEES’  GOVERNMENT  OF 


1802  the  Creeps  ceded  to  the  United  States  a 
large  tract,  which  was  afterwards  assigned  to 
Georgia,  now  forming  the  southwestern  comi¬ 
ties  of  the  state.  The  same  year  Georgia  ceded 
to  the  United  States 
all  its  claims  to  the 
lands  westward  of 
the  boundaries  of 
its  present  limits. 

Finally  difficulties 
arose  between  the 
state  and  the  na¬ 
tional  government 
respecting  the  Cher- 
okees  (see  Cherokees 
and  Georgians'),  and 
on  their  removal  to 
the  country  west  of 
the  Mississippi,  in  1838,  Georgia  came  into  pos¬ 
session  of  all  their  lands.  Immediately  after  the 
election  of  Mr.  Lincoln  in  1860,  the  politicians  of 
Georgia  took  measures  for  accomplishing  the  se¬ 
cession  of  that  state.  (See  Georgia  Ordinance  of 
Secession.)  Its  delegates  in  the  Confederate  gov¬ 
ernment  organized  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  were 
conspicuous,  A.  H.  Stephens  being  made  Vice- 
President  of  the  Confederacy.  The  governor  of 
Georgia  ordered  the  seizure  of  the  public  prop¬ 
erty  of  the  United  States  within  the  limits  of 
his  state,  and  war  made  havoc  on  its  coasts  and 
in  the  interior.  Sherman  swept  through  the 
state  with  a  large  army  late  in  1864,  “living  off 
the  country,”  and  within  its  borders  the  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Confederacy  was  captured  in  May, 
1865.  {'Sue  Davis,  Jefferson,  Capture  of.)  Within 
its  borders  was  the  famous  Andersonville  Pris¬ 
on-pen  (which  see).  In  June,  1865,  a  provision¬ 
al  governor  was  appointed  for  the  state.  A  con¬ 
vention  held  at  Milledgeville  late  in  October  re¬ 
pealed  the  Ordinance  of  Secession,  declared  the 
war  debt  void,  amended  the  constitution  so  as 
to  abolish  slavery,  and  in  November  elected  a 
governor,  legislature,  and  members  of  Congress. 
Cougress  did  not  approve  these  measures,  and 
the  senators  and  representatives  chosen  were 
not  admitted  to  seats.  In  1867  Georgia,  with 
Alabama  and  Florida,  formed  a  military  dis¬ 
trict,  and  was  placed  under  military  rule.  A 
convention  at  Atlanta,  in  March,  1868,  framed  a 
constitution,  which  was  ratified  in  April  by  a 
majority  of  nearly  eighteen  thousand  votes.  On 
June  25,  Congress,  by  act,  provided  for  the  read- 
mission  of  Georgia,  with  other  states,  upon  their 
ratification  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to 
the  National  Constitution.  For  a  violation  of 
the  “Reconstruction  Act,”  in  not  permitting 
colored  men,  legally  elected,  to  occupy  seats  in 
the  Legislature,  Georgia  representatives  were  not 
permitted  to  takeseatsin  Congress.  TheSupreme 
Court  of  the  state  declared  that  negroes  were 
entitled  to  hold  office.  A  new  election  was  held, 
both  houses  of  the  state  Legislature  were  duly 
organized  (Jan.  31,  1869),  all  the  requirements 
of  Congress  were  acceded  to,  and  by  act  of  Con¬ 
gress,  on  July  15,  Georgia  was  readmitted  into 
the  Union.  Its  representatives  took  their  seats 
in  December,  1869.  Population  in  1880, 1,542,180. 
Georgia,  Trustees’  Government  of.  To 


twenty-one  trustees  George  II.  gave  a  charter 
(June  9, 1732)  for  planting  a  colouy  in  America. 
They  chose  for  its  site  the  unoccupied  country 
between  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  The  proj¬ 
ect,  which  mainly  contemplated  the  relief  of  pris¬ 
oners  for  debt  in  England,  and  to  establish  an 
asylum  for  persecuted  Protestants  in  Continent¬ 
al  Europe,  met  with  universal  approval,  and  do¬ 
nations  from  persons  of  all  ranks  were  made  to 
enable  emigrants  to  go  to  America.  The  Bank 
of  Englaud  made  a  generous  gift.  The  House  of 
Commons  voted,  from  time  to  time,  sums  which 
aggregated,  in  the  course  of  two  years,  $180,000. 
Lord  (Viscount)  Perceval  was  chosen  president 
of  the  trustees,  and  a  code  of  regulations  for  the 
colouy,  with  agreements  and  stipulations,  was 
speedily  prepared.  The  title  of  the  association 
was,  “  Trustees  for  Settling  and  Establishing 
the  Colony  of  Georgia.”  The  trustees  were, 
Anthony,  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  John  ( Lord ) 
Perceval,  Edward  Digby,  George  Carpenter, 
James  Edward  Oglethorpe,  George  Heathcote, 
Thomas  Tower,  Robert  Moore,  Robert  Hucks, 
Roger  Holland,  William  Sloper,  Francis  Eyles, 
John  La  Roche,  James  Vernon,  William  Beletha, 
John  Burton,  Richard  Bundy,  Arthur  Beaford, 
Samuel  Smith,  Adam  Anderson,  and  Thomas 
Coram.  They  were  vested  with  legislative  pow¬ 
ers  for  the  government  of  the  colony  for  the 
space  of  twenty-one  years,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  time  a  permanent  government  was  to  be 
established  by  the  king  or  his  successor,  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  British  law  and  usage.  They 
adopted  a  seal  for  the  colony,  which  indicated 
the  avowed  intention  of  making  it  a  silk-pro¬ 
ducing  commonwealth.  On  one  side  was  rep¬ 
resented  a  group  of  toiling  silk-worms,  and  the 
motto,  “Non  sibi,  sed  alius;”  on  the  other,  the 
genius  of  the  colony,  between  two  urns  (two 
rivers),  with  a  cap  of  liberty  on  her  head,  in 
her  hands  a  spear  and  a  horn  of  plenty,  and 
the  words,  “  Colonia  Georgia  Aug.”  This  was 
a  strange  seal  for  a  colony  whose  toilers  and 
others  possessed  no  political  freedom.  The  code 
of  laws  and  regulations  adopted  by  the  trustees 
provided  that  each  tract  of  land  granted  to  a 
settler  should  be  accepted  as  a  pledge  that  the 
owner  should  take  up  arms  for  the  common  de¬ 
fence  whenever  required  ;  that  no  tract  should 
exceed  twenty-five  acres  in  extent',  and  no  per¬ 
son  should  possess  more  than  five  hundred  acres  ; 
that  no  woman  should  be  capable  of  succeeding 
to  landed  property;  that,  in  default  of  male 
heirs,  the  property  of  a  proprietor  should  re¬ 
vert  to  the  trustees,  to  be  again  granted  to  an¬ 
other  emigrant  ;  that  if  any  portion  of  land 
granted  should  not,  within  eighteen  years  there¬ 
after, be  cleared,  fenced,  and  cultivated,  it  should 
relapse  to  the  trustees.  It  was  recommended  that 
the  daughters  of  a  deceased  proprietor  haviug 
no  male  heirs,  unless  provided  for  by  marriage, 
should  have  some  compensation,  and  his  widow 
have  the  use  of  his  house  and  half  his  land  dur¬ 
ing  her  life.  No  inhabitant  was  permitted  to 
leave  the  province  without  a  license,  the  im¬ 
portation  of  rum  was  disallowed,  trade  with 
the  West  Indies  was  declared  unlawful,  and  ne¬ 
gro  slavery  was  absolutely  forbidden.  It  has 


STATE  SEAL  OF  GEORGIA. 


GERMAIN  AND  THE  INDIANS 


572 


GERMANS  IN  AMERICA 


been  well  said  that,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
this  code  did  not  exhibit  a  trace  of  commou- 
sense.  It  is  no  wonder  the  colony  did  not  pros¬ 
per,  for  the  laws  were  hostile  to  contentment, 
discouraging  every  planter  whose  children  were 
girls,  and  ottering  very  poor  incentives  to  indus¬ 
try.  When,  in  1752,  the  trusteeship  expired,  and 
Georgia  was  made  a  royal  province,  its  growth 
was  rapid. 

Germain  and  the  Indians.  Lord  George 
Germain,  Secretary  for  the  Colonies,  seemed  to 
take  pride  and  comfort  in  employing  agents  who 
would  incite  the  savages  of  the  wilderness  to 
fall  on  the  Americans.  He  complained  of  the 
humanity  of  Carletou,  who,  in  the  autumn  of 
1776,  hesitated  to  employ  the  Indians  in  war; 
but  in  Hamilton,  governor  of  Detroit,  he  found 
a  ready  agent  in  the  carrying  out  of  his  cruel 
schemes.  Early  in  September  (1776)  that  func¬ 
tionary  wrote  he  had  assembled  small  parties 
of  barbarians  in  council,  and  that  the  Ottawas, 
Chippewas,  Wyaudots,  and  Potawatoruies,  with 
the  Senecas,  would  “  fall  on  the  scattered  set¬ 
tlers  on  the  Ohio  and  its  branches and  saying 
of  the  Americans,  “Their  arrogance,  disloyalty, 
and  imprudence  has  justly  drawn  upon  them  this 
deplorable  sort  of  war.”  It  was  Germain  and 
his  agents  (sometimes  unworthy  ones)  who  ex¬ 
cited  the  Indians  to  scalp  and  murder  the  white 
settlers,  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex,  all 
along  the  frontier  line  from  New  York  to  Geor¬ 
gia.  He  reproved  every  commander  who  showed 
signs  of  mercy  in  his  conduct  in  this  business. 

Germain,  Loud  George  ( Viscount  Sack- 
ville  ),  was  born  Jan.  26,  1716;  died  Aug.  26, 
1785.  His  father  (Duke  of  Dorset)  was  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  he  was  educated 
there.  He  entered  the  army,  and  rose  to  the 

rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1761, 
and  was  made  Co¬ 
lonial  Secretary  in 
1775,  ever  evincing 
the  most  vindictive 
spirit  towards  the 
Americans.  He  be¬ 
came  so  unpopular 
at  home  that,  during 
the  London  riots  in 
1780,  he  felt  com¬ 
pelled  to  barricade 
his  house  in  the  city. 
So  consonant  were 
his  views  with  those 
of  the  king,  that  he  was  a  great  favorite  at 
court.  His  influence  over  the  young  king  at 
the  time  of  his  coronation  and  soon  afterwards 
was  so  well  known  that  a  handbill  appeared 
with  the  words,  “  No  Lord  George  Sackville ! 
No  Petticoat  Government!”  alluding  to  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  the  monarch’s  mother. 

German  Mercenaries.  Soon  after  the  open¬ 
ing  of  Parliament  in  the  autumn  of  1775,  that 
body,  stimulated  by  Lord  North,  the  premier, 
and  Lord  George  Germain,  who  had  been  cho¬ 
sen  Secretary  for  the  Colonies,  and,  at  the  sugges¬ 


tion  of  Admiral  Howe,  promptly  voted  twenty- 
tive  thousand  men  for  service  against  the  Amer¬ 
icans.  It  was  difficult  to  obtain  enlistments 
in  Great  Britain,  and  mercenaries  were  sought 
in  Germany.  At  the  close  of  the  year,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  1776,  bargains  were  ef¬ 
fected  between  representatives  of  the  British 
government  and  the  reigning  princes  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  Hesse-Hanau,  Brunswick,  Anhalt,  Ans- 
pacli,  and  Waldeck.  In  the  bargains,  the  fun¬ 
damental  law  of  trade — supply  and  demand — 
prevailed.  The  King  of  England  had  money, 
but  lacked  troops;  the  German  rulers  had  troops, 
but  wanted  money.  The  bargain  was  a  natural 
one,  on  business  principles;  the  morality  of  the 
transaction  was  another  affair.  About  seven¬ 
teen  thousand  German  troops,  most  of  them  well 
disciplined,  were  hired.  The  German  rulers  were 
to  receive  for  each  soldier  a  bounty  of  $22.50, 
besides  an  annual  subsidy,  the  whole  amount¬ 
ing  to  a  large  sum.  The  British  government 
agreed  to  make  restitution  for  all  soldiers  who 
might  perish  from  contagions  disease  while  be¬ 
ing  transported  in  ships  and  in  engagements 
during  sieges.  They  were  to  take  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  British  sovereign  during  their 
service,  without  its  interfering  with  similar 
oaths  to  their  respective  rulers.  Their  chief 
commanders,  when  they  sailed  for  America, 
were  Generals  Baron  de  Riedesel,  Baron  Knyp- 
hausen,  and  De  Heister.  The  general  name  of 
“Hessians”  was  given  to  them  by  the  Ameri¬ 
cans,  and,  because  they  were  mercenaries,  they 
were  heartily  detested  by  the  colonists.  When 
any  brutal  act  of  oppression  or  wrong  was  to  be 
carried  out,  such  as  a  plundering  or  burning  ex¬ 
pedition,  the  Hessians  were  generally  employed 
in  the  service.  The  transaction  was  regarded 
by  other  nations  as  disgraceful  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish.  The  King  of  Great  Britain  shrank  from 
the  odium  it  inflicted,  and  refused  to  give  com¬ 
missions  to  German  recruiting  officers  (for  he 
knew  their  methods  of  forcing  men  into  the 
service),  saying,  “It,  in  plain  English,  amounts 
to  making  me  a  kidnapper,  which  I  cannot  think 
a  very  honorable  occupation.”  All  Europe  cried 
“  Shame!”  and  Frederick  the  Great,  of  Prussia, 
took  every  opportunity  to  express  his  contempt 
for  the  “scandalous  man-traffic”  of  his  neigh¬ 
bors.  Without  these  troops,  the  war  would  have 
been  short.  A  part  of  them,  under  Riedesel,  went 
to  Canada  (May,  1776) ;  the  remainder,  under 
Knyphausen  and  De  Heister,  joined  the  British 
under  Howe,  before  New  York,  in  the  summer 
of  1776,  and  had  their  flrst  encounter  on  Long 
Island,  Aug.  27. 

Germans  in  America.  Germany  had  long 
lain  prostrate,  with  few  gleams  of  hope  for  re¬ 
suscitation  from  the  deadly  blow  given  it  by  the 
Thirty  Years’  War.  For  more  than  half  a  cen¬ 
tury  it  had  lain  in  almost  inert  isolation,  like  a 
magnificent  ruin.  The  Protestants  of  that  coun¬ 
try  beheld  the  light  breaking  when  the  settle¬ 
ments  in  America  began  to  prosper,  and  Ger¬ 
mans,  especially  from  the  borders  of  the  Rhine, 
flocked  to  the  young  world  beyond  the  sea,  and 
largely  peopled  the  land,  in  the  course  of  a  cen¬ 
tury,  between  the  Mohawk  Valley  and  northern 


GERMANS  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA  573  GERMANTOWN,  BATTLE  OF 


Virginia.  They  brought  with  them  the  love  of 
liberty  and  of  rural  life,  and  gave  to  the  new 
nation,  formed  late  in  the  18th  century,  much 
rich  blood. 

Germans  in  North  Carolina.  In  1709  one 
hundred  German  families,  driven  from  their  des¬ 
olated  homes  iu  the  palatinates  on  the  Rhine, 
came  to  America,  and  penetrated  the  interior 
of  North  Carolina.  They  were  led  by  Count 
Graffenreidt,  and  founded  settlements  along  the 
head-waters  of  the  Neuse  and  upon  the  Roanoke, 
with  the  count  as  governor.  They  had  just  be¬ 
gun  to  gather  the  fruits  of  their  industry,  when 
suddenly,  in  the  night  (Oct.  2,  1711),  tiie  Tus- 
carora  Indians  and  others  fell  upon  them  like 
lightning,  and  before  the  dawn  one  hundred  and 
thirty  persons  perished  by  the  hatchet  and  knife. 
Then  along  Albemarle  Sound  the  barbarians 
swept,  with  a  torch  in  one  hand  and  a  deadly 
weapon  iu  the  other,  aud  scourged  the  white 
people  for  three  days,  leaving  blood  and  cinders 
in  their  path,  when,  from  drunkenness  and  ex¬ 
haustion,  they  ceased  murdering  and  burning. 
On  the  eve  of  this  murderous  raid  the  Indians 
had  made  captive  Count  Graffenreidt  aud  John 
Lawson,  surveyor-general  of  the  province.  Law- 
son  they  tortured  to  death,  but  the  count  saved 
his  life  and  gained  his  liberty  by  adroitly  per¬ 
suading  them  that  he  was  the  sachem  of  a  tribe 
of  men  who  had  lately  come  into  the  country, 
and  were  no  way  connected  with  the  English, 
or  the  deeds  of  which  the  Indians  complained. 
Graffenreidt  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
Tuscaroras  and  Corees. 

Germantown,  Battle  of.  There  were  for¬ 
midable  obstructions  iu  the  Delaware  River  be¬ 
low  Philadelphia,  placed  there  by  the  Ameri¬ 
cans,  and  also  two  forts  aud  a  redoubt  that  com¬ 
manded  the  stream.  The  British  fleet  was  iu 
Delaware  Bay  (Sept.  25),  but  could  not  reach 
Philadelphia  before  these  obstructions  were  re¬ 
moved.  General  Howe  prepared  to  assist  his 
brother  in  removing  these  obstructions,  and  sent 
strong  detachments  from  his  army  to  occupy 
the  shores  of  the  Delaware  below  Philadelphia, 
which  the  Americans  still  held.  Perceiving  the 
weakening  of  Howe’s  army,  and  feeling  the  ne¬ 
cessity  of  speedily  striking  a  blow  that  should 
revive  the  spirits  of  the  Americans,  it  was  re¬ 
solved  to  attack  the  British  army  at  Germ  an  town. 
Washington  had  been  reinforced  by  Maryland 
and  New  Jersey  troops.  His  army  moved  in 
four  columns  during  the  night  of  Oct.  3,  1777 ; 
the  divisions  of  Sullivan  and  Wayne,  flanked 
by  General  Conway’s  brigade  on  the  right,  mov¬ 
ing  by  way  of  Chestnut  Hill,  while  Armstrong, 
with  Pennsylvania  militia,  made  a  circuit  to 
gain  the  left  and  rear  of  the  enemy.  The  divis¬ 
ions  of  Greene  and  Stephen,  flanked  by  McDou- 
gall’s  brigade  (two  thirds  of  the  whole  army), 
moved  on  a  circuitous  route  to  attack  the  front 
of  the  British  right  wing,  while  the  Maryland 
and  New  Jersey  militia,  under  Smallwood  and 
Forman,  marched  to  fall  upon  the  rear  of  that 
wing.  Lord  Stirling,  with  the  brigades  of  Nash 
and  Maxwell,  formed  the  reserve.  Howe’s  force 
Btretched  across  the  country  from  Germantown, 


with  a  battalion  of  light  infantry  and  Simcoe’s 
Queen’s  Rangers  (American  loyalists)  in  the 
front.  Iu  advance  of  the  left  wing  were  other 
light  infantry,  to  support  pickets  on  Mount  Airy, 
aud  the  extreme  left  was  guarded  by  Hessian 
Yagers  (riflemen).  Near  the  large  stone  man¬ 
sion  of  Chief-justice  Chew  (yet  standing),  at 


chew’s  house. 


the  head  of  the  village,  was  a  strong  regiment 
under  Colonel  Musgrave.  Washington’s  army, 
moving  stealthily,  tried  to  reach  Chestnut  Hill 
before  the  dawn  (Oct.  4),  but  failed.  It  was 
near  sunrise  when  they  emerged  from  the  woods 
on  that  eminence.  The  whole  country  was  en¬ 
veloped  in  a  thick  fog.  The  British  were  sur¬ 
prised.  The  troops  of  Wayne  and  Sullivan  fell, 
unexpectedly  and  with  heavy  force,  upon  the 
British  infantry  iu  front,  and  they  were  hurled 
back  upon  their  main  line  in  confusion  by  a 
storm  of  grape-shot.  This  cannonade  awakened 
Cornwallis,  who  was  sleeping  soundly  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  unconscious  of  danger  near.  Howe,  too, 
nearer  the  army,  was  aroused  from  slumber,  and 
arrived  near  the  scene  of  conflict  to  meet  his  fly¬ 
ing  battalions.  Then  he  hastened  to  his  camp, 
to  prepare  his  troops  for  action.  Musgrave  sent 
a  part  of  his  regiment  to  support  the  fugitives, 
and,  with  six  companies,  took  refuge  in  Chew’s 
strong  dwelling.  He  barricaded  the  doors  and 
lower  windows,  and  made  it  a  castle.  From  its 
upper  windows  he  poured  such  a  volley  of  bul¬ 
lets  upon  Woodford’s  pursuing  brigade  that  their 
march  was  checked.  The  fire  of  the  American 
small-arms  upon  the  building  was  ineffectual. 
Finally  Maxwell’s  artillerists  brought  cannons 
to  bear  upon  the  house,  but  its  strong  walls  re¬ 
sisted  the  heavy  round  shot.  Then  an  attempt 
was  made  to  set  fire  to  the  mansion.  This  check 
in  the  pursuit  brought  back  Wayne’s  divis¬ 
ion,  leaving  Sullivan’s  flank  uncovered.  This 
event,  and  the  failure  of  Greene  to  attack  at  the 
time  ordered,  disconcerted  Washington’s  plans. 
Greene’s  troops  had  fallen  into  confusion  in  the 
fog,  as  they  traversed  the  broken  country,  but 
they  soon  smote  the  British  right  with  force. 
The  failure  of  other  troops  to  co-operate  with 
them  by  turning  the  British  left  caused  Greene 
to  fail,  and  the  golden  opportunity  to  strike  a 
crushing  blow  had  passed.  In  the  fog  that  still 


GERRY 


574 


GETTY 


prevailed,  parties  of  Americans  attacked  each 
other  on  the  held ;  and  it  was  afterwards  ascer¬ 
tained  that,  while  the  assault  on  Chew’s  house 
was  in  progress,  the  whole  British  army  were 
preparing  to  fly  across  the  Schuylkill,  and  ren¬ 
dezvous  at  Chester.  At  that  moment  of  panic 
General  Grey  observed  that  his  flanks  were  se¬ 
cure,  and  Knyphausen  marched  with  his  whole 
force  to  assist  the  beleaguered  garrison  and  the 
contending  regiments  in  the  village.  Then  a 
short  and  severe  battle  occurred  in  the  heart  of 
Germantown.  The  Americans  could  not  discern 
the  number  of  their  assailants  in  the  confusing 
mist,  when  suddenly  the  cry  of  a  trooper,  “  We 
are  surrounded!”  produced  a  panic,  and  the  pa¬ 
triots  retreated  in  great  confusion.  The  strug¬ 
gle  lasted  about  three  hours.  The  Americans  lost 
about  six  hundred,  killed,  wounded,  and  miss¬ 
ing;  the  British  about  eight  hundred.  Wash¬ 
ington  fell  back  to  his  encampment  on  Skip- 
pack  Creek.  General  Nash,  while  covering  the 
retreat  with  his  brigade,  was  mortally  wounded. 

Gerry,  Ei.bridge,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  at  Marblehead,  Mass., 
July  17, 1744  ;  died  in  Washington,  D.C., 
when  Vice-President  of  theUnited  States, 

Nov.  23,  1814.  He  graduated  at  Har¬ 
vard,  in  1762.  He  took  part  early  in  the 
strife  before  the  Revolution,  and  in  1772 
represented  his  native  town  in  the  State 
Legislature.  Gerry  was  the  first  to  pro¬ 
pose,  in  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  a  law  for  fitting  out  armed 
vessels  and  establishing  a  Court  of  Ad¬ 
miralty.  He  took  a  seat  in  the  Conti¬ 
nental  Congress  early  in  1776,  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  and  re¬ 
mained  in  that  body,  with  few  inter¬ 
missions,  until  1785.  He  was  an  efficient 
member  of  finance  committees  in  the 
Congress,  and  was  President  of  the 
Treasury  Board  in  1780.  A  delegate  in 
the  convention  that  framed  the  National 
Constitution,  he  was  one  of  those  who 
refused  to  sign  the  instrument.  He  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  1789  to  1793, 
and  in  1797  was  sent  as  one  of  the  special 
envoys  on  a  mission  to  France.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Massachusetts  by  the 
Democratic  party  in  1810, and  in  1812  was 
chosen  Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  Mr. 
Gerry  married  a  daughter  of  Charles  Thomson, 
Secretary  of  Congress,  who  died  in  1849,  aged 
86  years. 

Gerrymandering,  a  political  term  employed 
in  this  country  from  the  year  1812  even  to  this 
day.  The  history  of  it  may  be  briefly  told.  Af¬ 
ter  a  bitter  contest  for  power  in  Massachusetts 
between  the  Federalists  and  Democrats,  the  lat¬ 
ter  succeeded,  in  1811,  in  electing  their  candi¬ 
date  for  governor,  Elbridge  Gerry,  and  a  major¬ 
ity  of  both  houses  of  the  Legislature.  In  order 
to  secure  the  election  of  United  States  Senators 
in  the  future,  it  was  important  to  perpetuate 
this  possession  of  power,  and  measures  were 
taken  to  retain  a  Democratic  majority  in  the 
State  Senate  in  all  future  years.  The  senatorial 


districts  had  been  formed  without  any  division 
of  counties.  This  arrangement,  for  the  purpose 
alluded  to,  was  now  disturbed.  The  Legislature 
proceeded  to  rearrange  the  senatorial  districts 
of  the  state.  They  divided  counties  in  opposi¬ 
tion  to  the  protests  and  strong  constitutional 
arguments  of  the  Federalists ;  and  those  of  Es¬ 
sex  and  Worcester  were  so  divided  as  to  form  a 
Democratic  majority  in  each  of  those  Federal 
couuties,  without  any  apparent  regard  to  con¬ 
venience  or  propriety.  The  work  was  sanc¬ 
tioned  and  became  a  law  by  the  signature  of 
Governor  Gerry,  for  which  act  the  opposition 
severely  castigated  him  through  the  newspapers 
and  at  public  gatherings.  In  Essex  County  the 
arrangement  of  the  district,  in  relation  to  the 
towns,  was  singular  and  absurd.  Russell,  the 
veteran  editor  of  the  Boston  Centinel,  who  had 
fought  against  the  scheme  valiantly,  took  a 
map  of  that  county,  and  designated  by  particu¬ 
lar  coloring  the  towms  thus  selected,  and  hung 
it  on  the  wall  of  his  editorial  room.  One  day 
Gilbert  Stuart,  the  eminent  painter,  looked  at 
the  map,  and  said  the  towms  which  Russell  had 


THE  GERRY-MAJJDER. 


thus  distinguished  resembled  some  monstrous 
animal.  He  took  a  pencil,  and  with  a  few 
touches  represented  a  head,  w'ings,  claws,  and 
tail.  “  There,”  said  Stuart,  “  that  will  do  for  a 
salamander.”  Russell,  who  was  busy  with  his 
pen,  looked  up  at  the  hideous  figure,  and  ex¬ 
claimed,  “Salamander!  Call  it  Gerry -mander.” 
The  word  was  immediately  adopted  into  the  po¬ 
litical  vocabulary  as  a  term  of  reproach  for  those 
who  change  boundaries  of  districts  for  a  parti¬ 
san  purpose. 

Getty,  George  W.,  was  born  in  the  District 
of  Columbia  about  1820,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1840.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mex¬ 
ico,  and  in  the  Seminole  War  in  Florida;  and, 
becoming  brigadier  -  general  of  volunteers  in 
1862,  did  excellent  service  in  the  campaign  on 


GETTYSBURG,  BATTLE.  OF  575  GETTYSBURG,  BATTLE  OF 


the  Peninsula.  He  was  in  the  battles  of  South 
Mountain,  Antietam,  and  Fredericksburg  in 
1862;  also  in  the  campaign  against  Richmond 
in  1864  until  August,  when  he  was  breveted 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  was  in  the 
army  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  the  remainder 
of  the  year.  He  was  also  in  the  battle  at  Sail¬ 
or’s  Creek  and  at  the  surrender  of  Lee.  In 
March,  1865,  he  was  breveted  major-general  in 
the  United  States  Army. 

Gettysburg,  Battle  of.  Ou  the  day  when 
General  Meade  took  command  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  (Juue  28,  1863)  Lee  was  about  to 
cross  the  Susquehanna  at  Harrisburg  aud  march 
on  Philadelphia.  The  militia  of  Pennsylvania, 
who  had  shown  great  apathy  in  responding  to 
the  call  for  help,  now,  when  danger  was  at  their 
door,  turned  out  with  considerable  spirit ;  and 
Lee,  observing  this,  and  hearing  that  the  aug¬ 
mented  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  in  Maryland 
and  threatening  his  rear  and  flanks,  immediate¬ 
ly  abandoned  his  scheme  for  further  invasion 
and  ordered  a  retrograde  movement.  Ou  the 
same  day,  Stuart,  with  a  large  force  of  cavalry, 
crossed  the  Potomac,  pushed  on  to  Westminster, 
at  the  right  of  the  Nationals,  crossed  over  to 
Carlisle,  encountering  Kilpatrick  and  his  cav¬ 
alry,  and  followed  Ewell  in  his  march  towards 
Gettysburg.  Longst.reet  had  been  ordered  to 
cross  the  South  Mountain  range,  and  press  on 
through  Gettysburg  to  Baltimore  to  keep  Meade 
from  cutting  Lee’s  communications.  Lee  hoped 
to  crush  Meade,  and  then  march  in  triumph  ou 
Baltimore  and  Washington ;  or,  in  case  of  fail¬ 
ure,  to  secure  a  direct  line  of  retreat  into  Vir¬ 
ginia.  Meanwhile  Meade  was  pushing  towards 
the  Susquehanna  with  cautious  movement,  and 
on  the  evening  of  June  30  he  discovered  Lee’s 
evident  intention  to  give  battle  at  once.  On 
the  day  before,  Kilpatrick  and  Custer’s  cavalry 
had  defeated  some  of  Stuart’s  a  few  miles  from 
Gettysburg.  (See  Hanover,  Battle  at.)  Buford’s 
cavalry  entered  Gettysburg ;  and  on  the  30th  the 
left  wing  of  Meade’s  army,  led  by  General  Rey¬ 
nolds,  arrived  near  there.  At  the  same  time  the 
corps  of  Hill  and  Longstreet  were  approaching 
from  Chambersburg,  aud  Ewell  was  marching 
down  from  Carlisle  in  full  force.  On  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  July  1  Buford,  with  six  thousand  cavalry, 
met  the  van  of  Leo’s  army,  led  by  General  Heth, 
between  Seminary  Ridge  (a  little  way  from  Get¬ 
tysburg)  aud  a  parallel  ridge  a  little  farther 
west,  when  a  sharp  skirmish  ensued.  Reynolds, 
who  had  bivouacked  at  Marsh  Creek,  a  few  miles 
distant,  was  then  advancing  with  his  own  corps, 
followed  by  Howard’s,  having  those  of  Sickles 
and  Slocum  within  call.  The  sound  of  fire-arms 
quickened  his  pace,  and  he  marched  rapidly  to 
the  relief  of  Buford,  who  was  holding  the  Con¬ 
federates  in  check.  While  Reynolds  was  placing 
some  of  his  troops  ou  the  Chambersburg  road, 
the  Confederates  made  an  attack,  when  a  volley 
of  musketry  from  the  Fifty-sixth  Pennsylvania, 
led  by  Colonel  J.  W.  Hoffman,  opened  the  de¬ 
cisive  battle  of  Gettysburg.  Meredith’s  “  Iron 
Brigade”  then  charged  into  a  wood  in  the  rear 
of  the  Seminary  to  fall  upon  Hill’s  right,  under 
Geueral  Archer.  The  Nationals  were  pushed 


back,  but  other  troops,  under  the  personal  di¬ 
rection  of  Reynolds,  struck  Archer’s  flank,  ami 
captured  that  officer  and  eight  hundred  of  his 
men.  At  the  moment  when  this  charge  was 
made,  the  bullet  of  a  Mississippi  sharpshooter 
pierced  Reynolds’s  neck,  when  he  fell  forward 
and  expired.  General  Doubleday  had  just  ar¬ 
rived,  and  took  Reynolds’s  place,  leaving  his  own 
division  in  charge  of  General  Rowley.  Very  soon 
the  Mississippi  Brigade,  uuder  General  Davis, 
was  captured,  and  at  uoou  the  whole  of  the  First 
Corps,  under  Geueral  Doubleday,  was  well  post¬ 
ed  on  Semiuai’y  Ridge,  and  the  remainder  of 
Hill’s  corps  was  rapidly  approaching.  Mean¬ 
while  the  advance  division  of  Ewell’s  corps  had 
taken  a  position  on  a  ridge  north  of  the  town, 
connecting  with  Hill,  and  seriously  menacing 
the  National  right,  held  by  General  Cutler. 
Doubleday  sent  aid  to  Cutler,  when  a  severe 
struggle  ensued  for  some  time,  and  three  North 
Carolina  regiments  were  captured.  Now  the 
battle  assumed  far  grander  proportions.  How¬ 
ard’s  corps,  animated  by  the  sounds  of  battle 
ou  its  frout,  pressed  rapidly  forward,  aud  reached 
the  field  of  strife  at  a  little  past  noon.  He  left 
Steinwehr’s  brigade  on  Cemetery  Hill,  placed 
General  Sclmrz  in  temporary  charge  of  the  corps, 
and,  ranking  Doubleday,  took  the  chief  com¬ 
mand  of  all  the  troops  in  action.  The  Confed¬ 
erate  numbers  were  continually  augmented,  aud, 
to  meet  an  expected  attack  from  the  north  and 
Avest,  Howard  was  compelled  to  extend  the  Na¬ 
tional  lines,  then  quite  thin,  about  three  miles, 
with  Culp’s  Hill  on  the  right,  Round  Top  on 
the  left,  and  Cemetery  Hill  iu  the  centre,  form¬ 
ing  the  apex  of  a  redan.  At  about  three  o’clock 
in  the  afternoon  there  was  a  general  advance 
of  the  Confederates,  and  a  terrible  battle  en¬ 
sued,  with  heavy  losses  on  both  sides.  The  Na¬ 
tionals  were  defeated.  They  had  anxiously 
looked  for  reinforcements  from  the  scattered 
corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  These  speed¬ 
ily  came,  but  not  until  the  preliminary  engage¬ 
ment  in  the  great  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  end¬ 
ed.  Geueral  Meade  was  at  Taneytown,  thir¬ 
teen  miles  distant,  Avhen  he  heard  of  the  death 
of  Reynolds,  and  he  ordered  General  Hancock, 
Howard’s  junior,  to  leave  his  corps  with  Gib¬ 
bons  and  take  the  chief  command  at  Gettys¬ 
burg.  He  arrived  just  as  the  beaten  forces 
were  hurrying  towards  Cemetery  Hill.  He  re¬ 
ported  to  Meade  that  he  was  satisfied  with 
Howard’s  disposition  of  the  troops.  The  latter 
had  called  early  upon  Slocum  and  Sickles,  and 
both  promptly  responded.  Sickles  joined  the 
left  of  the  troops  on  Cemetery  Hill  that  night. 
Hancock  had  gone  back  ;  and,  meeting  his  own 
corps,  posted  it  a  mile  and  half  in  the  rear  of 
Cemetery  Hill.  Meade  had  now  given  orders 
for  the  concentration  of  his  whole  army  at  Get¬ 
tysburg,  and  he  aroused  them  at  one  o’clock  in 
the  morning  of  July  2,  when  only  the  corps  of 
Sykes  and  Sedgwick  were  absent.  Lee,  too,  had 
been  bringing  forward  his  troops  as  rapidly  as 
possible,  making  his  headquarters  on  Seminary 
Ridge.  On  the  morning  of  the  2d  a  greater  por¬ 
tion  of  the  two  armies  confronted  each  other. 
Both  commanders  seemed  averse  to  taking  the 


GETTYSBURG,  BATTLE  OF 

initiative  of  battle.  The  Nationals  had  the  ad¬ 
vantage  of  position,  their  lines  projecting  in 
wedge  form  towards  the  Confederate  centre, 
with  steep  rocky  acclivities  along  their  front. 
It  was  late  in  the  afternoon  before  a  decided 
movement  was  made.  Sickles,  on  the  left,  be¬ 
tween  Cemetery  Hill  and  Round  Top,  expect¬ 
ing  an  attack,  had  advanced  his  corps  well  tow¬ 
ards  the  heaviest  columns  of  the  Confederates. 
Then  Lee  attacked  him  with  Lougstreet’s  corps. 
There  was  first  a  severe  struggle  for  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  rocky  eminence  on  Meade’s  extreme 
left,  where  Birney  was  stationed.  The  Nationals 
won.  Meanwhile  there  was  a  fierce  contest  near 
the  centre,  between  Little  Round  Top  aud  Cem¬ 
etery  Hill.  While  yet  there  was 
strife  for  the  former,  General  Craw¬ 
ford,  with  six  regiments  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  Reserves,  swept  down  its 
northwestern  side  with  tremendous 
shouts,  and  drove  the  Confederates 
through  the  woods  to  the  Emmetts- 
burg  road,  making  three  hundred 
of  them  prisoners.  Generals  Hum¬ 
phreys  and  Graham  were  then  in  an 
advanced  position,  the  former  with 
his  right  on  the  Emmettsburg  road, 
when  Hill,  advancing  in  heavy  force 
from  Seminary  Ridge,  fell  upon  him 
and  pushed  him  back,  with  a  loss  of 
half  his  men  and  three  guns.  In  this 
onset  Sickles  lost  a  leg,  and  Birney 
took  command  of  the  corps.  Elated 
by  this  success,  the  Confederates 
pushed  up  to  the  base  of  Cemetery 
Hill  and  its  southern  slope,  throwing  them¬ 
selves  recklessly  upon  supposed  weak  points. 
In  this  contest  Meade  led  troops  in  person. 
Finally,  Hancock,  just  at  sunset,  directed  a  gen¬ 
eral  charge,  chiefly  by  fresh  troops  under  Double¬ 
day,  who  had  hastened  to  his  assistance  from 
the  rear  of  Cemetery  Hill.  These,  with  Hum¬ 
phreys’  shattered  regiments,  drove  the  Confed¬ 
erates  back  and  recaptured  four  guns.  The 
battle  ended  on  the  left  centre  at  twilight. 
Then  the  battle  was  renewed  on  the  National 
right,  where  General  Slocum  was  in  chief  com¬ 
mand.  Ewell  had  attacked  him  with  a  part  of 
his  corps  at  the  time  Longstreet  assailed  the 
left.  The  assault  was  vigorous.  Up  the  north¬ 
ern  slopes  of  Cemetery  Hill  the  Confederates 
pressed  in  the  face  of  a  murderous  fire  of  canis¬ 
ter  and  shrapnel  to  the  muzzles  of  the  guns. 
Another  part  of  Ewell’s  corps  attempted  to  turn 
the  National  right  by  attacking  its  weakened 
part  on  Culp’s  Hill.  The  Confederates  were  re¬ 
pulsed  at  the  right  centre;  and,  after  a  severe 
battle  on  the  extreme  right  of  the  Nationals,  the 
Confederates  there  were  firmly  held  in  check. 
So  ended,  at  about  ten  o’clock  at  night,  the  sec¬ 
ond  day’s  battle  at  Gettysburg,  when  nearly 
forty  thousand  men  of  the  two  armies,  who  were 
“effective”  thirty-six  hours  before,  were  dead 
or  wounded.  The  advantage  seemed  to  be  with 
the  Confederates,  for  they  held  the  ground  in 
advance  of  Gettysburg  which  the  Nationals  had 
held  the  previous  day.  During  the  night  Meade 
made  provision  for  expelling  the  Confederate 


GETTYSBURG,  BATTLE  OF 

[  intrusion  on  the  National  right  by  placing  a 
heavy  artillery  force  in  that  direction.  Under 
cover  of  these  guns  a  strong  force  made  an  at¬ 
tack,  and  for  four  hours  Geary’s  division  kept 
up  a  desperate  struggle.  Then  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  fell  back,  and  the  right  was  made  secure. 

|  Now  Ewell  was  repulsed  on  the  right,  and 
Round  Top,  on  the  left,  was  impregnable;  so 
Lee  determined  to  strike  Meade’s  centre  with  a 
force  that  should  crush  it.  At  noon  (July  3)  he 
had  one  hundred  aud  forty-five  cannons  in  bat¬ 
tery  along  the  line  occupied  by  Longstreet  and 
Hill.  All  night  General  Hunt,  of  the  Nationals, 
had  been  arranging  the  artillery  from  Cemetery 
Hill  to  Little  Round  Top,  where  the  expected 


VIEW  OX  LITTLE  ROUND  TOP.* 

blow  would  fall.  Lee  determined  to  aim  his 
chief  blow  at  Hancock’s  position  on  Cemetery 
Hill.  At  one  o’clock  P.M.  one  hundred  aud  fif¬ 
teen  of  his  cannons  opened  a  rapid  concentrated 
tire  on  the  devoted  point.  Fourscore  National 
guns  replied,  aud  for  two  hours  more  than  two 
hundred  cannons  shook  the  surrounding  country 
with  their  detonations.  Then  the  Confederate 
infantry,  in  a  line  three  miles  in  length,  preced¬ 
ed  by  a  host  of  skirmishers,  flowed  swiftly  over 
the  undulating  plain.  Behind  these  was  a  heavy 
reserve.  Pickett,  with  his  Virginians,  led  the 
van,  well  supported,  in  a  charge  upon  Cemetery 
Hill.  In  all,  his  troops  were  about  fifteen  thou¬ 
sand  strong.  The  cannons  had  now  almost 
ceased  thundering,  and  were  succeeded  by  the 
awful  roll  of  musketry.  Shot  aud  shell  from 
Hancock’s  batteries  now  made  fearful  lanes 
through  the  oncoming  Confederate  ranks.  Han¬ 
cock  was  wounded,  aud  Gibbons  was  placed  in 
command.  Pickett  pressed  onward,  when  the 
divisions  of  Hayes  and  Gibbons  opened  an  ap¬ 
palling  and  continuous  fire  upon  them.  The 
Confederates  gave  way,  and  2000  men  were  made 
prisoners,  and  fifteen  battle -flags  became  tro¬ 
phies  of  victory  for  Hayes.  Still  Pickett  moved 
on,  scaled  Cemetery  Hill,  burst  through  Han¬ 
cock’s  line,  drove  back  a  portion  of  General 
Webb’s  brigade,  and  planted  the  Confederate 

*  This  is  a  view  of  the  crest  of  Little  Round  Top  at  the  place 
of  a  National  battery.  The  group  of  trees  in  the  distance  is 
on  Cemetery  Hill,  where  Hancock’s  command  was  stationed, 
aud  Gettysburg  is  seen  just  behind  it. 


576 


GIBBON 


GHENT,  NEGOTIATION  OF  PEACE  AT  577 


flag  on  a  stone  wall.  But  Pickett  could  go  no 
farther.  Then  Stanuard’s  Vermont  brigade  of 
Doubleday’s  division  opened  such  a  destructive 
fire  on  Pickett’s  troops  that  they  gave  way.  Very 
soon  2500  of  them  were  made  prisoners,  and  with 
them  twelve  battle-flags,  and  three  fourths  of 
his  gallant  men  were  dead  or  captives.  Wilcox 
supported  Pickett,  and  met  a  similar  fate  at  the 
hands  of  the  Vermonters.  Meanwhile  Crawford 
had  advanced  upon  the  Confederate  right  from 
near  Little  Round  Top.  The  Confederates  fled ; 
and  in  this  sortie  the  whole  ground  lost  by 
Sickles  was  recovered,  with  260  men  captives, 
7000  small-arms,  a  cannon,  and  wounded  Union¬ 
ists,  who  had  lain  nearly  twenty-four  hours  un¬ 
cared  for.  Thus,  at  near  sunset,  J uly  3, 1863,  end¬ 
ed  the  battle  of  Gettysburg.  During  that  night 
and  all  the  next  day  Lee’s  army  on  Seminary 
Ridge  prepared  for  flight  back  to  Virginia.  His 
invasion  was  a  failure ;  aud  on  Sunday  morn- 


tween  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  oc¬ 
curred  in  the  city  of  Ghent,  the  capital  of  East 
Flanders,  Belgium,  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Scheldt  and  Lys.  There  the  American 
commissioners  assembled  at  about  midsummer, 
1814,  and  were  joined  by  the  British  commis¬ 
sioners  early  in  August.  (See  Treaty  of  Peace , 
1814.)  Their  deliberations  and  discussions  con¬ 
tinued  several  months,  and  the  final  result  was 
reached  Dec.  24.  The  leading  citizens  of  Ghent 
took  great  interest  in  the  matter.  Their  sym¬ 
pathies  were  with  the  Americans,  and  they  min¬ 
gled  their  rejoicings  with  the  commissioners 
when  the  work  was  done.  On  Oct.  27  (1814) 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Fine  Arts  at  Ghent 
invited  the  American  commissioners  to  attend 
their  exercises,  when  they  were  all  elected  hon¬ 
orary  members  of  the  academy.  A  sumptuous 
dinner  was  given,  at  which ’the  Iutendaut,  or 
chief  magistrate,  of  Ghent  offered  the  following 


VIEW  OP  THE  CITY  OP  GHENT,  FROM  THE  SCHELDT. 


ing,  July  5,  his  whole  army  was  moving  towards 
the  Potomac.  (See  Lee's  Second  Retreat  from  Ma¬ 
ryland.)  This  battle,  in  its  far-reaching  effects, 
was  the  most  important  of  the  war.  The  Na¬ 
tional  loss  in  men,  from  the  morning  of  the  1st 
until  the  evening  of  the  3d  of  July,  was  reported 
by  Meade  to  be  23,186,  of  whom  2834  were  killed, 
13,709  wounded,  and  6643  missing.  A  greater 
portion  of  the  latter  were  prisoners.  Lee,  as 
usual,  made  no  report  of  his  losses.  It  was 
the  policy  of  the  Confederate  government  to 
conceal  such  discouraging  facts  from  the  people. 
A  careful  estimate,  made  from  various  sources, 
made  his  loss  about  30,000,  of  whom  14,000  were 
prisoners. 

Ghent,  Negotiation  of  Treaty  of  Peace 
at.  The  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace  be- 
I.— 37 


sentiment:  “Our  distinguished  guests  and  fel¬ 
low-members,  the  American  ministers  —  may 
they  succeed  in  making  an  honorable  peace  to 
secure  the  liberty  and  independence  of  their 
country.”  The  band  then  played  Hail  Columbia. 
The  British  commissioners  were  not  present. 
After  the  treaty  was  concluded,  the  American 
commissioners  gave  a  dinner  to  the  British  com¬ 
missioners,  at  which  Count  H.  van  Steinliuyser, 
the  Intendant  of  the  department,  was  present. 
Sentiments  of  mutual  friendship  wore  offered. 
A  few  days  afterwards  the  Intendant  gave  an 
entertainment  to  the  commissioners  of  both  na¬ 
tions. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  historian,  was  born  at  Put¬ 
ney,  April  27,  1737;  died  in  London,  Jan.  16, 
1794.  He  was  from  infancy  feeble  in  physical 


GIBBON 


578 


GILBERT 


constitution.  His  first  serious  attempt  at  au¬ 
thorship  was  when  lie  was  ouly  a  youth  —  a 
treatise  on  the  age  of  Sesostris.  He  was  fond 
of  Oriental  research.  Reading  Bossuet’s  Varia¬ 
tions  of  Protestantism  and  Exposition  of  Catholic 
Doctrine,  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  at 
length  a  free-thinker.  He  was  a  student  at  Ox¬ 


ford  when  he  abjured  Protestantism,  and  was  ex¬ 
pelled.  He  read  with  avidity  the  Latin,  Greek, 
and  French  classics,  and  became  passionately 
fond  of  historical  research.  He  also  studied 
practically  the  military  art,  as  a  member  of  the 
Hampshire  militia,  with  his  father.  In  1751  he 
published  a  defence  of  classical  studies  against 
the  attacks  of  the  French  philosophers.  In 
1764  he  went  to  Rome,  and  studied  its  antiqui¬ 
ties  with  delight  and  seriousness,  and  there  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  writing  his  great  work, 
The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  “  It 
was  at  Rome,”  he  wrote,  “  on  the  15th  of  Octo¬ 
ber,  1764,  as  I  sat  musing  amid  the  ruins  of  the 
Capitol,  while  barefooted  friars  were  singing  ves¬ 
pers  in  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  that  the  idea  of 
writing  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  city  first 
started  to  my  mind.”  But  that  work  was  not 
seriously  begun  until  1770,  and  the  first  volume 
was  completed  in  1775.  In  1774  he  became  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  at  first 
took  sides  with  the  Americans,  writing  much  in 
their  favor.  He  finally  became  a  firm  supporter 
of  the  British  ministry  in  their  proceedings 
against  the  Americans,  writing  in  their  defence 
a  pamphlet  in  the  French  language,  when  he 
was  provided  by  them  with  a  lucrative  sinecure 
office  worth  $4000  a  year.  His  mouth  (or  rather 
pen)  was  thus  stopped  by  the  government  fa¬ 
vor.  To  this  venality  the  following  epigram 
alludes.  It  was  written,  it  is  said,  by  Charles 
James  Fox. 

“  King  George,  in  a  fright,  lest  Gibbon  should  write 
The  story  of  Britain's  disgrace. 

Thought  no  means  more  sure  his  pen  to  secure 
Than  to  give  the  historian  a  place. 

“  But  his  caution  is  vain,  ’tis  the  curse  of  his  reign 
That  his  projects  should  never  succeed  ; 

Though  he  write  not  a  line,  yet  a  cause  of  decline 
In  the  author’s  example  we  read.” 


On  the  downfall  of  the  North  administration,  and 
the  loss  of  his  salary,  Gibbon  left  England  aud 
went  to  live  at  Lausanne,  Switzerland.  There 
he  completed  his  great  work  in  June,  1787,  and, 
sending  the  manuscript  to  England,  it  was  is¬ 
sued  on  his  fifty-first  birthday.  It  is  said  that 
his  booksellers  realized  a  profit  on  the  work  of 
$500,000,  while  the  author’s  profits  were  only 
$50,000.  On  setting  out  for  England  in  the 
spriug  of  1793, he  was  afflicted  with  a  very  seri¬ 
ous  malady  (hydrocele),  which  he  long  concealed, 
until  it  finally  developed  into  a  fatal  disorder, 
which  terminated  his  life  suddenly  in  Loudon 
the  next  year. 

Gibbs,  Alfred,  was  born  in  New  York,  April 
23, 1823;  died  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  Dec. 
26, 1868.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846, 
served  under  Scott  in  Mexico  and  afterwards 
against  the  Indians,  and  when  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  was  in  Texas.  He  was  made  pris¬ 
oner,  and  when  exchanged  in  1862  he  was  made 
colonel  of  New  York  volunteers,  and  served  un¬ 
der  Sheridan,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  war,  in 
command  of  a  cavalry  brigade.  He  was  active 
in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  at  all  times,  and  was 
a  thoroughly  trustworthy  officer.  In  March,  1865, 
he  was  breveted  major-general  of  volunteers. 

Gibson,  George,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  Penn., 
in  October,  1747  ;  died  at  Fort  Jefferson,  O.,  Dec. 
14, 1791.  On  the  breaking-out  of  the  Revolution 
he  raised  a  company  of  one  hundred  men  at  Fort 
Pitt,  who  were  distinguished  for  their  bravery 
and  as  sharpshooters,  and  were  called  “  Gibson’s 
Lambs.”  These  did  good  service  throughout 
the  war.  A  part  of  the  time  Gibson  was  colonel 
of  a  Virginia  regiment.  To  obtain  a  supply  of 
gunpowder,  he  went  down  the  Ohio  aud  Missis¬ 
sippi  rivers,  with  twenty-five  picked  men  and 
a  cargo  of  flour,  ostensibly  for  trade,  and  re¬ 
turned  with  the  desired  ammunition.  In  the 
disastrous  battle  (Nov.  4,  1791)  in  which  St. 
Clair  was  defeated,  Colonel  Gibson  was  mortal¬ 
ly  wounded.— His  brother  John  was  also  a  sol¬ 
dier  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  born  in  May, 
1730,  and  died  in  April,  1822.  He  was  in  Forbes’s 
expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne,  and  acted  a 
conspicuous  part  in  Dunmore’s  War  (which  see) 
in  1774.  He  commanded  a  Continental  regi¬ 
ment  in  the  war  for  independence,  his  chief 
command  being  on  the  Western  frontier.  He 
was  made  a  judge  of  the  Common  Pleas  of  Alle¬ 
ghany  County,  and  in  1800  was  appointed  by 
Jefferson  Secretary  of  the  Indian  Territory, 
which  post  he  held  until  it  became  a  state.  (See 
Logan's  Speech.) 

Gilbert,  Raleigh,  a  nephew  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  commanded  a  vessel  in  an  expedition 
to  settle  at  the  month  of  the  Kennebec  River  in 
1607.  They  arrived  at  Mohegan  Island,  aud 
on  Cape  Small  Point  (now  Phippsburg)  they 
built  a  fort.  The  settlement  was  temporary. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  a  distinguished  nav¬ 
igator,  and  half-brother  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
(see  Raleigh),  was  born  at  Dartmouth,  Devon¬ 
shire,  Eng.,  in  1539;  died  at  sea,  Sept.  9,  1583. 
Finishing  his  studies  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  he 
entered  upon  the  military  profession  ;  and  beiug 


GILBEET 


579 


GILLMOEE 


successful  iu  suppressing  a  rebellion  in  Ireland 
in  1570,  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  and 
Governor  of  Munster,  and  was  knighted  by  the 
lord-deputy.  Eeturuing  to  England  soon  after¬ 
wards,  he  married  a  rich  heiress.  In  1572  he 


SIB  HUMPHREY  GILBERT. 


commanded  a  squadron  of  nine  ships  to  rein¬ 
force  an  armament  intended  for  the  recovery 
of  Flushing;  and  soon  after  his  return  he  pub¬ 
lished  (1576)  a  Discourse  of  a  Discoverie  for  a  New 
Passage  to  Cathaia  and  the  Past  Indies.  He  ob¬ 
tained  letters  -  pateut  from  Queen  Elizabeth, 
dated  June  11, 1578,  empowering  him  to  discov¬ 
er  and  possess  any  lands  in  North  America  then 
unsettled,  he  to  pay  to  the  crow  n  one  fifth  of  all 
gold  and  silver  which  the  countries  he  might 
discover  and  colonize  should  produce.  It  in¬ 
vested  him  with  powers  of  an  absolute  ruler 
over  his  colony,  provided  the  laws  should  not 
be  in  derogation  of  supreme  allegiance  to  the 
crown.  It  guaranteed  to  his  followers  all  the 
rights  of  Englishmen ;  and  it  also  guaranteed 
the  absolute  right  of  a  territory  where  they 
might  settle,  within  two  hundred  leagues  of 
which  no  settlement  should  be  permitted  until 
the  expiration  of  six  years.  This  was  the  first 
colonial  charter  granted  by  an  English  mon¬ 
arch.  Armed  with  this,  Gilbert  sailed  for  New¬ 
foundland  in  1579  with  a  small  squadron  ;  for 
he  did  not  believe  there  would  be  profit  in 
searching  for  gold  in  the  higher  latitudes,  to 
which  Frobisher  had  been.  (See  Frobisher.) 
He  was  accompanied  by  Ealeigh  ;  but  heavy 
storms  and  Spanish  war-ships  destroyed  one  of 
his  vessels,  and  the  remainder  were  compelled 
to  turn  back.  Gilbert  was  too  much  impover¬ 
ished  to  undertake  another  expedition  until  four 
years  afterwards,  when  Ealeigh  and  his  friends 
fitted  out  a  small  squadron,  which  sailed  from 
Plymouth  under  the  command  of  Gilbert.  The 
queen,  in  token  of  her  good-will,  had  sent  him 
as  a  present  a  golden  anchor,  guided  by  a  wom¬ 
an.  The  flotilla  reached  Newfoundland  in  Au¬ 
gust,  and  entered  the  harbor  of  St.  John,  where 
Cartier  found  La  Eoque  almost  fifty  years  be¬ 


fore.  (See  Cartier.)  There,  on  the  shore,  Gil¬ 
bert  Set  up  a  column  with  the  arms  of  England 
upon  it,  and  iu  the  presence  of  hundreds  of  fish¬ 
ermen  from  western  Europe,  whom  he  had  sum¬ 
moned  to  the  spot,  he  took  possession  of  the 
island  iu  the  name  of  his  queen.  Storms  had 
shattered  his  vessels,  but,  after  making  slight 
repairs,  Gilbert  proceeded  to  explore  the  coasts 
southward.  Off  Cape  Breton  he  encountered  a 
fierce  tempest,  which  dashed  the  larger  vessel, 
in  which  he  sailed,  in  pieces  on  the  rocks,  and 
about  one  hundred  men  perished.  The  com¬ 
mander  was  saved,  and  took  refuge  in  a  little 
vessel  (the  Squirrel)  of  ten  tons.  His  little 
squadron  was  dispersed,  and,  with  one  other 
vessel  (the  Hind ),  he  turned  his  prow  home¬ 
wards.  Again,  in  a  rising  September  gale,  the 
commander  of  the  Hind  shouted  to  Gilbert  that 
they  were  in  great  peril.  The  intrepid  naviga¬ 
tor  was  sitting  abaft,  with  a  book  in  his  hand, 
and  calmly  replied,  “We  are  as  near  heaven  on 
the  sea  as  on  the  land.”  The  gale  increased, 
and  when  night  fell  the  darkness  was  intense. 
At  about  midnight  the  men  on  the  Hind  saw 
the  lights  of  the  Squirrel  suddenly  go  out.  The 
little  bark  had  plunged  beneath  the  waves,  and 
all  on  board  perished.  Only  the  Hind  escaped, 
and  bore  the  news  of  the  disaster  to  England. 

Gillmore,  Quincy  Adams,  was  born  iu  Lo¬ 
rain  County,  O.,  Feb.  28,  1825.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1849,  and  entered  the  Engi¬ 
neer  Corps.  He  wras  for  four  years  (1852-56)  As¬ 
sistant  Instructor  of  Engineering  at  West  Point. 


QUINCY  ADAMS  GILLMORE. 


In  October,  1861,  he  was  appointed  chief-engineer 
of  an  expedition  against  the  Southern  coasts  un¬ 
der  General  T.  W.  Sherman.  He  superintend¬ 
ed  the  construction  of  the  fortifications  at  Hil¬ 
ton  Head,  and  planned  and  executed  measures 
for  the  capture  of  Fort  Pulaski  in  the  spring 
of  1862,  when  he  was  made  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  After  service  in  western  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  Kentucky,  he  was  breveted  colonel  in 
the  United  States  Army,  and  succeeded  Hunter 
(June,  1863)  in  command  of  the  Department  of 
South  Carolina,  when  he  was  promoted  to  ma¬ 
jor-general.  After  a  long  and  unsuccessful  at¬ 
tempt  to  capture  Charleston,  he  proceeded  to 


GINGHAM 


580 


GLENDALE,  BATTLE  OF 


join  the  Army  of  the  James,  in  command  of  the 
Tenth  Army  Corps.  For  his  services  during 
the  war,  he  was  breveted  major-general  in  the 
United  States  Army.  Died  in  April,  1888. 

Gingham.  This  fabric  was  first  manufact¬ 
ured  in  the  United  States  by  Erastus  Bigelow, 
at  Clinton  (a  town  founded  by  him),  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  about  the  year  1846.  It  was  the  first 
attempt  to  manufacture  gingham  by  machin¬ 
ery,  and  enabled  the  American  manufacturers 
to  compete  successfully  with  the  English. 

Girard,  Stephen,  founder  of  Girard  College, 
was  born  near  Bordeaux,  France,  May  21, 1750  ; 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  26, 1831.  Engaged  in 
the  merchant  service  in  early  life,  he  established 
himself  in  mercantile  business  in  Philadelphia 
in  1769,  and  traded  to  the  West  Indies  until  the 
beginning  of  the  war  for  independence.  Re¬ 
suming  his  West  India  trade  after  the  war,  he 
accumulated  money  ;  but  the  foundation  of  his 
great  wealth  was  laid  by  events  of  the  negro 
insurrection  in  Santo  Domingo.  Two  of  his 
vessels  being  there,  planters  placed  their  effects 
on  board  of  them,  but  lost  their  lives  in  the 
massacre  that  ensued.  The  property  of  owners 
that  could  not  be  found  was  left  in  Girard’s  pos¬ 
session.  In  1812  he  bought  the  building  and 
much  of  thestock  of  the  old  United  States  Bank, 
and  began  business  as  a  private  banker.  He 
amassed  a  large  fortune,  and  at  his  death  left 
property  valued  at  almost  $9,000,000.  Besides 
large  bequests  to  public  institutions,  he  gave  to 
Philadelphia  $500,000  for  the  improvement  of 
the  city.  He  gave  $2,000,000  and  a  plot  of 
ground  in  Philadelphia  for  the  erection  and 
support  of  a  college  for  orphans,  which  was 
opened  Jan.  1, 1848.  In  it  as  many  poor  white 
orphan  boys  as  the  endowment  will  support  are 
admitted.  There  are  about  five  hundred  bene¬ 
ficiaries  in  the  institution  at  a  time.  By  a  pro¬ 
vision  of  the  will  of  the  founder,  no  ecclesiastic, 
missionary,  or  minister  of  any  sect  whatever  is 
to  hold  any  connection  with  the  college,  or  be 
admitted  to  the  premises  as  a  visitor;  but  the 
officers  of  the  institution  are  required  to  in¬ 
struct  the  pupils  ill  the  purest  principles  of 
morality,  leaving  them  to  adopt  their  own  re¬ 
ligious  opinions.  The  beneficiaries  are  admit¬ 
ted  between  the  ages  of  six  and  ten  years ;  fed, 
clothed,  and  educated ;  and  between  the  ages 
of  fourteen  and  eighteen  are  bound  out  to  me¬ 
chanical,  agricultural,  or  commercial  occupa¬ 
tions. 

Gist,  Mordecai,  was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
in  1743;  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Sept.  2, 1792. 
He  was.  captain  of  the  first  troops  raised  in 
Maryland  at  the  breaking -out  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  ;  was  made  major  of  Smallwood’s  regiment 
in  1776,  and  commanded  it  at  the  battle  of  Long 
Island.  Promoted  to  colonel  in  1777,  and  brig¬ 
adier-general  early  in  1779,  he  did  good  service 
throughout  the  war,  saving  the  remnant  of  the 
army  after  Gates’s  defeat,  and  being  present  at 
the  surrender  of  Cornwallis. 

Glendale  ( or  Frazier’s  Farm ),  Battle  of. 
There  was  a  sharp  contest  at  White  Oak  Swamp 
Bridge  on  the  morning  of  June  30,  1862,  after 


the  Army  of  the  Potomac  had  passed  on  its  way 
to  the  James  River.  General  Franklin  had 
been  left  with  a  rear-guard  to  protect  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  the  bridge  aud  to  cover  the  withdrawal 
of  the  wagon -trains  at  that  point.  The  Con¬ 
federate  pursuers,  in  two  columns,  were  checked 
by  the  destruction  of  the  bridges.  Jackson, 
at  noon,  was  met  at  the  site  of  the  destroyed 
bridge  by  the  troops  of  Smith,  Richardson,  aud 
Naglee,  and  the  batteries  of  Ayres  and  Hazard, 
who  kept  him  at  bay  during  the  day  aud  even¬ 
ing.  Hazard  was  mortally  wounded,  and  his 
force  was  cut  up,  but  Ayres  kept  up  a  cannon¬ 
ade  with  great  spirit.  During  the  night  the 
Nationals  retired,  leaving  350  sick  and  wound¬ 
ed  behind,  and  some  disabled  guns.  At  the 
same  time  a  sharp  battle  had  been  going  on  at 
Glendale,  or  Nelson’s,  or  Frazier’s  Farm,  about 
two  miles  distant.  Near  Willis’s  Church  Gen¬ 
eral  McCall’s  division  was  posted  in  reserve, 
General  Meade’s  division  on  the  right,  Sey¬ 
mour’s  on  the  left,  and  that  of  Reynolds  (who 
was  a  prisoner)  under  Colonel  S.  G.  Simmons. 
The  artillery  was  all  in  front  of  the  line.  Sum¬ 
ner  was  some  distance  to  the  left,  with  Sedg¬ 
wick’s  division ;  Hooker  was  at  Sumner’s  left ; 
and  Kearney  was  at  the  right  of  McCall.  Long- 
street  and  Hill  had  tried  to  intercept  McClel¬ 
lan’s  army  there,  but  were  too  late,  and  found 
themselves  confronted  by  these  Nationals.  Gen¬ 
eral  Lee  and  Jefferson  Davis  wrere  with  Long- 
street.  The  Confederates  waited  for  Magruder 
to  come  up,  and  it  was  between  three  and  four 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon  before  they  began  an 
attack.  Lougstreet  then  fell  heavily  upon 
McCall’s  Pennsylvania  Reserves  (  which  see  ), 
6000  strong.  He  was  repulsed  by  four  regi¬ 
ments,  led  by  Colonel  Simmons,  who  captured 
200  of  his  men  drove  them  back  to  the  woods. 
Then  the  fugitives  turned,  and,  by  a  murderous 
fire,  made  the  pursuers  recoil  and  flee  to  the 


MORDECAI  GIST. 

forest.  In  that  encounter  the  slaughter  was 
dreadful.  This  first  struggle  was  quickly  fol¬ 
lowed  by  others.  The  contending  lines  swayed 
in  charges  aud  counter-charges  for  two  hours. 


GLOVER 


581  GOLD  DISCOVERED  IN  CALIFORNIA 


The  Confederates  tried  to  break  the  National 
line.  Finally  General  Meagher  appeared  with 
his  Irish  brigade,  aud  ruade  such  a  desperate 
charge  across  an  open  field  that  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  were  driven  to  the  woods.  Then  Randall’s 
battery  was  captured  by  the  Confederates,  when 
McCall  and  Meade  fought  desperately  for  the 
recovery  of  the  guns  and  carried  them  back. 
Meade  had  been  severely  wounded.  Just  at 
dark  McCall  was  captured,  aud  the  command 
devolved  on  Seymour.  Very  soon  afterwards 
troops  of  Hooker  and  Kearney  came  to  help  the 
Reserves,  the  Confederates  were  driveu  to  the 
woods,  and  the  battle  at  Glendale  ended.  Be¬ 
fore  dawn  the  next  morning  the  National  troops 
were  all  silently  withdrawn  ;  and  early  the  next 
day  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  united  for  the 
first  time  since  the  Chickahomiuy  first  divided 
it,  was  in  a  strong  position  on  Malvern  Hill, 
about  eighteen  miles  from  Richmond. 

Glover,  John,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  Nov. 
5,  1732;  died  at  Marblehead,  Jan.  30,  1797.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  he  raised  one 
thousand  men  at  Marblehead  and  joined  the 
army  at  Cambridge.  His  regiment,  being  com¬ 
posed  almost  wholly  of  fishermen,  was  called 
the  “Amphibious  Regiment,”  and  in  the  retreat 
from  Long  Island  (which  see)  it  mauned  the 
boats.  It  also  manned  the  boats  at  the  crossing 
of  the  Delaware  before  the  victory  at  Trenton. 
Glover  was  made  brigadier-general  in  February, 
1777,  and  joined  the  Northern  army  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Schuyler.  He  did  good  service  in  the  cam¬ 
paign  of  that  year,  and  led  Burgoyne’s  captive 
troops  to  Cambridge.  He  was  afterwards  with 
Greene  in  New  Jersey,  and  Sullivan  in  Rhode 
Island. 

Gnadenhutten.  (See  Christian  Indians,  Mas¬ 
sacre  of.) 

“  God  Save  the  King.”  This  national  song 
some  suppose  was  written  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  the  air  to  which  it  was  sung  has 
been,  by  some,  attributed  to  Handel.  It  was 
sung  with  as  much  unction  in  the  English- 
Ainerican  colonies  as  in  England  until  the 
mother  country  began  to  oppress  her  children 
in  the  Western  World.  The  air  did  not  origi¬ 
nate  with  Handel  in  the  reign  of  George  I.,  for 
it  existed  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 
Even  the  words  are  almost  a  literal  translation 
of  a  canticle  which  was  always  sung  by  the 
maidens  of  St.  Cyr  when  King  Louis  entered 
the  chapel  of  that  establishment  to  hear  the 
morning  prayer.  The  author  of  the  words  was 
M.  de  Briuon,  and  the  music  was  by  the  eminent 
Lulli,the  founder  of  the  French  opera.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  is  a  copy  of  the  words: 

“Grand  Diou  sauve  le  Roi ! 

Grand  Dieu  venge  lo  Roi  I 
Vive  le  Roi ! 

One  toujours  glorieux, 

'Louis  victorienx ! 

Voye  ses  ennemis 
Toujours  soumis! 

Grand  Dieu  sauve  le  Roi ! 

Grand  Dieu  venge  le  Roi ! 

Vive  le  Roi !’’ 

This  air  was  sung  by  the  vine -dressers  of 
France  until  kingcraft  lost  its  hold  upon  the  | 


people.  (See  ‘‘Song  of  the  Guillotine ;”  for  a  par¬ 
ody  on  this  song.) 

Godfrey,  Thomas,  inventor  of  the  quadrant 
commonly  known  as  Hadley’s,  was  born  in  Phil¬ 
adelphia  ;  died  there,  December,  1749.  He  was 
a  glazier;  was  a  self-taught  mathematician; 
and  in  1730  he  communicated  to  James  Loiian, 
who  had  befriended  him,  his  improvement  of 
Davis’s  quadrant.*  In  May,  1742,  Logan  ad¬ 
dressed  a  letter  to  Dr.  Edmund  Hadley,  in 
England,  describing  fully  Godfrey’s  instrument. 
Hadley  did  not  notice  it,  when  Logan  sent  a 
copy  of  his  letter  to  Hadley,  together  with  God¬ 
frey’s  account  of  his  invention,  to  a  friend,  to  be 
placed  before  the  Royal  Society.  Hadley,  the 
vice  -  president,  had  presented  a  paper,  a  year 
before,  describing  a  reflecting  -  quadrant  like 
Godfrey’s.  They  both  seem  to  have  hit  upon 
the  same  invention ;  and  the  society,  deciding 
that  both  were  entitled  to  the  honor,  sent  God¬ 
frey  household  furniture  of  the  value  of  $1000, 
instead  of  money,  on  account  of  his  intemperate 
habits. 

Goffe,  William,  was  a  son  of  a  Puritan  cler¬ 
gyman,  one  of  Cromwell’s  major-generals,  aud 
one  of  the  judges  who  signed  the  death-warrant 
of  Charles  I.  and  was  denounced  as  a  “regicide.” 
With  his  father-in-law,  General  Whalley,  he 
arrived  in  Boston  in  the  summer  of  1660,  and 
shared  his  fortunes  in  America.  (See  Regicides.) 
When,  during  King  Philip’s  War,  Hadley  was 
surrounded  by  the  Iudiaus,  and  the  alarmed  cit¬ 
izens  every  moment  expected  an  attack  (1675), 
Goffe  suddenly  appeared  among  them,  took  com¬ 
mand,  and  led  them  so  skilfully  that  the  barba¬ 
rians  were  soon  repulsed.  He  as  suddenly  dis¬ 
appeared.  His  person  was  a  stranger  to  the  in¬ 
habitants,  and  he  was  regarded  by  them  as  an 
angel  sent  for  their  deliverance.  Soon  after 
Goff’e’s  arrival  in  Boston,  a  fencing-master  erect¬ 
ed  a  platform  on  the  Common,  and  dared  any 
man  to  tight  him  with  swords.  Goffe,  armed 
with  a  huge  cheese  covered  with  a  cloth  for  a 
shield,  and  a  mop  filled  Avith  muddy  water,  ap¬ 
peared  before  the  champion,  who  immediately 
made  a  thrust  at  his  antagonist.  Goffe  caught 
and  held  the  fencing  -  master’s  sword  in  the 
cheese  and  besmeared  him  with  the  mud  in  his 
mop.  The  enraged  fencing-master  caught  up  a 
broadsword,  when  Goffe  cried,  “  Hold  !  I  have 
hitherto  played  with  you ;  if  yon  attack  me  I 
will  surely  kill  you.”  The  alarmed  champion 
dropped  his  sword,  and  exclaimed,  “  Who  can 
you  be  ?  You  must  be  either  Goffe,  or  Whalley, 
or  the  devil,  for  there  are  no  other  persons  who 
could  beat  me.” 

Gold  Discovered  in  California.  During  the 
same  month  that  a  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
United  Slates  and  Mexico  was  signed  at  Guada¬ 
lupe  Hidalgo,  a  man  named  Marshall,  employed 
by  Captain  Sutter,  who  owned  a  mill  twenty- 
five  miles  up  the  American  fork  of  the  Sacra¬ 
mento  River,  discovered  gold  Avhilo  digging  a 
mill-race.  The  metal  Avas  soon  afterwards 
found  in  other  places,  and  during  the  summer 
of  1848  rumors  of  the  fact  reached  the  United 
States.  They  were  not  generally  believed,  ua- 


GOLD  MEDAL  AWARDED  TO  GRANT  582 


GOLDEN  CIRCLE,  THE 


til  a  despatch  from  Colonel  Mason  declared  that 
there  was  enough  gold  in  California  to  pay  all 
the  expenses  of  the  war  with  Mexico.  In  De¬ 
cember  (1848)  the  message  of  President  Polk 
gave  the  rumor  tangible  form,  and  early  in  1849 
thousands  of  gold-seekers  were  on  their  way  to 
California.  Around  Cape  Horn,  across  the  Isth¬ 
mus  of  Panama,  and  over  the  central  plains  and 
vast  mountain  -  ranges  of  the  continent  men 
went  by  hundreds,  and  gold  was  found  in  every 
direction  in  California.  Gold-seekers  from  Eu¬ 
rope  and  Asia  flocked  to  the  shores  of  the  Pa¬ 
cific,  and  the  dreams  of  the  early  Spanish  ad¬ 
venturers  seemed  to  be  realized.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  discoveries  of  the  immense 
mineral  resources  of  the  western  states  and  ter¬ 
ritories  of  the  United  States. 

Gold  Medal  awarded  to  General  Grant. 

After  the  successful  operations  under  Grant  in 
east  Tennessee  and  at  Chattanooga,  he  was  the 
recipient  of  the  heartfelt  thanks  of  the  loyal 
people.  In  a  letter  the  President  of  the  United 
States  thanked  him,  and  Congress  voted  him 
thanks  and  a  gold  medal,  with  suitable  em¬ 
blems,  devices,  and  inscriptions.  The  legislat- 


COMITIA  Americana”  —  “The  American  Con¬ 
gress  to  George  Washington,  the  Commander- 
in-chief  of  its  Armies,  the  Assertor  of  Freedom.” 
On  the  reverse,  the  device  shows  troops  ad¬ 
vancing  towards  a  town ;  others  marching 
towards  the  water;  ships  in  view;  General 
Washington  in  front,  and  mounted,  with  his 
staff,  whose  attention  he  is  directing  to  the 
embarking  enemy.  The  legend  is,  “hostibus 
primo  fugatis  ”  —  “The  enemy  for  the  first 
time  put  to  flight.”  The  exergue  under  the  de¬ 
vice,  “  BOSTONIUM  RECUPERATUM.  XVII.  MARTII. 

mdcclxxvi  ”  —  “Boston  recovered,  March  17, 
1776.”  (See  medal  on  p.  583.) 

Golden  Circle,  The.  The  scheme  for  estab¬ 
lishing  an  empire  whose  corner-stone  should  be 
negro  slavery  contemplated  for  the  area  of  that 
empire  the  domain  included  within  a  circle  the 
centre  of  which  was  Havana,  Cuba,  with  a  radius 
of  16  degrees  latitude  and  longitude.  It  will  be 
perceived,  by  drawing  that  circle  upon  a  map, 
that  it  included  the  thirteen  slave-labor  states 
of  our  republic.  It  reached  northward  to  the 
Pennsylvania  line — the  old  “Mason  and  Dixon’s 
Line”  (which  see) — and  southward  to  the  Isth- 


TIIE  GRANT  MEDAL. 


ures  of  New  York  and  Ohio  voted  him  thanks 
in  the  name  of  the  people  of  those  great  states. 
The  President,  in  view  of  these  victories,  rec¬ 
ommended  (Dec.  7,  1863)  the  loyal  people  to 
meet  in  their  respective  places  of  worship  to 
thank  God  for  the  “  advancement  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  cause.” 

Gold  Medal  awarded  to  Washington.  On 

March  25,  1776,  when  news  of  the  British  evac¬ 
uation  of  Boston  reached  Congress,  that  body 
resolved  that  its  thanks  be  presented  to  the 
commander-in-chief  and  the  officers  and  soldiers 
under  his  command,  “  for  their  wise  and  spirit¬ 
ed  conduct  in  the  siege  and  acquisition  of  Bos¬ 
ton  ;  and  that  a  medal  of  gold  be  struck  in  com¬ 
memoration  of  this  great  event  and  presented  to 
his  Excellency.”  This  medal  was  nearly  two 
and  three-quarter  inches  in  diameter.  On  one 
side  was  a  profile  head  of  Washington,  with  the 
Latin  legend,  “  georgio  Washington,  svpre- 

MO  DVCI  EXERCITWM  ADSEUTOHI  LIBERT  AXIS 


mus  of  Darien.  It  embraced  the  West  India 
Islands  and  those  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  with  a 
greater  part  of  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
The  plan  of  the  plotters  seems  to  have  been  to 
first  secure  Cuba  and  then  the  other  islauds  of 
that  tropical  region,  with  Mexico  and  Central 
America;  and  then  to  sever  the  slave-labor 
states  from  the  Union,  making  the  former  a 
part  of  the  great  empire,  within  what  they 
called  “  The  Golden  Circle.”  In  furtherance 
of  this  plan,  a  secret  association  known  as  the 
“  Order  of  the  Lone  Star  ”  was  formed.  Anoth¬ 
er  association  was  subsequently  organized  as 
its  successor,  the  members  of  which  were  called 
“Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle”  (which  see). 
Their  chief  purpose  seems  to  have  been  the 
corrupting  of  the  patriotism  of  the  people  to 
facilitate  the  iniquitous  design.  The  latter 
association  played  a  conspicuous  part  as  abet¬ 
tors  of  the  enemies  of  the  Republic  during 
the  late  Civil  War.  They  were  the  efficient 


583 


GOLDSBOROUGH 


GOLDEN  HILL,  BATTLE  OF 

allies  of  those  who  openly  made  war  on  the 
Union. 

Golden  Hill,  Battle  of.  The  “  Boston  Mas¬ 
sacre”  holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  history. 
Nearly  two  mouths  before,  a  more  significant 
event  of  a  similar  character  occurred  in  the 
city  of  New  York.  The  insolent  British  soldiers 
had  destroyed  the  Liberty  Pole  (Jan.  16, 1770), 
and,  two  days  afterwards,  two  of  them  caught 


tween  Fulton  Street  and  Maiden  Lane),  where 
the  soldiers,  reinforced,  charged  upon  their  pur¬ 
suers.  The  citizens  resisted  with  clubs,  and  a 
severe  conflict  ensued,  during  which  an  old  sail¬ 
or  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  bayonet.  The 
mayor  appeared  and  ordered  the  soldiers  to 
disperse ;  but  they  refused,  when  a  party  of 
“Liberty  Boys,”  who  were  playing  ball  on  the 
corner  of  John  Street  and  Broadway,  dispersed 
them.  The  soldiers  made  another  attack 
on  citizens  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  these 
conflicts  continued,  with  intermissions, 
about  two  days,  during  which  time  sev¬ 
eral  persons  were  badly  injured.  Twice 
the  soldiers  were  disarmed  by  the  citi¬ 
zens.  (See  Liberty  Poles.) 

Goldsborough  (N.  C.),  Junction  of 
National  Armies  at.  Hoke  fled  from 
Wilmington  (see  Cape  Fear ,  Confederates 
driven  from)  northward,  towards  Goldsbor¬ 
ough,  towards  which  the  Nationals  under 
Schofield  now  pressed.  It  was  at  the  rail¬ 
road  crossing  of  the  Neuse  River.  Gen¬ 
eral  Cox,  with  5000  of  Palmer’s  troops, 
crossed  from  New  Berne  and  established 
a  depot  of  supplies  at  Kingston,  after  a 
moderate  battle  on  the  way  with  Hoke. 
Perceiving  the  Confederate  force  to  be 
about  equal  to  his  own,  Schofield  ordered 
Cox  to  intrench  and  wait  for  expected  re¬ 
inforcements.  On  March  10,  1865,  Hoke 
pressed  Cox  and  attacked  him,  but  was 
repulsed  with  severe  loss — 1500  men.  The 
Nationals  lost  about  300.  The  Confeder¬ 
ates  fled  across  the  Neuse,  and  Schofield 
entered  Goldsborough  on  the  20th.  Then 
Terry,  who  had  been  left  at  Wilmington, 
joined  Schofield  (March  22),  and  the  next 
day  Sherman  arrived  there.  Nearly  all 
the  National  troops  in  North  Carolina 
were  encamped  that  night  around  Golds- 
borongh.  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston, 
with  the  combined  and  concentrated 
forces  of  Beauregard,  Hardee,  Hood,  the 
garrison  from  Augusta,  Hoke,  and  the 
cavalry  of  Wheeler  and  Hampton,  was 
at  Smitlilield,  half-way  between  Golds- 
borongh  and  Raleigh,  with  about  40,000 
troops,  mostly  veterans. 

Goldsborough,  Louis  Malesherbes, 
was  born  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb.  18, 
1805 ;  died  Feb.  20,  1877.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  midshipman  in  1821,  and  lieuten¬ 
ant  in  1825.  In  the  Seminole  War  (which 
see)  he  commanded  a  company  of  mounted 
volunteers,  and  also  an  armed  steamer. 
Made  commander  in  1841,  he  took  part 
in  the  Mexican  War.  From  1853  to  1857  he 
was  superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy  at 
Annapolis.  In  the  summer  of  1861  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  North  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  and  with  Burnside  commanded  the 
joint  expedition  to  the  sounds  of  North  Car¬ 
olina.  For  his  services  in  the  capture  of  Roa¬ 
noke  Island  Congress  thanked  him.  Ho  after¬ 
wards  dispersed  the  Confederate  fleet  under 


GOLD  MEDAL  AWARDED  TO  WASHINGTON.  (See  p.  582.) 


posting  scurrilous  handbills  throughout  the 
city  abusing  the  Sons  of  Liberty  were  taken 
before  the  mayor.  Twenty  armed  soldiers  went 
to  their  rescue,  when  they  were  opposed  by  a 
crowd  of  citizens,  who  seized  stakes  from  carts 
and  sleds  standing  near.  The  mayor  ordered 
the  soldiers  to  their  barracks.  They  obeyed, 
and  were  followed  by  the  exasperated  citizens 
to  Golden  Hill  (on  the  line  of  Cliff  Street,  be- 


GOMEZ 


584 


GORGES 


Lynch  in  the  North  Carolina  waters.  He  was 
made  rear-admiral  July  16,  1862. 


LOUIS  M.  GOLDSBOROUGH. 


Gomez,  Stephen,  Voyage  of.  The  Council 
of  the  Indies  induced  Charles  V.  of  Spain  to  send 
Gomez  (who  had  circumnavigated  the  globe  in 
Magellan’s  expedition  in  1520-21)  to  find  a  north¬ 
west  passage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  sailed  to 
Cuba  (1525),  thence  to  Florida,  and  then  north¬ 
erly  to  Cape  Race,  latitude  46°  north,  and  re¬ 
turned  without  making  any  discovery.  Like 
Cortereal,  he  kidnapped  some  of  the  natives  (see 
Cortereal )  and  returned  to  Spain  with  them  in 
1525.  He  was  the  first  Spaniard  who  sailed 
along  the  northern  coast  of  America. 

Gooch,  William,  governor  of  Virginia  from 
1727  to  1749,  was  born  at  Yarmouth,  Eng.,  Oct. 
21,  1681;  died  Dec.  17,  1751.  He  had  been  an 
officer  under  Marlborough,  and  in  1740  he  com¬ 
manded  in  the  unsuccessful  attack  on  Cartlia- 
gena.  In  1746  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general 
and  was  knighted,  and  a  major-general  in  1747. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1749.  He  ruled  with 
equity  in  Virginia,  and  was  never  complained  of. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold  (“  Peter  Par¬ 
ley  ”),  a  popular  writer  for  the  young,  was  born 
at  Ridgefield,  Conn.,  Aug.  19, 1793 ;  died  in  New' 
York  city,  May  9, 1860.  He  was  a  publisher  in 
Hartford  in  1824 ;  soon  afterwards  he  settled  in 
Boston,  and  for  many  years  edited  The  Token. 
He  began  the  issuing  of  “Peter  Parley’s  Tales” 
in  1827,  and  continued  them  until  1857.  He  also 
published  geographical  and  historical  school¬ 
books.  From  1841  to  1854  he  edited  and  pub¬ 
lished  Merry's  Museum  and  Parley's  Magazine. 
Of  170  volumes  written  by  him,  116  bear  the 
name  of  “Peter  Parley;”  and  more  than  7,000,- 
000  copies  of  his  books  for  the  young  have  been 
sold.  Mr.  Goodrich  was  American  consul  at 
Paris  during  Fillmore’s  administration. 

Goodyear,  Charles,  inventor,  was  born  at 
North  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  29, 1800  ;  died  in  New 
York  city,  July  1, 1860.  He  was  an  early  manu¬ 
facturer  of  India-rubber,  and  he  made  vast  im¬ 
provements  in  its  practical  use  in  the  arts.  His 
first  important  discovery  was  made  in  1836 — a 


method  of  treating  the  surface  of  the  gum.  This 
process  was  superseded  by  his  discovery  early  in 
1849  of  a  superior  method  of  vulcanization.  He 
procured  patent  after  patent  for  improvements 
in  this  method,  until  he  had  more  than  sixty  in 
number,  in  America  and  Europe.  He  obtained 
the  highest  marks  of  distinction  at  the  interna¬ 
tional  exhibitions  at  London  and  Paris.  He 
saw,  before  his  death,  his  material  applied  to  al¬ 
most  five  hundred  uses,  and  to  give  employment 
in  England,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States,  to  about  sixty  thousand  persons. 

Gordon,  William,  D.D.,  historian  of  the  Rev¬ 
olution,  was  born  at  Hitchin,  Eng.,  in  1730;  died 
at  Ipswich,  Eng.,  Oct.  19,  1807.  He  came  to 
America  in  1770,  and  was  ordained  at  Roxbury 
in  1772.  He  took  an  active  part  in  public  af¬ 
fairs  during  the  Revolution,  and  in  1778  the  Col¬ 
lege  of  New  Jersey  conferred  upon  him  the  de¬ 
gree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity.  Returning  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  1786,  he  w'rote  and  published  a  history 
of  the  Revolution  in  four  volumes,  octavo. 

Gorges,  Robert,  son  of  Ferdinando,  had  a 
tract  of  land  bestowed  upon  him  in  New  Eng¬ 
land,  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  extend¬ 
ing  ten  miles  along  the  coast  and  thirty  miles 
inland.  He  was  appointed  Lieutenant-general 
of  New  England,  with  a  council,  of  whom  Fian- 
cis  West,  who  had  been  commissioned  “Admiral 
of  New  England”  by  the  Council  of  Plymouth, 
and  the  governor  of  New  Plymouth  for  the  time 
being,  were  to  be  members,  having  the  power  to 
restrain  interlopers.  West,  as  admiral,  attempt¬ 
ed  to  force  tribute  from  fishing-vessels  on  the 
coast.  Gorges  brought  to  New  England  with 
him  a  clergyman  named  Morrell,  appointed  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  act  as  commis¬ 
sioner  of  ecclesiastical  affairs;  also  a  number  of 
indentured  servants.  After  being  a  year  at 
Plymouth,  Gorges  attempted  to  plant  a  colony 
at  Wissagns.  He  had  encountered  Weston,  who 
came  over  to  look  after  his  colony,  and  took 
some  proceedings  against  him  as  an  interloper. 
Weston  had  been  shipwrecked  and  robbed,  but 
was  kindly  treated  by  the  Pilgrims,  who,  never¬ 
theless,  regarded  his  misfortunes  as  judgments 
for  his  desertion  of  the  company.  (See  Wes¬ 
ton's  Colony.) 

Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando,  was  a  native  of 
Somersetshire,  Eng. :  born  about  1565,  and  died 
in  1647.  Gorges  w  as  associated  with  the  court¬ 
iers  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  engaged  in 
the  conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of  Essex  against  the 
queen’s  council  (1610),  and  testified  against  him 
at  his  trial  for  treason  (1601).  Having  served 
in  the  royal  navy  with  distinction,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  governor  of  Plymouth  in  1604.  A  friend 
of  Raleigh,  he  became  imbued  with  that  great 
man’s  desire  to  plant  a  colony  in  America,  and 
when  Captain  Weymouth  returned  from  the 
New  England  coast  (1605)  and  brought  captive 
natives  with  him,  Gorges  took  three  of  them 
into  his  own  home,  from  whom,  after  instruct¬ 
ing  them  in  the  English  language,  he  gained 
much  information  about  their  country.  Gorges 
now  became  chiefly  instrumental  in  forming  the 
Plymouth  Company,  to  settle  western  Virginia 


GORHAM 


585 


GOSNOLD 


(see  Plymouth  Company),  aud  from  that  time  lie 
was  a  very  active  member,  defending  its  rights 
before  Parliament  and  stimulating  by  his  own 
zeal  his  desponding  associates.  In  1615,  after 
the  return  of  Captain  Smith  (see  Smith,  John), 
he  set  sail  for  New  England,  but  a  storm  com¬ 
pelled  the  vessel  to  put  back,  while  another 
vessel,  under  Captain  Dermer,  prosecuted  the 
voyage.  (See  Dermer.)  Gorges  sent  out  a  par¬ 
ty  (1616)  which  encamped  on  the  river  Saco 
through  the  winter;  aud  in  1619-20  Captain 
Dermer  repeated  the  voyage.  The  new  charter 
obtained  by  the  company  created  such  a  des¬ 
potic  monopoly  that  it  was  strongly  opposed  in 
and  out  of  Parliament,  and  was  finally  dissolved 
in  1635.  (See  Council  of  Plymouth.)  Gorges  had, 
meanwhile,  prosecuted  colonization  schemes 
with  vigor.  With  John  Mason  and  others  he 
obtained  grants  of  land  (1622),  which  now  com¬ 
pose  a  part  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  (see 
New  Hampshire),  and  settlements  were  attempt¬ 
ed  there.  His  son  Robert  was  appointed  “  gen¬ 
eral  governor  of  the  country,”  and  a  settlement 
was  made  (1624)  on  the  site  of  York,  Me.  After 
the  dissolution  of  the  company  (1635),  Gorges, 
then  a  vigorous  man  of  sixty  years,  wTas  ap¬ 
pointed  (1637)  governor-general  of  New  Eng¬ 
land,  with  the  powers  of  a  palatine,  and  pre¬ 
pared  to  come  to  America,  but  was  prevented  by 
an  accident  to  the  ship  in  which  he  was  to  sail. 
He  made  laws  for  his  palatinate,  but  they  were 
not  acceptable.  Gorges  enjoyed  his  viceregal 
honors  a  few  years,  and  died. 

Gorham,  Nathaniel,  was  born  at  Charles¬ 
town,  Mass.,  May  27,  1738;  died  June  11,  1796. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  public  affairs  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  Revolution,  especially  in  the  lo¬ 
cal  affairs  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Continental  Congress  (1782-83  and  from 
1785  to  1787),  and  was  chosen  its  president  in 
June,  1786.  He  was  an  influential  member  of 
the  convention  that  framed  the  National  Con¬ 
stitution,  and  exerted  great  power  in  procuring 
its  ratification  by  Massachusetts.  In  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  Oliver  Phelps,  he  purchased  an  im¬ 
mense  tract  of  land  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
(See  Holland  Land  Company.) 

Gorton,  Samuel,  a  restless,  contumacious 
clergyman,  born  in  England  about  1600,  and 
died  in  Rhode  Island  late  in  1677.  He  was  a 
clothier  in  London,  and  embarked  for  Boston 
in  1636,  where  he  soon  became  entangled  in 
theological  disputes  and  removed  to  Plymouth. 
There  he  preached  such  heterodox  doctrines 
that  he  was  banished  as  a  heretic  in  the  winter 
of  1637-38.  With  a  few  followers  he  went  to 
Rhode  Island,  where  he  was  publicly  whipped 
for  calling  the  magistrates  “just-asses,”  and 
other  rebellious  acts.  In  1641  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  the  island.  He  took  refuge  with  Roger 
Williams  at  Providence,  but  soon  made  him¬ 
self  so  obnoxious  there  that  ho  escaped  public 
scorn  by  removing  (1642)  to  a  spot  on  the  west 
side  of  Narraganset  Bay,  where  he  bought  land 
of  Miautouomo  and  planted  a  settlement.  The 
next  year  inferior  sachems  disputed  his  title  to 
the  land;  aud,  calling  upon  Massachusetts  to  as¬ 


sist  them,  an  armed  force  was  sent  to  arrest  Gor¬ 
ton  and  his  followers,  and  a  portion  of  them 
were  taken  to  Boston  and  tried  as  “damnable 
heretics.”  For  a  while  they  endured  confine¬ 
ment  aud  hard  labor,  in  irous,  and  in  1644  they 
were  banished  from  the  colony.  Gorton  went 
to  England  aud  obtained  from  the  Earl  of  War¬ 
wick  au  order  that  the  clergyman  and  his  fol¬ 
lowers  should  have  peace  at  the  settlement 
they  had  chosen.  He  called  the  place  War¬ 
wick  when  he  returned  to  it  in  1648.  There  he 
preached  on  Sunday  and  performed  civil  ser¬ 
vice  during  the  week. 

Gosnold,  Bartholomew,  a  friend  of  Raleigh 
and  his  colonization  schemes.  Because  of  Ra¬ 
leigh’s  failure,  he  did  not  lose  faith.  The  long 
routes  of  the  vessels  by  way  of  the  West  Indies 
seemed  to  him  unnecessary,  and  he  advocated 
the  feasibility  of  a  more  direct  course  across  the 
Atlantic.  He  was  offered  the  command  of  an 
expedition  by  the  Earl  of  Southampton,  to  make 
a  small  settlement  in  the  more  northerly  part  of 
America ;  and  on  the  26th  of  April,  1602,  Gosnold 
sailed  from  Falmouth,  England,  in  a  small  ves¬ 
sel,  with  twenty  colonists  and  eight  mariners. 
He  took  the  proposed  shorter  route,  and  touched 
the  continent  near  Nahant,  Mass.,  it  is  supposed, 
eighteen  days  after  his  departure  from  England. 
Finding  no  good  harbor  there,  he  sailed  south¬ 
ward,  discovered  and  named  Cape  Cod,  and  land¬ 
ed  there.  This  was  the  first  time  the  shorter 
(present)  route  from  England  to  New  York  and 
Boston  had  been  traversed ;  and  it  was  the  first 
time  an  Englishman  set  foot  on  New  England 
soil.  Gosnold  passed  around  the  cape,  and  en¬ 
tered  Buzzard’s  Bay,  where  he  found  an  attract¬ 
ive  group  of  islands,  aud  he  named  the  west¬ 
ernmost  Elizabeth,  m  honor  of  his  queen.  The 
whole  group  bear  that  name.  He  and  his  fol¬ 
lowers  landed  on  Elizabeth  Island,  and  were 
charmed  with  the  luxuriance  of  vegetation,  the 
abundance  of  small  fruits,  and  the  general  as¬ 
pect  of  nature.  Gosuold  determined  to  plant 
his  colony  there,  aud  on  a  small  rocky  island, 
in  the  bosom  of  a  great  pond,  he  built  a  fort ; 
and,  had  the  courage  of  the  colonists  held  out, 
Gosuold  would  have  had  the  immortal  honor  of 
making  the  first  permanent  English  settlement 
in  America.  Afraid  of  the  Indians,  fearing  star- 
vation,  wondering  what  the  winter  would  be, 
and  disagreeing  about  the  division  of  profits, 
they  were  seized  with  a  depressing  homesick¬ 
ness.  So,  loading  the  vessel  with  sassafras-root 
(then  esteemed  in  Europe  for  its  medicinal  qual¬ 
ities),  furs  gathered  from  the  natives,  and  other 
products,  they  abandoned  the  little  paradise  of 
beauty,  and  in  less  than  four  months  after  their 
departure  from  England  they  had  returned  ; 
and,  speaking  in  glowing  terms  of  the  land  they 
had  discovered,  Raleigh  advised  the  planting 
of  settlements  in  that  region,  and  British  mer¬ 
chants  afterwards  undertook  it.  (See  New  Eng¬ 
land.)  Elizabeth  Island  now  bears  its  original 
name  of  Cottyunk.  Gosnold  soon  afterwards 
organized  a  company  for  colonization  in  Vir¬ 
ginia.  A  charter  was  granted  him  and  his  as¬ 
sociates  by  James  I.,  dated  April  10,  1606,  the 
first  under  which  the  English  were  settled  in 


GOSPEL,  SOCIETY  FOR  PROPAGATION  586  GOVERNORS  OF  LOYAL  STATES 


America.  He  sailed  Dec.  19,  1606,  with  three 
small  vessels  ami  one  hundred  and  five  advent¬ 
urers,  of  whom  only  twelve  were  laborers;  and, 
passing  between  Capes  Henry  and  Charles,  went 
up  the  James  River  in  April,  1607,  and  landed 
where  they  built  Jamestown  afterwards.  Tbe 
place  was  an  unhealthy  one,  aud  Gosuold  remon¬ 
strated  against  founding  the  settlement  there, 
but  in  vain.  Sickness  and  other  causes  de¬ 
stroyed  nearly  half  the  number  before  autumn. 
Among  the  victims  was  Gosuold,  who  died  on 
the  22d  of  August,  1607. 

Gospel,  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the.  Edward  Winslow,  tbe  third  governor  of  the 
Plymouth  colony  (see  Winslow ,  Edward),  became 
greatly  interested  in  the  spiritual  concerns  of 
the  Indians  of  New  England;  and  when,  in  1649, 
lie  went  to  England  on  account  of  the  colony,  he 
induced  leading  men  there  to  join  iu  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  a  society  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gos¬ 
pel  among  the  natives  in  America.  The  society 
soon  afterwards  began  its  work  in  America,  and 
gradually  extended  its  labors  to  other  English 
colonies.  In  1701  (June  16)  it  was  incorporated 
under  the  title  of  “  The  Society  for  the  Propa¬ 
gation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts.”  Will¬ 
iam  III.  zealously  promoted  the  operations  of 
the  society,  for  he  perceived  that  in  a  commu¬ 
nity  of  religion  there  was  security  for  political 
obedience.  The  society  was  under  the  direction 
of  the  Church  of  England,  whose  system  was  es¬ 
teemed  monarchical,  while  Presbyterianism,  and 
especially  Quakerism  and  Independency,  were 
deemed  republican  in  character.  The  society 
still  exists,  and  its  operations  are  widely  ex¬ 
tended  over  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Southern 
Africa,  Australia,  aud  islands  of  the  Southern 
Ocean.  In  1873  it  had  484  ordained  mission¬ 
aries,  including  45  native  clergy  in  India,  822 
teachers  and  catechists,  141  students  in  col¬ 
leges  abroad,  and  an  annual  income  of  about 
$550,000.  Its  seal  is  an  ellipse  iu  form,  with  a 
ship  under  full  sail  near  a  shore,  and  natives 
running  to  give  it  a  welcome.  It  bears  the 
inscription,  “  sigillum  societatis  de  promo- 
VENDO  EVANGELIO  IN  PARTIBUS  TRANSMARI¬ 
NE.” 

Government  for  Pennsylvania.  In  1682 
William  Penn  published  a  “Frame  of  Govern¬ 
ment”  for  Pennsylvania,  leaving  to  himself  and 
successors  “no  power  of  doing  mischief— -that 
the  will  of»one  man  may  not  hinder  the  good  of 
the  whole  country.”  The  legislative  and  exec¬ 
utive  power  was  vested  in  a  council  of  seventy- 
two  persons,  elected  by  the  freemen  for  three 
years,  one  of  them  to  go  out  annually.  To  this 
frame  of  government  were  subjoined  forty  fun¬ 
damental  laws.  This  government,  “  for  the  mat¬ 
ter  of  liberty  and  privilege,”  Penn  justly  said, 
was  “extraordinary”  for  the  time.  Afterwards, 
when  an  Assembly  of  Deputies  were  in  session 
at  near  the  close  of  the  court,  an  “Act  of  Settle¬ 
ment”  was  passed,  constituting  eighteen  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Assembly  a  council,  and  the  remain¬ 
der  delegates,  the  hitter  to  number  thirty-six. 
The  governor  and  council  were  to  possess  joint¬ 
ly  the  right  of  proposing  laws.  This  “Settle¬ 


ment”  restored  to  Penn  the  power  which  he  had 
too  generously  given  away  by  the  conditions 
of  the  Frame  of  Government.  Afterwards  the 
deputies,  discontented  with  their  subordinate 
position,  assumed  the  right  of  suggesting  laws. 
Some  violent  proceedings  ensued,  when  Penn, 
to  allay  tiie  excitemeut,  intrusted  the  executive 
authority  to  five  commissioners,  leaving  legis¬ 
lation  to  the  deputies.  This,  however,  was  not 
effectual,  and  in  1690  Penn  restored  the  power 
originally  given  to  the  council. 

Government  Hospitals  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  United  States  government,  made 
ample  provision  for  the  sick  and  wounded  dur¬ 
ing  the  Civil  War.  The  hospitals  were  exten¬ 
sive  and  complete.  When  the  war  closed,  there 
were  204  general  hospitals,  fully  equipped,  with 
a  capacity  of  136,894  beds.  Besides  these,  there 
were  numerous  temporary  and  flying  hospitals 
— the  former  in  camps  and  on  vessels,  and  the 
latter  on  battle-fields.  From  the  beginning, 
in  July,  1861,  until  July  1,  1865,  there  had  been 
treated,  in  the  general  hospitals  alone,  1,057,423 
cases,  among  whom  the  rate  of  mortality  was 
only  8  per  centum.  This  low  rate  was  due  chief¬ 
ly  to  the  employment  of  a  sufficiency  of  compe¬ 
tent  surgeons,  a  bountiful  provision  in  all  hos¬ 
pitals  of  every  necessary,  the  beneficent  labors 
of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission  (which 
see)  aud  the  United  States  Christian  Commis¬ 
sion  (which  see),  the  uutiring  labors  of  women 
in  every  hospital,  and  the  potent  influence  of 
the  army  and  hospital  chaplains,  who  together 
numbered  at  least  100,000.  There  were  in  the 
national  armies  during  the  war  12,145  surgeons 
and  assistant  surgeons.  Of  these  nearly  300 
perished — some  in  battle,  but  most  of  them  from 
disease. 

Government  Year,  The.  In  January,  1790, 
two  questions  arose  in  Congress,  as  to  when 
the  federal  or  government  year  should  begin, 
and  what  was  the  term  for  which  members  had 
been  chosen — two  years  from  the  date  of  their 
election,  or  only  to  the  end  of  the  current  Con¬ 
gress.  The  national  government  had  not  actu¬ 
ally  gone  into  operation  on  March  4,  the  day 
originally  appointed,  but  several  weeks  later, 
and  some  of  the  members  had  not  been  elected 
until  a  still  later  period.  It  was  finally  agreed, 
on  the  report  of  a  joint  committee,  that  the 
Congress  should  expire  with  the  3d  of  March, 
1791,  and  that  persons  chosen  to  fill  vacancies 
should  be  considered  as  chosen  only  for  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  the  Congress.  Ever  since,  the  4th 
of  March  lias  been  the  beginning  of  a  new  Con¬ 
gress. 

Governors  of  Loyal  States,  Convention 
of.  On  the  same  day  when  President  Lincoln 
issued  his  proclamation  (Sept.  22,  1862)  warn¬ 
ing  the  slaveholders  that  if  they  did  not  lay 
down  their  arms  within  three  months  their 
slaves  would  be  set  free  (see  Emancipation  Proc¬ 
lamation),  the  governors  of  eleven  of  the  free- 
labor  states  assembled  at  Altoona,  Penn.,  to 
consider  national  affairs.  Their  sessions  were 
held  in  secret.  Among  other  proceedings  look¬ 
ing  to  unity  of  action,  they  adopted  an  address 


GRAND  GULF,  BATTLE  AT 

to  tlie  President,  warmly  commending  liis  proc¬ 
lamation  as  a  righteous  and  most  salutary  act, 
which  would  give  immense  strength  to  the  de¬ 
fenders  of  the  imperilled  Republic,  and  as  a 
sure  promise  of  success  to  the  cause.  This  ad¬ 
dress  was  written  by  Governor  John  A.  Andrew, 


JOnN  A.  ANDREW. 


of  Massachusetts,  one  of  the  most  earnest  and 
euergetic  of  the  “  war  governors”  at  that  time. 
It  was  signed  by  Governor  Curtin  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Andrew  of  Massachusetts,  Yates  of  Illi¬ 
nois,  Wasliburne  of  Maine,  Salomon  of  Wiscon¬ 
sin,  Kirkwood  of  Iowa,  Martin  of  Indiana  (by 
his  representative,  D.  G.  Rose),  Sprague  of  Rhode 
Island,  Pierpont  of  West  Virginia,  Tod  of  Ohio, 
Berry  of  New  Hampshire,  and  Blair  of  Michigan. 

Grand  Gulf  Battle  at.  On  the  morning  of 
April  29,  1863,  Admiral  Porter,  with  his  gun  and 
mortar  boats,  attacked  the  Confederate  batter¬ 
ies  at  Grand  Gulf,  on  the  Mississippi,  and  after 
a  contest  of  five  hours  and  a  half  the  lower  bat¬ 
teries  were  silenced.  The  upper  ones  were  too 
high  to  be  much  affected.  The  Confederates  had 
field-batteries  which  were  moved  from  point  to 
point,  and  sharpshooters  filled  rifle-pits  on  the 
high  sides.  Grant,  becoming  convinced  that 
Porter  could  not  take  the  batteries,  ordered  him 
to  run  by  them  with  gunboats  and  transports, 
as  he  had  done  at  Vicksburg  and  Warreuton, 
while  the  army  (on  the  west  side  of  the  river) 
should  move  down  to  Rodney,  below,  where  it 
might  cross  without  much  opposition.  At  six 
o’clock  in  the  evening,  under  cover  of  a  heavy 
fire  from  the  fleet,  all  the  transports  passed  by 
in  good  condition. 

Granger,  Gordon,  born  in  New  York  about 
1825;  died  at  Santa  F(5,  June  10, 1876.  He  grad¬ 
uated  at  West  Point  in  1845;  served  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  and  was  made  captain  of  cavalry 
in  May,  1861.  He  served  under  Halleck  and 
Grant  in  the  West,  and  was  made  major-general 
of  volunteers  Sept.  17,  1862.  He  commanded 
the  district  of  central  Kentucky,  was  put  in 
command  of  the  Fourth  Army  Corps  after  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga,  was  engaged  in  the 
struggle  on  Missionaries’  Ridge,  November,  1863, 
and  was  active  in  the  military  movements  that 
led  to  the  capture  of  Mobile  in  1864,  for  which 


GRANT 

be  was  breveted  major-general  of  the  United 
States  Army. 

Granite  State,  a  popular  name  for  the  State 
of  New  Hampshire,  because  the  mountainous 
portions  of  it  are  largely  composed  of  granite. 

Grant,  James,  a  Scotch  officer,  born  in  1720 ; 
died  April  13,  1806.  In  1757  he  w'as  major  of 
the  Montgomery  Highlanders.  He  was  in  the 
expedition  against  Fort  Duqnesne  in  1758,  and 
in  1760  was  governor  of  East  Florida.  He  led 
an  expedition  agaiust  the  Cherokees  in  May, 
1761,  was  acting  brigadier-general  in  the  battle 
of  Long  Island  in  1776,  and  was  made  major- 
general  in  1777.  He  was  with  Howe  in  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  in  1777.  He  fought 
the  Americans  at  Monmouth  in  1778,  and  in  No¬ 
vember  sailed  in  command  of  troops  sent  against 
the  French  in  the  West  Indies,  taking  St.  Lucia 
in  December.  In  1791  he  was  made  governor 
of  Stirling  Castle,  and  was  several  years  in  Par¬ 
liament.  It  is  said  that  he  was  such  a  notorious 
gourmand  in  his  later  life  that  he  required  his 
cook  to  sleep  in  the  same  room  with  him. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson,  was  born  at  Point 
Pleasant,  O.,  April  27,  1822,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1843.  He  served  in  the  war  with 
Mexico — first  under  General  Taylor,  and  then 
under  General  Scott — taking  part  in  every  bat¬ 
tle  between  Vera  Cruz  and  the  city  of  Mexico. 
He  was  made  captain  in  1853,  and  resigned  the 
next  year,  when  he  settled  in  St.  Louis.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  offer  his  services  to  his 
country  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  and  be¬ 
came  colonel  of  an  Illinois  volunteer  regiment. 
In  May  he  was  made  brigadier -general,  and 
placed  in  command  at  Cairo.  He  occupied  Pa¬ 
ducah,  broke  up  the  Confederate  camp  at  Bel¬ 
mont  (which  see),  and  in  February,  1862,  capt¬ 
ured  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  (which  see). 
He  was  then  promoted  to  major-general ;  con- 


ULY88ES  8IMPSON  GRANT. 


ducted  the  battle  of  Pittsburgh  Landing,  or  Shi¬ 
loh,  and  for  a  while  was  second  in  command  to 
Halleck.  He  performed  excellent  service  in  the 
West  and  Southwest,  especially  in  the  vicinity 


587 


GRANTEES  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA  588  GRASSE,  COUNT  DE,  ARRIVAL  OF 


of  the  Mississippi  River  and  at  and  near  the 
Tennessee  River,  in  1863.  He  was  created  a 
lieutenant-general  (March  1,  1864),  and  award¬ 
ed  a  gold  medal  by  Congress.  He  issued  his 
first  order  as  general-in-cliief  of  the  armies  of 
the  United  States  at  Nashville,  March  17,  1864. 
In  the  grand  movements  of  the  armies  in  1864,  he 
accompanied  that  of  the  Potomac,  with  his  head¬ 
quarters  “  in  the  field,”  and  he  remained  with  it 
until  he  signed  the  articles  of  capitulation  at 
Appomattox  Court-house,  April  9, 1865.  In  1866 
he  was  promoted  to  General  of  the  United  States 
Army.  After  the  war,  Grant  fixed  his  head¬ 
quarters  at  Washington.  When  President  John¬ 
son  suspended  Stanton  from  the  office  of  Secre¬ 
tary  of  War  Grant  was  put  in  his  place  ad  interim. 
Stanton  was  reinstated  by  the  Senate  Jan.  14, 
1868.  In  1868,  Graut  was  elected  President  of 
the  United  States  by  the  Republican  party,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1872.  He  retired  from  the  office 
March  4, 1877,  and  soon  afterwards  made  a  jour¬ 
ney  around  the  world,  receiving  great  honors 
everywhere.  Died  July  23,  1885. 

Grantees  of  North  Carolina.  In  1630  Charles 
I.  granted  to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  his  attorney- 
general,  a  patent  for  a  domain  south  of  Virginia, 
six  degrees  of  latitude  in  width,  and  extending 
westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Heath  did  not 
meet  his  engagements,  and  the  patent  was  va¬ 
cated.  In  March,  1663,  Charles  II.  granted  to 
eight  of  his  rapacious  courtiers  a  charter  for  the 
domain  granted  to  Heath.  They  had  begged  it 
from  the  king  under  the  pretence  of  a  “  pious 
zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  gospel  among 
the  heathen.”  These  courtiers  were,  the  covet¬ 
ous  and  time-serving  premier  and  historian,  the 
Earl  of  Clarendon  ;  George  Monk,  who,  for  his 
conspicuous  and  treacherous  services  in  the  res¬ 
toration  of  the  monarch  to  the  throne  of  Eng¬ 
land,  had  been  created  Duke  of  Albemarle ;  Lord 
Craven,  the  supposed  dissolute  husband  of  the 
Queen  of  Bohemia;  Sir  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper, 
afterwards  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  (see  Shaftesbury ) ; 
Sir  John  Colleton,  a  corrupt  loyalist,  who  had 
played  false  to  Cromwell;  Lord  John  Berkeley 
and  his  brother,  then  governor  of  Virginia  (see 
Berkeley,  Sir  William),  and  Sir  George  Carteret,  a 
proprietor  of  New  Jersey — a  man  “  passionate, 
ignorant,  and  not  too  honest.”  (See  Carteret, 
Sir  George.)  When  the  petitioners  presented 
their  memorial,  so  full  of  pious  pretensions,  to 
King  Charles,  in  the  garden  at  Hampton  Court, 
the  “  merrie  monarch,”  after  looking  each  in 
the  face  a  moment,  burst  into  loud  laughter, 
in  which  his  audience  joined  heartily.  Then, 
taking  up  a  little  shaggy  spaniel  with  large, 
meek  eyes,  and  holding  it  at  arm’s-length  before 
them,  he  said,  “  Good  friends,  here  is  a  model 
of  piety  and  sincerity  which  it  might  be  whole¬ 
some  for  you  to  copy.”  Then,  tossing  it  to  Clar¬ 
endon,  he  said,  “There,  Hyde,  is  a  worthy  prel¬ 
ate;  make  him  archbishop  of  the  domain  which  I 
shall  give  you.”  With  grim  satire,  Charles  intro¬ 
duced  into  the  preamble  of  the  charter  a  state¬ 
ment  that  the  petitioners,"  excited  with  a  land- 
able  and  pious  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the 
gospel,  have  begged  a  certain  country  in  the 
parts  of  America  not  yet  cultivated  and  plant¬ 


ed,  and  only  inhabited  by  some  barbarous  peo¬ 
ple  who  have  no  knowledge  of  God.” 

Grant's  Cabinet  Ministers.  On  March  5, 
1869,  President  Grant  sent  into  the  Senate  the 
names  of  the  following  persons  he  had  chosen 
for  his  constitutional  advisers.  They  were  con¬ 
firmed  on  the  11th  ;  Hamilton  Fish  for  Secretary 
of  State  ;  George  S.  Bout  well  for  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury;  John  A.  Rawlins,  Secretary  of  War; 
Adolph  E.  Borie,  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  Jacob  D. 
Cox,  Secretary  of  the  Interior ;  John  A.  J.  Cres- 
well,  Postmaster-general ;  E.  Rockwood  Hoar, 
Attorney  -  general.  The  President  first  made 
choice  of  Alexander  T.  Stewart,  a  New  York 
merchant,  for  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  but  an 
old  law  made  him  ineligible.  General  Schofield 
was  first  nominated  for  Secretary  of  War,  but  he 
withdrew;  and  E.  B.  Washbnrne,  who  was  the 
President’s  first  choice  for  Secretary  of  State, 
declined  the  honor.  Second  Term. — The  follow¬ 
ing  named  gentlemen  composed  Graut’s  cabinet 
ministers  at  the  beginning  of  his  second  term  of 
office:  Hamilton  Fish,  Secretary  of  State;  W. 
W.  Belknap,  Secretary  of  War;  W.  A.  Richard¬ 
son,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  George  M.  Robe¬ 
son,  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  Columbns  Delano, 
Secretary  of  the  Interior;  John  A.  J.  Creswell, 
Postmaster-general ;  George  H.  Williams,  Attor¬ 
ney-general. 

Grant's  Final  Address  to  his  Soldiers. 

(See  Disbanding  of  the  Union  Armies.) 

Grape  Island,  Affair  at.  In  Boston  Har¬ 
bor  was  Grape  Island,  to  which,  on  Sunday 
morning,  May  21,  1775,  some  British  troops  re¬ 
paired  to  secure  some  hay ;  for  so  closely  were 
they  besieged  in  Boston,  that  only  on  the  isl¬ 
ands  in  and  near  the  harbor  could  they  procure 
grass  or  straw  or  fresh  meat.  Three  alarm-guns 
were  fired ;  the  drums  beat  to  arms ;  the  bells 
of  neighboring  towns  were  rung ;  and  very  soon 
about  two  thousand  of  the  men  of  that  region 
were  flocking  to  the  water’s  edge.  They  soon 
obtained  a  lighter  and  a  sloop,  when  many  jump¬ 
ed  on  board,  pushed  oft',  and  landed  on  the  isl¬ 
and.  The  British  fled,  and  the  Americans  burn¬ 
ed  the  hay  they  had  gathered. 

Grasse,  Count  de.  (See  De  Grasse.) 

Grasse,  Count  de,  Arrival  of.  On  Aug.  3, 
1781,  the  French  fleet,  under  Count  de  Grasse, 
appeared  on  the  American  coast.  De  Grasse 
had  sailed  from  France,  towards  the  end  of 
March,  with  twenty -six  ships-of-the-line,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  an  immense  convoy  of  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  merchantmen. '  That  convoy 
he  put  safely  into  the  harbor  of  Port  Royal, 
having  carefully  avoided  a  close  engagement 
with  a  part  of  Rodney’s  fleet,  under  Admiral 
Hood.  He  engaged  with  British  vessels  at  long 
range  (April  29),  and  so  injured  them  that  they 
were  obliged  to  go  to  Antigua  for  repairs,  and, 
meanwhile,  De  Grasse  accomplished  the  con¬ 
quest  of  Tobago  in  June.  He  then  proceeded 
with  the  fleet  of  merchantmen  to  Santo  Domin¬ 
go,  and  soon  afterwards  sailed  with  an  immense 
return  convoy,  bound  for  France.  After  seeing 
it  well  on  its  way,  he  steered  for  the  Chesapeake, 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


GRASSE,  COUNT  DE.  DAUGHTERS  OF  589 


and,  despite  the  activity  of  British  fleets  watch¬ 
ing  for  him,  he  was  safe  within  the  capes  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  at  anchor,  with  twenty-four  ships-of- 
the-liue,  at  the  beginning  of  September.  He 
found  an  officer  of  Lafayette’s  staff'  at  Cape 
Henry,  sent  to  request  him  to  blockade  the 
York  aud  James  rivers,  so  as  to  cut  off  Corn¬ 
wallis’s  retreat.  This  was  done  hv  four  sliips- 
of-the-line  and  several  frigates ;  aud  three  thou¬ 
sand  Freuch  troops  were  sent  to  join  Lafayette. 

Grasse,  Count  de,  Daughters  of.  The  fam¬ 
ily  of  De  Grasse  were  ruined  by  the  fury  of  the 
French  Revolution,  aud  four  of  his  daughters 
(Amelia,  Adelaide,  Melanie,  and  Silvia)  came  to 
America  in  extreme  poverty.  Congress,  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1795,  gave  them  each  $1000,  iu  considera¬ 
tion  “  of  the  extraordinary  services  rendered 
the  United  States  iu  the  year  1781  by  the  late 
Count  de  Grasse,  at  the  urgent  request  of  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  American  forces,  be¬ 
yond  the  term  limited  for  his  co-operation  with 
the  troops  of  the  United  States.” 

Graves  (Lord),  Thomas,  was  born  iu  1725; 
died  Jan.  31,  1802.  Having  served  under  An¬ 
son,  Hawke,  and  others,  he  was  placed  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Antelope,  on  the  North  American 
station,  in  1761,  and  made  Governor  of  New¬ 
foundland.  In  1779  he  became  Rear-admiral 
of  the  Blue,  and  the  next  year  came  to  America 
with  reinforcements  for  Admiral  Arbuthnot. 
On  the  return  of  the  latter  to  England  in  1781, 
Graves  became  chief  naval  commander  on  the 
American  station.  He  was  defeated  (Sept.  5) 
by  De  Grasse.  In  1795  he  was  second  in  com¬ 
mand  under  Lord  Howe,  and  was  raised  to  an 
Irish  peerage  and  Admiral  of  the  White  on  June 
1,  the  same  year. 

Great  Bridge,  Battue  at  the.  On  the  in¬ 
vasion  of  the  Elizabeth  River  by  Lord  Dun- 
more  (November,  1775),  Colonel  Woodford  called 
the  militia  to  arms.  Duumore  fortified  a  pas¬ 
sage  of  the  Elizabeth  River,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Dismal  Swamp,  where  he  suspected  the  mi¬ 
litia  would  attempt  to  cross.  It  was  known  as 
the  Great  Bridge.  There  he  cast  up  intreuch- 


six  hundred.  Woodford  constructed  a  small 
fortification  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  bridge. 
On  Saturday  morning,  Dec.  9,  Captains  Leslie 
and  Fordyce,  sent  by  Dunmore,  attacked  the 
Virginians.  After  considerable  manoeuvring 
and  skirmishing,  a  sharp  battle  ensued,  lasting 
about  twenty-five  minutes,  when  the  assailants 
were  repulsed,  aud  fled,  leaving  two  spiked  field- 
pieces  behind  them.  The  loss  of  the  assailants 
was  fifty-five  killed  aud  wounded.  Not  a  Vir¬ 
ginian  was  killed,  and  only  one  man  was  slight¬ 
ly  wounded  in  the  battle. 

Great  Britain.  Although  this  name  was  ap¬ 
plied  by  the  Freuch  at  a  very  early  period,  to 
distinguish  it  from  “Little  Britain,”  the  name 
of  the  western  peninsular  projection  of  France, 
called  by  the  Romans  Armorica,  it  was  seldom 
used  on  that  island  until  the  accession  of  James 
I.  to  the  crown  of  England  ( 1603 ),  when  the 
whole  of  the  island,  comprising  England,  Scot- 
laud,  and  Wales,  was  united  under  one  sover¬ 
eign.  By  the  legislative  union  betweeu  Eng¬ 
land  and  Scotland  iff  1707,  Great  Britain  became 
the  legal  title  of  the  kingdom.  The  official 
style  of  the  empire  is  now  “  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  aud  Helaud.” 

Great  Britain  and  the  Spanish  Colonies. 

The  pressure  of  the  American  Embargo  Act 
upon  British  commerce  had  been  greatly  re¬ 
lieved  by  an  unlooked-for  event.  Iu  June, 
1808,  the  Spaniards  revolted  against  Napoleon’s 
attempt  to  impose  upou  them  a  king  from  his 
own  family ;  aud  this  not  only  opened  the  Span¬ 
ish  peninsula  to  British  merchandise,  but,  as  the 
Spanish  colonies  yet  universally  adhered  to  the 
cause  of  the  old  royal  family,  a  commercial  in¬ 
tercourse  now  began,  for  the  first  time,  between 
Spanish  America  and  Great  Britain.  The  mi¬ 
gration  of  the  royal  family  of  Portugal  to  Brazil 
had  also  given  to  British  merchants  access  to 
those  extensive  regions.  The  embargo  cut  off 
American  vessels  from  participation  iu  this  new 
and  valuable  traffic.  The  news  of  the  Spanish 
revolt  had  caused  a  Boston  town -meeting  to 
memorialize  the  President  to  suspend  the  ern- 


VIEW  AT  THE  GREAT  HRIDGE. 


ment.s,  at  the  Norfolk  end  of  the  bridge,  and 
amply  supplied  them  with  cannons.  These 
were  garrisoned  by  British  regulars,  Virginia 
Tories,  negroes,  and  vagrants,  iu  number  about 


bargo,  at  least,  as  to  Spain  and  Portugal.  The 
revolt  had  released  American  vessels  detained 
in  Spanish  ports  by  the  Bayonne  Decree,  and  it 
was  speedily  followed  by  a  repeal  (July,  1808) 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


590 


of  the  British  Orders  in  Council,  so  far  as  Spain 
was  concerned. 

Great  Britain  calling  her  Subjects  Home. 

Some  American  officers,  imprisoned  by  the  Brit¬ 
ish,  were  paroled  in  1814,  with  a  commission  to 
inform  their  government  that  twenty-three  pris¬ 
oners  sent  to  England  (see  Scott’s  Boldness  and 
Humanity),  charged  with  treason,  had  not  been  1 
brought  to  trial,  but  remained  on  the  ordinary 
footing  of  prisoners  of  war.  This  speedily  led 
to  a  dismissal  of  all  imprisoned  officers,  on  both 
sides,  on  parole.  When  the  British  government 
thus  abandoned  its  untenable  claim  to  hold  sub¬ 
jects  found  in  arms  against  it  as  traitors,  though 
they  might  be  residents  and  naturalized  citizens 
of  other  lands,  it  covered  its  retreat  by  a  procla¬ 
mation  recalling  all  its  subjects  from  foreign 
service,  granting  pardon  for  all  past  treasons  of 
this  sort  on  the  score  of  probable  ignorance,  but 
threatening  to  punish  as  traitors  all  taken  in  the 
service  of  any  hostile  power  after  four  months 
from  the  date  of  the  proclamation. 

Great  Chain  across  the  Hudson  River  at 
West  Point.  The  obstruction  of  the  Hudson 
Ei  ver,  to  prevent  British  vessels  passing  up  that 
stream  during  the  war  for  independence,  and 
thus  defeat  the  ministerial  project  for  dividing 
the  Union,  occupied  much  of  the  attention  of 
the  patriots.  First  there  were  vessels  sunk, 
and  a  sort  of  chevanx-de-frise  constructed  in  the 
channel  between  Mount  Washington,  on  New 
York  island,  and  the  Palisades.  A  chevanx-de- 
frise  was  placed  in  the  channel  between  Polio- 
pel’s  Island  and  the  western  shore  of  the  river, 
just  above  the  upper  entrance  to  the  High¬ 
lands.  A  chain  and  boom  were  stretched  across 


GRExVT  UPRISING,  THE 

Warwick,  Orange  Co.,  by  Peter  Townsend,  un¬ 
der  the  supervision  of  Timothy  Pickering.  The 
task  was  performed  in  six  weeks.  The  links 
were  carted  to  New  Windsor,  where,  at  Captain 
Macliin’s  forges,  they  were  put  together,  and  the 
whole  floated  down  the  river  to  West  Point  on 
logs  late  in  April.  The  links  weighed  from  one 
hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  each. 
The  length  of  the  chain  was  fifteen  hundred 
feet,  and  its  entire  weight  was  one  hundred  and 
eighty-six  tons.  The  logs  that  buoyed  it  were 
placed  transversely  with  the  chain,  a  few  feet 
apart,  and  their  ends  secured  by  chains  and 
strong  timbers.  The  ends  were  made  secure  to 
the  rocks  on  both  shores.  Fort  Constitution, 
on  Constitution  Islaud,  defended  one  end,  and 
a  small  battery  the  other.  In  winter  it  was 
drawn  on  shore  by  a  windlass,  and  replaced  in 
the  spring.  The  British  never  attempted  to 
disturb  it;  but  it  is  said  Benedict  Arnold,  when 
he  prepared  for  the  consummation  of  his  trea¬ 
son,  took  measures  for  weakening  the  chain — 
how,  is  not  stated.  A  doubtful  story. 

Great  Fire  in  Charleston.  In  1740,  while 
the  Carolinians  were  feeling  the  disastrous  effect 
of  the  miscarriage  of  the  expedition  against  St. 
Augustine  (which  see),  a  fire  broke  out  (Novem¬ 
ber)  in  Charleston  which  consumed  three  hun¬ 
dred  of  the  best  buildings  in  the  town,  with 
goods  and  provincial  property  to  a  prodigious 
amount.  The  Legislature  applied  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Parliament  for  relief,  which  voted  $100,000 
to  be  distributed  among  the  sufferers. 

Great  Uprising,  The.  The  uprising  of  the 
people  of  the  free-labor  states  in  defence  of  the 
life  of  the  Republic  was  a  wonderful  spectacle. 


CHEAT  CHAIN  AND  MORTARS. 


the  river  from  Anthony’s  Nose  to  Fort  Mont¬ 
gomery,  at  the  lower  entrance  to  the  Highlands. 
In  the  spring  of  1778  the  most  notable  of  all 
these  obstructions,  a  heavy  chain  supported  by 
huge  logs,  was  stretched  across  the  Hudson  from 
West  Point  to  Constitution  Island,  opposite.  It 
was  constructed  at  the  Stirling  Iron-works,  at 


Men,  women,  and  children  felt  the  enthusiasm 
alike,  and,  as  if  by  preconcerted  arrangement, 
the  national  flag  was  everywhere  displayed, 
even  from  the  spires  of  churches  and  cathe¬ 
drals.  In  cities,  in  villages,  and  at  way-side 
taverns  all  over  the  country,  it  was  unfurled 
from  lofty  poles  in  the  presence  of  large  assem- 


GREED  A  CAUSE  OF  DISASTER 


591 


GREELEY 


blages  of  the  people,  who  were  addressed  fre¬ 
quently  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  orators  in 
the  laud.  It  adorned  the  halls  of  justice  and 
the  sanctuaries  of  religion  ;  and  the  Red,  White, 
and  Blue — the  colors  of  the  flag  in  combination 
— became  a  common  ornament  of  the  women 
.and  a  token  of  the  loyalty  of  the  men.  In  less 
than  a  fortnight  after  the  President’s  call  for 
troops  the  post-offices  were  gay  with  letter-en¬ 
velopes  bearing  every  kind  of  device,  in  brill¬ 
iant  colors,  illustrative  of  love  of  country  and 
hatred  of  rebellion.  The  use  of  these  became  a 
passion,  and  no  less  than  four  thousand  differ¬ 
ent  kinds  of  “  Union  envelopes”  were  produced 
in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  The  uprising  in 
the  slave  labor  states,  though  less  general  and 
enthusiastic,  was  nevertheless  marvellous. 

Greed  a  Cause  of  Disaster.  Greed  for  plun¬ 
der  caused  disaster  to  Sumter  at  Hanging  Rock 
(which  see)  and  Greene  at  Eutaw  Spring  (which 
see),  and  greater  disasters  occurred  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish  from  this  cause.  To  the  greed  of  naval  offi¬ 
cers  Cornwallis  was  indebted  for  his  disaster  at 
Yorktown,  more  than  to  anything  else.  The 
best  British  naval  officers  were  averse  to  serv¬ 
ing  against  the  Americans.  Howe  only  obeyed 
commands  when  he  came  in  1776,  and  after  him 
appeared  inferior  officers.  Arbuthuot  was  old 
and  imbecile  ;  Graves  was  coarse,  vulgar,  and 
without  skill  in  his  profession  ;  and  Rodney, 
superior  in  ability  to  either  of  them,  was  avari¬ 
cious.  His  fleet  had  been  ordered  to  the  Ches¬ 
apeake  to  assist  Cornwallis,  when  besieged  at 
Yorktown,  by  keeping  De  Grasse  at  bay;  but 
he  lingered  so  long  in  disposing  of  his  prizes 
taken  at  St.  Eustatius  (which  see),  and  in  trying 
to  escape  financial  difficulties  in  which  his  in¬ 
discriminate  seizure  of  property  had  involved 
him,  that,  pleading  ill-health,  he  sent  Sir  Sam¬ 
uel  Hood,  and  returned  to  England.  Hood  was 
ordered  to  go  to  the  Chesapeake  with  fourteen 
ships-of-the-line  and  a  fire-ship  to  form  a  junc¬ 
tion  with  Graves;  but,  instead  of  obeying  this 
order,  which  would  have  given  the  British  fleet 
great  superiority  in  strength  to  that  of  the 
French,  he  cruised  off  the  New  England  coast 
in  search  of  prizes.  The  consequence  was,  De 
Grasse  entered  the  Chesapeake  before  there  was 
a  serious  opposing  force  there  and  he  worsted 
Graves  in  a  fight  and  drove  him  away.  (See 
Naval  Engagement  off  the  Capes  of  Virginia.) 

Greed  Predominant.  After  the  siege  of  Sa- 
vaunali  and  the  possession  of  Georgia  and  the 
coast  islands  of  South  Carolina  by  the  British, 
their  power  might  have  been  permanent  in  the 
South  had  they  emancipated  and  armed  the 
slaves.  But  the  slave-trade  was  then  the  most 
lucrative  occupation  of  England,  and  the  thought 
of  slavery  being  a  sin,  and  its  abolition  a  good, 
had  not  entered  the  average  English  mind. 
The  army  would  have  opposed  the  enlistment 
of  negroes,  and  the  officers  were  more  willing  to 
share  in  the  profits  of  sending  them  to  the  West 
Indies  and  selling  them  as  slaves  than  to  gain 
advantage  for  their  country  or  for  the  good  of 
humanity.  This  greed  was  encouraged  by  the 
king  and  his  ministers.  Germain’s  instructions 


to  the  British  officers  authorized  the  confiscation 
and  sale  not  only  of  the  negroes  employed  in 
the  American  army,  but  of  those  who  volunta¬ 
rily  followed  the  British  troops  and  took  British 
protection.  Hundreds  of  confiding  negroes  were 
shipped  to  the  West  Indies  as  soldiers  and  sold 
as  slaves.  The  Indians  in  Georgia  were  em¬ 
ployed  to  catch  slaves  and  briug  them  iu.  Ev¬ 
ery  slave  was  valued  at  an  average  of  $250. 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina  were  filled  with  the 
sobs  of  numbers  of  separated  families. 

Greeley,  Horace,  an  eminent  journalist,  was 
born  at  Amherst,  N.  H.,  Feb.  3,  1811;  died  at 
Pleasantville,  Westchester  County,  N.  Y.,  Nov. 
29,  1872.  Fond  of  reading  almost  from  baby¬ 
hood,  he  felt  a  strong  desii’e  as  he  grew  to  youth 


HORACE  GREELEY. 


to  become  a  printer,  and  in  1826  became  an  ap¬ 
prentice  to  the  art  iu  Poultuey,  Yt.  He  became 
an  expert  workman.  His  parents  had  moved  to 
Erie,  Penn.,  and  during  his  minority  he  visited 
them  twice,  walking  nearly  the  whole  way.  In 
August,  1831,  he  was  in  New  York  in  search  of 
work,  with  ten  dollars  in  his  pocket.  He  worked 
as  a  journeyman  until  1833,  when  he  began  busi¬ 
ness  on  his  own  account,  with  a  partner,  print¬ 
ing  the  Morning  Post,  the  first  penny  daily  paper 
(owned  by  Dr.  H.  D.  Shepard)  ever  published. 
His  partner  (Storey)  was  drowned  in  July,  and 
Jonas  Winchester  took  his  place.  The  new  firm 
issued  the  New  Yorker,  devoted  mainly  to  cur¬ 
rent  literature,  in  1834,  of  which  Mr.  Greeley 
was  editor.  The  paper  reached  a  circulation  of 
nine  thousand,  and  continued  seven  years.  Iu 
1840  he  edited  and  published  the  Log  Cabin,  a 
campaign  paper  that  obtained  a  circulation  of 
eighty  thousand  copies;  and  on  April  10,  1841, 
he  issued  the  first  number  of  the  Daily  Tribune, 
a  small  sheet  that  sold  for  one  cent.  In  the  fall 
of  that  year  the  Weekly  Tribune  was  issued.  Mr. 
Greeley  formed  a  partnership  with  Thomas 
McElrath,  who  took  charge  of  the  business  de¬ 
partment,  and  from  that  time  until  his  death  he 
was  identified  with  the  New  York  Tribune.  Of 
Mr.  Greeley’s  career  in  connection  with  that  pa¬ 
per  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  speak,  for  it  is  gen¬ 
erally  known.  His  course  on  political  and  social 
questions  was  erratic.  He  believed  it  better,  be- 


GREELEY’S  PEACE  MISSION 


592 


GREEN  MOUNTAIN  BOYS 


fore  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  to  let  the  states  se¬ 
cede  if  the  majority  of  the  people  said  so.  Wbeu 
Jefferson  Davis  was  to  be  released  on  bail,  he 
volunteered  bis  signature  to  his  bail-bond  ;  and 
yet  during  tlie  whole  war  he  was  thoroughly 
loyal.  In  1869  he  was  the  Republican  candidate 
for  Comptroller  of  the  State  of  New  York  ;  and 
in  1872  he  accepted  a  nomination  for  President 
of  the  United  States  from  a  party  with  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  which,  and  from  men  with  whom,  lie 
had  always  been  in  tierce  antagonism.  It  is 
evident  now  that  for  a  year  or  more  Mr.  Gree¬ 
ley’s  brain,  overworked,  was  disturbed  ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  election  that  year  was  over,  and  he 
was  defeated,  his  brain,  doubly  taxed  by  anxiety 
at  the  bedside  of  a  dying  wife,  was  prostrated 
with  disease,  and  he  sank  rapidly  into  the  grave. 
Mr.  Greeley  was  the  author  of  several  books,  bis 
most  considerable  work  being  a  history  of  the 
Civil  War,  in  two  thick  volumes,  called  The 
American  Conflict.  Mr.  Greeley  died  in  a  full 
belief  in  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation, 
which  he  had  held  for  many  years. 

Greeley's  Peace  Mission.  In  the  summer 
of  1864  a  number  of  leading  conspirators  against 
the  life  of  the  Republic  were  at  the  Clifton 
House,  at  Niagara  Falls,  in  Canada,  where  they 
plotted  schemes  for  exciting  hostile  feelings  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  ;  for 
burning  Northern  cities;  rescuing  the  Confed¬ 
erate  prisoners  on  and  near  the  borders  of  Can¬ 
ada  ;  spreading  contagious  diseases  in  the  Na¬ 
tional  military  camps;  and,  ultimately,  much 
greater  mischief.  These  agents  were  visited  by 
members  of  the  Peace  Faction  (which  see).  At 
the  suggestion,  it  is  said,  of  a  conspicuous  leader 
of  that  faction,  a  scheme  was  set  on  foot  to  make 
the  loyal  people,  who  yearned  for  an  honorable 
peace,  dissatisfied  with  the  administration.  The 
Confederates  at  the  Clifton  House  employed  a 
Northern  politician  of  the  baser  sort  to  address 
a  letter  to  Horace  Greeley,  editor  of  the  New 
York  Tribune,  informing  him  that  a  delegatiou 
of  Confederates  were  authorized  to  go  to  Wash¬ 
ington  in  the  interest  of  peace  if  full  protection 
could  be  guaranteed  them.  The  kindly  heart 
of  Mr.  Greeley  sympathized  with  this  move¬ 
ment,  for  he  did  not  suspect  a  trick.  He  drew 
up  a  “Plan  of  Adjustment,”  which  he  sent,  with 
the  letter  of  the  Confederates,  to  President  Lin¬ 
coln,  and  urged  the  latter  to  respond  to  it.  The 
more  sagacious  President  had  no  confidence  in 
the  professions  of  these  conspirators;  yet,  un¬ 
willing  to  seem  heedless  of  any  proposition  for 
peace,  he  deputed  Mr.  Greeley  to  bring  to  him 
any  person  or  persons  “  professing  to  have  any 
proposition  of  Jefferson  Davis,  in  writing,  for 
peace,  embracing  the  restoration  of  the  Union 
and  abandonment  of  slavery,”  with  an  assurance 
of  safe-conduct  for  him  or  them  each  way.  Con¬ 
siderable  correspondence  ensued.  Mr.  Greeley 
went  to  Niagara  Falls.  Then  the  Confederates 
pretended  there  was  a  misunderstanding.  The 
matter  became  vexations,  and  the  President  sent 
positive  instructions  to  Greeley  prescribing  ex¬ 
plicitly  what  propositions  he  would  receive; 
namely,  for  a  restoration  of  peace,  the  integrity 
of  the  whole  Union,  and  the  abandonment  of 


slavery,  and  which  might  come  by  and  with 
the  authority  that  can  control  the  armies  then 
at  war  with  the  United  States.  This  declara¬ 
tion  was  the  grand  object  of  the  Confederates 
at  Niagara,  and  they  used  it  to  “  fire  the  South¬ 
ern  heart”  and  to  sow  the  seeds  of  discontent 
among  the  loyal  people  of  the  land. 

Green,  Bartholomew,  the  first  newspaper 
publisher  in  America,  was  born  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Oct.  12,  1666;  died  in  Boston,  Dec.  28, 
1732.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Samuel,  as  print¬ 
er,  in  Boston,  and  on  April  24,  1704,  he  issued 
the  first  number  of  the  Boston  Netvs-  Letter,  a 
publication  issued  by  him  during  his  life.  He 
published  the  Weekly  News-  Lett®',  which  was 
combined  with  the  other,  and  it  was  called  the 
Boston  Weekly  News-Letter. 

Green  Mountain  Boys.  Some  of  the  settlers 
who  had  received  grants  of  land  from  Governor 
Wentworth,  of  New  Hampshire  (see  New  Hamp¬ 
shire  Grants),  had  crossed  the  Green  Mountains 
and  occupied  lands  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Cham¬ 
plain.  Emigration  flowed  over  the  mountains 
rapidly  after  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  and  the  present  State  of  Vermont  was 
largely  covered  by  Wentworth’s  grants.  The 
authorities  of  New  York  now  proceeded  to  as¬ 
sert  their  claims  to  this  territory  under  the  char¬ 
ter  given  to  the  Duke  of  York.  Acting-govern¬ 
or  Cohlen  issued  a  proclamation  to  that  effect 
(Dec.  28,  1763),  to  which  Wentworth  replied  by 
a  counter-proclamation.  Then  the  matter,  on 
Cohlen’s  application,  was  laid  before  the  king  in 
council.  A  royal  order  was  issued  (March  13, 
1764)  which  declared  the  Connecticut  River  to 
be  the  eastei’n  boundary  of  New  York.  The  set¬ 
tlers  did  not  suppose  this  decision  would  affect 
the  titles  to  their  lands,  and  they  had  no  care 
about  political  jurisdictiou.  Land  speculators 
caused  the  New  York  authorities  to  assert  fur¬ 
ther  claims  that  were  unjust  and  impolitic.  On 
the  decision  of  able  legal  authority,  they  assert¬ 
ed  the  right  of  property  in  the  soil,  and  orders 
were  issued  for  the  survey  and  sale  of  farms  ou 
the  “  Grants”  in  the  possession  of  actual  settlers, 
who  had  bought,  paid  for,  and  improved  them. 
The  settlers,  disposed  to  be  quiet,  loyal  subjects 
of  New  York,  were  converted  into  rebellious 
foes,  determined  and  defiant.  A  new  and  pow¬ 
erful  opposition  to  the  claims  of  New  York  was 
created,  composed  of  the  sinews  and  muskets  and 
determined  wills  of  the  people  of  the  “Grants,” 
backed  by  New  Hampshire,  and,  indeed,  by  all 
New  England.  New  York  had  left  them  no  al¬ 
ternative  but  the  degrading  one  of  leaving  or 
repurchasing  their  possessions.  The  Governor 
and  Council  of  New  York  summoned  the  people 
of  the  “Grants”  to  appear  before  them  at  Alba¬ 
ny,  with  their  deeds  and  other  evidences  of  pos¬ 
session,  within  three-  months,  failing  in  which 
it  was  declared  that  the  claims  of  all  delinquents 
would  be  rejected.  No  attention  was  paid  to 
the  summons.  Meanwhile  speculators  had  been 
purchasing  from  New  York  large  tracts  of  these 
estates,  and  were  preparing  to  take  possession. 
The  settlers  sent  an  agent  to  England  to  lay 
their  case  before  the  king.  He  came  back  in 


GREEN  MOUNTAIN  STATE 


593 


GREENE 


1767  with  an  order  for  the  Governor  of  New 
York  to  abstain  from  issuing  any  more  patents 
for  lands  eastward  of  Lake  Champlain.  The 
order  was  not  ex  post  facto ,  and  the  New  York 
patentees  proceeded  to  take  possession  of  their 
purchased  lands.  The  settlers  aroused  for  re¬ 
sistance,  led  by  a  brave  and  determined  com¬ 
mander  from  Connecticut,  Ethau  Allen.  The 
men  under  his  command  called  themselves  the 
“  Green  Mountain  Boys and  for  some  years 
the  New  Hampshire  Grants  formed  a  theatre 
where  all  the  elements  of  civil  war,  excepting 
actual  carnage,  were  in  active  exercise.  In  1774 
Governor  Tryon,  of  New  York,  issued  a  procla¬ 
mation,  ordering  Ethau  Allen,  Seth  Warner,  and 
other  leaders  of  the  Green  Mountain  Boys,  to 
surrender  themselves  within  thirty  days,  or  be 
subjected  to  the  penalty  of  death.  These  lead¬ 
ers  retorted  by  offering  a  reward  for  the  arrest 
of  the  Attorney-general  of  New  York.  The  war 
for  independence  soon  broke  out  and  suspended 
the  controversy.  In  that  war  the  Green  Moun¬ 
tain  Boys  took  a  conspicuous  part. 

Green  Mountain  State.  A  popular  name  of 
Vermont,  the  principal  mountain -range  being 
the  Green  Mountains. 

Green,  Samuel,  the  second  printer  in  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  England  in  1615; 
died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1702.  He  suc¬ 
ceeded  Day  (which  see)  in  1648.  Mr.  Green  had 
nineteen  children,  and  his  descendants  were  a 
race  of  printers  in  New  England  and  in  Mary¬ 
land.  He  printed  the  Psalter,  translated  into 
the  Indian  language  by  Eliot  the  Apostle,  and 
many  other  books.  His  son  Bartholomew  print¬ 
ed,  in  April,  1704,  the  first  newspaper  ever  issued 
in  America — the  Boston  News-Letter — which  was 
continued  by  Green  and  his  successors. 

Greene  and  the  Southern  Army.  At  Char¬ 
lotte,  N.  C.,  General  Greene  assumed  command 
of  the  Southern  army.  He  found  the  troops 
without  pay  and  their  clothing  in  rags.  There 
was  hardly  a  dollar  in  the  military  chest,  and 
subsistence  was  obtained  wholly  by  impress¬ 
ment.  At  Salisbury  he  was  quartered  at  the 
house  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Steele,  a  patriot  of  the 
purest  mould.  She  heard  Greene  speak  despond- 
ingly  because  of  the  emptiness  of  the  money- 
chest.  Her  heart  was  touched ;  and  while  he 
was  at  table  she  brought  two  bags  full  of  specie, 
the  earnings  of  toil,  and  presented  them  to  him, 
saying,  “Take  these,  for  you  will  want  them, 
and  I  can  do  without  them.”  Greene  was  very 
grateful ;  and  before  he  left  her  house  he  wrote 
on  the  back  of  a  portrait  of  the  king  hanging  in 
the  room,  “O,  George,  hide  thy  face  and  mourn !” 
and  then  hung  it  up  with  its  face  to  the  wall. 

Greene,  Christopher,  was  born  at  Warwick, 
R.  I.,  in  1737;  killed  in  Westchester  County, 
N.  Y.,  May  13, 1781.  He  was  major  in  the  “  army 
of  observation”  authorized  by  the  Legislature  of 
Rhode  Island.  He  accompanied  Arnold  through 
the  wilderness  to  Quebec  in  the  fall  of  1775  (see 
Arnold's  Expedition),  and  was  made  prisoner  in 
the  attack  on  that  city  at  the  close  of  December. 
In  October,  1776,  he  was  put  in  command  of  a 
regiment,  and  was  placed  in  charge  of  Fort 
I. — 38 


Mercer,  on  the  Delaware,  which  he  gallantly  de¬ 
fended  the  next  year.  He  took  part  in  Sullivan’s 
campaign  in  Rhode  Island  in  1778,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1781  his  quarters  on  the  Croton  River 
were  surrounded  by  a  party  of  loyalists  and  he 
was  slain.  For  his  defence  of  Fort  Mercer,  Con¬ 
gress  voted  him  a  sword  in  1786,  and  it  was  pre¬ 
sented  to  his  eldest  son. 

Greene,  George  Sears,  was  boru  at  War¬ 
wick,  R.  I.,  May  6,  1801,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  iu  1823.  He  resigned  in  1836,  became 
a  civil  engineer,  and  was  employed  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  High  Bridge  and  Croton  Res¬ 
ervoir  iu  New  York  city.  Iu  January,  1862,  he 
was  appointed  colonel  of  a  New  York  volun¬ 
teer  regiment,  and  commanded  in  Auger’s  divi¬ 
sion  in  Banks’s  corps.  Having  been  appointed 
brigadier-general,  he  took  command  of  Auger’s 
division  on  the  latter’s  promotion,  and  fought 
gallantly  under  Mansfield  at  Antietam.  He  was 
in  the  battles  of  Chancellorsville  and  Gettys¬ 
burg.  He  was  wounded  at  Wauhatchie  (which 
see),  and  was  iu  eastern  North  Carolina  early 
in  1865. 

Greene,  Nathaniel,  was  born  at  Warwick, 
R.  I.,  May  27, 1742 ;  died  June  19, 1786,  and  was 
buried  at  Savannah,  Ga.  His  father  w  as  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers,  and 
the  son  was  a  birthright  Friend.  His  educa¬ 


tion  wras  confined  to  the  English  of  the  com- 
mou  school,  and  his  youth  was  spent  on  the 
farm,  in  a  mill,  or  in  a  blacksmith’s  shop.  At 
the  age  of  twenty  years  he  studied  law  and  af¬ 
terwards  military  tactics.  He  w  as  fond  of  books 
from  his  childhood.  In  1770  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Rhode  Island  Legislature,  where¬ 
in  he  held  a  seat,  a  popular  member,  until  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  command  of  the  Southern  army 
in  1780.  His  military  proclivities  caused  him  to 
be  “disowned”  by  Friends,  and  he  became  a 
member  of  a  military  company.  Three  regi¬ 
ments  of  militia  were  organized  in  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and  after  the  affair  at  Lexington,  as  an  “army 
of  observation,”  and  these  Greene,  as  provincial 
brigadier-general,  led  to  Cambridge,  where  he 
was  created  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Conti¬ 
nental  army,  June  22,  1775.  Washington  saw 


GREENE 


594 


GREENE’S  FAMOUS  RETREAT 


and  appreciated  his  soldierly  qualities,  and  in 
August,  1776,  he  was  made  a  major-general.  He 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  army  at  Tren¬ 
ton  ;  was  active  in  New  Jersey  ;  by  a  rapid 
movement  saved  the  army  from  destruction  at 
the  Brandywine  ;  was  in  the  battle  of  German¬ 
town  (Oct.  4, 1777);  and  in  March,  1778,  accepted 
the  office  of  quartermaster-general,  but  with  a 
guarantee  that  he  should  not  lose  his  right  of 
command  in  action.  This  office  he  resigned  in 
August,  1780.  In  the  battle  of  Springfield  (which 
see)  in  June,  1780,  he  was  conspicuous.  During 
Washington’s  visit  to  Hartford  (September, 
1780),  he  was  in  command  of  the  army,  and 
was  president  of  the  Court  of  Inquiry  in  the 
case  of  Major  Andr6  soon  afterwards.  (See 
Treason  of  Arnold .)  Greene  succeeded  Gates  in 
command  of  the  Southern 
army  (Oct.  14, 1780),  which 
he  found  a  mere  skeleton, 
while  a  powerfid  enemy 
was  in  front  of  it.  He  took 
command  of  it  at  Charlotte, 

N.  C.,  Dec.  4.  By  skill  and 
energy  he  brought  order 
and  strength  out  of  con¬ 
fusion,  and  soon  taught 
Cornwallis  that  a  better 
general  than  Gates  con¬ 
fronted  him.  He  made 
a  famous  retreat  through 
Carolina  into  Virginia  (see 
Greene’s  Famous  Retreat ), 
and,  turning  back,  fought 
the  British  army  at  Guil¬ 
ford  Court-house,  N.  C. 

(which  see), March  15,1781. 

Greeue  then  pushed  into 
South  Carolina, and  was  de¬ 
feated  by  Lord  Rawdon  in 
a  battle  at  Hobkirk’s  Hill 
(which  see),  April  25.  Soon 
afterwards  he  besieged  the 
fort  of  Ninety-six  (which  see),  and  on  Sept.  8 
gained  avictory  at  Eutaw  Spriug,  S.C.,for  which 
Congress  gave  him  thanks,  a  British  standard, 
and  a  gold  medal.  (See  Eutaw  Spring.)  Ex¬ 
pelling  the  British  from  the  Southern  country, 
Greene  returned  to  Rhode  Island  at  the  close 
of  the  war.  Congress  presented  him  with  two 
pieces  of  artillery.  The  State  of  Georgia  gave 
him  a  fine  plantation  a  few  miles  from  Savan¬ 
nah,  where  he  settled  in  the  fall  of  1785,  and 
died  the  next  year.  South  Carolina  also  gave 
h  ixu  a  valuable  tract  of  land.  A  monument  dedi¬ 
cated  jointly  to  Greeue  and  Pulaski  stands  in 
the  city  of  Savannah,  and  the  State  of  Rhode 
Island  has  erected  an  equestrian  statue  of  him  at 
the  national  capital,  executed  by  H.  K.  Browne. 

Greene,  Rev.  Zechariaii,  was  born  at  Staf¬ 
ford,  Conn.,  Jan.  11,  1760;  died  at  Hempstead, 
L.  I.,  June  20, 1858,  aged  ninety-eight  years.  He 
was  a  soldier  in  the  army  of  the  Revolution  ; 
became  a  minister  of  the  Gospel  and  a  settled 
pastor  on  Long  Island,  and  was  a  chaplain  in 
the  army  in  the  War  of  1812-15. 

Greene’s  Famous  Retreat.  After  the  disas¬ 


ter  at  the  Cowpens,  Cornwallis  placed  his  force 
in  light  marching  order  and  started  in  pursuit 
of  Morgan,  hoping  to  intercept  him  before  he 
could  cross  the  Catawba  River.  The  earl  or¬ 
dered  all  his  stores  and  superfluous  baggage  to 
be  burned,  and  his  whole  army  was  converted 
into  light  infantry  corps.  The  only  wagons 
saved  were  those  with  hospital  stores,  salt,  and 
ammunition,  and  four  empty  ones  for  the  sick 
and  wounded.  Sensible  of  his  danger,  Mor- 
gau,  leaving  seventy  of  his  severely  wounded 
under  a  flag  of  truce,  crossed  the  Broad  River 
immediately  after  the  battle  at  the  Cowpens, 
and  pushed  for  the  Catawba.  Cornwallis  fol¬ 
lowed  the  next  morning.  Two  hours  before 
the  van  of  the  pursuers  appeared,  Morgan  had 
passed  the  Catawba  at  Trading  Ford,  and  before 


TRADING  FORD  ON  THE  CATAWBA. 

the  British  could  begin  the  passage,  heavy  rains 
produced  a  sudden  rise  in  the  waters,  and  time 
was  given  to  Morgan  to  send  oil'  his  prisoners 
and  to  refresh  his  weary  troops.  When  Greene 
heard  of  the  affair  at  the  Cowpens,  he  put  his 
troops  in  motion  to  join  Morgan.  Pressing  for¬ 
ward  with  only  a  small  guard,  he  joined  Morgan 
two  days  after  he  had  passed  the  Catawba  (Jan. 
29,  1781),  and  assumed,  in  person,  the  command 
of  the  division.  And  now'  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  military  movements  on  record  oc¬ 
curred.  It  w  as  the  retreat  of  the  American 
army,  under  Greene,  from  the  Catawba  through 
North  Carolina  into  Virginia.  When  the  wa¬ 
ters  of  the  Cataw  ba  subsided,  Cornwallis  cross¬ 
ed  and  resumed  his  pursuit.  He  reached  the 
right  bank  of  the  Yadkin  (Feb.  3)  just  as  the 
Americans  were  safely  landed  on  the  opposite 
shore.  Again  he  was  arrested  by  the  sudden 
swelling  of  the  river.  Onward  the  flying  pa¬ 
triots  sped,  and  after  a  few'  hours  Cornwallis 
was  again  in  full  pursuit.  At  Guilford  Court¬ 
house  Greene  was  joined  (Feb.  7)  by  his  main 
army  from  Cheraw,  and  all  continued  their 
flight  towards  Virginia,  for  they  were  not  strong 


GREENE’S  TRIUMPHS  IN  THE  SOUTH  595 


GREGORY 


enough  to  give  battle.  After  many  hardships 
and  narrow  escapes,  the  Americans  reached  the 
Dan  (Feb.  15,  1781),  and  crossed  its  rising  wa¬ 
ters  into  the  friendly  bosom  of  Halifax  County, 
Ya.  When  Cornwallis  arrived,  a  few  hours  af¬ 
terwards,  the  stream  was  so  high  and  turbulent 
that  he  could  not  cross.  There,  mortified  and 
disappointed,  the  earl  abandoned  the  chase,  and, 
moving  sullenly  southward  through  North  Car¬ 
olina,  established  his  camp  at  Hillsborough. 

Greene’s  Triumphs  in  the  South.  While 
Greene  and  his  army  remained  on  the  Santee 
Hills  until  late  in  the  fall,  his  partisan  corps, 
led  by  Marion,  Sumter,  Lee,  and  others,  were 
driving  the  British  forces  from  post  to  post,  in 
the  low  country,  and  smiting  Tory  bauds  in  ev¬ 
ery  direction.  The  British  finally  evacuated  all 
their  interior  stations  and  retired  to  Charleston, 
pursued  almost  to  the  edge  of  the  city  by  the 
partisan  troops.  The  main  army  occupied  a  po¬ 
sition  between  that  city  and  Jacksonborougli, 
where  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  had  re¬ 
sumed  its  sessions.  Greene  had  failed  to  win 
victories  in  battle,  but  had  fully  accomplished 
the  object  of  his  campaign — namely,  to  liberate 
the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  from  British  rule.  In 
the  course  of  nine  months  he  had  recovered  the 
three  Southern  states,  and  at  the  close  of  1781 
he  had  all  of  the  British  troops  below  Virginia 
hemmed  within  the  cities  of  Charleston  and  Sa¬ 
vannah.  General  Wayne  and  his  little  army 
became  the  jailers  at  the  latter  place  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  1782. 

Greenough,  Horatio,  sculptor,  was  born  in 
Boston,  Sept.  6,  1805 ;  died  at  Summerville, 
Mass.,  Dec.  18, 1852.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1825.  He  evinced  a  taste  and  talent  for  the 
cultivation  of  art  in  his  early  youth,  and  soon 


HORATIO  GREENOUGH. 


after  his  graduation  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
remained  about  a  year.  On  his  return  to  Bos¬ 
ton  in  1826  ho  modelled  several  busts,  and  then 
returned  to  Italy,  making  Florence  his  resi¬ 
dence.  Ever  active,  ever  learning,  and  exceed¬ 
ingly  industrious,  he  executed  many  pieces  of 
sculpture  of  great  merit.  Among  them  was  a 
group  —  “The  Chanting  Cherubs”  —  the  first 
of  the  kind  ever  undertaken  by  an  American 
sculptor.  He  made  a  colossal  statue  of  Wash¬ 


ington,  half  nude,  in  a  sitting  posture,  for  the 
Capitol  at  Washington,  but  it  was  so  large  that 
it  could  not  be  taken  into  the  rotunda,  its  des- 
tiued  resting-place,  and  it  occupies  a  position 
before  the  eastern  front  of  the  great  building. 
He  also  executed  a  colossal  group  for  the  gov¬ 
ernment — “The  Rescue” — which  occupied  the 
artist  about  eight  years.  Besides  numerous 
statues  and  groups,  Mr.  Greenough  made  busts 
of  mauy  of  our  statesmen.  His  Life  and  Essays 
were  published  in  1853  by  his  friend  Henry  T. 
Tuckerman.  Mr.  Greenough  was  greatly  be¬ 
loved  by  those  who  were  favored  with  his  per¬ 
sonal  acquaintance  as  a  noble,  generous,  and 
kind-hearted  man. 

Greenville,  Treaty  at.  After  the  successful 
campaigns  of  General  Anthony  Wayne  against 
the  northwestern  Indian  tribes  in  1793-94,  his 
army  lay  in  winter-quarters  in  Greenville,  Darke 
Co.,  O.,  and  there,  on  the  3d  of  August,  1795,  he 
concluded  a  treaty  with  several  of  the  tribes — 
namely,  Wyaudots,  Delawares,  Sliawnoese,  Qtta- 
was,  Chippewas,  Potawatomies,  Miamis,  Eel  Riv¬ 
er  Indians,  Weas,  Piankshaws,  Kickapoos,  and 
Kaskaskias.  There  were  1130  Indian  participants 
in  making  the  treaty.  The  principal  chiefs  pres¬ 
ent  were  Tarhe,  Buckhongehelas,  Black  Hoof, 
Blue  Jacket,  and  Little  Turtle.  The  basis  of  the 
treaty  was  that  hostilities  should  permanently 
cease  and  all  prisoners  be  restored.  The  boun¬ 
dary-line  between  the  United  States  and  the 
lands  of  the  several  tribes  was  fixed. 

Gregg,  David  McM.,  was  born  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  in  1834,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1855,  entering  the  dragoon  service.  He  was  in 
expeditions  against  the  Indians  in  Washington 
Territory  and  State  of  Oregon  ( 1858-60 ),  and 
was  promoted  to  captain  of  cavalry  in  May, 
1861.  He  was  colonel  of  volunteer  cavalry 
through  the  campaign  in  Virginia  in  1862,  and 
in  November  of  that  year  was  created  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a  divis¬ 
ion  of  cavalry  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from 
December,  1862,  until  February,  1865,  when  he 
resigned.  In  August,  1864,  he  was  breveted  ma¬ 
jor-general  of  volunteers,  at  the  age  of  thirty. 

Gregory,  Francis  H.,  was  born  at  Norwalk, 
Conn., Oct.  9, 1789;  died  in  Brooklyn, N.  Y.,  Oct. 4, 
1866.  He  entered  the  United  States  navy  as 
midshipman  in  1809;  was  made  lieutenant  in 
1814  and  captain  in  1828.  He  served  under 
Chauncey  on  Lake  Ontario,  was  made  a  prison¬ 
er,  and  confined  in  England  eighteen  months. 
In  the  war  with  Mexico  he  commanded  the  frig¬ 
ate  Earitan.  His  last  sea  service  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  African  squadron.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  superintended  the  construction  of 
iron-clads.  On  July  16,  1862,  Captain  Gregory 
was  made  a  rear-admiral  on  the  retired  list. 
During  the  War  of  1812  supplies  for  the  British 
were  constantly  ascending  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Chauncey  ordered  Lieutenant  Gregory  to  capt¬ 
ure  some  of  them.  With  a  small  force  he  lay  in 
ambush  among  the  Thousand  Islands  in  the 
middle  of  June,  1814.  They  were  discovered, 
and  a  British  gunboat  was  sent  to  attack  them. 
They  did  not  wait  for  the  assault,  but  boldly 


GRENVILLE 


596 


GRENVILLE 


•lashed  upon  and  captured  their  antagonist. 
She  carried  an  18-pound  carrouade,  and  was 
manned  by  eighteen  men.  These  were  taken 
prisoners  to  Sackett’s  Harbor.  This  and  other 


FRANCIS  H.  GREGORY. 


exploits,  though  appreciated  at  the  time,  were 
not  then  substantially  rewarded,  except  by 
promotions  ;  but,  thirty  years  afterwards,  Con¬ 
gress  gave  Gregory  and  his  companion  officers 
in  the  capture  of  the  gunboat  (Sailing-masters 
Vaughan  and  Dixon)  $3000. 

Grenville,  George,  author  of  the  Stamp  Act. 
was  born  Oct.  14, 1712;  died  Nov.  13, 1770.  A  grad- 


GEORGE  GRENVILLE. 


uate  of  Cambridge  University,  a  fine  mathema¬ 
tician,  and  a  student  at  law,  he  gave  promise  of  i 


much  usefulness.  Entering  Parliament  in  1741, 
he  represented  Buckinghamshire  for  twenty- 
nine  years,  until  his  death.  In  1762  he  was  made 
Secretary  of  State ;  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
and  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  in  1763;  and  in 
1764  he  proposed  the  famous  Stamp  Act  (which 
see).  He  was  the  best  business  man  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  but  his  statesmanship  was 
narrow.  Thomas  Grenville,  who  was  one  of  the 
agents  employed  in  negotiating  the  treaty  of 
peace  in  1783,  was  his  sou. 

Grenville,  Sir  Richard,  was  born  in  the 
west  of  England  in  1540;  died  at  sea  in  1591. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  his  cousin.  When  a 
mere  youth  he  served  in  the  imperial  army  of 
Germany  against,  the  Turks,  and  on  his  return 
was  appointed  to  a  command  in  Ireland,  and 
made  sheriff  of  Cork.  In  1571  he  had  a  seat  in 
Parliament  and  was  knighted  by  Queen  Eliza¬ 
beth.  The  colonizat  ion  schemes  of  his  kinsman 
commanded  his  ardent  approval,  and  on  the  9th 
of  April,  1585,  he  sailed  from  Plymouth,  Eng.,  in 
command  of  some  ships  fitted  out  by  Raleigh, 
bearing  one  hundred  and  eighty  colonists  and  a 
full  complement  of  seamen,  for  the  coast  of  Vir¬ 
ginia.  Ralph  Lane,  a  soldier  of  distinction, 
accompanied  him  as  governor  of  the  colony. 
Thomas  Harriott,  a  distinguished  mathemati¬ 
cian  and  astronomer,  was  with  them  as  histo¬ 
rian  and  naturalist  (see  Harriott,  Thomas)’,  also 
Thomas  Cavendish,  the  eminent.  English  navi¬ 
gator,  who  sailed  around  the  earth.  Grenville 
was  more  intent  upon  plunder  and  finding  gold 
than  planting  a  colony;  the  choice  of  him  for 
commander  was  unfortunate.  Sailing  over  the 
usual  long  Southern  route,  they  did  not  reach 
the  coast  of  Florida  until  June,  and  as  they 
went  up  the  coast  they  encountered  a  storm  off 
a  point  of  land  that  nearly  wrecked  them,  and 
they  called  it  Cape  Fear.  They  finally  landed 
on  Roanoke  Island,  with  Manteo,  whom  they  had 
brought  back  from  England,  and  who  had  been 
created  Lord  of  Roanoke.  Grenville  sent  him 
to  the  mainland  to  announce  the  arrival  of  the 
English,  and  Lane  and  his  principal  companions 
soon  followed  the  dusky  peer.  For  eight  days 
they  explored  the  country  and  were  hospitably 
entertained  everywhere.  At  an  Indian  village 
a  silver  cup  was  stolen  from  one  of  the  English¬ 
men,  and  was  not  immediately  restored  on  de¬ 
mand.  Grenville  ordered  the  whole  town  to  be 
destroyed,  with  all  the  standing  maize,  or  Indian 
corn,  around  it.  This  wanton  act  kindled  a  flame 
of  hatred  in  the  bosoms  of  the  natives  that  could 
not  be  quenched.  Not  observing  this,  the  com¬ 
mander  left  the  colony  and  returned  to  Eng¬ 
land  with  the  ships.  These  all  became  pirati¬ 
cal  cruisers  on  the  seas,  and  entered  the  harbor 
of  Plymouth  on  the  18th  of  September  laden 
with  plunder  from  Spanish  galleons.  Governor 
Lane  also  treated  the  natives  cruelly,  and  they 
became  greatly  exasperated  in  spite  of  the  sooth¬ 
ing  influence  of  Harriott,  their  benefactor.  In 
mortal  fear  of  the  Indians,  their  provisions  ex¬ 
hausted,  and  no  ship  arriving  from  England, 
they  hailed  with  joy  the  appearance  of  Sir  Fran¬ 
cis  Drake,  who,  returning  from  the  West  Indies, 
touched  at  Roanoke  Island.  (  See  Drake,  Sit 


GREY 


597 


GRIFFIN 


Francis.)  They  gladly  entered  his  ship  and  re¬ 
turned  to  England.  About  three  weeks  after¬ 
wards  Grenville  arrived  there  with  three  ships, 
laden  with  provisions.  Leaving  fifteen  men  on 
the  deserted  spot  to  keep  possession  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  Grenville  again  sailed  for  England.  He  af¬ 
terwards,  as  vice-admiral,  performed  notable  ex¬ 
ploits  against  the  Spaniards,  but  finally,  in  a 
battle  with  a  large  Spanish  fleet  off  the  Azores, 
in  1591,  he  was  wounded,  made  prisoner,  and 
soon  afterwards  died. 

Grey,  Charles  (Earl),  was  born  Oct.  23, 1729 ; 
died  Nov.  14,  1807.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to 
Wolfe,  at  Quebec,  in  1759.  He  was  commis¬ 
sioned  lieutenant-colonel  in  1761,  and,  as  colo¬ 
nel,  accompanied  General  Howe  to  Boston  in 
1775,  who  gave  him  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  led  the  party  that  surprised  General  Wayne 
in  the  night.  (See  Paoli  Tavern.)  He  was  an 
active  commander  in  the  battle  of  German¬ 
town  (which  see)  and  as  a  marauder  on  the 
NeW  England  coast  in  the  fall  of  1778.  He  sur¬ 
prised  and  cut  in  pieces  Baylor’s  dragoons  at 
Tappan.  For  these  and  other  services  iu  Amer¬ 
ica  he  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in  1783. 
He  became  general  iu  1795,  and  was  elevated  to 
the  peerage  in  1801. 

Greytown,  Attack  upon.  There  was  a  lit¬ 
tle  village  on  the  Mosquito  coast  (nee  Nicaragua, 
Invasion  of)  called  San  Juan,  or  Greytown,  in 
which  some  American  citizens  resided.  They 
alleged  that  they  had  been  outraged  by  the  lo¬ 
cal  authorities  (who  were  English),  who  pro¬ 
fessed  to  derive  their  power  directly  from  the 
Mosquito  king,  or  chief,  of  a  native  tribe  so  call¬ 
ed.  An  appeal  was  made  to  the  commander  of 
a  United  States  naval  vessel,  then  lying  near. 
That  shallow  commander  (Hollins)  actually  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  bombard  the  little  town,  as  a  punish¬ 
ment  for  the  acts  of  its  authorities.  This  brought 
out  the  denunciations  of  the  English  residents, 
who  alleged  that,  by  arrangement  with  the  Mos¬ 
quito  monarch,  the  British  government  was  the 
protector  of  his  dominions.  Fo”  a  while  the 
lolly  ol  Hollins  threatened  serious  difficulties 
between  the  two  countries.  This  was  in  1852. 

Gridley,  Richard,  was  born  at  Canton, 
Mass.,  in  1711;  died  there,  June  20,  1796.  He 
was  a  skilful  engineer  and  artillerist,  and  was 
chief  -  engineer  in  the  siege  of  Louisburg,  in 
1745.  He  entered  the  service,  as  colonel  of  in¬ 
fantry,  in  1755,  was  in  the  expedition  to  Crown 
Point,  under  General  Winslow,  planned  the  for¬ 
tifications  at  Lake  George  (Fort  George  and  Fort 
William  Henry),  served  under  Amherst,  and  was 
with  Wolfe  at  Quebec.  He  retired  on  half-pay 
for  life.  Espousing  the  cause  of  the  patriots, 
he  was  appointed  chief- engineer  of  the  army 
that  gathered  at  Cambridge,  planned  the  works 
on  Bunker’s  Hill  and  Dorchester  Heights,  and 
was  in  the  battle  there,  iu  which  he  was  wound¬ 
ed.  He  was  active  iu  planning  the  fortifica¬ 
tions  around  Boston,  and  in  September,  1775, 
lie  was  commissioned  a  major-general  in  the 
provincial  army  of  Massachusetts.  He  was 
commander  of  the  Continental  artillery  until 
superseded  by  Knox. 


Grierson,  Benjamin  H.,  was  born  at  Pitts¬ 
burgh,  Penn.,  in  July,  1837  ;  went  on  the  staff  of 
General  Prentiss  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out, 
and  became  an  active  cavalry  officer.  (See  Grier¬ 
son'  s  Raid.)  He  was  made  major-general  of  vol¬ 
unteers  in  May,  1865,  and  for  his  services  in  the 
war  was  breveted  major-general  United  States 
Army  in  March,  1867.  He  had  been  commis¬ 
sioned  lieutenant-colonel  of  United  States  cav¬ 
alry  in  July,  1866. 

Grierson’s  Raid.  Some  of  Grant’s  cavalry, 
which  he  had  left  in  Tennessee,  were  making 
extensive  and  destructive  raids  while  he  was 
operating  against  Vicksburg.  On  April  17,  Colo¬ 
nel  B.  H.  Grierson,  of  the  Sixth  Illinois  Cavalry, 
left  La  Grange,  Teun.,  with  his  own  and  two 
other  regiments,  and,  descending  the  Mississippi, 
swept  rapidly  through  the  rich  western  portion 
of  that  state.  These  horsemen  were  scattered 
in  several  detachments,  striking  Confederate 
forces  here  and  there,  breaking  up  railways  and 
bridges,  severing  telegraph-wires,  wasting  pub¬ 
lic  property,  and  as  much  as  possible  diminish¬ 
ing  the  means  of  transportation  of  the  Confed¬ 
erates  in  their  efforts  to  help  their  army  at 
Vicksburg.  Finally,  on  the  2d  of  May,  having 
penetrated  Louisiana,  this  great  raid  ceased, 
when  Grierson,  with  his  wearied  troops  and 
worn-out  horses,  entered  Baton  Rouge,  where 
some  of  General  Banks’s  troops  were  stationed. 
Iu  the  space  of  sixteen  days  he  had  ridden  six 
hundred  miles,  in  a  succession  of  forced  march¬ 
es,  often  iu  drenching  raiu,  and  sometimes  with¬ 
out  rest  for  forty-eight  hours,  through  a  hostile 
country,  over  ways  most  difficult  to  travel,  fight¬ 
ing  men  and  destroying  property.  His  troops 
had  killed  and  wounded  about  one  hundred  of 
the  Confederates,  captured  and  paroled  full  five 
hundred,  destroyed  three  thousand  stand  of 
arms,  and  inflicted  a  loss  on  their  foes  of  prop¬ 
erty  valued  at  $6,000,000.  Grierson’s  loss  was 
twenty -seven  men  and  a  number  of  horses. 
During  the  twenty-eight  hours  preceding  the 
arrival  of  the  raiders  at  Baton  Rouge  they  had 
travelled  seventy -six  miles,  engaged  in  four 
skirmishes,  and  forded  the  Comite  River.  Grier¬ 
son  declared  tnar  he  found  the  Confederacy  to 
be  only  a  shell.  This  was  in  1863. 

Griffin,  Charles,  was  born  in  Licking  Coun¬ 
ty,  O.,  in  1826;  died  at  Galveston,  Texas,  Sept. 
15,  1867.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847, 
and  entered  the  artillery.  He  was  made  cap¬ 
tain  of  artillery  in  April,  1861,  and  with  his  bat¬ 
tery  fought  bravely  in  the  battle  of  Bull's  Run. 
He  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
July,  1862;  served  under  General  Porter  in  the 
campaign  against  Richmond.  He  was  active 
in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  until  the  surren¬ 
der  of  Lee  at  Appomattox  Court-house,  where, 
as  commander  of  the  Fifth  Corps,  he  received 
the  arms  and  colors  of  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia.  In  March,  1865,  ho  was  breveted 
major-general  United  States  Army,  and  received 
other  brevets  for  “  meritorious  services  during 
the  Rehellion.”  In  the  winter  of  1865  -  66  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  Department  of 
Texas. 


GRIFFIN 


598 


Griffin,  Cyrus,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1749;  | 
died  at  Yorktown,  Va.,  Dec.  14,  1810.  He  was 
educated  in  England,  was  connected  by  mar¬ 
riage  there  with  a  noble  family,  and  when  the 
Revolution  broke  out  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  patriots.  From  1778  to  1781,  and  in  1787— 
88,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
and  in  the  latter  year  its  president.  He  was 
commissioner  to  the  Creek  nation  in  1789,  and 
from  that  year  until  his  death  he  was  judge  of 
the  United*  States  District  Court  in  Virginia. 

Griffon,  The,  the  vessel  of  La  Salle,  on  Lake 
Erie,  was  built  early  iu  16(37,  at  the  mouth  of 
Cayuga  Creek,  not  far  below  the  site  of  Buffalo, 
and  near  the  foot  of  Squaw  Island,  She  was 
armed  with  a  battery  of  seven  small  cannons 
and  some  mnskets,  and  floated  a  flag  bearing 
the  device  of  an  eagle.  In  August,  the  same 
year,  she  sailed  for  the  western  end  of  Lake 
Erie.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  commerce 
on  the  Great  Lakes.  For  a  full  account  of  this 
vessel,  see  O.  H.  Marshall’s  monograph  on  the 
building  of  the  Griffon.  (See  La  Suite.') 

Grijalva,  Juan  de.  His  uncle,  Diego  Velas¬ 
quez,  the  first  governor  of  Cuba,  sent  him,  iu 
command  of  four  vessels,  to  complete  the  dis¬ 
coveries  of  Cordova.  (See  Cordova.)  He  sailed 
from  Santiago,  Cuba,  in  the  spring  of  1518.  He 
cruised  along  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  as  far  as 
the  region  of  the  Panuco,  where  he  held  friendly 
communication  with  the  Aztecs,  the  subjects  of 
Montezuma.  From  them  he  obtained  gold,  jew¬ 
els,  and  other  treasures,  with  which  he  freighted 
one  of  his  ships.  Grijalva  afterwards  settled  in 
Nicaragua,  where  he  was  killed  by  the  natives, 
Jan.  21,  1527.  He  was  the  tirst  discoverer  of 
Mexico. 

Grover,  Cuvier,  was  born  at  Bethel,  Me., 
July  24,  1829.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1850,  entering  the  First  Artillery.  He  was  made 
brigadier- general  of  volunteers  in  April,  1861, 
and  commanded  a  brigade  in  Heintzeliuan’s 
corps  iu  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  When 
Hooker  took  command  of  the  troops  at  Fairfax 
(1862),  General  Grover  took  that  officer’s  divis¬ 
ion.  From  December,  1862,  to  July,  1864,  he 
commanded  a  division  of  the  Nineteenth  Corps 
in  the  Department  of  the  Gulf.  He  was  in  the 
Shenandoah  campaign  in  1864;  and  from  Janu¬ 
ary  till  June,  1865,  he  was  in  command  of  the 
District  of  Savannah.  General  Grover  was  bre¬ 
veted  major-general  for  “  meritorious  services 
during  the  Rebellion,”  and  was  commissioned 
lieutenant-colonel  of  infantry  iu  1866. 

Groveton,  Battle  of.  After  the  battle  at 
Cedar  Mountain  (which  see),  Pope  took  posi¬ 
tion  with  his  army  along  the  line  of  the  Rapid 
Anna,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  troops  from 
North  Carolina,  under  Burnside  and  Stevens. 
The  Confederates  now  concentrated  their  forces 
for  a  dash  on  Washington  in  heavy  columns. 
Halleck,  perceiving  possible  danger  to  the  capi¬ 
tal,  issued  a  positive  order  to  McClellan  (Aug. 
3,  1862)  for  the  immediate  transfer  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  from  the  Janies  River  to  the  vi¬ 
cinity  of  Washington.  The  commander  of  that 
army  instructed  Halleck  that  the  “  true  defence 


GROVETON,  BATTLE  OF 

of  Washington”  was  “on  the  bauks  of  the 
James.”  The  order  was  at  once  repeated,  but 
it  was  tweuty  days  after  it  was  tirst  given  be¬ 
fore  the  transfer  was  accomplished.  Meanwhile, 
General  Lee  having  massed  a  heavy  force  on 
Pope’s  front,  the  latter  had  retired  behind  the 
forks  of  the  Rappahannock.  Lee  pushed  for¬ 
ward  to  that  river  with  heavy  columns,  and  on 
the20th  and  21st  of  August  a  severe  artillery  duel 
was  fought  above  Fredericksburg,  for  seven  or 
eight  miles  along  that  stream.  Finding  they 
could  not  force  a  passage  of  the  river,  the  Con¬ 
federates  took  a  circuitous  route  towards  the 
mountains  to  flank  the  Nationals,  when  Pope 
made  movements  to  thwart  them.  But  danger 
to  the  capital  increased  every  hour.  Troops 
were  coming  with  tardy  pace  from  the  Penin¬ 
sula,  and  ou  the  25th,  when  those  of  Franklin, 
Heintzelmau,  and  Porter  had  arrived,  Pope’s 
army,  somewhat  scattered,  numbered  about  six¬ 
ty  thousand  men.  Jackson  crossed  the  Rappa¬ 
hannock,  marched  swiftly  over  Bull’s  Run  Moun¬ 
tain,  through  Thoroughfare  Gap,  to  Gainesville 
(Aug.  26),  where  he  was  joined  by  Stuart,  with 
two  cavalry  brigades.  At  tw  ilight  Stuart  was  at 
Bristow  Station,  iu  Pope’s  rear,  and  between  the 
latter  and  Washington.  He  and  Banks  had  no 
suspicion  of  this  movement.  Jackson  knew  the 
perils  of  his  position,  and  the  necessity  for  quick 
action.  He  sent  Stuart  forward  to  Manassas 
Junction  before  daylight  (Aug.  27),  to  break  up 
Pope’s  communications  with  the  capital.  The 
alarm  instantly  spread  among  the  Nationals. 
Jackson,  with  his  whole  force,  pressed  to  the 
Junction,  and  Pope  attempted  to  capture  him 
before  he  should  form  a  junction  with  Long- 
street,  at  the  head  of  Lee’s  column,  then  ap¬ 
proaching.  Pope  ordered  McDowell,  with  Sigel 
and  the  troops  of  Reynolds,  to  hasten  to  Gaines¬ 
ville  to  intercept  Longstreet.  Reno  was  ordered 
to  move  on  a  different  road,  and  support  McDow¬ 
ell,  while  Pope  moved  along  the  railway  towards 
Manassas  Junction  with  Hooker’s  division.  He 
directed  General  Porter  to  remain  at  Warrenton 
Station  until  Banks  should  arrive  there  to  hold 
it,  and  then  hasten  to  Gainesville.  McDowell 
reached  Gainesville  without  interruption ;  but, 
near  Bristow  Station,  Hooker  encountered  Gen¬ 
eral  Ewell,  aud  in  the  struggle  that  ensued  each 
lost  about  three  hundred  men.  The  latter  hast¬ 
ened  towards  Manassas,  but  Hooker’s  ammuni¬ 
tion  failing,  he  was  unable  to  pursue.  Pope 
now  ordered  a  rapid  movement  upon  the  Con¬ 
federates  at  the  Junction,  while  General  Kearney 
was  directed  to  make  his  way  to  Bristow  Sta¬ 
tion,  where  Jackson  might  mass  his  troops  and 
attempt  to  turn  the  National  right.  This  move¬ 
ment  was  made  early  on  the  morning  of  Aug.  28, 
1862.  Porter  was  ordered  to  move  towards  Bris¬ 
tow  Station  at  one  o’clock,  but  did  not  march  be¬ 
fore  daylight,  at  which  time  Jackson  had  taken 
another  direction.  He  destroyed  an  immense 
amount  of  capt  ured  stores,  and  hastened  to  join 
Longstreet,  then  approaching  through  Thor¬ 
oughfare  Gap.  Some  of  Pope’s  troops  failed  to 
execute  orders.  The  latter  arrived  at  the  Junc¬ 
tion  just  after  Jackson  had  left,  and  pushed  all 
of  his  available  forces  upon  Centreville  iu  pur- 


599 


GUEEILLA  WARFARE 


GROVETON,  BATTLE  OF 

suit.  Kearney  drew  Jackson’s  rear-guard  out 
of  Centreville  late  in  the  afternoon  (Aug.  28), 
and  the  forces  of  the  Confederates  were  turned 
towards  Thoroughfare  Gap,  from  which  was 
coming  their  help.  Towards  evening  the  troops 
under  Ewell  and  Taliaferro  encamped  near  the 
battle-ground  of  Bull’s  Run  nearly  a  year  before. 
King’s  division  of  McDowell’s  corps  was  in  close 
pursuit,  and  when  they  had  reached  a  point  de¬ 
sired  by  the  watching  Confederates,  the  latter 
fell  fiercely  upon  them.  A  sanguinary  battle 
ensued.  The  brunt  of  it  was  borne  by  Gib¬ 
bons’s  brigade,  supported  by  that  of  General 
Doubleday.  The  struggle  continued  until  dark. 
The  losses  were  heavy,  and  in  that  battle  Gen¬ 
eral  Ewell  lost  a  leg.  Pope,  at  Centreville,  now 
attempted  to  crush  Jackson  before  Longstreet 
could  join  him.  McDowell  and  King  were  di¬ 
rected  to  maintain  their  position,  while  Kear¬ 
ney  should  follow  Jackson  closely  at  oue  o’clock 
in  the  morning  (Aug.  29),  and  Porter  (whom  he 
believed  to  be  at  the  Junction)  to  move  upon 
Centreville  at  dawn.  Before  these  movements 
could  be  executed,  Longstreet  and  Jackson  had 
formed  a  partial  junction.  Near  the  entrance 
to  Thoroughfare  Gap,  through  which  Longstreet 
had  marched,  there  was  a  sharp  engagement, 
which  ended  at  twilight.  Longstreet  was  held 
in  check  for  a  while  by  Ricketts’s  division  and 
the  cavalry  of  Buford  and  Bayard,  which  had 
fought  the  battle.  Early  the  next  morning  (Aug. 
29)  Ricketts  fled  to  Gainesville,  closely  pursued. 
Pope’s  army  was  now  scattered  and  somewhat 
confused.  Lee’s  whole  army,  now  combined, 
pressed  forward.  Pope  ordered  Sigel,  support¬ 
ed  by  Reynolds,  to  advance  from  Groveton  and 
attack  Jackson  on  wooded  heights  near.  He  or¬ 
dered  Heintzelman,  with  the  divisions  of  Hook¬ 
er  and  Kearney,  towards  Gainesville,  to  be  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Reno,  while  Porter,  with  his  own  corps 
and  King’s  division,  was  to  move  upon  the  road 
to  Gainesville  from  Manassas  for  the  turning  of 
Jackson’s  flank  on  the  Warreuton  pike,  and  (o 
fall  heavily  on  his  rear.  Lee  was  then  approach¬ 
ing  along  that  pike,  and  Jackson  determined  to 
hold  his  advantageous  position,  at  all  hazards, 
until  the  main  army  should  arrive.  At  five 
o’clock  in  the  morning,  Sigel,  with  the  divisions 
of  Schurz,  Schenck,  and  Milroy,  advanced  to  at¬ 
tack  Jackson.  A  battle  began  at  seven  o’clock, 
and  continued  with  great  fury  until  ten,  Sigel 
constantly  advancing,  while  it  was  evident  that 
Jackson  had  been  reinforced.  It 'was  so.  Long¬ 
street,  with  the  vanguard  of  Lee’s  whole  army, 
which  had  been  streaming  through  Thoroughfare 
Gap  all  the  morning  unopposed,  had  now  reach¬ 
ed  the  field  of  action.  Sigel  maintained  his 
ground  until  noon,  when  Kearney’s  division  ar¬ 
rived,  and  took  position  on  Sigel’s  right.  Rey¬ 
nolds  and  Reno  also  came  up,  followed  soon  af¬ 
terwards  by  Hooker.  Then  the  Nationals  out¬ 
numbered  the  Confederates,  and  for  some  hours 
the  battle  assumed  the  aspect  of  a  series  of  skir¬ 
mishes.  Pope  ordered  Porter  into  action,  and 
other  troops  were  directed  to  support  him  ;  but 
Porter,  as  he  alleged,  did  not  receive  the  order 
until  dusk,  and  the  brunt  of  the  battle  fell  upon 
his  intended  supports.  It  was  desperately  and 


gallantly  fought  on  both  sides.  Jackson  was 
hourly  reinforced  by  fresh  divisions  of  Lee’s 
army.  Soon  after  dark  this  sharp  and  impor¬ 
tant  battle  at  Groveton  ended,  without  victory 
on  either  side,  and  each  having  lost  about  seven 
thousand  men.  Pope’s  entire  army  (excepting 
Banks’s  force  at  Bristow  Station)  and  a  part  of 
McClellan’s  was  in  this  action.  Pope’s  effective 
men  had  been  reduced  in  numbers  by  various 
causes,  and  it  was  estimated  that  his  army  tit 
for  service  did  not  exceed  forty  thousand  men 
on  the  evening  of  the  battle  at  Groveton. 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Treaty  of.  At  Gua¬ 
dalupe  Hidalgo,  a  city  of  Mexico,  a  treaty  of 
peace,  friendship,  limits,  and  settlements  was 
concluded  Feb.  2,  1848,  between  Nicholas  P. 
Trist  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and  Don 
Luis  Gouzaga  Cuevas,  Don  Bernardo  Couto,  and 
Don  Miguel  Atristaiu  on  the  part  of  Mexico.  It 
provided  for  a  convention  for  the  provisional 
suspension  of  hostilities  ;  for  the  cessation  of 
the  blockade  of  Mexican  ports;  for  the  evacua¬ 
tion  of  the  Mexican  capital  by  the  United  States 
troops  within  a  month  after  the  ratification  of 
the  treaty,  and  the  evacuation  of  Mexican  ter¬ 
ritory  within  three  mouths  after  such  evacua¬ 
tion  ;  for  the  restoration  of  prisoners  of  war  ;  for 
a  commission  to  survey  and  define  the  bounda¬ 
ry-lines  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  ; 
for  the  free  navigation  of  the  Gulf  of  California 
and  the  Colorado  and  Green  rivers  for  United 
States  vessels ;  freedom  of  Mexicans  in  any  ter¬ 
ritory  acquired  by  the  United  States;  Indian 
incursions;  payment  of  money  to  Mexico  for 
territory  conquered  and  held,  and  of  debts  due 
citizens  of  the  United  States  by  Mexico ;  regula¬ 
tion  of  international  commerce,  and  other  minor 
regulations  about  property,  etc.  Both  govern¬ 
ments  ratified  the  treaty.  (See  Mexico,  War  with.) 

Guatimozin  (Quauhtemotzin),  the  last  king 
of  Mexico,  was  a  native  of  that  province,  and 
nephew  of  Montezuma.  On  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother,  in  1520,  he  was  raised  to  the 
throne,  and  vigorously  defended  his  capital 
against  the  Spaniards.  In  attempting  to  es¬ 
cape  he  was  made  prisoner.  He  was  inhumanly 
tortured  by  being  stretched  upon  burning  coals 
by  Cortez,  in  order  to  extort  from  him  a  revela¬ 
tion  of  more  treasure  than  was  found  in  the 
vanq-ffTshed  city.  He  was  removed  from  the 
coals  to  prison,  and,  afterwards  suspected  of 
complicity  in  an  insurrection,  he  was  hanged  by 
the  Spaniards  without  trial. 

Guerilla  Warfare  in  Missouri  and  Arkan¬ 
sas  (1862).  In  the  summer  of  1862  these  two 
states  were  overrun  by  bands  of  “guerillas,”  or 
independent  bands  of  armed  men  carrying  on 
irregular  warfare.  In  June,  1862,  Missouri  was 
erected  into  a  separate  military  district,  with 
General  J.  M.  Schofield  at  its  head.  When  Cur¬ 
tis  withdrew  to  the  Mississippi  and  left  the 
guerillas  of  Arkansas  at  liberty  to  roam  about 
as  they  pleased,  he  found  it  difficult  to  counter¬ 
act  their  influence  on  the  Secessionists  of  Mis¬ 
souri.  Price  recruited  guerilla  bands  for  active 
service,  and  these,  becoming  numerous  in  mid¬ 
summer,  were  preparing  to  seize  important  posts 


GUERILLA  WARFARE  600  GUILFORD,  BATTLE  OF 


in  Missouri.  To  meet  this  peril  Schofield  was 
authorized  to  organize  all  the  militia  of  the  state, 
and  he  soou  had  50,000  enrolled,  and  20,000  of 
them  ready  for  service.  His  entire  force  was  now 
scattered  over  Missouri  in  six  divisions,  and  for 
two  mouths  a  desperate  and  sanguinary  gueril¬ 
la  warfare  was  carried  on  in  the  bosom  of  that 
commonwealth,  the  chief  theatre  being  north 
of  the  Missouri  River.  At  Kirksville,  iu  Adair 
County,  there  was  a  desperate  fight  (Aug.  6, 
1862),  in  which  the  Confederates  were  defeated, 
with  a  loss  of  180  killed  and  500  wounded.  Soon 
after  that  the  guerilla  bands  were  mostly  broken 
up.  From  April  until  September  there  were  in 
Missouri  about  one  hundred  skirmishes.  The 
guerillas  of  Arkansas  attempted,  late  in  the 
summer,  to  aid  those  of  Missouri.  Nearly  800 
of  these  attacked  aud  captured  Independence, 
with  362  Missouri  cavalry;  and  at  about  the 
same  time  some  1500  Arkansas  guerillas  invad¬ 
ed  southwestern  Missouri.  They  joiued  other 
guerilla  bands,  and  made  sout  hwestern  Missouri 
a  battle-field.  These  roving  bauds  were  soon 
driven  out  of  Missouri,  and  formed  the  nucleus 
of  an  army  40,000  stroug,  which  was  gathered 
iu  Arkansas  under  General  T.  C.  Hiudmau,  for¬ 
merly  a  member  of  Congress. 

Guerilla  Warfare  in  Missouri  and  Arkan¬ 
sas  (1863).  The  Confederates  occupied  all  Tex¬ 
as  iu  1863,  and  carried  on  a  sort  of  guerilla  war¬ 
fare  in  Arkansas  aud  Missouri.  In  the  earlier 
months  Marmaduke  was  very  active.  Early  in 
January,  with  about  4000  men,  he  burst  sud¬ 
denly  out  of  northern  Arkansas  and  fell  upon 
Spriugfield,  in  Missouri,  but  was  repulsed,  with 
a  loss  of  200  men.  After  some  other  reverses, 
he  fell  back ;  and  at  Little  Rock,  the  capital  of 
Arkansas,  he  planned  a  formidable  raid  into  Mis¬ 
souri,  chiefly  for  seizing  National  stores  at  Cape 
Girardeau,  on  the  Mississippi.  He  invaded  the 
state  with  8000  men,  and  was  met  near  the  cape 
(April  20)  by  General  McNeill,  who,  after  a  sharp 
engagement,  drove  the  invader  out  of  Missouri. 
Other  bands  of  guerillas,  under  various  leaders, 
roamed  over  western  Arkansas,  and  at  one  time, 
in  May,  seriously  menaced  Fort  Blunt,  in  the 
Iudian  Territory.  These  were  3000  Confederates 
under  Colonel  Coffey.  There  was  a  sharp  en¬ 
gagement  at  Honey  Springs,  in  the  Indian  Terri¬ 
tory  (July  17),  between  Nationals  under  General 
Blunt  and  Confederates  led  by  General  Cooper, 
in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  with  a  loss 
in  killed,  wounded,  aud  prisoners  of  627.  The 
Nationals  lost  77  men.  A  guerilla  band,  led  by 
a  white  savage  named  Quantrell,  fell  upon  the 
defenceless  town  of  Lawrence,  in  Kansas,  on 
Aug.  13,  and  murdered  140  of  the  inhabitants. 
They  also  laid  185  buildings  in  ashes.  Near  Bax¬ 
ter’s  Springs,  on  the  Cherokee  Reservation,  while 
General  Blunt  was  on  his  way  from  Kansas  to 
Fort  Smith,  with  an  escort  of  100  cavalry,  he 
was  attacked  and  his  escort  scattered  by  600 
guerillas  led  by  Quantrell,  who  plundered  and 
burned  the  trains  of  the  Nationals.  Blunt’s 
forces  were  nearly  all  killed  or  disabled  in  the 
conflict;  his  wounded  were  murdered.  Blunt 
and  only  a  dozen  followers  escaped  to  Fort 
Blair.  At  the  close  of  September  a  Confeder¬ 


ate  force,  about  2500  strong,  led  by  Colonel  Shel¬ 
by,  made  a  raid  through  western  Missouri  in 
search  of  supplies.  They  penetrated  to  Bonne¬ 
ville  (Oct.  1),  on  the  Missouri  River,  when  they 
were  driven  back  and  out  of  the  state  by  Gen¬ 
erals  Brown  and  McNeill. 

Guess,  Gkorge  ( Sequoyah  ),  a  half  -  breed 
Cherokee  Iudian  who  invented  a  syllabic  al¬ 
phabet  of  his  native  language,  of  eighty -five 
characters.  He  was  born  about  1770;  died  at 
San  Fernando,  northern  Mexico,  iu  August,  1843. 
He  had  a  small  farm  in  the  Cherokee  country, 
was  an  ingenious  silversmith,  and  iu  1828  estab¬ 
lished  a  newspaper,  called  the  Cherokee  Phoenix. 
Guess  accompanied  his  nation  iu  their  exodus 
to  a  land  beyond  the  Mississippi. 

Guilford,  Battle  of.  Resting  his  troops  a 
while  iu  Virginia,  after  his  race  with  Cornwal¬ 
lis,  Greene  recrossed  the  Dan  into  North  Caro¬ 
lina;  aud  as  he  moved  cautiously  forward  to 
foil  the  efforts  of  Cornwallis  to  embody  the  To¬ 
ries  of  that  state,  he  found  himself  (March  1, 
1781)  at  the  head  of  about  5000  troops  in  good 
spirits.  Feeling  strong  euough  to  cope  with 
Cornwallis,  he  sought  an  engagement  with  him  ; 
and  on  the  15th  they  met  near  Guilford  Court¬ 
house,  where  they  fiercely  contended  for  the 
mastery.  The  battle-field  was  about  five  miles 
from  the  (present)  village  of  Greensborough,  in 
Guilford  County,  N.  C.  Greene  had  encamped 
within  eight  miles  of  the  earl,  on  the  evening 
of  the  14th,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  15th  he 
uioved  against  his  enemy.  The  latter  wras  pre¬ 
pared  to  receive  him.  Greene  had  disposed  his 
army  in  three  positions — the  first  at  the  edge 
of  woods  on  a  great  hill ;  the  second  iu  the  for¬ 
est,  three  hundred  yards  in  the  rear;  aud  the 
third  a  little  more  than  one  fourth  of  a  mile  iu 
the  rear  of  the  second.  The  first  line  was  com¬ 
posed  of  North  Carolina  militia,  mostly  raw  re¬ 
cruits,  nearly  1100  in  number,  commanded  by 
Generals  Butler  and  Eaton.  These  had  two 
canuons,  with  Washington’s  cavalry  on  the 
right  wing,  and  Lee’s  legion,  with  Campbell’s 
militia,  on  the  left  wing.  The  whole  were  com¬ 
manded  by  Greene  in  person.  The  British  ap¬ 
peared  iu  the  front  of  the  Americans  at  a  little 
past  noon  in  full  force,  the  right  commanded  by 
General  Leslie,  and  the  left  by  Colonel  Webster. 
Under  cover  of  a  severe  cannonade  the  British 
advanced,  delivering  a  volley  of  musketry  as 
they  approached,  and  then,  with  a  shout,  rushed 
forward  with  fixed  bayonets.  The  American 
militia  fled  after  the  first  firing  of  one  or  two 
volleys,  when  the  victors  pressed  on  aud  attack¬ 
ed  the  second  line,  composed  of  Virginia  militia 
under  Generals  Stevens  and  Lawson.  After  a 
stout  resistance  they,  too,  fell  back  upon  the 
third  line.  Up  to  this  time  the  battle  had  been 
carried  on,  on  the  part  of  the  British,  by  their 
right,  under  Leslie.  Now  Webster,  with  the 
left,  pressed  forward  with  the  right  division  iu 
the  face  of  a  terrible  storm  of  grape-shot  and 
musketry.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  two  armies 
were  now  iu  conflict.  The  battle  lasted  almost 
two  hours,  when  Greene,  ignorant  of  the  heavy 
losses  sustained  by  the  British,  ordered  a  re- 


GUNBOAT  FLEET 


601 


GUNBOATS 


treat,  leaving  bis  cannons  behind  and  Cornwal¬ 
lis  master  of  the  held.  It  was  one  of  the  most 
sanguinary  battles  of  the  war.  The  Americans 
lost  about  400  killed  and  wounded,  besides  1000 
who  deserted  to  their  homes.  The  British  loss 
was  about  600.  Among  the  fatally  wounded 
was  Colonel  Webster.  That  battle  ended  Brit¬ 
ish  domination  in  North  Carolina.  The  army 
of  Cornwallis  was  too  much  shattered  for  him 
to  maintain  the  advantage  he  had  gained.  Af¬ 
ter  issuing  a  proclamation  boasting  of  his  vic¬ 
tory,  calling  upon  the  Tories  to  rally  to  his 
standard,  and  offering  pardon  to  the  “rebels” 
who  should  submit,  he  moved  with  his  whole 
army  towards  Wilmington,  near  the  seaboard. 
The  news  of  the  battle  produced  a  profound 
sensation  in  England.  “Another  such  victory,” 
said  C.  J.  Fox,  iu  the  House  of  Commous,  “  will 
ruin  the  British  army;”  and  he  moved  (June  12, 
1781)  to  recommend  the  ministers  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  the  Americans  at  once.  William 
Pitt  (son  of  the  great  Chatham)  spoke  of  the 
war  against  the  Americans  with  great  severity. 

Gunboat  Fleet.  When  the  Confederate  line 
across  Kentucky  had  been  broken  (see  Military 
Events  in  Kentucky),  the  national  government 
determined  to  concentrate  the  forces  of  Halleck 
and  Buell  for  a  great  forward  movement  to 
push  the  Confederates  towards  the  Gulf  of  Mex¬ 
ico,  according  to  Fremont’s  plan  (which  see). 
Twelve  gunboats — some  of  them  iron-plated— 
had  been  constructed  at  St.  Louis  and  Cairo, 
and  at  the  close'  of  January,  1861,  these  were 
armed  with  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  heavy 
guns  and  some  light  artillery,  and  were  placed 
under  the  command  of  Flag-officer  A.  H.  Foote, 
of  the  United  States  Navy. 


er.  Porter  prepared,  at  the  same  time,  to  run 
by  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg  with  all  his  gun¬ 
boat  and  mortar  fleet,  with  transports  and 
barges.  The  object  was  to  cover  and  assist 
Grant’s  movement  below.  The  armored  ves¬ 
sels  were  laden  with  supplies;  so,  also,  were  1  lie 
transports.  It  was  arranged  for  the  gunboats 
to  go  down  in  single  file,  a  few  hundred  yards 
apart,  attack  the  batteries  as  they  passed,  and 
allow  the  transports  to  pass  under  cover  of  the 
smoke.  This  was  done  on  the  evening  of  April 
16,  1863.  These  vessels  were  terribly  pounded 
by  the  batteries  on  the  heights,  but  returned  the 
fire  with  spirit.  One  of  the  vessels  was  set  on 
fire,  which  burned  to  the  water’s  edge  and  sank. 
The  gantlet  was  successfully  run,  and  only  one 
man  lost  his  life  in  the  operation.  Grant  im¬ 
mediately  ordered  six  more  transports  to  do 
likewise,  and  it  was  doue. 

Gunboats.  By  the  act  of  Congress  approved 
April  21,  1806,  provision  was  made  for  the  con¬ 
struction  of  fifty  gunboats.  President  Jeffer¬ 
son  had  imbibed  very  strong  prejudice  in  favor 
of  such  vessels.  A  flotilla  of  them,  obtained 
from  Naples,  had  been  used  effectively  in  the 
war  with  Tripoli  in  1804 ;  and  they  were  favor¬ 
ites  in  the  service,  because  they  afforded  com¬ 
mands  for  enterprising  young  officers.  A  few 
had  been  built  in  the  United  States  in  1805, 
their  chief  contemplated  use  being  the  defence 
and  protection  of  harbors  and  rivers.  Then 
was  inaugurated  the  “gunboat  policy”  of  the 
government,  so  much  discussed  for  three  or  four 
years  afterwards.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
year  (1806)  the  President  announced  that  the 
fifty  gunboats  were  so  far  advanced  that  they 
might  be  put  into  commission  the  following 


GUNBOATS  IN  1807. 


Gunboat  Fleet  Running  the  Gantlet  at 
Vicksburg.  Grant  withdrew  his  forces  from 
the  bayous  above  Vicksburg  (see  Bayous  in  the 
Yazoo  River),  and  sent  them  down  the  west 
side  of  the  Mississippi,  to  cross  and  gain  the 
rear  of  Vicksburg,  on  the  line  of  the  Black  Riv- 


year.  In  December,  1807,  the  President  was 
authorized  to  procure  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
eight  additional  gunboats,  by  purchase  or  con¬ 
struction,  making  in  all  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
seven.  These  gunboats  were  variously  rigged, 
as  seen  in  the  engraving.  Some  carried  a  sin- 


GUNBOATS  ON  THE  WESTERN  RIVERS  602 


GUNPOWDER  PLOT  IN  1861 


gle  swivel  amidship,  and  others  one  in  the 
bow,  and  sometimes  one  in  the  stern.  Jeffer¬ 
son,  who  had  urged  the  construction  of  these 
little  vessels-of-war,  appears  to  have  conceived 
the  idea  that  such  a  flotilla  should  merely  be 


was  of  another  form.  It  was  two  boats  covered 
by  one  common  deck,  and  all  heavily  armored. 

Gunpowder,  Capture  of  (1775).  South  Car¬ 
olina  made  vigorous  preparations  for  war  in 
1775,  but  found  herself  greatly  lacking  in  the 


FOOTE’S  GUNBOAT  FLOTILLA,  IN  1862. 


kept  in  readiness,  properly  distributed  along  the 
coast,  but  not  actually  manned  until  necessity 
should  call  for  their  being  put  into  commission. 
For  this  proposition  he  was  ridiculed  not  only 
by  naval  officers,  but  among  the  people  at  large, 
and  he  was  denounced  by  the  oppo¬ 
sition  as  “a  dreaming  philosopher,” 
and  the  whole  gunboat  system  as 
“  wasteful  imbecility  called  by  the 
name  of  economy.”  Quite  different 
were  the  gunboats  that  performed 
most  efficient  service  on  the  Western 
rivers  during  our  late  Civil  War. 

They  were  largely  covered  with 
plates  of  iron,  moved  by  steam,  and 
armed  with  very  heavy  guns.  Foote 
(which  see)  commanded  the  first 
flotilla  of  gunboats  on  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  River.  (See  Floating  Batteries.) 

Gunboats  on  the  Western  Riv¬ 
ers.  During  the  Civil  War  gunboats 
and  “rams”  in  many  forms  were 
built  for  service  on  the  Western 
rivers.  Some  of  them  were  wooden 
structures  only,  while  others  were  of 
iron  or  covered  with  heavy  plates  of  iron.  The 
Manassas  (which  see)  had  no  appearance  of  a 
boat,  but  looked  like  a  huge  water-monster.  The 


THE  LOUISIANA. 


Louisiana  showed  another  form  of  boat.  Indeed, 
it  was  a  floating  battery,  movable  by  steam. 
This  was  a  Confederate  structure.  The  New  Fra 


quantity  of  gunpowder  needed.  The  Council 
of  Safety  ordered  a  fast-sailing  ship,  under  Cap¬ 
tain  Lamfever,  to  capture  gunpowder  and  mil¬ 
itary  stores  in  the  island  of  New  Providence. 
Just  as  he  was  about  to  sail,  with  twelve  vol¬ 


unteers,  he  was  ordered  to  intercept  a  brig  mak¬ 
ing  her  way  towards  St.  Augustine,  loaded  with 
military  stores  and  India  goods.  He  surprised 
and  boarded  the  brig,  and  took  from  her  fifteen 
thousand  pounds  of  gunpowder.  He  spiked  her 
guns,  and  soon  afterwards  arrived  at  Charles¬ 
ton  and  gave  the  powder  into  the  hands  of  the 
Committee  of  Safety.  The  victorious  vessel  had 
been  chased  to  Charleston  bar,  but  evaded  her 
pursuers.  This  powder  was  of  great  service  to 
the  cause  of  liberty  in  America. 

Gunpowder  Plot  in  1861.  In  June,  1861,  a 
proposition  was  made  to  L.  Pope  Walker,  the 
Confederate  Secretary  of  War,  to  blow'  up  the 
national  Capitol  some  time  between  the  4th  and 
6th  of  July,  1861,  at  which  time  there  would  be 
a  called  session  of  Congress,  and  its  halls,  lob¬ 
bies,  and  gallery  wronld  be  filled  with  people. 
It  was  supposed  President  Lincoln  would  also 
be  present.  The  plan  so  pleased  the  Confeder- 


THE  NEW  ERA. 


GWINNETT 


603 


“  HAIL,  COLUMBIA” 


ates  that  directions  were  given  for  a  confer¬ 
ence  between  this  modern  Gny  Fawkes  and 
Judah  P.  Benjamin,  the  Confederate  Attorney- 
general.  The  would-be  destroyer  of  a  multi¬ 
tude  of  innocent  men,  women,  and  children  de¬ 
manded  a  large  sum  of  money  for  his  proposed 
exploit.  What  arrangements  were  made  with 
him  (if  any)  have  not  been  revealed.  The 
plot  was  not  undertaken.  The  strength  of  the 
national  government  at  Washington  soon  be¬ 
came  too  manifest  to  make  such  an  undertak¬ 
ing  safe. 

Gwinnett,  Button,  a  signer  of  the  Decla¬ 
ration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  England 
about  1732  ;  died  in  Georgia,  May  27, 1777.  He 


was  a  merchant  at  Bristol,  England,  and  emi¬ 
grated  to  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1770.  He  settled 
on  St.  Catharine’s  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Geor¬ 
gia,  in  1772.  Cautious  and  doubtful,  he  took  no 
part  in  political  affairs  until  after  the  war  for 
independence  was  beguu,  when  he  became  ac¬ 
tive  in  the  patriot  cause.  He  was  chosen  a  rep¬ 
resentative  in  Congress  in  1776,  where  he  voted 
for  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
In  1777  he  was  President  of  the  Provincial  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Georgia,  and  by  hostility  to  General  McIn¬ 
tosh  excited  the  resentment  of  the  latter,  who 
challenged  Gwinnett  to  tight  a  duel.  He  ac¬ 
cepted  the  challenge,  and  on  May  15,  1776,  was 
mortally  wounded. 


H. 


Habeas  Corpus,  Suspension  of  the  Privi¬ 
lege  of  the  Writ  of.  The  second  clause  of 
Section  9,  Article  I.,  of  t  he  National  Constitution 
says  :  “  The  privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Cor¬ 
pus  shall  not  be  suspended  unless  when,  in  case 
of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may 
require  it.” 

Habersham,  Joseph,  was  born  at  Savannah, 
Ga.,  July  28,  1751;  died  there,  Nov.  17,  1815. 
His  father,  James,  who  was  born  in  England  in 
1712,  and  died  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in  1775, 
accompanied  Whitetield  to  Georgia  iu  1738,  and 


JOSEPH  HABERSHAM. 


was  secretary  of  the  province  in  1754  ;  president 
of  the  Council,  and  acting-governor  in  1769-72. 
Joseph  was  a  member  of  the  first  patriotic  com¬ 
mittee  in  Georgia  in  1774,  and  ever  afterwards 
took  an  active  part  iu  the  defence  of  the  liber¬ 
ties  of  his  country.  He  helped  to  seize  gun¬ 
powder  in  the  arsenal  in  1775,  and  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Council  of  Safety.  He  was  one  of 
a  company  who  captured  a  government  ship 
(July,  1775),  with  munitions  of  war,  including 
fifteen  thousand  pounds  of  gunpowder.  He  led 
some  volunteers  who  made  the  royal  governor, 
Wright,  a  prisoner  (Jan.  18, 1776),  and  confined 
him  to  his  house  under  a  guard.  When  Savan¬ 
nah  was  taken  by  the  British,  early  iu  1778,  he 


took  his  family  to  Virginia;  but  in  the  siege  of 
Savannah  (1779)  by  Lincoln  and  D’Estaing,  he 
held  the  office  of  colonel,  which  he  retained  till 
the  close  of  the  war.  He  was  appointed  Post¬ 
master-general  in  1795,  and  resigned  in  1801. 

Hadley,  Attack  of  Indians  upon.  At  Had¬ 
ley,  on  the  Connecticut  River,  the  Indians,  in 
the  absence  of  the  little  garrison,  attempted  the 
destruction  of  life  and  property,  Sept.  1,  1675. 
The  inhabitants  were  in  the  meeting-house,  it 
being  fast-day.  The  men  seized  their  arms  to 
defend  themselves,  their  wives,  and  their  little 
ones  from  the  merciless  barbarians.  Just  as  the 
savages  seemed  about  to  strike  a  destructive 
blow,  and  the  men,  unskilled  in  military  affairs, 
felt  themselves  almost  powerless,  a  man  with  a 
long,  flowing  white  beard  and  military  air  sud¬ 
denly  appeared,  drew  his  sword,  and,  putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  armed  men,  filled  them 
with  courage  and  led  them  to  victory.  The  bar¬ 
barians  fell  back  and  tied,  when  the  mysterious 
leader  as  suddenly  disappeared,  none  knowing 
whence  he  came  or  whither  he  went.  It  was 
Colonel  Goffe,  the  “regicide,”  who  was  then  con¬ 
cealed  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Russell,  at  Hadley. 
(See  Goffe,  William.) 

“Hail,  Columbia  !”  a  stirring,  patriotic  song, 
was  written  iu  the  spring  of  1798,  when  war  with 
France  seemed  inevitable.  Mr.  Fox,  a  young 
singer  and  actor  in  the  Philadelphia  Theatre,  was 
to  have  a  benefit.  There  was  so  little  novelty  iu 
the  play-house  that  he  anticipated  a  failure.  On 
the  morning  before  the  appointed  day  he  called 
upon  Joseph  Hopkinson,  a  lawyer  and  man  of 
letters,  who  indulged  in  writing  verses,  and  said, 
“Not  a  single  box  has  been  taken,  and  I  fear 
there  will  be  a  thin  house.  If  you  will  write  me 
some  patriotic  verses  to  the  air  of  the  President’s 
March  (which  see)  I  feel  sure  of  a  full  house. 
Several  people  about  the  theatre  have  attempt¬ 
ed  it,  but  they  have  come  to  the  conclusion  it 
can’t  he  done.  I  think  you  may  succeed.”  Hop¬ 
kinson  retired  to  his  study,  wrote  the  first  verse 
and  chorus,  and  submitted  them  to  Mrs.  Hop¬ 
kinson,  who  sang  them  with  a  harpsichord  ac¬ 
companiment.  The  tune  and  words  harmonized. 
The  song  was  soon  finished,  and  the  young  actor 
received  it  the  same  evening.  Next  morning 


HAINES’S  BLUFF 


G04 


HALE 


the  theatre  placards  contained  an  announce¬ 
ment  that  Mr.  Fox  would  sing  a  new  patriotic 
song.  The  house  was  crowded ;  the  song  was 
snug,  and  the  audience  were  wild  with  delight, 
for  it  touched  the  public  heart  with  electrical 
effect  at  that  moment.  Eight  times  the  singer 
was  called  out  to  repeat  the  song.  When  it  was 
sung  the  ninth  time  the  whole  audience  arose 
and  joined  in  the  chorus.  On  the  following 
night  (April  30,  1798)  President  Adams  and  his 
wife,  and  some  of  the  heads  of  departments, 
with  their  families,  were  present,  and  the  singer 
was  called  out  time  after  time.  It  was  repeated 
night  after  night  in  the  theatres  of  Philadelphia  I 
and  other  places,  and  it  became  the  universal 
song  of  the  boys  iu  the  streets.  On  one  occasion 
a  throng  of  people  gathered  before  the  author’s 
residence,  and  suddenly  the  song  Hail , Columbia! 
from  five  hundred  voices  broke  the  stillness  of 
the  night. 

Haines’s  Bluff.  At  this  point  ou  the  Yazoo 
River  there  were  stirring  military  events  pre¬ 
paratory  to  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  General 
Sherman,  with  the  Fifteenth  Corps,  had  been 
operating  in  the  Yazoo  region,  and  when  Grant 
determined  to  change  his  base  of  supplies  to 
Grand  Gulf,  below  Vicksburg,  Sherman  was  or¬ 
dered  to  made  a  feint  against  Haines’s  Bluff’, 
which  the  Nationals  had  been  unable  to  pass. 
On  the  morning  of  April  29  he  proceeded  from 
Millikeu’8  Bend,  with  Blair’s  division,  iu  ten 
steamboats,  and  armored  and  other  gunboats, 
and  went  up  the  Yazoo.  On  the  morning  of  May 
6  the  armored  gunboats  assailed  the  fortifica¬ 
tions  at  Haines’s  Bluff’,  and  in  the  evening 
Blair’s  troops  were  landed,  as  if  with  the  inten¬ 
tion  of  making  an  attack.  The  bombardment 
was  kept  up  until  dark,  wlieu  the  troops  were 
quietly  re-embarked.  The  assault  and  menace 
were  repeated  the  next  day,  when  Sherman  re¬ 
ceived  an  order  from  Grant  to  hasten  with  his 
troops  down  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi  and 
join  him  at  Grand  Gulf.  (See  Vicksburg ,  Siege  of.) 

Hakluyt,  Richard,  was  born  about  1553; 
died  Oct.  23,  lfilfi.  Educated  at  Oxford  Univer¬ 
sity,  he  was  engaged  there  as  a  lecturer  on  cos¬ 
mography,  and  was  the  first  who  taught  the  use 
of  globes.  In  1583  he  published  an  account  of 
voyages  of  discovery  to  America ;  and  four  years 
afterwards,  while  with  the  English  ambassador 
at  Paris,  Sir  Edward  Stafford,  probably  as  his 
chaplain,  he  published  in  French  a  narrative  of 
the  voyages  of  Laudonniere  and  others;  and  in 
1587  he  published  them  in  English,  under  the 
title  of  Four  Vogages  unto  Florida.  On  his  return 
to  England  in  1589,  Hakluyt  was  appointed  by 
Raleigh  one  of  the  company  of  adventurers  for 
colonizing  Virginia.  His  greatest  work — The 
Principal  Navigations,  Vogages,  Traffieks,  and  Dis¬ 
coveries  of  the  English  Nation,  made  bg  Sea  or  over 
Land,  to  the  most  remote  and  farthest  distant  Quar¬ 
ters  of  the  Earth,  at  any  Time  within  the  Compass 
of  these  Fifteen  Hundred  Years  —  was  published 
the  same  year.  It  contains  many  curious  docu¬ 
ments,  and  is  illustrated  by  maps.  Anthony  a 
Wood,  writing  late  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
referring  to  this  great  work,  spoke  of  it  as  an 


“  honor  to  the  realm  of  England,  because  pos¬ 
sessing  many  ports  and  islands  in  America  that 
are  bare  and  barren,  and  only  bear  a  name  for 
the  present,  but  may  prove  rich  places  iu  future 
time.”  Now  nearly  sixty  million  people  are  on 
the  continent  of  North  America.  Hakluyt  was 
appointed  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1605, 
having  been  previously  prebendary  of  Bristol. 
Afterwards  he  was  rector  of  Wetheringset,  Suf¬ 
folk,  and  at  his  death  was  buried  in  Westmin¬ 
ster  Abbey.  Henry  Hudson,  who  discovered 
Spitzbergen  in  1608,  gave  the  name  of  Hakluyt’s 
Head  to  a  point  on  that  island  ;  and  Bylot  gave 
his  name  to  an  island  in  Baffin’s  Bay.  A  society 
founded  in  1846,  for  the  republication  of  early 
voyages  aud  travels,  has  taken  his  name. 

Haldimand,  Sir  Frederick,  Iv.  B.,  was  born 
at  Neuehatel,  Switzerland,  in  October,  1728; 
died  at  Y verdun,  Switzerland,  June  5, 1791.  He 
left  the  Prussian  army,  and  in  1754,  with  his 
friend  Henry  Bouquet  (which  see),  entered  the 
British  military  service.  He  came  to  America, 
in  1757,  and  as  lieutenant-colonel  distinguished 
himself  at  Ticonderoga  (1758)  and  Oswego  (1759). 
He  accompanied  Amherst  to  Montreal  iu  1760. 
In  1767  he  was  employed  iu  Florida,  and  became 
major-general  in  America  in  1772.  Returning 
to  England  in  1775  to  give  the  ministry  infor¬ 
mation  respecting  the  colonies,  he  was  commis¬ 
sioned  a  major-general  (Jan.  1, 1776),  and  in  1777 
a  lieutenant-general  and  lieutenant-governor 
of  Quebec,  where  he  succeeded  Carletou  as  gov¬ 
ernor  in  1778.  He  ruled  in  an  arbitrary  manner 
until  1784,  when  he  returned  to  England. 

Hale,  Nathan,  Death  of,  as  a  Spy.  In 
Knowlton’s  regiment  (see  Harlem  Plains,  Battle 
on)  was  a  fine  young  captain,  Nathan  Hale,  a 
trusted  officer,  and  chosen  for  the  perilous  ser¬ 
vice  of  a  spy.  At  the  house  of  Robert  Murray, 
on  the  Incleberg  (now  Murray  Hill,  iu  the  city 
of  New  York),  where  Washington  had  his  head¬ 
quarters  for  a  brief  time  while  retreating  tow¬ 
ards  Harlem  Heights,  Hale  received  instruc¬ 
tions  on  duty  from  the  commander-in-chief.  He 
entered  the  British  camp  on  Long  Island  as  a 
plain  young  farmer,  and  made  sketches  and 
notes  unsuspected.  A  Tory  kinsman  knew  and 
betrayed  him.  He  was  taken  to  Howe’s  head¬ 
quarters  at  the  Beekmau  mansion,  and  confined 
in  the  green-house  all  night.  He  frankly  avowed 
his  name,  rank,  aud  character  as  a  spy  (which 
his  papers  revealed),  aud,  without  even  the  form 
of  a  trial,  was  handed  over  to  the  provost-mar¬ 
shal  (Cunuingham)  the  next  morning  (Sept.  22, 
1776)  to  be  hanged.  That  infamous  officer  de¬ 
nied  Hale  the  services  of  a  clergyman  and  the 
use  of  a  Bible ;  but  the  more  humane  officer  who 
superintended  the  execution  furnished  him  with 
materials  to  write  letters  .to  his  mother,  his  be¬ 
trothed,  and  sisters.  These  the  brutal  Cunning¬ 
ham  destroyed  before  the  face  of  his  victim, 
while  tears  and  sobs  marked  the  sympathy  of 
the  spectators.  With  unfaltering  voice,  Hale 
said,  at  the  last  moment,  “  I  only  regret  that  I 
have  but  one  life  to  lose  for  my  country.”  Hale 
was  a  native  of  Coventry,  Conn.,  where  he 
was  born,  June  6, 1755,  and  graduated  at  Yale 


HALIFAX 


605 


HALLECK 


College  in  1773.  He  was  teaching  school  at 
New  London  when  the  affair  at  Lexington  caused 
him  to  enter  the  army  of  patriots  as  a  captain 
in  Knowlton’s  regiment.  Just  before  the  Amer¬ 
ican  army  left  New  York,  Hale,  with  an  associ¬ 
ate,  took,  at  midnight,  a  sloop  laden  with  pro¬ 
visions  from  under  the  guns  of  a  frigate. 

Halifax,  The  Earl  of,  when  only  thirty-two 
years  of  age  (1748),  was  made  First  Commis¬ 
sioner,  or  President,  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
Plantations,  which  office  he  held  for  many  years, 
though  unfitted  by  a  lack  of  statemanship,  in¬ 
tellectual  strength,  and  knowledge  of  the  wrorld, 
for  the  position.  He  was  fond  of  authority  and 
show,  but  was  totally  ignorant  of  the  character 
of  the  American  people.  He  wras  ambitious  of 
renown  ;  and,  finding  himself  virtually  the  con¬ 
troller  of  the  affairs  of  a  vast  region  of  country, 
he  resolved  to  make  a  name  to  be  honored  as 
a  wfise,  industrious,  and  energetic  executive  of¬ 
ficer.  He  failed  to  do  so. 

Hall,  Charles  Francis,  an  arctic  explorer, 
was  born  at  Rochester,  N.  H.,  in  1821 ;  died  in 
Greenland,  Nov.  8, 1871.  First  he  was  a  black¬ 
smith,  and  then  a  journalist  in  Cincinnati.  In 
1859  he  appeared  in  New  York,  and  at  a  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  Geographical  Society  he  offered  to  go 
in  search  of  the  remains  of  Sir  John  Franklin. 
Funds  for  the  purpose  were  raised,  and  in  May, 
1860,  he  sailed  from  New  London,  Conn.,  in  a 
whaling  vessel,  commanded  by  Captain  Bud- 
dington.  The  vessel  became  locked  in  the  ice. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Esquimaux, 
learned  their  language,  acquired  their  friend¬ 
ship,  and  lived  with  them  two  years,  making  his 
way  back  to  the  United  States  in  September, 
1862,  without  having  discovered  any  traces  of 
Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  party.  He  w  as  ac¬ 
companied  by  an  Esquimaux  and  his  wife.  His 
Arctic  Researches  and  Life  among  the  Esquimaux 
was  published  in  1864.  In  July  of  that  year  he 
set  out  on  another  polar  expedition,  with  Bud- 
dington,  expecting  to  be  absent  two  or  three 
years,  but  did  not  return  until  late  in  1869.  Sat¬ 
isfied  that  none  of  Franklin’s  men  were  alive, 
Hall  labored  to  induce  Congress  to  fit  out  a  ship 
to  search  for  the  supposed  open  polar  sea,  and  it 
made  an  appropriation  for  the  purpose.  A  ship 
called  the  Polaris  was  fitted  out,  and  sent  (from 
New  York,  June  29,  1871)  under  the  general 
command  of  Hall,  Bnddington  going  as  sailing- 
master,  accompanied  by  scientific  associates. 
In  August  they  reached  the  northern  settlement 
in  Greenland.  Pushing  on  northward,  the  ves¬ 
sel  reached  82°  16',  probably  the  most  northerly 
point  yet  reached.  They  wintered  in  a  cove 
(which  they  called  Polaris),  in  latitude  81°  38'. 
In  October  Hall  and  three  others  started  on  a 
sledge  expedition  northward,  and  reached  a 
point  a  few  miles  short  of  that  touched  by 
the  Polaris.  They  soon  returned,  when  Hall 
w'as  taken  sick  and  soon  afterwards  died,  it  is 
supposed  from  apoplexy.  In  August,  1872,  Cap¬ 
tain  Bnddington  attempted  to  return  with  the 
Polaris ,  but  for  weeks  was  in  the  ice-pack.  She 
was  in  great  peril,  and  preparations  were  made 
to  abandon  her.  The  boats,  provisions,  and 


nineteen  of  the  crew  were  put  on  the  ice,  but 
before  the  rest  of  them  conld  get  out  the  ves¬ 
sel  broke  loose  and  drifted  away.  Those  on 
the  ice  drifted  southward  for  one  hundred  and 
ninety-five  days,  floating  helplessly  about  two 
thousand  miles.  An  Esquimaux,  the  friend  of 
Captain  Hall,  kept  the  company  from  starving 
by  his  skill  in  seal -fishing.  The  party  were 
picked  up  in  April,  1873,  by  a  Nova  Scotia  whal¬ 
ing  steamer,  and  the  Polaris  made  a  port  on  an 
island,  where  her  crew  wintered,  made  boats 
of  her  boards,  and  set  sail  southward.  They 
were  picked  up,  June  23,  by  a  Scotch  whaler 
and  taken  to  Dundee. 

Hall,  Dominick  Augustine,  was  born  in 
South  Carolina  in  1765;  died  in  New  Orleans, 
Dec.  19, 1820.  He  was  district  judge  of  Orleans 
Territory  from  1809  till  it  became  the  State  of 
Louisiana  in  1812,  when  he  wras  appointed  Unit¬ 
ed  States  judge  of  the  state.  While  the  city  of 
New  Orleans  was  under  martial  law  early  in 
1815,  General  Jackson  caused  Judge  Hall’s  ar¬ 
rest  for  interfering  with  the  operation  of  that 
law.  On  his  release,  in  March,  he  summoned 
Jackson  to  answ  er  for  contempt  of  court,  and 
fined  him  $1000.  (See  Jackson,  Andrew.) 

Hall,  Gordon,  first  American  missionary  to 
Bombay,  was  born  in  Tolland  County,  Mass., 
April  8,  1784;  died  of  cholera  in  India,  March 
20,  1826.  He  was  ordained  at  Salem  in  1812, 
and  sailed  for  Calcutta,  where  he  arrived  in 
February,  1813,  and  spent  thirteen  years  there 
in  missionary  labors. 

Hall,  Lyman,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born  in  Connecticut  in  1725  ; 
died  in  Burke  County,  Ga.,  Oct.  19,  1790.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1747,  and,  becoming 
a  physician,  he  established  himself  at  Sunbnry, 
Ga.,  where  lie  w'as  very  successful.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Georgia  Convention  in  1774-75, 
and  was  influential  in  causing  Georgia  to  join 
the  Confederacy.  He  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to 
Congress  in  March,  1775,  by  the  Parish  of  St. 
John,  and  in  July  was  elected  a  delegate  by  the 
Provincial  Convention  of  Georgia  (which  see). 
He  remained  in  Congress  until  1780,  when  the 
invasion  of  the  state  caused  him  to  hasten  home. 
He  wras  governor  of  Georgia  in  1783. 

Halleck,  Fitz-  Greene,  poet,  w'as  born  at 
Guilford,  Conn.,  July  8,1790;  died  there,  Nov.  9, 
1867.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  years  he  became 
a  clerk  in  the  banking-house  of  Jacob  Barker, 
and  was  long  a  confidential  clerk  with  John 
Jacob  Astor,  who  made  him  one  of  the  first 
trustees  of  the  Astor  Library.  From  early  boy¬ 
hood  he  wrote  verses.  With  Joseph  Rodman 
Drake,  he  wrote  the  humorous  series  known  as 
The  Croker  Papers  for  the  Evening  Post  in  1819. 
His  longest  poem,  Fanny,  a  satire  upon  the  liter¬ 
ature  and  politics  of  the  times,  was  published  in 
1821.  The  next  year  he  went  to  Europe,  and  in 
1827  his  Alnwick  Castle,  Marco  Bozzaris,  and  oth¬ 
er  poems  were  published  in  a  volume.  Halleck 
was  a  genuine  poet,  but  he  wrote  comparatively 
little.  His  pieces  of  importance  are  only  thir¬ 
ty-two  in  number,  and  altogether  comprise  only 
about  four  thousand  lines.  Yet  he  wrote  with 


HALLECK 


606 


HAMILTON 


great  facility.  His  Fanny,  in  tlie  measure  of 
Byron’s  Don  Juan,  was  completed  and  printed 
within  three  weeks  after  it  was  begun.  Late 
in  life  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Halleck,  Henry  Wager,  was  horn  at  Wa- 
terville,  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1814  ;  died  at  Lou¬ 
isville,  Ky.,  Jan.  9,  1872.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1839,  entering  the  engineer  corps. 
Until  June,  1840,  he  was  assistant  professor  at 


HENRY  WAGER  HALLECK. 


West  Point,  and  from  1841  to  1844  he  was  em¬ 
ployed  on  the  fortifications  in  New  York  harbor. 
In  1845  he  visited  the  military  establishments 
of  Europe.  In  the  winter  of  1845-46  he  deliv¬ 
ered  at  the  Lowell  Institute,  Boston,  a  series  of 
lectures  on  the  science  of  war,  since  published 
in  book  form  with  the  title  of  Elements  of  Military 
Art  and  Science.  He  served  in  California  and  on 
the  Pacific  coast  during  the  war  with  Mexico, 
in  which  he  distinguished  himself.  He  was  on 
the  statf  of  Commodore  Shubrick  at  the  capture 
of  Mazatlan,  and  was  made  lieutenant-govern¬ 
or.  From  Aug.  13, 1847,  to  Dec.  20, 1849,  he  was 
Secretary  of  the  Province  and  Territory  of  Cali¬ 
fornia,  and  had  a  large  share  in  preparing  the 
state  constitution.  He  left  the  army  in  1854, 
and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  San  Francisco. 
In  August,  1861,  Halleck  was  apipointed  a  major- 
general  of  the  United  States  Army,  and  succeed¬ 
ed  Fremont  in  command  of  the  Western  De¬ 
partment  in  November.  In  1862  he  took  com¬ 
mand  of  the  army  before  Corinth,  and  in  July 
of  that  year  he  was  appointed  general-in-cliief, 
and  held  that  position  until  superseded  by 
Grant,  when  he  became  cliief-of-staff  in  the 
United  States  Army,  which  position  he  held  till 
April,  1865,  when  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  Military  Division  of  the  James,  with  his 
headquarters  at  Richmond.  In  August  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Division  of  the  Pacific,  and 
in  March,  1869,  to  that  of  the  South,  with  head¬ 
quarters  at  Louisville.  General  Halleck  pub¬ 
lished  several  works  upon  military  and  scien¬ 
tific  topics. 

Hamet,  Caramelli,  claimed  to  be  the  lawful 
incumbeut  of  the  seat  of  power  at  Tripoli.  The 
reigning  Bey,  his  brother,  was  considered  a 
usurper.  Hamet  had  fled  to  Egypt  for  the  pro¬ 


tection  of  the  viceroy.  General  Eaton  agreed  to 
assist  Hamet  in  procuring  a  restoration  of  his 
rights,  but  failed  through  the  conclusion  of  a 
peace  bet  ween  the  ruler  of  Tripoli  and  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  in  1805.  (See  Tripoli,  War  with.)  Ha¬ 
met  was  left  at  Syracuse,  with  a  large  family,  by 
an  American  vessel,  and  without  any  means  of 
support.  He  sent  an  indignant  letter  to  the 
United  States  government,  complaining  of  bad 
faitli,  and  Congress  voted  him  $2400  for  his  tem¬ 
porary  relief. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  was  born  at  Nevis, 
W.  I.,  Jan.  11, 1757  ;  mortally  wounded  in  a  duel 
July  11, 1804.  His  father  was  a  Scotchman  ;  his 
mother,  of  Huguenot  descent.  He  came  to  the 
English-American  colonies  in  1772,  and  attend¬ 
ed  a  school  kept  by  Francis  Barber  (which  see) 
at  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  and  entered  King’s  (Colum¬ 
bia)  College  in  1773.  He  made  a  speech  to  a 
popular  assemblage  in  New'  York  city  in  1774, 
when  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  remarkable 
in  every  particular,  and  he  aided  the  patriotic 
cause  by  his  writings.  In  March,  1776,  he  was 
made  captain  of  artillery,  and  served  at  White 
Plains,  Trenton,  and  Princeton  ;  and  in  March, 
1777,  became  aide-de-camp  to  Washington,  and 
his  secretary  and  trusted  confidant.  He  was  of 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON. 


great  assistance  to  Washington  in  his  corre¬ 
spondence,  and  in  planning  campaigns.  In  De¬ 
cember,  1780,  he  married  a  daughter  of  General 
Philip  Schuyler,  and  in  1781  he  retired  from 
Washington’s  staff.  In  July  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  New  York  troops,  with  the 
rank  of  colonel,  and  captured  by  assault  a  re¬ 
doubt  at  Yorktown,  Oct.  14, 1781.  After  the  sur¬ 
render  of  Cornwallis  he  left  the  army;  studied 
law  ;  was  a  member  of  Congress  (1782-83),  and 
soon  took  the  lead  in  his  profession.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Legislature  in  1787, 
and  of  the  convention  at  Philadelphia,  that 
year,  that  framed  the  National  Constitution. 
With  the  aid  of  the  able  pens  of  Madison  and 
Jay,  Hamilton  put  forth  a  series  of  remarkable 
essays  in  favor  of  the  Constitution,  which,  in 
book  form,  bear  the  name  of  The  Federalist 
(which  see).  Hamilton  wrote  the  larger  half 
of  that  w’ork.  He  was  called  to  the  cabinet  of 
Washington  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and 
was  the  founder  of  the  financial  system  of  the 


HAMILTON 


607 


HAMILTON  AND  BURK 


Republic.  Having  finished  the  great  work  of 
assisting  to  put  in  motion  the  machinery  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  and  seeing  it 
in  successful  working  order,  he  resigned,  Jan. 
31,  1795,  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  ;  but 
his  pen  was  much  employed  in  support  of  the 
policy  of  the  national  government.  When,  in 
1798,  war  with  France  seemed  probable,  and 
President  Adams  appointed  Washington  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  Republic, 
Hamilton  was  made  his  second  in  command, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general.  On  the  death 
of  Washington  (December,  1799),  Hamilton  suc¬ 
ceeded  him  as  commander-in-chief,  but  the  pro¬ 
visional  army  was  soon  disbanded.  Though  op¬ 
posed  to  the  practice  of  duelling,  he  felt  com¬ 
pelled  to  accept  a  challenge  to  mortal  combat 
from  Aaron  Burr,  and  was  killed.  (See  Hamil¬ 
ton  and  Burr.) 

Hamilton  and  a  National  Government.  On 

Sept.  3,  1780,  Alexander  Hamilton  wrote  to  Du¬ 
ane,  member  of  Congress  from  New  York,  and 
expressed  his  views  on  the  subject  of  state  su¬ 
premacy  and  a  national  government.  He  pro¬ 
posed  a  call  for  a  convention  of  all  the  states 
on  the  1st  of  November  following,  with  full  au¬ 
thority  to  conclude,  finally,  upon  a  general  con¬ 
federation.  He  traced  the  cause  of  the  want  of 
power  in  Congress,  and  censured  that  body  for 
its  timidity  in  refusing  to  assume  authority  to 
preserve  the  infant  republic  from  harm.  “  Un¬ 
defined  powers,”  he  said,  “are  discretionary 
powers,  limited  only  by  the  object  for  which 
they  were  given.”  He  said  that  “  some  of  the 
lines  of  the  army,  but  for  the  influence  of  Wash¬ 
ington,  would  obey  their  states  in  opposition  to 
Congress.  .  .  .  Congress  should  have  complete 
sovereignty  in  all  that  relates  to  war,  peace, 
trade,  finance,  foreign  affairs,  armies,  fleets,  for¬ 
tifications,  coining  money,  establishing  banks, 
imposing  a  land-tax,  poll-tax,  duties  on  trade, 
and  the  unoccupied  lands.”  He  proposed  that 
the  general  government  should  have  power  to 
I>rovide  certain  perpetual  revenues,  productive 
and  easy  of  collection.  He  claimed  the  plan  of 
confederation  then  before  Congress  to  be  de¬ 
fective,  and  urged  alteration.  “  It  is  neither  fit 
for  war,”  he  said,  “  nor  for  peace.  The  idea  of 
an  uncontrollable  sovereignty  in  each  state  will 
defeat  the  powers  given  to  Congress  and  make 
our  union  feeble  and  precarious.”  He  recom¬ 
mended  the  appointment  of  joint  officers  of 
state  —  for  foreign  affairs,  for  war,  for  the  navy, 
and  for  the  treasury — to  supersede  the  “commit¬ 
tees”  and  “boards”  hitherto  employed;  but  he 
neither  favored  a  chief  magistrate  with  supreme 
executive  power,  nor  two  branches  in  the  nation¬ 
al  legislature.  The  whole  tone  of  Hamilton’s 
letter  was  hopeful  of  the  future,  though  written 
in  his  tent  in  the  midst  of  a  suffering  army. 

Hamilton  and  Burr.  In  the  winter  of  1804 
General  Alexander  Hamilton  was  in  Albany,  at¬ 
tending  to  law  business.  While  he  was  there  a 
caucus  or  consultation  was  held  by  the  leading 
Federalists  in  a  private  room  in  Lewis’s  City 
Tavern.  It  was  a  secret  meeting  to  consult  and 
compare  opinions  on  the  question  whether  the 


Federalists,  as  a  party,  ought  to  support  Col. 
Aaron  Burr  for  the  office  of  governor  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  In  a  bedroom  adjoining 
the  closed  dining-room  in  which  the  caucus  was 
held,  one  or  two  of  Burr’s  political  friends  were 
concealed,  and  heard  every  word  uttered  iu  the 
meeting.  The  characters  of  men  were  fully  dis¬ 
cussed,  aud  Hamilton,  iu  a  speech,  spoke  of  Burr 
as  an  unsuitable  candidate,  because  no  reliance 
could  be  placed  in  him.  The  spies  reported  the 
proceedings  to  their  principal,  and  on  the  17th 
of  February  (1804)  a  correspondent  of  the  Morn¬ 
ing  Chronicle  wrote  that  at  a  Federal  meeting 
the  night  before  the  “principal  part  of  Hamil¬ 
ton’s  speech  went  to  show  that  no  reliance 
ought  to  be  placed  in  Mr.  Burr.”  In  the  elec¬ 
tion  which  ensued  Burr  was  defeated,  and, 
though  Hamilton  had  taken  no  part  in  the  can¬ 
vass,  his  influence  was  such  that  Burr  attribut¬ 
ed  his  defeat  to  him.  Burr,  defeated  aud  politi¬ 
cally  ruined,  evidently  determined  on  revenge 
- — a  revenge  that  nothing  but  the  life  of  Hamil¬ 
ton  would  satiate.  Dr.  Charles  Cooper,  of  Al¬ 
bany,  had  dined  with  Hamilton  at  the  table  of 
Judge  Taylor,  where  Hamilton  spoke  freely  of 
Burr’s  political  conduct  and  principles  only,  to 
which  he  declared  himself  hostile.  Dr.  Cooper, 
in  his  zeal,  just  before  the  election,  in  published 
letters,  said:  “Hamilton  and  Kent  both  consid¬ 
er  Burr,  politically,  as  a  dangerous  man,  and  un¬ 
fit  for  the  office  of  governor.”  He  also  wrote 
that  Hamilton  and  Kent  both  thought  that 
Burr  ought  not  to  be  “trusted  with  the  reius  of 
government,”  and  added,  “  I  could  detail  a  still 
more  despicable  opinion  which  Hamilton  had 
expressed  of  Burr.”  The  latter  made  these  pri¬ 
vate  expressions  of  Hamilton  concerning  his  po¬ 
litical  character  a  pretext  for  a  challenge  to 
mortal  combat;  aud,  seizing  upon  the  word 
“despicable,”  sent  a  note  to  Hamilton,  demand¬ 
ing  “a  prompt  and  unqualified  acknowledg¬ 
ment  or  denial  of  having  said  anything  which 
warranted  such  an  expression.”  Several  notes 
passed  between  Hamilton  and  Burr,  through 
the  hands  of  friends,  in  one  of  which  Hamilton 
frankly  said  that  “  the  conversation  which  Dr. 
Cooper  alluded  to  turned  wholly  on  political  top¬ 
ics,  and  did  not  attribute  to  Colonel  Burr  any 
instance  of  dishonorable  conduct,  nor  relate  to 
his  private  character;  and  in  relation  to  any 
other  language  or  conversation  of  General  Ham¬ 
ilton  which  Colonel  Burr  will  specify,  a  prompt 
and  frank  avowal  or  denial  will  be  given.” 
This  was  all  an  honorable  man  could  ask.  But 
Burr  seemed  to  thirst  for  Hamilton’s  life,  and 
he  pressed  him  to  fight  a  duel  in  a  manner 
which,  iu  the  public  opinion  which  then  pre¬ 
vailed  concerning  the  “code  of  honor,”  Hamil¬ 
ton  could  not  decline.  They  fought  at  Wee- 
hawken  (July  11,  1804),  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Hudson  River,  and  Hamilton,  who  would  not 
discharge  his  pistol  at  Burr,  for  he  did  not  wish 
to  hurt  him,  was  mortally  wounded  and  died  the 
next  day.  The  public  excitement,  without  regard 
to  party,  was  intense.  Burr  fled  from  New  York 
and  became  for  a  while  a  fugitive  from  justice. 
He  was  politically  dead,  and  bore  the  burden  of 
scorn  and  remorse  for  more  than  thirty  years. 


HAMILTON  AND  JEFFERSON 


COS  HAMILTON’S  PLAN  FOR  GOVERNMENT 


Hamilton  and  Jefferson,  Quarrel  of.  The 
persistent  and  sometimes  violent  attacks  upon 
the  financial  policy  of  the  government,  some¬ 
times  assuming  the  aspect  of  personality  tow¬ 
ards  Hamilton,  that  appeared  in  Freneau’s  Na¬ 
tional  Gazette ,  in  1792,  at  length  provoked  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  publish  a  newspaper 
article,  over  the  signature  of  “  An  American,”  in 
which  attention  was  called  to  Freneau’s  paper  as 
the  organ  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Jeffer¬ 
son,  and  edited  by  a  clerk  employed  in  his  office. 
This  connection  was  represented  as  indelicate, 
and  inconsistent  with  Jefferson’s  professions  of 
republican  purity.  He  commented  on  the  in¬ 
consistency  and  indelicacy  of  Mr.  Jefferson  in 
retaining  a  place  in  the  cabinet  when  he  was 
opposed  to  the  government  he  was  serving,  vil¬ 
ifying  its  important  measures,  adopted  by  both 
branches  of  the  Legislature,  and  sanctioned  by 
the  chief  magistrate;  and  continually  casting 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  establishing  the  public 
credit  and  providing  for  the  support  of  the 
government.  The  paper  concluded  with  a  con¬ 
trast,  as  to  the  effect  upon  the  public  welfare, 
between  the  policy  adopted  by  the  government 
and  that  advocated  by  the  party  of  which  Jef¬ 
ferson  aspired  to  be  leader.  Freneau  denied, 
under  oath,  that  Jefferson  had  anything  to  do 
with  his  paper,  and  declared  he  had  never  writ¬ 
ten  a  line  for  it.  To  this,  “An  American”  re¬ 
plied  that  “actions  were  louder  than  words  or 
oaths,”  and  charged  Jefferson  with  being  “  the 
prompter  of  the  attacks  on  government  meas¬ 
ures  and  the  aspersions  on  honorable  men.” 
The  papers  by  “An  American”  were  at  once 
ascribed  to  Hamilton,  and  drew  out  answers 
from  Jefferson’s  friends.  To  these  Hamilton 
replied.  The  quarrel  waxed  hot.  Washington 
(then  at  Mount  Vernon),  as  soon  as  he  heard  of 
the  newspaper  war,  tried  to  bring  about  a  truce 
between  the  angry  secretaries.  In  a  letter  to 
Jefferson  (Aug.  23, 1792)  he  said  :  “  How  unfort¬ 
unate  and  how  much  to  be  regretted  it  is  that, 
while  we  are  encompassed  on  all  sides  with 
avowed  enemies  and  insidious  friends,  internal 
dissensions  should  be  harrowing  and  tearing 
out  our  vitals.”  He  portrayed  the  public  inju¬ 
ry  that  such  a  quarrel  would  inflict.  He  wrote 
to  Hamilton  to  the  same  effect.  Their  answers 
were  characteristic  of  the  two  men,  Jefferson’s 
concluding  with  an  intimation  that  he  should 
retire  from  office  at  the  close  of  Washington’s 
term.  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  were  never  rec¬ 
onciled  ;  personally  there  was  a  truce,  but  po¬ 
litically  they  were  bitter  enemies. 

Hamilton,  Andrew,  was  an  eminent  lawyer 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  died  in  Philadelphia,  Aug. 
4,  1741,  at  a  ripe  old  age.  He  acquired  much 
distinction  by  his  defence  of  the  liberty  of  the 
press  on  the  trial  of  Zenger  in  New  York  (which 
see).  He  filled  many  public  stations  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  including  that  of  Speaker  of  the  As¬ 
sembly,  which  he  resigned  in  1739  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  physical  infirmity. 

Hamilton,  Governor,  at  Detroit.  One  of 
the  most  active  promoters  of  Indian  raids  upon 
the  frontier  settlements  of  the  Americans  in  the 


Northwest  was  Colonel  Henry  Hamilton,  Lieu¬ 
tenant  -  governor  of  Detroit.  To  that  post  he 
summoned  several  Indian  nations  to  a  council 
late  in  1777 ;  and  from  that  point  he  sent  abroad 
along  the  frontiers  bands  of  savages  to  murder 
and  plunder  the  American  settlers.  Their  cru¬ 
elties  he  applauded  as  evidence  of  their  attach¬ 
ment  to  the  royal  cause.  He  gave  standing  re¬ 
wards  for  scalps,  but  offered  none  for  prisoners. 
His  war- parties,  composed  of  white  men  and 
Indians,  spared  neither  men,  women,  nor  chil¬ 
dren.  He  planned  a  confederation  of  the  tribes 
to  desolate  Virginia.  In  1778  he  wrote  to  Ger¬ 
main,  whose  favorite  he  was,  “Next  year  there 
will  be  the  greatest  number  of  savages  on  the 
frontier  that  has  ever  been  known,  as  the  Six 
Nations  have  sent  belts  around  to  encourage 
those  allies  who  have  made  a  general  alliance.” 
But  early  in  that  year  he  was  made  a  prisoner 
of  war  at  Vincennes,  and  he  was  sent  to  Vir¬ 
ginia.  (See  Clarke,  George  Itogers.)  He  had 
formed  a  conspiracy  for  the  Southern  and  North¬ 
ern  Indians  to  desolate  the  whole  frontier  from 
New  York  to  Georgia. 

Hamilton,  Schuyler,  was  born  in  New  York, 
July  25,  1822,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1841.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and 
was  acting  aid  to  General  Scott.  He  was  se¬ 
verely  wounded  in  a  hand-to-hand  engagement 
with  Mexicans.  He  was  breveted  captain,  and 
remained  on  Scott’s  staff  until  1854.  He  left 
the  army  in  1855,  but  on  the  fall  of  Sumter 
(1861)  he  joined  the  New  York  Seventh  Regi¬ 
ment  as  a  private.  He  became  aid  to  General 
Butler  at  Annapolis,  and  soon  entered  the  mil¬ 
itary  family  of  General  Scott  at  Washington. 
He  was  made  brigadier-general  in  November, 
1861,  and  accompanied  General  Halleck  to  Mis¬ 
souri,  where  he  commanded  the  district  of  St. 
Louis.  In  February,  1862,  he  commanded  a  di¬ 
vision  in  Pope’s  army  ;  and  by  the  planning  and 
construction  of  a  canal,  greatly  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  New  Madrid  and  Island  Number  Ten. 
In  September,  1862,  he  was  made  major-general 
of  volunteers.  He  resigned  in  February,  1863. 

Hamilton’s  Plan  for  a  National  Govern¬ 
ment.  Hamilton  was  afraid  of  democracy.  He 
wished  to  secure  for  the  United  States  a  strong 
government;  and  in  the  convention  at  Phila¬ 
delphia  in  1787  he  presented  a  plau,  the  chief 
features  of  which  were,  an  assembly,  to  be  elect¬ 
ed  by  the  people  for  three  years;  a  senate,  to  be 
chosen  by  electors  voted  for  by  the  people  (as 
the  President  of  the  United  States  now  is),  to 
hold  office  during  good  behavior;  and  a  gov¬ 
ernor,  also  chosen  to  rule  during  good  behavior 
by  a  similar  but  more  complicated  process.  The 
governor  was  to  have  an  absolute  negative  upon 
all  laws,  and  the  appointment  of  all  officers,  sub¬ 
ject,  however,  to  the  approval  of  the  senate. 
The  general  government  was  to  have  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  the  governors  of  the  states,  and  a 
negative  upon  all  state  laws.  The  senate  was 
to  be  invested  with  the  power  of  declaring  war 
and  ratifying  treaties.  In  a  speech  preliminary 
to  his  presentation  of  this  plan,  Hamilton  ex¬ 
pressed  doubts  as  to  republican  government  at 


HAMILTON’S  REPORT  ON  FINANCES  G09  HAMPDEN.  BRITISH  AT 


all,  and  liis  admiration  of  the  English  constitu¬ 
tion  as  the  best  model ;  nor  did  he  conceal  his 
theoretical  preference  for  monarchy,  while  he 
admitted  that,  in  the  existing  state  of  public 
sentiment,  it  was  necessary  to  adhere  to  repub¬ 
lican  forms,  but  with  all  the  strength  possible. 
He  desired  a  general  government  strong  enough 
to  counterbalance  the  strength  of  the  state  gov¬ 
ernments  and  reduce  them  to  subordinate  im¬ 
portance. 

Hamilton’s  Report  on  the  Finances  (1790). 
The  first  report  to  the  national  Congress  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  was  waited  for  with 
great  anxiety  not  only  by  the  public  creditors, 
but  by  every  thoughtful  patriot.  It  was  pre¬ 
sented  to  the  House  of  Representatives  Jan.  15, 
1790.  It  embodied  a  financial  scheme  which 
was  generally  adopted,  and  remained  the  line 
of  financial  policy  of  the  new  government  for 
more  than  twenty  years.  On  his  recommenda¬ 
tion,  the  national  government  assumed  not  only 
the  foreign  and  domestic  debts  of  the  old  gov¬ 
ernment,  incurred  in  carrying  on  the  late  war, 
as  its  own,  but  also  the  debts  contracted  by  the 
several  states  during  that  period  for  the  general 
welfare.  The  foreign  debt,  with  accrued  inter¬ 
est,  amounting  to  almost  $12,000,000,  was  due 
chiefly  to  France  and  private  lenders  in  Hol¬ 
land.  The  domestic  debt,  including  outstand¬ 
ing  Continental  money  and  interest,  amounted 
to  over  $42,000,000,  nearly  one  third  of  which 
was  accumulated  accrued  interest.  The  state 
debts  assumed  amounted  in  the  aggregate  to 
$21,000,000,  distributed  as  follows:  New  Hamp¬ 
shire,  $300,000;  Massachusetts,  $4,000,000:  Rhode 
Island,  which  came  into  the  Union  May  29, 1790, 
$200,000 ;  Connecticut,  $1,600,000  ;  New  York, 
$1,200,000  ;  New  Jersey,  $800,000  ;  Pennsylva¬ 
nia,  $2,200,000  ;  Delaware,  $200,000 ;  Maryland, 
$800,000;  Virginia,  $3,000,000 ;  North  Carolina, 
$2,400,000;  South  Carolina,  $4,000,000  ;  Georgia^ 
$300,000.  Long  and  earnest  debates  on  this  re¬ 
port  occurred  in  and  out  of  Congress.  There  was 
but  one  opinion  about  the  foreign  debt,  and  the 
President  was  authorized  to  borrow  $12,000,000 
to  pay  it  with.  As  to  the  domestic  debt,  there 
was  a  wide  difference  of  opinion.  The  Conti¬ 
nental  bills,  government  certificates,  and  other 
evidences  of  debt  were  mostly  held  by  specula¬ 
tors,  who  had  purchased  them  at  greatly  re¬ 
duced  rates  ;  and  many  prominent  men  thought 
it  would  be  proper  and  expedient  to  apply  a 
scale  of  depreciation  to  them,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  paper-money  towards  the  close  of  the  war, 
in  liquidating  them.  Hamilton  declared  such 
a  course  would  he  dishonest  and  impolitic,  and 
that  the  public  promises  should  be  met  in  full, 
in  whatever  hands  the  evidences  were  found. 
It  was  the  only  way,  he  argued  justly,  to  sustain 
public  credit.  He  proposed  the  funding  of  the 
public  debt  in  a  fair  and  economical  way  by 
which  the  creditors  should  receive  their  prom¬ 
ised  six  per  cent,  until  the  government  should 
be  able  to  pay  the  principal.  He  assumed  that 
in  five  years,  if  the  government  should  pursue 
an  honorable  course,  loans  might  be  made  for 
five,  and  even  four,  per  cent.,  with  which  the 
claims  might  be  met.  The  propositions  of 
I.— 39 


Hamilton,  though  warmly  opposed,  were  ob¬ 
viously  so  just  that  they  were  agreed  to  in 
March  (1790),  and  a  new  loan  was  authorized, 
payable  in  certificates  of  the  domestic  debt  at 
their  par  value  in  Continental  bills  of  credit 
(new  issue),  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  to  one. 
Congress  also  authorized  an  additional  loan  to 
the  amount  of  $21,000,000,  payable  in  certifi¬ 
cates  of  the  state  debts.  A  system  of  revenue 
from  imports  and  internal  excise,  proposed  by 
Hamilton,  was  adopted. 

Hampden  (  Me.  ),  British  at.  When  the 
British  had  taken  possession  of  Castine  (which 
see),  a  land  and  naval  force  was  sent  up  the 
Penobscot  River  to  capture  or  destroy  the  cor¬ 
vette  John  Adams,  which  had  fled  up  the  river 
to  the  town  of  Hampden.  The  commander  of 
the  John  Adams,  Captain  C.  Morris,  was  warned 
of  his  danger,  and  he  notified  General  John 
Blake,  Commander  of  the  Tenth  Division  of 
Massachusetts  Militia.  The  British  force  con¬ 
sisted  of  two  sloops-of-war,  a  tender,  a  large 
transport,  and  nine  launches,  commanded  by 
Commodore  Barrie,  and  700  soldiers,  led  by  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel  St.  John.  The  expedition  sailed 
on  Sept.  1,  1814,  and  the  next  morning  General 
Gosselin  took  possession  of  Belfast,  on  the  west¬ 
ern  shore  of  Penobscot  Bay,  at  the  head  of  600 
troops.  The  expedition  lauded  some  troops  at 
Frankfort,  which  marched  up  the  western  side 
of  the  river.  The  flotilla,  with  the  remainder, 
sailed  on,  and  arrived  near  Hampden  at  five 
o’clock  in  the  evening,  when  the  troops  and 
about  80  marines  were  landed  and  bivouacked. 
They  found  the  militia  assembling  to  resist 
them.  Meanwhile  Captain  Morris  had  taken 
out  of  the  John  Adams  nine  short  18-pounders, 
and  mounted  them  on  a  high  bank,  in  charge 
of  Lieutenant  Wadsworth.  With  the  remain- 
der  of  his  guns,  he  took  position  on  the  wharf, 
with  about  200  seamen  and  marines,  prepared 
to  defend  his  crippled  ship  to  the  last  extrem¬ 
ity.  She  had  been  much  damaged  by  striking 
a  rock  when  she  entered  Penobscot  Bay,  and 
had  run  up  to  Hampden  to  avoid  capture.  The 
British  detachment  landed  at  Frankfort,  and 
moved  forward  cautiously,  in  a  dense  fog,  to 
join  the  other  invaders,  with  a  vanguard  of 
riflemen.  Blake  had  sent  a  body  of  militia  to 
confront  the  invaders.  These  were  suddenly 
attacked,  when  they  broke  and  fled  in  every  di¬ 
rection,  leaving  Blake  and  his  officers  alone. 
This  panic  imperilled  the  force  that  was  to  de¬ 
fend  the  John  Adams,  when  Morris,  seeing  no 
other  means  for  the  salvation  of  his  troops  but 
in  flight,  ordered  his  guns  to  be  spiked  and  the 
vessel  set  on  fire.  This  was  done,  and  the  men 
under  Morris  fled  northward.  With  Blake  and 
his  officers  and  a  bare  remnant  of  his  command, 
Morris  retreated  to  Bangor,  and  thence  made 
his  way  overland  to  Portland.  The  British 
took  possession  of  Hampden,  and  a  part  of  their 
force — 500  strong — pushed  on  to  Bangor  with 
their  vessels.  They  met  a  flag  of  truce  with  a 
message  from  the  magistrates  of  Bangor  asking 
terms  of  capitulation.  Nothing  was  granted 
excepting  respect  for  private  property.  They 
entered  the  town,  when  Commodore  Barrie  gave 


HAMPTON,  ATTACK  UPON 


G10 


HAMPTON,  DESTRUCTION  OF 


notice  that  persons  and  property  should  be  pro¬ 
tected  if  supplies  were  cheerfully  furnished. 
This  promise  was  speedily  broken.  The  sailors 
were  given  license  to  plunder  as  much  as  they 
pleased.  Many  stores  were  robbed  of  every¬ 
thing  valuable.  The  leader  of  the  land-troops 
tried  to  protect  private  property.  The  British 
remained  in  Bangor  thirty-one  hours,  quartered 
on  the  inhabitants,  who  were  compelled  to  sigu 
a  parole  as  prisoners  of  war.  General  Blake 
was  compelled  to  sign  the  same,  and  190  citi¬ 
zens  were  thus  bound.  Having  despoiled  the 
inhabitants  of  property  valued  at  over  $20,000, 
and  burned  several  vessels,  the  marauders  de¬ 
parted,  to  engage  in  similar  work  at  Hampden 
(Sept.  5).  Barrie  allowed  the  sailors  to  commit 
the  most  wanton  acts  of  destruction.  They 
desolated  the  village  meeting-house — tore  up 


OLD  MEETING-HOUSE  (NOW  TOWN-HOUSE),  HAMPDEN. 


the  Bible  and  psalm-books  in  it,  and  demolish¬ 
ed  the  pulpit  and  pews.  As  at  Havre-de-Grace 
(which  see),  they  wantonly  butchered  cattle  and 
hogs,  and  compelled  the  selectmen  to  sign  a. 
bond  to  guarantee  the  delivery  of  vessels  then 
at  Hampden  at  Castine.  The  speedy  return  of 
peace  cancelled  the  bond.  The  total  loss  of 
property  at  Hampden  by  the  hands  of  the  ma¬ 
rauders,  exclusive  of  a  very  valuable  cargo  on 
board  the  schooner  Commodore  Decatur,  was  esti¬ 
mated  at  $44,000.  When  a  committee  at  Hamp¬ 
den  waited  upon  Barrie  and  asked  for  the  com¬ 
mon  safeguards  of  humanity,  he  replied,  “I  have 
none  for  you  ;  my  business  is  to  burn,  sink,  and 
destroy” — the  cruel  order  issued  by  Admiral 
Cochrane. 

Hampton,  Attack  upon  (1813).  The  British, 
exasperated  by  their  repulse  at  Craney  Island 
(which  see), proceeded  to  attack  the  nourishing 
little  village  of  Hampton,  near  Old  Point  Com¬ 
fort.  It  was  defended  at  the  time  by  about  450 
Virginia  soldiers,  commanded  by  Major  Staple- 
ton  Crutchtield.  They  were  chiefly  militia  in¬ 
fantry,  with  a  few  artillerymen  and  cavalry. 
They  had  a  heavy  battery  to  defend  the  water¬ 
front  of  the  camp  and  village,  composed  of  four 
6-,  two  12-,  and  one  18-pounder  cannon,  in  charge 
of  Sergeant  William  Burke.  Early  on  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  June  25,  1813,  about  2500  British  land- 
troops,  under  General  Sir  Sidney  Beckwith  (in¬ 
cluding  rough  French  prisoners,  called  Chasseurs 
Britanniques ),  landed  under  cover  of  the  guns  of 
the  Mohawlc,  behind  a  wood,  about  two  miles 
from  Hampton.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  fled; 
the  few  who  could  not  were  willing  to  trust  to 


the  honor  and  clemency  of  the  British,  if  they 
should  capture  the  town.  As  they  moved  upon 
the  village,  Crutchfield  and  his  men — infantry, 
artillery,  and  cavalry — fought  the  invaders  gal¬ 
lantly  ;  but  at  length  overwhelming  numbers, 
failure  of  gunpowder,  volleys  of  grape-shot,  and 
flights  of  Congreve  rockets  compelled  the  Amer¬ 
icans,  who  were  partially  outflanked,  to  break 
and  flee  in  the  direction  of  Yorktown.  Thus 
ended  a  sharp  battle,  in  which  the  British  lost, 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  about  fifty  men, 
and  the  Americans  about  thirty.  Of  eleven 
missing  Americans,  teu  had  fled  to  their  homes. 
The  victorious  British  now  entered  the  village 
of  Hampton,  and  Cockburn,  who  had  come  on 
shore,  and  was  in  chief  command,  gave  the 
place  up  to  pillage  and  rapine.  The  atrocities 
committed  at  that  town  upon  the  defenceless 
inhabitants  of  Hampton,  particu¬ 
larly  the  women,  were  deeply 
deplored  and  condemned  by  the 
British  authorities  and  writers. 
Cockburn,  who  was  doubtless  the 
chief  instigator  of  them,  covered 
his  name  with  dishonor  by  the 
act.  The  British  officers  who  tried 
to  palliate  the  offence  by  charg¬ 
ing  the  crimes  upon  the  French¬ 
men  were  denounced  by  the  most 
respectable  British  writers.  A 
commission  appointed  to  inves¬ 
tigate  the  matter  said,  iu  their 
report,  “The  sex  hitherto  guard¬ 
ed  by  the  soldier’s  honor  escaped  not  the  assaults 
of  superior  force.”  Leaving  Hampton,  Cockburn 
sailed  down  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  on  a 
marauding  expedition.  (See  Amphibious  War.) 

Hampton  Blockaded.  The  village  of  Hamp¬ 
ton  is  near  the  end  of  the  peninsula  between 
the  York  and  James  rivers,  Virginia.  Au  armed 
sloop  was  driven  ashore  there  by  a  gale  in  Oc¬ 
tober,  1775.  The  Hamptoniaus  took  out  her 
guns  and  munitions  of  war,  and  then  burned 
her,  making  her  men  prisoners.  Duumore  at 
once  blockaded  the  port.  The  people  called  to 
their  aid  some  Virginia  regulars  and  militia. 
Dunniore  sent  some  tenders  close  into  Hampton 
Roads  to  destroy  the  town.  The  military  march¬ 
ed  out  to  oppose  them  ;  and  when  they  came 
within  gunshot  distance  George  Nicholas,  who 
commanded  the  Virginians,  fired  his  musket  at 
one  of  the  tenders.  This  was  the  first  gun  fired 
at  the  British  in  Virginia.  It  was  followed  by 
a  volley.  Boats  sunk  in  the  channel  retarded 
the  British  ships,  and,  after  a  sharp  skirmish  the 
next  day  (Oct.  27),  the  blockaders  were  driven 
away.  One  of  the  tenders  was  taken,  with  its 
armament  and  seamen,  and  several  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  were  slain.  The  Virginians  did  not  lose  a 
man.  This  was  the  first  battle  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  in  Virginia. 

Hampton,  Destruction  of  (1861).  On  the 
night  of  Aug.  7,  1861,  the  village  of  Hampton, 
near  Fortress  Monroe  (which  see),  containing 
about  five  hundred  houses,  was  set  on  fire  by 
order  of  the  insurgent  general  Magruder,  and 
all  but  the  court-house  aud  seven  or  eight  other 


HAMPTON 


611 


HANCOCK 


buildings  were  consumed.  National  troops  liad 
occupied  Hampton  after  the  battle  of  Big  Beth¬ 
el  (which  see),  but  had  just  been  withdrawn. 
Among  other  buildings  destroyed  at  that  time 
was  the  ancient  St.  John’s  Church,  in  the  sub- 


8T.  JOHN’S  CHURCH. 

urbs  of  the  village.  It  was  the  third  oldest 
house  of  worship  in  Virginia.  The  earliest  in¬ 
scription  found  in  its  graveyard  was  1701.  Be¬ 
fore  the  Revolution  the  royal  arms,  handsomely 
carved,  were  upon  the  steeple.  It  is  said  that, 
soon  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
steeple  was  shattered  by  lightning  and  the  in¬ 
signia  of  royalty  hurled  to  the  ground.  The 
church  was  in  a  state  of  good  preservation,  and 
was  used  as  a  place  of  w  orship  according  to  the 
ritual  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
America,  until  1861. 

Hampton,  Wade,  was  born  in  South  Caroli¬ 
na  in  1754 ;  died  at  Columbia,  S.  C.,  Feb.  4, 1835. 
He  was  distinguished  as  a  partisan  officer  under 
Sumter  and  Marion  in  the  Revolution.  Was 
twice  a  member  of  Congress — from  1795  to  1797, 
and  from  1803  to  1805.  In  October,  1808,  he  was 
commissioned  a  colonel  in  the  United  States 
Army;  brigadier -general  in  1809,  and  major- 
general  March  2,  1813.  Imperious  and  over¬ 
bearing  in  his  nature  and  deportment,  he  was 
constantly  quarrelling  with  liis  subordinates. 
He  was  superseded  by  Wilkinson  in  command 
at  New  Orleans  when  the  war  broke  out  in  1812, 
and  was  put  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
North,  with  headquarters  on  the  borders  of 
Lake  Champlain.  In  that  position  he  gained  no 
honors,  and  his  career  there  was  chiefly  marked 
by  disobedience  to  the  orders  of  his  superiors. 
In  April,  1814,  he  resigned  his  commission,  and 
left  the  army.  He  was  an  extensive  land  and 
slave  owner  in  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana, 
and  passed  there  a  large  portion  of  his  later 
years.  —  His  grandson,  Wade  Hampton,  was  a 
leader  of  Confederate  cavalry  in  the  Civil  War, 
in  which  he  gained  distinction  for  boldness  and 
courage.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1879. 

Hancock  and  Adams.  (See  Adams  and  Han¬ 
cock.) 

Hancock  and  Washington.  (See  1  Vashing- 
ton’s  'Four  in  New  England  and  Official  Etiquette.) 

Hancock,  John,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Quincy, 
Mass.,  Jan.  12, 1737  ;  died  there,  Oct.  8,  1793.  He 


graduated  at  Harvard  in  1754,  and  becoming  a 
merchant  with  his  uncle,  inherited  that  gentle¬ 
man’s  large  fortune  and  extensive  business.  He 


JOHN  HANCOCK. 


was  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  Massachusetts 
“  Sons  of  Liberty”  (which  see),  and,  with  Sam¬ 
uel  Adams,  was  outlawed  by  Gage  in  June,  1775. 
Hancock  was  a  member  of  the  Provincial  As¬ 
sembly  in  1766,  and  was  chosen  President  of 
the  Provincial  Congress  in  October,  1774.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress, 
and  continued  in  that  body  until  1778.  As  Pres¬ 
ident  of  Congress,  he  first  placed  his  bold  signa¬ 
ture  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In 
February,  1778,  he  was  appointed  first  major- 
general  of  the  Massachusetts  militia,  and  took 
part  in  Sullivan’s  campaign  in  Rhode  Island  in 
August  following.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Convention  in  1780,  and  gov- 


IIANCOCK’S  HOUSE,  BOSTON. 


ernor  of  the  state  from  1780  to  1785,  and  from 
1787  till  his  death.  He  was  president  of  the  state 
convention  that  adopted  the  National  Constitu¬ 
tion.  Hancock’s  residence  was  in  a  fine  stone 


HANCOCK 


612 


HANOVERIAN  TROOPS 


mansion  on  Beacon  Street,  fronting  the  Com¬ 
mon.  It  was  built  by  bis  uncle,  Thomas  Han¬ 
cock,  from  whom  he  inherited  a  fortune. 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott,  was  born  in 
Montgomery  County,  Penn.,  Feb.  14,  1824,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1844.  He  served  in 
the  war  with  Mexico,  and  left  that  country  quar¬ 
termaster  of  his  regiment.  In  September,  1861, 
lie  was  made  brigadier- general  of  volunteers, 
and  served  in  the  campaign  on  the  Virginia 
peninsula  in  1862.  He  was  distinguished  in  the 
battles  of  South  Mountain  and  Autietam.  Hav¬ 
ing  been  made  major-general  of  volunteers  in 
November,  1862,  he  led  a  division  at  Fredericks¬ 
burg  in  December;  also  at  Chancellorsville  and 
Gettysburg,  in  1863.  Placed  in  command  of  the 
Second  Army  Corps,  he  led  it  in  the  campaign 
of  the  Arni5T  of  the  Potomac  in  1864-65.  In 
August,  1865,  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  United  States  Army,  and  in  1866  was 
breveted  major  -  general.  He  was  in  command 
of  different  military  departments  after  the  war; 
and  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presi¬ 
dency  of  the  U.  S.,  in  1880.  Died  Feb.  9, 1886. 

Hand,  Edward,  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  born 
Dec.  31,  1744;  died  at  Rockford,  Lancaster  Co., 
Penn.,  Sept.  3,  1802.  He  came  to  America  in 
the  Eighth  Royal  Irish  regiment,  in  1774,  as 
surgeon’s  mate;  resigned  his  position  on  his  ar¬ 
rival,  and  settled  in  Pennsylvania  for  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  the  medical  profession.  He  joined  a  regi¬ 
ment  as  lieutenant-colonel  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution,  and  served  in  the  siege  of  Bos¬ 
ton.  Made  colonel  iu  1776,  he  led  his  regiment 
in  the  battle  on  Long  Island,  and  also  at  Tren¬ 
ton.  In  April,  1777,  he  was  appointed  briga¬ 
dier-general  ;  and  in  October,  1778,  succeeded 
Stark  iu  command  at  Albany.  In  Sullivan’s 
campaign  against  the  Indians,  in  1779,  he  Avas 
an  active  participant.  Near  the  close  of  1780, 
Hand  succeeded  Scammel  as  adjutant-general. 
He  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1784-85,  and 
assisted  in  the  formation  of  the  Constitution  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1790. 

Hanging  Hock,  Skirmish  at  (1780).  After 
his  unsuccessful  attack  on  Rocky  Mount  (which 
see),  Colonel  Sumter  crossed  the  CataAvba,  and 
fell  upon  a  British  post  at  Hanging  Rock,  twelve 
miles  east  of  the  river  (Ang.  6,  1780),  command¬ 
ed  by  Major  Carden.  A  large  number  of  Brit¬ 
ish  and  Tories  were  there.  Among  the  former 
were  the  infantry  of  Tarleton’s  Legion.  Sum¬ 
ter  soon  dispersed  them,  when  his  men  scattered 
through  the  camp,  seeking  plunder  and  drink¬ 
ing  the  liquors  found  there.  Intoxication  fol¬ 
lowed.  The  British  rallied,  and  attacked  the 
disordered  patriots,  and  a  severe  skirmish  en¬ 
sued.  The  British  were  reinforced,  and  Sumter 
was  compelled  to  retreat ;  but  the  British  had 
been  so  severely  handled  that  they  did  not  at¬ 
tempt  to  pursue.  With  a  few  prisoners  and 
some  booty,  Sumter  retreated  towards  the  Wax- 
haw,  bearing  away  many  of  his  Avounded  men. 
The  battle  lasted  about  four  hours.  Sumter  lost 
twelve  killed  and  forty-one  wounded.  At  the 
same  time  Marion  Avas  smiting  the  British  and 
Tories  with  sudden  and  fierce  blows  among  the 


SAvamps  of  the  lower  country,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Pedee,  Pickens  was  annoying  Cruger  near 
the  Saluda,  and  Clarke  was  calling  for  the  pa¬ 
triots  along  the  Savannah  and  other  Georgia 


HANGING  ROCK. 

streams  to  drive 
Brown  from  Augus¬ 
ta.  Hanging  Rock 
is  a  huge  conglomer¬ 
ate  boulder  near  the 
Lancaster  and  Cam¬ 
den  highway,  a  feAv 
miles  east  of  the  Catawba 
River,  in  South  Carolina.  It 
is  a  shelving  rock,  twenty  f 
or  thirty  feet  in  diameter, 
lying  on  the  verge  of  a  high  bank  of  a  small 
stream,  nearly  one  hundred  feet  above  it.  Un¬ 
der  its  concavity  fifty  men  might  find  shelter 
from  lain. 


Hanover,  Cavalry  Battle  at.  General 
Meade’s  cavalry,  during  Lee’s  invasion  of  Ma¬ 
ryland,  before  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  (Avhich 
see),  was  continually  hoArering  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Confederate  army.  The  most  dashing  of  the 
cavalry  officers  of  that  time  Avere  Colonels  Kil¬ 
patrick  and  Custer.  At  about  the  same  hour 
when  Buford’s  division  occupied  Gettysburg 
(June  29,  1863),  Kilpatrick,  passing  through 
Hanover,  a  few  miles  from  Gettysburg,  was 
suddenly  surprised  by  Stuart’s  cavalry,  then  on 
their  march  for  Carlisle.  Stuart  led  in  person, 
and  made  a  desperate  charge  on  the  flank  and 
rear  of  Farnsworth’s  brigade,  at  the  eastern  end 
of  the  village.  A  severe  battle  ensued  iu  the 
town  and  on  its  borders,  when  Custer  joined  in 
the  fight  with  his  troops,  and  the  Confederates 
Avere  repulsed.  The  Nationals  lost  about  five 
hundred  men. 

Hanoverian  Troops.  King  George  III.  was 
Elector  of  Hanover,  and  when  it  was  resolved 
to  send  mercenaries  to  crush  the  rebellion  in 
America,  the  king  offered  the  use  of  Hanove¬ 
rian  troops,  and  asked  only  a  reimbursement  of 
expenses.  His  agent  for  the  purchase  of  other 
German  troops  (Colonel  William  Fawcett)  went 


HANSEN 


613 


HARMAR 


to  the  Hague  early  in  August,  1775,  and  thence 
to  Hanover,  to  receive  and  muster  into  the  ser¬ 
vice  of  Great  Britain  five  battalions  of  electo¬ 
ral  infantry  (2300  men),  who  were  employed  to 
garrison  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  and  thus  re¬ 
lease  an  equal  number  of  troops  for  service  in 
America. 

Hansen,  John,  delegate  to  the  Continental 
Congress  from  1781  to  1783,  was  born  in  Mary¬ 
land,  and  died  in  Prince  George  County,  in  that 
state,  Nov.  13,  1783.  Mr.  Hansen  was  President 
of  Congress  in  1781-82. 

Harcourt,  William,  Earl,  was  born  in.  Eng¬ 
land,  March  20,  1743 ;  died  June  18,  1830.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1759.  He  came  to  America 
in  1776,  and  distinguished  himself  by  the  capture 
of  General  Charles  Lee.  He  was  then  colonel  of 
dragoons.  This  exploit  procured  him  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  aide-de-camp  to  the  king.  He  became 
major-general  in  1782,  lieutenant-general  in 
1793,  and  commander  of  the  British  forces  in 
Holland  in  1794.  In  1798  he  became  general ; 
succeeded  to  the  title  of  earl  in  1809;  took  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  became  a  tield- 
marshal. 

Hard-Cider  Campaign.  Political  parties  are 
always  seeking  catch-words  to  use  in  a  cam¬ 
paign  with  effect  among  the  least  thoughtful 
of  the  people.  General  Harrison  lived  in  the 
growing  West,  and  his  dwelling  had  once  been 
a  log-house,  at  North  Bend,  where  he  exercised 
great  hospitality.  In  the  campaign  referred  to 
a  log-cabin  was  chosen  as  a  symbol  of  the  plain 
and  unpretentious  candidate,  and  a  barrel  of  ci¬ 
der  as  that  of  his  hospitality.  During  the  cam¬ 
paign,  all  over  the  country,  in  hamlets,  villages, 
and  cities,  log  -  cabins  were  erected  and  fully 
supplied  with  barrels  of  cider.  These  houses 
were  the  usual  gathering-places  of  the  parti¬ 
sans  of  Harrison,  young  and  old,  and  to  every 
one  hard  cider  was  freely  given.  The  meetings 
were  often  mere  drunken  carousals  that  were 
injurious  to  all,  and  especially  to  youth.  Many  a 
drunkard  afterwards  pointed  sadly  to  the  hard- 
cider  campaign  in  1840,  as  the  time  of  his  depart¬ 
ure  from  sobriety  and  respectability. 

Hardee,  William  J.,  was  born  at  Savannah, 
Ga.,  in  1818  ;  died  at  Wytheville,  Va.,  Nov.  6, 
1873.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838,  en¬ 
tering  the  Dragoons,  and  in  1860  was  lieutenant 
of  the  First  Cavalry.  Resigning  in  January, 
1861,  he  joined  the  insurgents,  and  in  June  was 
appointed  brigadier  -  general  in  the  Confeder¬ 
ate  army.  For  bravery  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh 
(which  see)  he  was  promoted  to  major-general, 
and  in  October,  1862,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general.  He  was  very  active  in 
military  operations  in  Arkansas,  Mississippi, 
Tennessee,  and  Georgia;  and  after  the  defeat 
of  the  Confederates  at  Missionaries’  Ridge,  late 
in  1863,  he  succeeded  Bragg  in  the  chief  com¬ 
mand,  until  relieved  by  General  Johnston.  He 
commanded  at  Sa  vannah  and  Charleston  at  the 
time  of  their  capture,  early  in  1865;  fought  at 
Averasborough  and  Bentonville,  N.  C.  (which 
see);  and  surrendered  with  Johnston’s  army, 
April  27,  1865. 


Harford,  Henry,  was  a  natural  son  of  Fred¬ 
erick  Calvert,  the  fifth  Lord  Baltimore,  who  was 
a  man  of  some  literary  accomplishments,  but  of 
dissolute  habits,  and  who  died  without  lawful 
issue.  He  bequeathed  the  proviuce  of  Mary¬ 
land  to  this  illegitimate  son,  who  was  then  (1771) 
a  boy  at  school.  Lord  Baltimore’s  brother-in- 
law,  Robert  Eden,  had  succeeded  Sharpe  as  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Maryland,  and  he  continued  to  admin¬ 
ister  the  government  of  the  province  in  behalf 
of  the  boy,  until  the  fires  of  the  Revolution  con¬ 
sumed  royalty  iu  all  the  provinces. 

Harker,  Chiles  G.,  was  born  at  Swedes- 
borough,  N.  J.,  Dec.  2, 1837 ;  killed  near  Kenesaw 
Mountain,  June  27, 1864.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1858,  and  in  the  fall  of  1861  was  colo¬ 
nel  of  Ohio  volunteers.  He  was  made  brigadier- 
general  in  September,  1863.  He  did  good  ser¬ 
vice  iu  Tennessee  and  Georgia,  especially  in  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  the  siege  of  Corinth,  the  battle 
of  Murfreesborongh,  Chickamauga,  and  Mission¬ 
aries’  Ridge.  He  commanded  a  brigade  under 
General  Howard  in  the  Georgia  campaign,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  Resaca. 

Harlem  Plains,  Battle  on.  On  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  Sept.  16, 1776,  the  British  advanced  guard, 
under  Colonel  Leslie,  occupied  the  rocky  heights 
now  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Central  Park. 
His  force  was  composed  of  British  infantry  and 
Highlauders,  with  several  pieces  of  artillery. 
Descending  to  Harlem  Plains,  they  were  met 
by  some  Virginians  under  Major  Leitcli,  and 
Connecticut  Rangers  under  Colonel  Knowlton. 
A  desperate  conflict  ensued.  Washington  soon 
reinforced  the  Americans  with  some  Maryland 
and  New  England  troops,  with  whom  Generals 
Putnam,  Greene,  and  others  took  part  to  en¬ 
courage  the  men.  The  British  were  pushed 
back  to  the  rocky  heights,  where  they  were  re¬ 
inforced  by  Germans,  when  the  Americans  fell 
back  towards  Harlem  Heights.  In  this  spirit¬ 
ed  engagement  the  Americans  lost  about  sixty 
men,  including  Major  Leitcli  and  Colonel  Knowl¬ 
ton,  who  were  killed.  This  affair  made  the  Brit¬ 
ish  more  cautious. 

Hamiar,  Josiah,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1753 ;  died  there,  Aug.  20,  1813.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  chiefly  in  the  school  of  Robert  Proud,  the 
Quaker  and  historian.  He  entered  the  army  as 
captain  of  a  Pennsylvania  regiment  in  1776  ; 
was  its  lieutenant-colonel  in  1777 ;  and  served 
faithfully  through  the  war  in  the  north  and  in 
the  south.  Made  brevet-colonel  in  the  United 
States  Army  in  September,  1783,  he  was  sent  to 
France  in  1784  with  the  ratification  of  the  de¬ 
finitive  treaty  of  peace.  He  was  made  Indian 
agent  for  the  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio, 
and  in  1787  Congress  made  him  a  brevet  briga¬ 
dier-general.  On  Sept.  29, 1789,  he  was  appoint¬ 
ed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States,  and  commanded  an  expedition  against 
the  Miami  Indians  in  the  fall  of  1790,  but  was 
defeated.  Harmar  resigned  his  commission  in 
January,  1792,  and  was  made  adjutant-general 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1793,  in  which  position  he 
was  active  in  furnishing  Pennsylvania  troops 
for  Wayne’s  campaign  in  1793-94. 


HARMAR’S  EXPEDITION 


614 


HARNETT 


These  reached  the  Maumee  after  sunrise  on  Oc¬ 
tober  23.  Militia  under  Major  Hall  proceeded 
to  pass  around  the  Indian  village  at  the  head 
of  the  Maumee,  and  assist,  in  their  rear,  an  at¬ 
tack  of  the  main  body  on  their  front.  The  lat¬ 
ter  were  to  cross  the  Maumee  at  the  usual  ford, 
and  then  surround  the  barbarians,  who  were  led 
by  the  celebrated  chief  Little  Turtle.  Before 


FORT  WASHINGTON,  ON  THE  SITE  OF  CINCINNATI. 


Harmar’s  Expedition  (1790).  The  British, 
in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  1783,  still  held  De¬ 
troit  and  other  western  military  posts  in  1790. 
British  agents  instigated  the  Indians  of  the 
Northwest,  to  make  war  on  the  frontier  settlers, 
in  order  to  secure  for  British  commerce  the  mo¬ 
nopoly  of  the  fur-trade.  This  had  been  kept 
up  ever  since  1783,  and  the  posts  were  held  with 
a  hope  that  the  league  of  states 
would  fall  in  pieces  and  an  op¬ 
portunity  would  be  afforded  to 
bring  back  the  new  Republic 
to  colonial  dependence.  Sir 
John  Johnson,  former  Indian 
agent,  was  again  on  the  fron¬ 
tier,  and  Lord  Dorchester  (Sir 
Guy  Carleton)  was  again  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Canada,  which  gave 
strength  to  the  opinion  that 
the  discontents  of  the  barba¬ 
rians  were  fostered  for  a  po¬ 
litical  purpose.  The  north¬ 
western  tribes,  encouraged  by 
the  British  agents,  insisted 
upon  re-establishing  the  Ohio 
River  as  the  Indian  boundary. 

Attempts  to  make  a  peaceable 
arrangement  were  unsuccess¬ 
ful.  The  barbarians  would  lis¬ 
ten  to  no  other  terms ;  and  in 
September,  1790,  General  Josi  ah 
Harmar  led  more  than  one 
thousand  volunteers  from  Fort 
Washington  (now  Cincinnati)  into  the  Indian 
country  around  the  head-waters  of  the  Maumee 
(or  Miami)  to  chastise  the  hostile  Indians,  as 
Sullivan  had  scourged  the  Senecas  in  1779. 
(See  Sullivan’s  Campaign.)  He  did  not  succeed. 
They  found  the  Indians  near  the  head  of  the 


Maumee,  at  the  junction  of  the  St.  Joseph’s  and 
St.  Mary’s  rivers,  late  in  October,  1790.  Four 
hundred  men  were  detached  to  attack  them,  of 
whom  sixty  were  regulars,  under  Major  Wyllys. 


this  could  be  effected  the  Indian  encampment 
was  aroused,  and  a  part  of  them  lied.  Some 
of  the  militia  and  the  cavalry  who  had  passed 
the  ford  started  in  pursuit,  in  disobedience  of 
orders,  leaving  the  regulars,  who  had  also  passed 
the  ford,  unsupported,  when  the  latter  were  at¬ 
tacked  by  Little  Turtle  and  the 
main  body  of  the  Indians  and 
driven  back  with  great  slaugh¬ 
ter.  Meanwhile  the  militia  and 
cavalry  pursuers  were  skirmish¬ 
ing  with  the  Indians  a  short 
distance  up  the  St.  Joseph’s. 
They  were  compelled  to  fall 
back  in  confusion  towards  the 
ford,  and  followed  the  remnant 
of  the  regulars  in  their  retreat. 
The  Indians  did  not  pursue. 
The  whole  expedition  now  re¬ 
turned  to  Fort  Washington. 

Harnett,  Cornelius,  was 
born  in  England,  April  20, 1723  ; 
died  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  April 
20,  1781.  Wealthy  and  inde¬ 
pendent,  he  was  influential  in 
his  adopted  state  (North  Caro¬ 
lina),  and  was  among  the  first 
to  denounce  the  Stamp  Act  and 
kindred  measures.  He  wras  a 
leading  man  in  all  public  as¬ 
semblages  as  the  war  for  in¬ 
dependence  approached  ;  was  president  of  the 
Provincial  Congress  in  1775;  and  on  the  abdi¬ 
cation  of  the  royal  governor  (Martin)  became 
acting-governor  of  the  state.  He  was  except- 


THE  MAUMEE  FORD — PLACE  OF  HARMAR’S  DEFEAT. 


HARNEY 


G15 


HARPER  &  BROTHERS 


ed  in  an  offer  of  pardon  to  the  inhabitants  of 
North  Carolina  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  in  which 
exception  was  included  Robert  Howe.  He  was 
the  chief  constructor  of  the  constitution  of  North 
Carolina,  framed  in  1776,  under  which  Harnett 
became  one  of  the  Council ;  and  in  1778  he  was 
elected  to  Congress.  While  the  British  held 
possession  of  the  country  adjacent  to  Cape  Fear 
River  in  1781,  Mr.  Harnett  was  made  prisoner, 
and  died  in  confinement.  His  dwelling  (yet 
standing,  I  believe,  in  1880)  is  a  tine  old  man¬ 
sion,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  centre  of 


HARNETT’S  HOUSE. 


the  city  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  on  the  northeast 
branch  of  the  Cape  Fear  River. 

Harney,  William  Selby,  was  born  in  Lou¬ 
isiana  in  1798.  He  entered  the  army  while 
quite  young;  was  in  the  Black  Hawk  War; 
and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  Dragoons 
in  1836.  Ten  years  later  he  was  colonel.  He 
served  in  the  Florida,  or  Seminole,  War  (which 
see),  and  in  the  war  with  Mexico.  In  1848  he 
was  breveted  brigadier-general  for  his  services 
in  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo  (which  see).  He 
Avas  promoted  to  brigadier  in  1858,  and  placed 
in  command  of  the  Department  of  Oregon  ;  and 
in  July,  1859,  he  took  possession  of  the  island 
of  San  Juan,  near  Vancouver,  which  was  claim¬ 
ed  to  be  a  part  of  British  Columbia.  (See  Tri¬ 
bunal  of  Arbitration.)  Harney  was  recalled.  He 
then  commanded  the  Department  of  the  West; 
and  in  April,  1861,  while  on  his  way  to  Wash¬ 
ington,  he  was  arrested  by  the  insurgents  at 
Harper’s  Ferry,  Va.,  and  taken  to  Richmond. 
He  was  soon  released,  and,  on  returning  to  St. 
Louis,  issued  proclamations  warning  the  people 
of  Missouri  of  the  dangers  of  secession.  In  con¬ 
sequence  of  an  injudicious  arrangement  made 
with  Price,  the  Confederate  leader,  Harney  was 
relieved  of  his  command.  He  retired  in  Au¬ 
gust,  1863;  was  breveted  major-general  United 
States  Army  in  March,  1865;  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Indian  Commission  in  1867. 

Harper  &  Brothers,  Publishing  House  of, 
was  established  in  1817,  by  James  and  John 
Harper,  sons  of  a  Long  Island  farmer.  They 
had  both  been  apprenticed  to  different  persons 
in  New  York  to  learn  the  art  of  printing.  When 
they  had  reached  manhood  they  joined  interests 
ami  began  business  for  themselves  by  setting 
up  a  small  book  and  job  printing-office  on  Do¬ 


ver  Street,  in  Newr  York,  not  far  from  the  great 
establishment  of  Harper  &  Brothers  at  the  pres¬ 
ent  time.  It  was  an  auspicious  time  for  them, 
as  with  the  return  of  prosperity  after  the  War 
of  1812-15  there  was  a  great  demand  for  books. 
Evart  A.  Duyckinck  was  then  a  prosperous  book¬ 
seller  in  New  York,  and  he  employed  “  J.  &  J. 
Harper”  to  print  the  first  book  that  was  issued 
from  their  press.  In  August,  1817,  they  deliv¬ 
ered  to  him  two  thousand  copies  of  a  transla¬ 
tion  of  Seneca’s  Morals,  which  they  had  “com¬ 
posed”  and  printed  with  their  own  hands.  In 
the  winter  of  1818  they  resolved  to  print  a  book 
on  their  own  account.  They  first  ascertained 
from  leading  booksellers  how  many  copies  each 
one  would  purchase  from  them  in  sheets.  In 
April  they  issued  five  hundred  copies  of  a  re¬ 
print  of  Locke’s  Essay  on  the  Human  Understaud- 
iny,  with  the  imprint  of  J.  &  J.  Harper.  Joseph 
Wesley  and  Fletcher,  two  younger  brothers,  who 
had  learned  the  printer’s  trade  with  James  and 
John,  became  partners  with  the  elder  ones,  the 
former  in  1823  and  the  latter  in  1826.  Then  rvas 
organized  the  firm  of  “  Harper  &  Brothers,” 
Avhich  continued  forty-three  years  without  in¬ 
terruption,  Avhen  the  senior  partner  of  the  house 
Avas  suddenly  separated  from  it  by  death.  The 
brothers  had  established  themselves  iu  Cliff 
Street,  and  when  the  youngest  entered  the  firm 
they  Avere  employing  fifty  persons  and  ten  hand- 
presses.  This  was  then  the  largest  printing  es¬ 
tablishment  in  New  York.  At  the  end  of  nine 
years  after  J.  &  J.  Harper  began  business  they 
purchased  the  building  on  Cliff  Street  in  which 
they  were  established.  They  began  to  stereo¬ 
type  their  works  in  1830,  and  led  the  Avay  to  the 
production  of  cheap  books  and  the  creation  of 
a  neAV  army  of  readers.  They  continually  en¬ 
larged  their  business,  purchasing  building  after 
building  on  Cliff  Street,  and  had  erected  a  fine 
structure  on  Franklin  Square,  connecting  with 
those  on  Clift’  Street  (altogether  nine  in  number), 
Avhen,  at  midday  on  Dec. 9, 1853,  the  whole  estab¬ 
lishment  was  laid  in  ashes,  the  fire  occurring  from 
an  unfortunate  mistake  of  a  plumber  at  work  in 
the  building.  Their  total  loss  was  very  heavy, 
but  very  soon  the  present  magnificent  buildings 
arose  out  of  the  ruins.  In  1776  James  Riving- 
ton  Avas  considered  the  most  extensive  printer, 
publisher,  and  bookseller  in  this  country.  His 
establishment  was  at  the  foot  of  Wall  Street, 
New  York.  It  seldom  had  more  than  four  hun¬ 
dred  volumes  on  its  shelves,  with  a  fair  assort¬ 
ment  of  stationery.  In  1876  the  bookselling 
business  of  Harper  &  Brothers  occupied  an  im¬ 
mense  building  of  iron  on  Franklin  Square,  five 
stories  in  height,  Avith  cellar  and  sub-cellar,  and 
another  on  Cliff  Street,  in  the  rear  of  it,  built  of 
brick,  six  stories  in  height,  Avith  a.  basement. 
These  buildings  are  connected  by  iron  bridges 
at  each  story.  The  establishment  is  fully  sup¬ 
plied  with  every  kind  of  improved  machinery 
for  carrying  on  the  publishing  business,  from 
the  setting-up  of  type  and  stereotyping  to  the 
finishing  the  complete  book  for  the  reader.  In 
1876  they  employed  about  five  hundred  persons, 
of  whom  one  hundred  and  seventy  were  women. 
Iu  1850  they  began  the  publication  of  Harper's 


HARPER’S  FERRY 


616 


HARPER’S  FERRY 


New  Monthly  Magazine,  which  has  been  the  ac¬ 
knowledged  leader  in  that  department  of  litera¬ 
ture.  Harper's  Weekly,  an  illustrated  paper,  was 
begun  in  January,  1857.  Harper's  Bazar,  a  beau¬ 
tifully  illustrated  repository  of  knowledge,  of 
current  fashions,  and  general  literature,  was 
commenced  in  November,  1867.  To  supply 
these  periodicals  with  illustrations,  they  had 
in  their  art  department  in  1876  about  thirty 
regular  contributors  of  original  matter  and  fifty 
engravers.  Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  their 
publishing  business  may  be  conceived  by  the 
fact  that  the  white  paper  used  for  their  print¬ 
ing  cost  them,  at  that  time,  two  thousand  dol- 


Yirgiuia  Convention  (April  17, 1861), the  author¬ 
ities  of  that  state  set  forces  in  motion  to  seize 
the  United  States  armory  and  arsenal  at  Har¬ 
per’s  Ferry,  a  small  village  in  Jefferson  County, 
Va.,  at  the  continence  of  the  Potomac  and  Shen¬ 
andoah  rivers,  where  the  conjoined  streams 
pass  through  the  Blue  Ridge.  It  became  an 
important  point  in  the  war  that  ensued.  There, 
for  many  years,  the  national  government  had 
possessed  an  armory  and  arsenal,  where  10,000 
muskets  were  made  every  year,  and  where  from 
80,000  to  90,000  stand  of  arms  were  generally 
stored.  When  the  secession  movement  began, 
at  the  close  of  1860,  measures  were  taken  for  the 


PUBLISHING  HOUSE  OF  HARPER  A  BROTHERS. 


lira  a  day.  The  four  brothers — James,  John, 
Joseph  Wesley,  and  Fletcher— have  passed  from 
among  the  living,  and  the  great  establishment, 
constantly  increasing  in  the  bnlk  and  prosper¬ 
ity  of  business,  is  conducted  by  their  sons  and 
grandsons.  The  four  brothel's  were  born  at 
Newtown,  L.  I.  Janies  was  born  on  the  13th  of 
April,  1795,  and  died  on  the  27tli  of  March,  1869. 
.John  was  born  on  the  22rl  of  January,  1797,  and 
died  on  the  22d  of  April,  1875.  Joseph  Wesley 
was  born  on  the  25th  of  December,  1801,  and 
died  February  14,  1870.  Fletcher  was  born  on 
the  31st  of  January,  1806,  and  died  on  the  29th 
of  May,  1877. 

Harper’s  Ferry,  Attempted  Seizure  of,  by 
Virginia.  Within  twenty-four  hours  after  the 
passage  of  the  Ordinance  of  Secession  by  the 


security  of  this  post.  A  small  body  of  United 
States  dragoons,  under  the  command  of  Lieu¬ 
tenant  Roger  Jones,  was  sent  there  as  a  precau¬ 
tionary  measure.  After  the  attack  on  Fort  Sum¬ 
ter,  rumors  reached  Harper’s  Ferry  that  the  gov¬ 
ernment  property  there  would  be  speedily  seized 
by  the  Virginians.  The  rumors  were  true.  On 
the  morning  of  April  18,  the  military  command¬ 
ers  at  Winchester  and  Charlestown  received  or¬ 
ders  from  Richmond  to  seize  the  armory  and  ar¬ 
senal  that  night.  They  were  further  ordered  to 
march  into  Maryland,  where,  it  was  expected, 
they  would  be  joined  by  the  minute-men  of 
that  state  in  an  immediate  attack  on  Washing¬ 
ton.  About.  3000  men  were  ordered  out,  but  only 
about  250  were  at  the  designated  rendezvous, 
four  miles  from  the  ferry,  at  the  appointed  hour 


HARRIOTT 


HARPER'S  FERRY,  SURRENDER  OF  617 


— eight  o’clock  iu  the  evening — hut  others  were 
on  the  march.  As  a  surprise  was  important,  the 
little  detachment  moved  on.  It  was  composed 
of  infantry  and  cavalry  and  some  artillery,  with 
one  cannon.  The  cavalry,  only  about  twenty 
strong,  were  commanded  by  a  dashing  officer — 
Captain  Ashby.  When  the  detachment  was 
within  a  mile  of  the  ferry,  marching  in  silence 
and  darkuess,  there  was  suddenly  a  flash  and 
explosion  in  that  direction.  This  was  quickly 
repeated,  aud  the  mountain  heights  were  soon 
illuminated  by  flames.  Ashby  dashed  towards 
the  town,  and  soon  returned  with  a  report  that 
the  armory  and  arsenal  were  on  fire,  and  that  the 
National  troops  had  crossed  the  Potomac,  aud 
taken  the  mountain-road  in  the  direction  of 
Carlisle  Barracks,  in  Pennsylvania.  Lieuten¬ 
ant  Jones  had  been  secretly  warned,  twenty- 
four  hours  before,  of  the  plan  for  seizing  the 


land ,  Invasion  of,  by  Leo),  Harper’s  Ferry,  where  a 
large  amount  of  stores  had  been  gathered,  was 
held  by  National  troops,  under  Colonel  D.  H. 
Miles.  When  that  post  was  threatened,  Halleck 
instructed  McClellan  to  succor  the  garrison,  and 
ou  the  day  of  the  struggle  at  Turner’s  Gap  (see 
South  Mountain)  he  ordered  Miles  to  Hold  out 
to  the  last  extremity.  Meanwhile  Jackson,  by 
quick  movements,  had  crossed  the  Potomac  at 
Williamsport,  and  at  noon  on  Sept.  13  he  was 
in  the  rear  of  Harper’s  Ferry.  The  Confeder¬ 
ates  were  then  in  possession  of  Loudon  Heights 
and  also  of  Maryland  Heights,  which  command¬ 
ed  Harper’s  Ferry.  That  post  was  complete¬ 
ly  invested  on  the  14th.  Miles  was  told  by 
McClellan  to  “  hold  on,”  and  also  informed  how 
lie  might  safely  escape.  But  he  appeared  to 
pay  no  attention  to  instructions,  aud  to  make 
no  effort  at  defence ;  aud  ■when,  early  ou  the 


uarpbr’s  ferry,  looking  south. 


post  that  night.  There  were  indications  all 
around  him  of  impending  troubles.  Trains  of 
powder  were  so  prepared  that,  at  a  moment’s 
warning,  the  powder  iu  the  magazine  might  be 
exploded,  and  the  government  buildings  be  set 
on  tire.  Word  came  to  Jones,  at  near  ten  o’clock 
at  night,  that  2000  Virginians  were  within  twen¬ 
ty  minutes’  march  of  him.  The  trains  were  fired, 
and  the  whole  public  property  that  was  com¬ 
bustible  was  soon  in  ashes.  Then  Jones  and 
his  little  garrison  fled  across  the  Potomac,  and 
reached  Hagerstown  in  the  morning,  and  thence 
pushed  on  to  Chambersburg  and  Carlisle  Bar¬ 
racks,  Penn.  Jones  was  highly  commended  by 
Ids  government.  The  insurgent  forces  imme¬ 
diately  took  possession  of  ruined  Harper’s  Ferry, 
as  a  strategic  point.  Within  a  month  full  8000 
Virginians, Kentuckians, Alabamians, and  South 
Carolinians  were  there,  aud  menaced  Washing¬ 
ton. 

Harper’s  Ferry,  Surrender  of.  While  Lee 
was  in  Maryland,  in  September,  1862  (see  Mury- 


15th,  no  less  than  nine  batteries  opened  upon 
the  garrison,  he  displayed  a  white  flag.  Before 
it  was  seen  by  the  Confederates,  one  of  their 
shots  had  killed  him.  The  post  was  surren¬ 
dered,  with  all  its  troops,  ordnance,  ammuni¬ 
tion,  and  stores.  There  were  11,583  men — half 
of  them  New-Yorkers  —  surrendered;  and  the 
spoils  were,  73  cannons,  13,000  small-arms,  200 
wagons,  and  a  large  quantity  of  tents  and  camp 
equipage.  It  was  shown  that  Miles  had  diso¬ 
beyed  orders  to  take  measures  for  the  defence 
of  the  post,  and  hq  was  strongly  suspected  of 
sympathy  with  the  Confederate  cause. 

Harriott,  Thomas,  a  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Ra¬ 
leigh,  was  born  at  Oxford,  England,  in  1560; 
died  in  London,  July  2,  1621.  He  was  a  skilful 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  and  taught  the 
science  of  mathematics  to  Raleigh.  In  1585  he 
accompanied  Raleigh’s  expedition  to  Virginia, 
under  Grenville  (see  Grenville),  as  historian,  and 
most  of  the  knowledge  of  that  expedition  is  de¬ 
rived  from  Harriott’s  account.  He  was  left  there 


HARRIS 


618 


HARRISON  AND  TECUMTHA 


by  Grenville,  and  remained  a  year  making  ob¬ 
servations  ;  and  from  the  pencil  of  With,  an 
artist,  lie  obtained  many  useful  drawings.  Har¬ 
riott  labored  hard  to  restrain  the  cupidity  of  his 
companions,  who  were  more  intent  upon  finding 
gold  than  tilling  the  soil.  While  Governor  Lane 
declared  that  Virginia  had  “the  goodliest  soil 
under  the  cope  of  heaven,”  and  “if  Virginia  had 
but  horses  and  kine,  and  were  inhabited  by  Eng¬ 
lish,  no  realm  in  Christendom  were  comparable 
to  it,”  he  utterly  neglected  the  great  opportu¬ 
nity.  (See  Lane.)  Harriott  sawr  that  the  way 
to  accomplish  that  object  was  to  treat  the  In¬ 
dians  kindly,  as  friends  and  neighbors;  and  he 
tried  to  quench  the  tires  of  revenge  which  the 
cruelty  of  the  English  had  kindled.  The  na¬ 
tives  were  curious  and  credulous.  They  regard¬ 
ed  the  English  with  awe.  Their  fire-arms,  burn¬ 
ing-glasses,  clocks,  watches,  and  books  seemed 
to  the  savage  mind  like  the  work  of  the  gods. 
As  the  colonists  were  never  sick,  and  had  no 
women  with  them,  the  natives  thought  that 
they  were  not  born  of  woman,  and  were  there¬ 
fore  immortal.  Taking  advantage  of  this  feel¬ 
ing,  Harriott  displayed  the  Bible  everywhere, 
and  told  them  of  its  precious  truths,  and  it  was 
often  pressed  to  their  bosoms  affectionately. 
When  King  Wingina  (see  Lane )  fell  ill,  he  sent 
for  Harriott,  and  dismissing  his  juggling  priest 
and  “medicine-man,”  placed  himself  under  the 
Englishman’s  care.  He  invoked  the  prayers  of 
the  English,  and  under  the  careful  nursing  of  the 
historian  the  king  speedily  recovered.  Many 
of  his  subjects  resorted  to  Harriott  when  they 
fell  sick.  Had  his  example  been  followed,  Vir¬ 
ginia  might  soon  have  been  “  inhabited  by  Eng¬ 
lish,”  and  filled  with  “  horses  and  kine.”  On  his 
return  to  England,  Harriott  published  a  1 brief 
and  True  Report  of  the  Neic  Found  Land  of  Vir¬ 
ginia.  From  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  he  re¬ 
ceived  a  pension,  and  spent  much  of  his  time  in 
the  Tower  with  Raleigh  and  his  wife.  (See  Ra¬ 
leigh.)  Harriott  was  the  inventor  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  improved  method  of  algebraic  calculation 
by  introducing  the  signs  and  <\ 

Harris,  George,  Lord,  was  born  March  18, 
1746;  died  at  Belmont,  Kent,  England,  May  19, 
1829.  He  became  captain  in  1771,  and  came  to 
America  in  1775.  He  was  in  the  skirmish  at 
Lexington,  and  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of 
Bunker’s  Hill.  In  the  battles  of  Long  Island, 
Harlem  Plains,  and  White  Plains,  and  in  every 
battle  in  which  General  Howe,  Sir  Henry  Clin¬ 
ton,  and  Earl  Cornwallis,  in  the  North,  par¬ 
ticipated,  until  late  in  1778,  he  was  an  actor. 
Then  he  went  on  an  expedition  to  the  West  In¬ 
dies  ;  served  under  Byron  off  Grenada  in  1779 ; 
also,  afterwards,  in  India,  and  in  1798  was  made 
governor  of  Madras,  and  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  army  against  Tippoo  Sultan,  capturing  Se¬ 
ringa  patam,  for  which  service  he  received  pub¬ 
lic  thanks  and  promotion.  In  1812  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage. 

Harrison  and  Tecumtha.  William  Henry 
Harrison,  governor  of  the  Indiana  Territory, 
suspicious  of  the  movements  of  Tecumtha  and 
also  of  the  Prophet,  invited  them  to  an  inter¬ 


view  at  Vincennes.  Though  requested  not  to 
bring  more  than  thirty  followers,  Tecumtha  ap¬ 
peared  with  about  four  hundred  warriors.  The 
council  was  held  in  a  field  just  outside  the  vil¬ 
lage.  The  governor,  seated  on  a  chair,  was  sur¬ 
rounded  by  several  hundred  of  the  unarmed  peo¬ 
ple,  and  attended  by  judges  of  the  territory, 
several  officers  of  the  army,  and  by  Winnemack, 
a  friendly  Potawatomie  chief,  who  had  on  this, 
as  on  other  occasions,  given  Harrison  notice  of 
Tecumtha’s  hostile  designs.  A  sergeant  and 
twelve  men  from  the  fort  were  stationed  under 
some  trees  on  the  border  of  the  field,  and  the  In¬ 
dians,  who  sat  in  a  semicircle  on  the  ground, 
had  left  their  rifles  at  their  camp  in  the  woods, 
but  brought  their  tomahawks  with  them.  Te¬ 
cumtha,  in  an  opening  speech,  declared  the  in¬ 
tention  of  the  tribes,  by  a  combination,  not  to 
countenance  any  more  cessions  of  Indian  lauds, 
except  by  general  consent.  He  contended  that 
the  Indians  wrere  one  people,  and  the  lands,  be¬ 
longing  to  the  whole  in  common,  could  not  be 
alienated  by  a  part.  This  position  was  combat¬ 
ed  by  Harrison,  who  asserted  that  the  lauds 
sold  had  been  so  disposed  of  by  the  occupants, 
and  that  the  Shawnoese  had  no  business  to  in¬ 
terfere.  When  these  words  were  interpreted, 
Tecumtha,  w  ith  violent  gesticulations,  declared 
the  governor’s  statements  were  false,  and  that 
he  and  the  United  States  had  cheated  and  im¬ 
posed  upon  the  Indians.  As  he  proceeded  with 
increased  violence,  his  warriors  sprang  to  their 
feet,  and  began  to  brandish  their  tomahaw  ks. 
Harrison  started  from  his  chair,  and  drew  his 
sword,  as  did  the  officers  around  him.  Winne¬ 
mack  cocked  his  loaded  pistol,  and  the  unarmed 
citizens  caught  up  w'hatever  missiles  w'ere  at 
hand.  The  guard  of  soldiers  came  running  up, 
and  were  about  to  fire  upon  the  Indians,  but 
were  checked  by  the  governor,  who  asked  the 
interpreter  what  was  the  matter.  On  being  in¬ 
formed,  he  denounced  Tecumtha  as  a  bad  man  ; 
that,  as  he  had  come  under  promise  of  protec¬ 
tion,  he  might  depart  in  safety,  but  he  must  in¬ 
stantly  leave  the  neighborhood.  The  council 
broke  up,  and  Tecumtha  retired  to  his  camp. 
On  the  following  morning,  to  allay  all  suspi¬ 
cion,  he  expressed  regret  for  his  conduct,  and 
asked  and  obtained  another  interview,  at  wThich 
he  disclaimed  all  hostile  intentions  against  the 
white  people,  but  gave  the  governor  to  under¬ 
stand  that  he  should  adhere  to  his  determina¬ 
tion  to  oppose  all  cessions  of  laud  thereafter. 
Chiefs  of  other  tribes,  who  were  with  him,  de¬ 
clared  their  intention  to  adhere  to  the  new  con¬ 
federacy.  Anxious  to  ascertain  the  real  inten¬ 
tions  of  the  Shawnoese  chief,  Harrison  visited 
his  camp,  w'hen  Tecumtha  told  him  that  he 
should  make  war  on  the  Americans  with  reluc¬ 
tance,  and  promised  if  the  recent  cessions  were 
given  up,  and  the  principle  adopted  by  the 
United  States  government  of  taking  no  more 
land  from  the  Indians  without  the  consent  of 
all  the  tribes,  he  would  be  their  friend  and  ally, 
for  he  knew  the  pretended  friendship  of  the 
British  w'as  only  selfishness.  Yet,  if  the  Amer¬ 
icans  persevered  in  their  methods  of  getting  the 
land  of  the  Indians,  he  should  be  compelled  to 


HARRISON 


619 


HARRISON’S  CABINET 


join  that  people  in  war  against  the  people  of  the 
United  States.  Harrison  promised  to  lay  the 
matter  before  his  government. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  a  signer  of  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Independence,  was  born  at  Berkeley,  on 
the  James  River,  Va.,  in  1740;  died  there  in 
April,  1791.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  House  of  Burgesses  in 
1764,  and  soon  became  a  leader 
among  the  patriots  of  the  day. 

An  attempt  to  bribe  him  to 
support  the  Stamp  Act  by  of¬ 
fering  him  a  seat  in  the  Council 
excited  his  indignation,  though 
he  had  opposed  Henry’s  resolu¬ 
tions  on  the  subject.  He  was  a 
member  of  various  associations 
and  committees,  and  was  a  del¬ 
egate  to  the  first  Colonial  Con¬ 
gress,  in  1774.  In  that  body  lie 
was  efficient  as  chairman  of  the 
Board  of  War.  He  advocated  in¬ 
dependence  in  1776,  and  signed 
the  great  Declaration.  He 
resigned  his  seat  in  1777  ;  again 
entered  the  House  of  Burgesses, 
and  was  chosen  its  speaker. 

This  position  he  held  until  1782, 
when  he  was  elected  governor 
of  the  state,  aud  was  twice  re¬ 
elected.  Governor  Harrison  did 
not  like  the  National  Constitution,  aud  voted 
against  it  in  convention. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  ninth  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Berkeley,  Charles 
City  Co.,  Va..,  Feb.  9, 1773 ;  died  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  April  4,  1841.  He  was  a  son  of  Benjamin 
Harrison,  governor  of  Virginia,  aud  was  edu- 


a  lieutenant  in  1792,  he  afterwards  became  an 
efficient  aid  to  General  Wayne,  and  with  him 
went  through  the  campaign  in  Ohio,  in  1794. 
After  the  treaty  of  Greenville  (1794),  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  Fort  Washington,  on  the 
site  of  Cincinnati,  and  was  promoted  to  captain. 
While  on  duty  at  North  Bend,  lie  was  married 


WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON. 


cated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College.  He  began 
preparations  for  the  profession  of  medicine,  but 
soon  abandoned  it  for  a  military  life.  In  1791 
Washington  commissioned  him  an  ensign.  Made 


HARRISON’S  GRAVE, 


to  Anna,  daughter  of  Judge  Symmes,  an  exten¬ 
sive  land-owner  there.  She  survived  him  many 
years.  In  1797  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
the  Northwest  Territory,  and  left  the  army.  In 
1799  he  became  a  delegate  to  Congress,  and  was 
made  the  first  governor  of  Indiana  Territory 
in  1801.  That  office  he  held  until  1813,  and,  as 
Superintendent  of  Indian  Affairs,  performed  effi¬ 
cient  service.  In  the  course  of  his  administra¬ 
tion,  he  made  thirteen  important  treaties  with 
different  tribes.  Harrison,  at  the  head  of  troops, 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Indians  (Nov. 7, 1811) 
at  Tippecanoe  (which  see).  He  was  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  Northwest  in  the  second  war 
for  independence,  in  which  position  he  was  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  prudence  and  bravery.  Resign¬ 
ing  his  commission  in  1814,  he  was  employed  in 
making  treaties  with  the  Indians  for  cessions  of 
lands.  From  1816  to  1819  he  was  member  of 
Congress  from  Ohio,  and  was  in  the  United 
States  Senate  from  1825  to  1828,  having  previ¬ 
ously  served  a  term  in  the  Ohio  Senate.  In 
1828  President  Adams  sent  him  as  minister  to 
the  Republic  of  Colombia,  South  America,  and 
on  his  return  he  made  his  residence  at  North 
Bend,  O.  In  1840  General  Harrison  was  elect¬ 
ed  President  of  the  United  States,  receiving  234 
votes  out  of  294.  Just,  one  month  after  he  en¬ 
tered  upon  his  duties  (March  4,  1841)  he  died  at 
the  national  capital.  President  Harrison’s  re¬ 
mains  lie  in  a  vault  upon  an  eminence  over¬ 
looking  the  Ohio  River,  at  North  Bend. 

Harrison's  Cabinet.  Immediately  after  the 
delivery  of  his  inaugural  address,  President  Har¬ 
rison  nominated  for  cabinet  ministers,  Daniel 
Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  Secretary  of  State ; 
Thomas  Ewing,  of  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 


HARRISON’S  INVASION  OF  CANADA  620  HARRISON’S  MILITARY  MOVEMENTS 


nry;  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  Secretary  of  War; 
George  E.  Badger,  of  North  Carolina,  Secretary 
of  the  Navy;  Francis  Granger,  of  New  York, 
Postmaster  -  general ;  and  John  J.  Crittenden, 
of  Kentucky,  Attorney-general. 

Harrison’s  Invasion  of  Canada.  The  vet¬ 
eran  Isaac  Shelby,  then  governor  of  Kentucky, 
joined  Harrison  at  Camp  Seneca,  with  about  four 
thousand  mounted  volunteers  front  his  state.  He 
had  called  for  a  certain  number,  and  twice  as 
many  came  as  he  asked  for.  They  were  gath¬ 
ered  at  Newport  and  Cincinnati.  With  Major 
John  Adair  and  the  late  Senator  J.  J.  Critten¬ 
den  as  his  aids,  Governor  Shelby  pressed  for¬ 
ward  towards  Lake  Erie.  Colonel  Richard  M. 
Johnsou’s  troop  was  among  Shelby’s  men.  Har¬ 
rison  was  rejoiced  to  see  them  come.  Perry  had 
secured  the  coveted  control  of  Lake  Erie  (see 
Lake  Erie,  Battle  of),  and  thus  reinforced  and  en¬ 
couraged,  Harrison  moved  immediately,  and  on 
the  15tli  and  16th  of  September,  1813,  the  whole 
Army  of  the  Northwest — excepting  some  troops 
holding  FortMeigs  and  minor  posts — wereon  the 
borders  of  the  lake,  at  a  point  now  called  Port 
Clinton.  General  McArthur,  who  had  succeed¬ 
ed  Clay  in  command  at  Fort  Meigs  (which  see), 
was  ordered  to  embark  artillery,  provisions,  and 
stores  from  that  place,  and  on  the  ‘20th  the  em¬ 
barkation  of  the  army  upon  Perry’s  vessels  be¬ 
gan.  The  weather  was  delightful,  and  the  whole 
army  were  in  high  spirits.  They  rendezvoused 
first  at  Put-in-bay  Island,  ou  the  24th,  and  the 
next  day  were  upon  the  Middle  Sister  Island. 
The  Kentuckians  had  left  their  horses  on  the 
peninsula  between  Sandusky  Bay  and  Portage 
River,  and  were  organized  as  infantry.  In  six¬ 
teen  armed  vessels  and  about  one  hundred  boats 
the  armament  started  from  the  Detroit  River. 
On  the  way  a  stirring  address  by  General  Har¬ 
rison  was  read  to  the  troops,  which  concluded 
as  follows:  “The  general  entreats  his  brave 
troops  to  remember  that  they  are  sons  of  sires 
whose  fame  is  immortal ;  that  they  are  to  fight 
for  the  rights  of  their  insulted  country,  while 
their  opponents  combat  for  the  unjust  preten¬ 
sions  of  a  master.  Kentuckians,  remember  the 
River  Raisin!  but  remember  it  only  while  vic¬ 
tory  is  suspended.  The  revenge  of  a  soldier 
cannot  be  gratified  upon  a  fallen  enemy.”  Ex¬ 
pecting  to  be  attacked  at  their  landing-place, 
the  troops  were  debarked  (Sept.  28),  in  perfect 
battle  order,  on  Hartley’s  Point,  nearly  four  miles 
below  Amherstbnrg.  No  enemy  was  there.  Proc¬ 
tor,  who  was  in  command  at  Fort  Malden,  taking 
counsel  of  prudence  and  fear,  and  in  opposition 
to  the  earnest  entreaties  and  indignant  protests 
of  his  officers  and  Tecnmtha,  had  fled  northward 
with  his  army  and  all  he  could  take  with  him, 
leaving  Fort  Malden,  the  navy  buildings,  and 
the  storehouses  smoking  ruins.  As  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  approached  the  town,  they  met,  instead  of 
brave  Britons  and  painted  savages,  a  troop  of 
modest  women  who  came  to  implore  mercy  and 
protection.  Their  fears  were  removed  by  the 
kind-hearted  leaders,  and  the  Americans  enter¬ 
ed  Amherstbnrg  with  the  bands  playing  Yankee 
Doodle.  The  loyal  inhabitants  had  fled  with 
the  army.  The  flotilla  arrived  at  Detroit  ou 


the  29tli,  and  the  same  day  Colonel  Johnson  ar¬ 
rived  there  with  his  troop  of  cavalry.  Harrison 
had  encamped  at  Sandwich,  and  all  started  in 
pursuit.  The  enemy  was  overtaken  at  the  Mo¬ 
ravian  Towns,  ou  the  Thames,  and  defeated  in 
battle.  (See  Thames,  Battle  of  the.)  Detroit  and 
all  Michigan  were  recovered.  All  that  Hull  had 
lost  was  regained.  Colonel  Lewis  Cass  was  left 
at  Detroit,  with  a  strong  garrison,  as  military 
governor  of  the  territory. 

Harrison’s  Landing,  Army  at.  To  this  point 
General  McClellan  led  his  army  after  the  battle 
on  Malvern  Hills,  July  1,  1862.  It  is  five  or  six 
miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox  Riv¬ 
er,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  James,  and  was  the 
birthplace  of  President  Harrison.  Its  landing 
is  one  of  the  best  on  the  James,  and  was  made 
the  chief  depot  of  supplies  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  while  it  lay  there  in  the  summer  of 
1862,  and  where  it  suffered  great  mortality  from 
malarial  fevers.  There  the  commander-in-chief 
called  for  reinforcements,  reporting,  on  the  3d  of 
July,  that  he  had  “  not  over  50,000  men  with  their 
colors.”  The  President,  astounded,  went  to  Har¬ 
rison’s  Landing,  and  found  the  army  greatly  dis¬ 
heartened.  He  found  the  army  40,000  stronger 
than  the  commander  had  erroneously  reported, 
but  was  unable  to  get  a  reply  to  his  question, 
Where  are  the  75,000  men  yet  missing?  It  was 
found  that  34,000  men,  or  more  than  three  fifths 
of  the  army  reported  ou  the  3d,  were  absent  on 
furloughs.  The  general  soon  afterwards  reported 
88,665  “  present  and  fit  for  duty  ;”  absent  by  au¬ 
thority,  34,472;  absent  without  authority,  3778; 
sick,  16,619 — making  a  total  of  143,534.  A  week 
later  the  adjutant-general’s  office  reported  the 
total  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  exclusive  of 
General  Wool’s  command  at  Fortress  Monroe, 
to  be  158,314,  of  whom  101,691  were  present  and 
fit  for  duty.  This  great  army  remained  there 
idle  some  weeks,  suffering  greatly  from  sick¬ 
ness,  when  it  was  called  to  the  vicinity  of  Wash¬ 
ington. 

Harrison’s  Military  Movements.  Before 
the  declaration  of  war  against  England  (June, 
1812)  Kentucky  aud  Ohio  had  made  prepara¬ 
tions  for  such  an  event.  Early  in  May  Gov¬ 
ernor  Scott,  of  Kentucky,  in  obedience  to  in¬ 
structions  from  the  War  Department,  had  or¬ 
ganized  ten  regiments  of  volunteers,  making 
an  effective  force  of  5500  men  ;  and  Govern¬ 
or  Meigs,  of  Ohio,  promptly  responded  to  the 
call  for  troops  to  accompany  Hull  to  Detroit. 
(See  Canada,  Invasion  of.)  William  Henry  Har¬ 
rison,  then  Governor  of  Indiana  Territory,  had 
already  caused  block-houses  and  stockades  to 
be  erected  in  various  parts  of  his  territory  as 
defences  against  the  Indians,  aud  the  militia¬ 
men  were  placed  in  a  state  of  preparation  for 
immediate  action  when  called  upon.  Having 
been  authorized  by  the  national  government  to 
call  upon  Kentucky  for  any  portion  of  its  contin¬ 
gent  of  troops,  he  repaired  to  Frankfort,  where 
he  was  honored  with  a  public  reception.  He 
expressed  his  views  freely  concerning  the  im¬ 
minent  peril  in  which  General  Hull  was  placed, 
aud  suggested  a  series  of  military  operations  in 


I 


HARRISON’S  MILITARY  MOVEMENTS  621  HARRISON’S  MILITARY  MOVEMENTS 


the  Northwest.  The  fall  of  Detroit  and  the  mas¬ 
sacre  at  Chicago  (which  see)  caused  the  great¬ 
est  excitement  in  Kentucky,  and  volunteers 
were  offered  by  thousands.  It  was  the  general 
desire  of  the  volunteers  and  militia  of  the  West 
that  Harrison  should  be  their  leader  against  the 
British  and  Indians.  Governor  Scott  was  re¬ 
quested  by  some  of  the  leading  men  in  Ken¬ 
tucky  to  appoint  him  commander- in -chief  of 
the  forces  of  that  state,  and  he  was  commissioned 
Aug.  25, 1812.  A  corps  of  mounted  volunteers 
was  raised,  and  Major  Richard  M.  Johnson  be¬ 
came  their  leader.  While  Harrison  was  on  his 
way  northward  from  Cincinnati  with  his  troops 
he  received  the  commission  of  brigadier  from 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  with  instruc¬ 
tions  to  take  command  of  all  the  forces  in  the 
territories  of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  to  co¬ 
operate  with  General  Hull  and  with  Governor 
Howard,  of  Missouri.  These  instructions  were 
issued  before  the  disaster  to  Hull  was  known. 
He  hesitated  to  accept  the  commission  be¬ 
cause  of  the  delicate  relations 
in  which  it  might  place  him 
with  General  Winchester,  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Army  of  the 
Northwest.  He  pressed  for¬ 
ward  to  Piqua,  and  sent  a 
detachment  to  relieve  Fort 
Wayne  (which  see).  At  Pi¬ 
qua  Harrison  was  joined  by 
mounted  volunteers  under 
Johnson,  when  the  army  in 
th e  wilderness  of  Ohio  num¬ 
bered  2200  men.  The  In¬ 
dian  spies  reported:  “Kain- 
tuckee  is  crossing  as  numer¬ 
ous  as  the  trees.”  It  was  de¬ 
termined  by  a  council  of  of¬ 
ficers  to  strike  the  neighbor¬ 
ing  Indians  with  terror  by  a 
display  of  power.  Harrison 
divided  his  army.  One  de¬ 
tachment  of  mounted  dra¬ 
goons,  under  Colonel  Simrall, 
laid  waste  (Sept.  19, 1812)  the 
Little  Turtle’s  town  on  the  Eel 
River,  excepting  the  buildings  erected  by  the 
United  States  for  the  now  deceased  chief  on 
account  of  his  friendship  since  the  Treaty  of 
Greenville  in  1794  (which  see).  Another  de¬ 
tachment,  under  Colonel  S.  Wells,  was  sent 
(Sept.  16)  to  destroy  a  Potawatomie  town  on 
the  Elkhart  River,  sixty  miles  distant ;  while 
Colonel  Payne,  with  another  detachment,  laid 
in  ashes  a  Miami  village  in  the  forks  of 
the  Wabash,  and  several  other  towns  lower 
down  that  stream,  with  their  corn-fields  and 
gardens.  General  Winchester  arrived  at  Harri¬ 
son’s  camp  on  Sept.  18,  when  the  latter  resigned 
his  command  to  that  superior  in  rank.  The 
troops  almost  mutinied,  for  they  revered  Harrb 
son.  The  latter  returned  to  St.  Mary  to  collect 
the  mounted  men  from  Kentucky,  to  march  on 
towards  Detroit.  At  Piqua  he  received  a  letter 
from  the  War  Department  assigning  him  to  the 
command  of  the  Northwestern  Army,  which,  it 
was  stated,  would  consist,  “in  addition  to  the 


regular  troops  and  rangers  in  that  quarter,  of 
the  volunteers  and  militia  of  Kentucky  and  Ohio, 
and  three  thousand  from  Virginia  and  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,”  making  his  whole  force  ten  thousand 
men.  He  was  instructed  to  provide  for  the  de¬ 
fence  of  the  frontiers,  and  “  then  to  retake  De¬ 
troit,  with  a  view  to  the  conquest  of  Canada.” 
He  was  invested  with  very  ample  powers.  “  You 
will  command  such  means  as  may  be  practica¬ 
ble,”  said  the  despatch  from  the  War  Depart¬ 
ment.  “Exercise  your  own  discretion,  and  act 
in  all  cases  according  to  your  own  judgment.” 
His  soldiers  rejoiced,  and  were  ready  and  eager 
to  follow  wherever  he  might  lead.  He  arranged 
with  care  an  autumn  campaign,  which  contem¬ 
plated  the  seizure  of  the  important  position  at 
the  foot  of  the  rapids  of  the  Maumee,  or  Miami, 
and,  possibly,  the  capture  of  Malden  and  Detroit, 
making  his  base  of  military  operations  the  foot 
of  the  rapids.  (See  Fort  Meigs.)  There  were 
nearly  three  thousand  troops  at  St.  Mary  on  the 
1st  of  October.  Fort  Defiance,  at  the  junction  of 


the  Maumee  and  Auglaize,  was  made  a  post  of 
deposit  for  provisions,  and  a  corps  of  observa¬ 
tion  was  placed  at  Sandusky.  The  mounted 
Kentuckians  were  formed  into  a  regiment,  and 
Major  Johnson  was  appointed  its  colonel;  and 
these,  with  Ohio  mounted  men  under  Colonel 
Findlay,  formed  a  brigade  commanded  by  Gen¬ 
eral  E.  W.  Tapper,  of  Ohio,  who  had  raised  about 
one  thousand  men  for  the  service.  Harrison  or¬ 
dered  the  construction  of  a  new  fort  near  old 
Fort  Defiance;  but  his  operations  were  soon  af¬ 
terwards  disturbed  by  antagonisms  between 
Tapper  and  Winchester.  The  latter  dismissed 
Tapper  from  his  command  and  gave  it  to  Allen, 
of  the  regulars,  when  the  Ohio  troops  absolutely 
refused  to  serve  under  any  but  their  old  com¬ 
mander.  It  was  really  a  conflict  between  regu¬ 
lars  and  volunteers,  and  the  intended  expedition 
against  Detroit  was  postponed.  Harrison  was 
much  annoyed,  but  prosecuted  his  plans  with 
extraordinary  vigor  for  a  winter  campaign. 


SITE  OP  FORT  DEFIANCE,  IN  1860. 


HART 


622 


HARTFORD  CONVENTION 


General  Tapper  had  entered  upon  an  indepen¬ 
dent  expedition  with  650  mounted  volunteers, 
and  endeavored  to  seize  the  post  at  the  foot  of 
the  Maumee  Rapids;  but,  after  a  bold  attempt, 
he  was  repulsed  by  the  British  and  Indians 
there.  Some  further  attacks  upon  the  barba¬ 
rians  succeeded,  and  smoothed  the  way  for  the 
final  recovery  of  Michigan;  but  as  winter  came 
on  the  suffering  of  the  troops  was  severe,  es¬ 
pecially  of  those  under  Winchester.  The  whole 
effective  force  then  (December,  1812)  in  the 
Northwest  did  not  exceed  6300,  and  a  small  ar¬ 
tillery  and  cavalry  force.  Yet  Harrison  deter¬ 
mined  to  press  on  to  the  rapids  and  beyond  if 
possible.  On  Dec.  30  Winchester  moved  tow¬ 
ards  the  rapids.  Harrison,  having  heard  of  the 
presence  of  Tecumtha  on  the  Wabash  wTith  a 
large  force  of  Indians,  recommended  Winches¬ 
ter  to  abandon  the  movement;  but  the  latter 
did  not  heed  the  advice.  He  reached  the  rap¬ 
ids,  and  was  summoned  to  the  River  Raisin  to 
defend  the  inhabitants  at  Freuclitown  and  its 
vicinity.  Winchester  pressed  on,  and  there 
occurred  a  dreadful  massacre  of  troops  and 
citizens  on  Jau.  22,  1813.  (See  Frenchtown. ) 
This  event  ended  the  campaign.  With  1700 
men  General  Harrison  took  post  on  the  high 
light  bank  of  the  Maumee,  at  the  foot  of  the 
rapids,  and  there  established  a  fortified  camp. 
(See  Fort  Meigs.)  Nothing  of  importance  oc¬ 
curred  there  during  the  winter.  Troops  were 
concentrated  there,  and  in  March  (1813)  Harri¬ 
son  sent  a  small  force,  under  Captain  Langliam, 
to  destroy  the  British  vessels  frozen  in  the  De¬ 
troit  River  near  Amherstburg  (Fort  Malden). 
The  ice  in  the  vicinity  had  broken  up,  and  the 
expedition  was  fruitless.  The  attack  on  Fort 
Meigs  by  the  British  and  Indians  followed  in 
May.  The  attack  on  Fort  Stephenson  (which 
see)  followed,  and  the  summer  of  1813  was  passed 
in  completing  arrangements  for  the  invasion  of 
Canada.  This  was  done  after  Perry’s  victory 
on  Lake  Erie  (which  see).  Harrison  penetrated 
Canada  from  Fort  Malden,  and  defeated  Proctor 
on  the  Thames  (which  see).  Soon  after  that 
Harrison,  because  of  treatment  received  at  the 
hands  of  the  Secretary  of  War  (Armstrong),  re¬ 
signed  his  commission  and  left  the  service. 

Hart,  John,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born  at  Hopewell,  N.  J.,  in 
1708;  died  there  in  1780.  He  was  a  farmer, 
scantily  educated,  but  a  man  of  strong  common- 
sense,  patriotism,  and  moral  excellence.  He 
was  in  Congress  from  1774  till  1777,  and  suffered 
much  at  the  hands  of  the  loyalists.  He  was 
compelled  to  flee  from  his  home,  and  was  hunt¬ 
ed  from  place  to  place  until  the  capture  of  the 
Hessians  at  Trenton.  (See  Trenton,  Battle  of.) 
He  was  called  “  honest  John  Hart.” 

Hartford  Convention  (1779).  The  alarming 
depreciation  of  the  Continental  paper- money 
produced  great  anxiety  throughout  the  colonies, 
and  on  Oct.  20  a  convention  of  delegates  from 
five  of  the  Eastern  States  was  held  at  Hartford, 
Conn.  They  proposed  a  new  regulation  of 
prices,  on  the  basis  of  twenty  dollars  in  paper 
for  one  dollar  in  coin  ;  and  they  advised  a  gen¬ 


eral  convention  at  Philadelphia  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  1780,  to  adopt  a  scheme  for  all  the  colo¬ 
nies.  Congress  approved  the  suggestion  of  the 
convention,  but  urged  the  states  to  adopt  the 
regulation  at  once,  without  waiting  for  a  gen¬ 
eral  convention. 

Hartford  Convention  (1814).  Because  the 
Massachusetts  militia  had  not  been  placed  un¬ 
der  General  Dearborn’s  orders,  the  Secretary  of 
State,  in  an  official  letter  to  Governor  Strong, 
refused  to  pay  the  expenses  of  defending  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  from  the  common  foe.  Similar  ac¬ 
tion,  for  similar  cause,  had  occurred  in  the  case 
of  Connecticut,  and  a  clamor  was  instantly 
raised  that  New  England  was  abandoned  to  the 
enemy  by  the  national  government.  A  joint 
1  committee  of  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts 
made  a  report  on  the  state  of  public  affairs, 
which  contained  a  covert  threat  of  independent 
action  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  that  section, 
saying  that,  in  the  position  in  which  that  state 
stood,  no  choice  was  left  it  but  submission  to  the 
British,  which  was  not  to  be  thought  of,  and 
the  appropriation  for  her  own  defence  of  those 
revenues  derived  from  the  people  which  the  na¬ 
tional  government  had  hitherto  thought  prop¬ 
er  to  expend  elsewhere.  The  report  recom¬ 
mended  a  convention  of  delegates  from  sympa¬ 
thizing  states  to  consider  the  propriety  of  adopt- 
iug  “some  mode  of  defence  suited  to  the  cir¬ 
cumstances  and  exigencies  of  those  states,”  and 
to  consult  upou  a  radical  reform  in  the  national 
Constitution.  The  administration  minority  de¬ 
nounced  this  movement  as  a  preparation  for  a 
dissolution  of  the  Union.  The  report  was  adopt¬ 
ed  by  a  large  majority,  and  the  Legislature  ad¬ 
dressed  a  circular  letter  to  the  governors  of  the 
other  New  England  States  inviting  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  delegates  to  meet  in  convention  at  an 
early  day,  to  deliberate  upon  “means  of  securi¬ 
ty  and  defence  ”  against  dangers  to  which  those 
states  were  subjected  by  the  course  of  the  w  ar. 
They  also  proposed  the  consideration  of  some 
amendments  to  the  Constitution  on  the  subject 
of  slave  representation.  The  proposition  was 
acceded  to.  Hartford,  in  Connecticut,  was  the 
place,  and  Thursday,  Dec.  15, 1814,  the  time,  des¬ 
ignated  for  the  assembling  of  the  convention. 
On  that  day  twenty-six  delegates,*  representing 


*  George  Cabot,  the  president  of  the  convention,  was  a 
descendant  of  one  of  the  d  scoverers  of  the  American  con¬ 
tinent  of  that  name.  He  was  a  warm  Whig  during  the  Rev¬ 
olutionary  struggle,  and  soon  after  the  adoption  of  the  na¬ 
tional  Constitution  was  chosen  a  senator  in  Congress  by  the 
Legislature  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  a  pure-hearted,  lofty- 
minded  citizen,  a  sound  statesman,  and  a  man  beloved  by  all 
who  knew  him. 

I  Nathan  Dane  was  a  lawyer  of  eminence,  and  was  also  a 
Whig  in  the  days  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  a  representa¬ 
tive  of  Massachusetts  in  Congress  during  the  Confederation, 
and  was  specially  noticed  for  his  services  in  procuring  the 
I  insertion  of  a  provision  in  the  famous  Ordinance  of  1787  es¬ 
tablishing  territorial  governments  over  the  territories  north¬ 
west  of  the  Ohio  which  forever  excluded  slavery  from  those 
regions.  He  was  universally  esteemed  for  his  wisdom  and 
integrity. 

William  Prescott  was  a  son  of  the  distinguished  Colonel 
Prescott,  of  the  Revolution,  who  was  conspicuous  in  the  bat¬ 
tle  of  Bunker’s  Hill.  He  was  an  able  lawyer,  first  in  Salem, 
and  then  in  Boston.  He  served  with  distinction  in  both 
branches  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature. 

Harrison  Gray  Otis  was  a  native  of  Boston,  and  member  of 
the  family  of  that  name  distinguished  in  the  Revolution.  He 


HARTFOKD  CONVENTION 


623 


HARTFORD  CONVENTION 


Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  assembled  at  Hart- 


was  a  lawyer  by  profession,  and  served  tbe  public  in  the  Mas- 
sichusetts  Legislature  and  in  the  national  Congress.  He  was 
an  eloquent  speaker,  and  as  a  public  man,  as  well  as  a  private 
citizen,  he  was  very  popular. 

Timothy  Bigelow  was  a  lawyer,  and  for  several  years  was 
speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives. 

Joshua  Thomas  was  judge  of  probate  in  Plymouth  County, 
Mass.,  and  was  a  man  of  unblemished  reputation  in  public 
and  private  life. 

Joseph  Lyman  was  a  lawyer,  and  for  several  years  held  the 
office  of  sheriff  of  his  county. 

George  Bliss  was  an  eminent  lawyer,  and  distinguished  for 
his  learning,  industry,  and  integrity.  He  was  several  times  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature. 

Daniel  Waldo  was  a  resident  of  Worcester,  where  he  estab¬ 
lished  himself  in  early  life  as  a  merchant.  He  was  a  state 
senator,  but  would  seldom  consent  to  an  election  to  office. 

Samuel  Sumner  Wilde  was  a  lawyer,  and  was  raised  to  a 
seat  on  the  bench  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts 

Hodijah  Baylios  was  an  officer  in  the  Continental  army,  in 
which  position  he  served  with  reputation.  He  was  for  many 
years  judge  of  probate  in  the  county  in  which  he  lived,  and 
was  distinguished  for  sound  understanding,  fine  talents,  and 
u  n  i  m peachable  i  n  tegri  ty. 

Stephen  Longfellow,  Jr.,  was  a  lawyer  of  eminence  in  Port¬ 
land,  Me.,  where  he  stood  at  the  head  of  his  profession.  He 
was  a  representative  in  Congress. 

Chauncey  Goodrich  was  an  eminent  lawyer,  and  for  many 
years  a  member  of  the  Legislature  of  Connecticut  in  each  of 
its  branches.  He  was  also  a  member  of  each  house  of  Con¬ 
gress  and  lieutenant-governor  of  Connecticut.  His  reputa¬ 
tion  was  very  exalted  as  a  pure  statesman  and  useful  citizen. 

John  Treadwell  was  in  public  stations  in  Connecticut  a 
greater  part  of  his  life,  where  he  was  a  member  of  each  lcgis- 
1  itive  branch  of  the  government,  a  long  time  a  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  both  lieutenant-governor  and 
governor  of  the  state.  He  was  a  Whig  in  the  Revolution,  and 
a  politician  of  the  Washington  school. 

James  Hillhouse  was  a  man  of  eminent  ability,  and  widely 
known.  He  was  a  lawyer  of  celebrity,  served  as  a  member 
of  the  Legislature  of  Connecticut,  and  was  for  more  than 
twenty  years  either  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress. 
He  fought  bravely  for  IPs  country  in  the  old  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence.  and  was  always  active,  energetic,  aud  public  spir  ted. 

Zephaniah  Swift  was  a  distinguished  lawyer.  He  served  as 
speaker  of  the  Connecticut  Assembly,  and  was  a  member  of 
Congress,  a  judge,  and  for  a  number  of  years  chief-justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Connecticut. 

Nathaniel  Smith  was  an  extraordinary  man.  He  was  a 
lawyer  by  profession,  and  for  many  years  was  considered  as 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  members  of  his  profession  in 
Connecticut.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  a  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Connecticut.  His  whole  life  was  marked 
by  purity  of  morals  and  love  of  country. 

Calvin  Goddard  was  a  native  of  Massachusetts,  but  studied 
and  practised  law  in  Connecticut,  and  became  a  distinguished 
citizen  of  that  state.  He  rose  to  great  eminence  in  his  pro¬ 
fession,  and  was  in  Congress  four  years.  He  was  repeatedly 
elected  a  member  of  the  General  Assembly,  aud  was  appointed 
a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  that  state. 

Roger  Minot  Sherman  was  another  distinguished  lawyer  of 
Connecticut,  and  was  for  a  long  time  connected  with  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  that  state.  Ho  was  a  man  of  the  highest  reputa¬ 
tion  as  possessor  of  the  qualities  of  a  good  citizen. 

Daniel  Lyman  was  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  major  in  the  Continental  army.  After  the  peace 
he  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Rhode  Island,  where  he  became  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  talents  and  integrity.  He  was  chief-justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  that  state. 

Sam  uel  Ward  was  a  son  of  Governor  Ward,  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  at  the  ago  of  eighteen  years  was  a  captain  in  the  Conti¬ 
nental  army.  He  was  with  Arnold  in  his  expedition  to  Que¬ 
bec  in  1775.  At  that  city  he  was  made  a  prisoner.  Before 
the  close  of  the  war  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  convention  held  at  Annapolis,  Md., 
in  1786,  which  was  the  inception  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  national  Constitution. 

Benjamin  Hazard  was  a  native  of  Rhode  Island,  and  a  law¬ 
yer,  in  which  profession  he  was  eminent.  He  served  for 
many  years  in  the  Legislature  of  his  state. 

Edward  Manton  was  a  native  of  Rhode  Island,  and  rarely 
mingled  in  the  political  d  scussions  of  his  day.  He  was  a 
man  of  sterling  worth  in  every  relation  in  life. 

Benjamin  West  was  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  and  a  law¬ 
yer  by  profession,  in  which  he  had  a  good  reputation. 

Mills  Olcott  was  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  and  a  son  of 
Chief  justice  Olcott,  of  that  state.  He  was  a  lawyer  by  pro¬ 
fess  on. 

William  Hall,  Jr.,  was  a  native  of  Vermont.  His  business 
was  that  of  a  merchant,  and  he  was  frequently  a  member  of 
the  state  Legislature.  He  was  universally  esteemed  and  re¬ 
spected  by  all  good  men. 


ford,  then  a  town  of  four  thousand  inhabitants, 
and  organized  by  the  appointment  of  George  Ca¬ 
bot,  of  Boston,  as  president  of  the  body,  and 
Theodore  Dwiglit  as  secretary.  The  delegates 
were  George  Cabot,  Nathan  Dane,  William  Pres¬ 
cott,  Harrison  Gray  Otis,  Timothy  Bigelow, 
Joshua  Thomas,  Samuel  Snmner  Wilde,  Joseph 
Lyman,  Stephen  Longfellow,  Jr.,  Daniel  Waldo, 
Hodijah  Baylies,  and  George  Bliss,  from  Massa¬ 
chusetts;  Chauncey  Goodrich,  John  Treadwell, 
James  Hilllionse,  Zephaniah  Swift,  Nathaniel 
Smith,  Calvin  Goddard,  and  Roger  Minot  Sher¬ 
man,  from  Connecticut;  Daniel  Lyman,  Samuel 
Ward,  Edward  Manton,  and  Benjamin  Hazard, 
from  Rhode  Island;  Benjamin  West  and  Mills 
Olcott,  from  New  Hampshire ;  and  William  Hall, 
Jr.,  from  Vermont.  The  sessions  of  the  conven¬ 
tion,  held  with  closed  doors,  continued  three 
weeks.  Much  alarm  had  been  created  at  the 
seat  of  the  United  States  government  by  the 
convention,  especially  because  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  Legislature,  at  about  that  time,  appropri¬ 
ated  $1,000,000  towards  the  support  of  ten  thou¬ 
sand  men  to  relieve  the  militia  in  service,  and 
to  be,  like  the  militia,  under  the  state’s  control. 
All  sorts  of  wild  rumors,  suggesting  treason, 
were  set  afloat,  and  the  government  sent  Major 
Thomas  S.  Jesup  with  a  regiment  of  soldiers  to 
Hartford  at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  con¬ 
vention,  ostensibly  to  recruit  for  the  regular 
army,  but  really  to  watch  the  movements  of  the 
supposed  unpatriotic  conclave.  The  convention, 
at  the  outset,  proposed  to  consider  the  powers 
of  the  national  executive  in  calling  out  the  mi¬ 
litia;  the  dividing  of  the  United  States  into 
military  districts,  with  an  officer  of  the  army  in 
each,  with  discretionary  power  to  call  out  the 
militia;  the  refusal  of  the  executive  to  pay  the 
militia  of  certain  states,  called  on  for  their  own 
defence,  on  the  ground  that  they  had  not  been 
put  under  the  control  of  the  national  command¬ 
er  over  the  military  district ;  and  the  failure  of 
the  government  to  pay  the  militia  admitted  to 
have  been  in  the  United  States  service;  the 
proposition  for  a  conscription  ;  a  bill  before  Con¬ 
gress  for  classifying  and  drafting  the  militia; 
the  expenditure  of  the  revenue  of  the  nation  in 
offensive  operations  on  neighboring  provinces; 
and  the  failure  of  the  United  States  government 
to  provide  for  the  common  defence,  and  the  con¬ 
sequent  necessity  of  separate  states  defending 
themselves.  A  committee,  appointed  Dec.  20, 
reported  a  “general  project  of  such  measures” 
as  might  be  proper  for  the  convention  to  adopt ; 
and  on  the  24th  it  was  agreed  that  it  would  be 
expedient  for  it  to  prepare  a  general  statement 
of  the  unconstitutional  attempts  of  the  execu¬ 
tive  government  of  the  United  States  to  in¬ 
fringe  upon  the  rights  of  the  individual  states 
in  regard  to  the  military,  etc.,  and  to  recom¬ 
mend  to  the  legislatures  of  the  states  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  most  effectual  and  decisive  measures 
to  protect  the  militia  and  the  states  from  the 
usurpations  contained  in  those  proceedings. 
Also  to  prepare  a  statement  concerning  the  gen¬ 
eral  subject  of  state  defences,  and  a  recom¬ 
mendation  that  an  application  be  made  to  the 
national  govern uiei?t  for  an  arrangement  with 


I 


HARTFORD  CONVENTION 


G24 


HARTFORD  CONVENTION 


the  states  by  which  they  would  be  allowed  to 
retain  a  portion  of  the  taxes  levied  by  Congress, 
to  be  devoted  to  the  expenses  of  self-defence, 
etc.  They  also  proposed  amendments  to  the 


ations  concerning  slave  representation  and  tax¬ 
ation.  The  convention  adopted  a  report  and 
resolutions  in  accordance  with  the  sentiments 
indicated  by  the  scope  of  the  deliberations. 


cjf 


/ft 


O  l/X-' 


/ZtCi 

^  ,-jC  a  i  t.  c  l  i  - 


* 


an/tl i wC/dcS 


Constitution  to  accomplish  the  restriction  of  the 
powers  of  Congress  to  declare  and  make  war, 
admit  new  states  into  the  Union,  lay  embar¬ 
goes,  limit  the  presidency  to  one  term,  and  alter- 


These  were  signed  by  all  the  dele¬ 
gates  present,  and  ordered  to  be  laid 
before  the  legislatures  of  the  respec¬ 
tive  states  represented  in  the  conven¬ 
tion.  The  report  and  resolutions  were 
moderate  but  firm,  able  in  construc¬ 
tion,  and  forcible  though  heretical  in 
argument  and  conclusion.  The  labors 
of  the  Hartford  Convention  ended  on 
Jan.  4,  1815,  and  after  prayer  on  the 
morning  of  the  5tli  that  body  ad¬ 
journed,  but  with  the  impression  on 
the  part  of  some  of  the  members  that 
circumstances  might  require  them  to 
reassemble.  For  that  reason  the  seal 
of  secrecy  on  their  proceedings  was 
not  removed.  This  gave  wide  scope 
for  conjecture,  suspicion,  and  misrep¬ 
resentation,  some  declaring  that  the 
proceedings  were  patriotic,  and  others 
that  they  were  treasonable  in  the  ex¬ 
treme.  Their  report  was  immediately 
published  throughout  the  country. 
Z'  It  disappointed  radical  Federalists  and 

suspicious  Democrats;  yet, 
because  the  members  of  the 
convention  belonged  to  the 
party  to  which  the  Peace 
Faction  adhered,  they  in¬ 
curred  much  odium,  and  for 
many  years  the  term  “  Hartford  Convention 
Federalists”  conveyed  much  reproach.  At  the 
next  election  in  Massachusetts  the  Administra¬ 
tion,  or  Democratic,  party  issued  a  handbill  with 


FAC-SIMILE  OF  THE  SIGNATURES  TO  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  HARTFORD  CONVENTION. 


HARTLEY 


625  HARVARD  COLLEGE  CIRCULAR 


an  engraving  indicative  of  the  character  of  the 
opposing  parties  —  the  Federal  party  by  the 
devil,  crowned,  holding  a  flaming  torch,  and 
pointing  to  British  coin  on  the  ground  ;  the 
Democratic  party  by  a  comely  young  woman 
representing  Liberty,  with  an  eagle  beside  her, 
holding  in  one  hand  the  Phrygian  bonnet  on 


and  commanded  Abercrombie’s  brigade  in  the 
battles  of  Cedar  Mountain,  Manassas,  and  Antie- 
tam,  receiving  a  severe  wound  in  the  latter  en¬ 
gagement.  In  November  he  was  promoted  to 
major-general;  and  in  the  spring  of  1863  was 
sent  to  Kentucky,  where  he  commanded  the 
Twenty-third  Corps.  He  was  in  command  of 
the  works  at  Bermuda  Hundred 
in  the  siege  of  Petersburg,  1864— 


a  staff,  and  in  the  other  a  palm-leaf.  The  above 
cut  is  a  copy  of  the  engraving  on  a  reduced 
scale. 

Hartley,  David,  was  born  in  1729;  died  at 
Bath,  England,  Dec.  19, 1813.  Educated  at  Ox¬ 
ford,  he  became  a  member  of  Parliament,  in 
which  he  was  always  distinguished  by  liberal 
Views.  He  opposed  the  American  War,  and  was 
appointed  one  of  the  British  commissioners  to 
treat  for  peace  with  Franklin  at  Paris.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  advocates  in  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  and 
was  an  ingenious  inventor. 

Hartranft,  John  Frederick,  was  born  in 
Montgomery  County,  Penn.,  Dec.  16,  1830,  and 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1853.  He  com¬ 
manded  a  Pennsylvania  regiment  in  Burnside’s 
expedition  to  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  early 
in  1862.  He  was  in  all  the  operations  of  that 
corps  (the  Ninth),  and  was  made  brigadier-gen¬ 
eral  in  May,  1864.  At  Antietam  he  led  the  fa¬ 
mous  charge  that  carried  the  lower  bridge  (see 
Antietam,  Battle  of),  and  was  in  command  of  the 
division  of  the  Ninth  Corps  that  gallantly  re¬ 
captured  Fort  Steadman,  before  Petersburg,  in 
March,  1865,  for  which  he  was  breveted  major- 
general.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  in  1876. 

Hartsuff,  George  L.,  was  born  at  Tyre,  N.  Y., 
May  28,  1830;  died  in  New  York  city,  May  16, 
1874.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1852, 
serving  in  Texas  and  Florida.  In  1856  he  was 
assistant  instructor  in  artillery  and  infantry 
tactics  at  West  Point.  He  was.  made  assistant 
adjutant-general,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  in 
March,  1861.  He  served  at  Fort  Pickens  from 
April  till  July,  1861,  and  then  in  western  Vir¬ 
ginia,  under  General  Rosecrans.  In  April,  1862, 
ho  was  made  brigadier -general  of  volunteers, 


65.  In  March,  1865,  he  was  bre¬ 
veted  major-general  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  Army. 

Harvard  College  was  the  first 
of  the  higher  seminaries  of  learn¬ 
ing  established  in  America.  The 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts 
had  made  some  provisions  tow¬ 
ards  educating  a  succession  of 
learned  ministers.  They  had  es¬ 
tablished  a  school  at  Newtown, 
the  name  of  which  was  changed 
to  Cambridge,  in  honor  of  the 
university  at  which  most  of  the 
Massachusetts  ministers  had  been 
educated.  John  Harvard,  a  miu- 
ister,  who  died  soon  after  his  ar¬ 
rival,  endowed  the  school  (1638) 
at  Cambridge  with  his  library 
and  the  gift  of  one  half  his  estate,  amounting  to 
about  $4000 — a  large  sum  at  that  time.  The 
school  was  erected  into  a  college,  and  named,  in 
honor  of  its  benefactor,  Harvard  College.  Henry 
Dunster,  a  Hebrew  scholar  just  arrived  in  the 
colony,  was  chosen  its  first  president.  A  class 
began  a  collegiate  course  of  study  in  1638,  and 
nine  were  graduated  in  1642.  Efforts  were 
made  to  educate  Indians  for  teachers,  but  only 
one  was  ever  graduated.  In  1642  the  general 
management  of  the  temporalities  of  the  institu¬ 
tion  was  intrusted  to  a  board  of  trustees,  and  in 
1650  the  General  Court  granted  it  a  charter,  with 
the  title,  “President  and  Fellows  of  Harvard 
College.”  The  profits  of  the  ferry  between  Bos¬ 
ton  and  Charlestown  were  given  to  the  college ; 
the  town  of  Cambridge  voted  it  several  parcels 
of  land,  and  the  colonial  and  state  Legislatures 
of  Massachusetts  made  annual  grants  until  1814, 
when  the  practice  ceased.  The  first  honorary 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  was  given  to  In¬ 
crease  Mather  in  1692,  and  a  few  years  after¬ 
wards  Harvard  received  the  first  of  a  series  of 
munificent  gifts  from  the  Hollis  family,  includ¬ 
ing  valuable  books.  Its  library  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1766,  and  about  six  thousand  volumes 
were  lost,  including  those  of  the  founder.  The 
institution  which  has  become  a  university,  has 
sixteen  extensive  buildings  of  brick  and  stone, 
from  two  to  five  stories  in  height.  The  number 
of  instructors  is  over  100,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  averages  1200.  It  contains  a  library  ot 
more  than  200,000  volumes  and  a  valuable  mu¬ 
seum, and  is  munificently  endowed.  An  “annex” 
for  the  higher  education  of  women  has  been  es¬ 
tablished.  The  founder,  a  native  of  England, 
died  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Sept.  14,  1638. 

Harvard  College  Circular.  Even  after  the 
delusion  of  “  Salem  witchcraft  ”  had  become  ap- 


I.— 40 


HARVARD 


626 


HAT-MAKING 


parent  to  all  sensible  men,  the  Matliers  deter¬ 
mined  to  prove  the  reality  'of  visible  witches; 
and  at  the  instance  of  Increase  Mather,  the  pres¬ 
ident  of  Harvard  College,  a  circular  was  sent 
ont,  signed  by  him  and  all  the  neighboring  min¬ 
isters,  in  the  name  of  that  institution  (March 
5,  1695),  inviting  reports  of  “apparitions,  pos¬ 
sessions,  enchantments,  and  all  extraordinary 
things,  wherein  the  existence  and  agency  of 
the  invisible  world  is  more  sensibly  demonstrat¬ 
ed,”  to  be  used  “as  some  fit  assembly  of  minis¬ 
ters  might  direct.”  Cotton  Mather  afterwards 
lamented  that  in  ten  years  scarce  five  returns 
were  received  to  this  circular. 

Harvard,  John,  founder  of  Harvard  College, 
was  born  in  Middlesex,  Eng.,  in  1608;  died  at 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  Sept.  14,  1638.  He  grad¬ 
uated  at  Emanuel  College,  Eng.,  in  1635.  He 
emigrated  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  was  made 
a  freeman  in  1637,  and  in  Charlestown  he  became 
a  preacher  of  the  Gospel.  (See  Harvard  College.) 

Hassler,  Ferdinand  Rudolph,  was  born  at 
Aernen,  Switzerland,  Oct.  6, 1770;  died  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Nov.  20,  1843.  He  was  engaged  in  a 
trigonometrical  survey  of  his  native  country, 
and  was  induced  to  come  to  America  about  the 
year  1807  by  Albert  Gallatin,  then  Secretary  of 
the  Navy.  He  was  employed  as  professor  of 
mathematics  at  West  Point  from  1807  to  1810, 
and  in  1811  he  was  sent  by  our  government  to 
Europe  as  scientific  ambassador  to  Loudou  and 
Paris,  and  to  procure  necessary  implements  and 
standards  of  measure  for  use  in  the  projected 
Coast  Survey  (which  see).  He  began  that  sur¬ 
vey  in  July,  1816,  and  left  it  in  April,  1818,  but 
resumed  it  in  1832  and  continued  superintend¬ 
ent  until  his  death,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
A.  D.  Bache.  Professor  Hassler  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  Amei'ican  Philosophical  Tran¬ 
sactions  on  the  subject  of  the  coast  survey.  In 
1832  he  made  a  valuable  report  to  the  United 
States  Senate  on  weights  and  measures. 

Hatch,  John  Peter,  was  born  in  New  York, 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845.  He 
served  under  General  Scott  in  Mexico.  In  Sep¬ 
tember,  1861,  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general 
and  assigned  to  a  cavalry  brigade  under  Gen¬ 
eral  King.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  of  the 
Fifth  Corps  in  the  campaign  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  in  the  early  part  of  1862.  In  July  he 
took  command  of  an  infantry  brigade,  and  in 
August  that  of  King’s  division.  He  was  wound¬ 
ed  at  Manassas,  and  at  South  Mountain.  He 
also  commanded  forces  on  John’s  Island,  near 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  July,  1864,  and  commanded 
the  coast  division  of  the  Department  of  the 
South  from  November,  1864,  to  February,  1865. 
He  co-operated  with  Sherman  while  moving 
through  the  Caroliuas.  He  was  breveted  brig- 
adier-general  United  States  Army. 

Hatchee,  Battle  at.  After  the  repulse  of 
the  Confederates  from  Corinth  (Oct.  4,  1862), 
Rosecrans  gave  his  troops  rest  until  next  morn¬ 
ing,  when  he  ordered  a  vigorous  pursuit  of  the 
fugitives.  General  McPherson,  who  had  ar¬ 
rived  with  fresh  troops,  led  in  the  chase,  and  fol¬ 
lowed  the  Confederates  fifteen  miles  that  day. 


Meanwhile,  a  division  under  General  Hurlbut, 
which  had  been  sent  to  attack  the  Confederate 
rear  or  intercept  their  retreat,  had  met  the  head 
of  Van  Dorn’s  column,  near  Pocahontas,  on  the 
morning  of  the  5th,  and  was  driving  it  back 
across  the  Hatchee  River,  towards  Corinth, 
when  General  Ord,  who  ranked  Hurlbut,  came 
up  and  took  the  command.  A  severe  battle  en¬ 
sued  near  the  waters  of  the  Hatchee,  w  here  the 
Confederates  lost  two  batteries  and  three  hun¬ 
dred  men.  Ord  fell,  severely  wounded.  Hurl¬ 
but  resumed  command,  but  did  not  pursue,  for 
his  force  was  inferior.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  National  army  followred  the  fugitives  to 
Ripley,  where  the  pursuit  ended. 

Hatcher’s  Run,  Battle  of.  On  Sunday 
morning,  Feb.  5, 1865,  a  strong  flanking  column 
of  Nationals  moved  on  the  right  of  the  lines  of 
the  Confederates  at  Petersburg,  beyond  Hatch¬ 
er’s  Run,  to  strike  the  South-side  railway.  The 
entire  National  army  in  front  of  Petersburg 
had  received  marching  orders  to  meet  w  hatever 
might  be  developed  by  the  movement.  This 
flanking  movement  was  led  by  Warren’s  and 
Humphrey’s  corps  and  Gregg’s  cavalry.  The 
cavalry  moved  down  the  Jerusalem  Plank-road 
to  Reams’s  Station.  The  divisions  of  Ayres, 
Griffiu,  and  Crawford,  of  Warren’s  corps,  moved 
along  another  road,  while  portions  of  Hum¬ 
phrey’s  corps  (Mott’s  and  Smyth’s  divisions) 
moved  along  still  another  road,  with  instruc¬ 
tions  to  fall  upon  the  right  of  the  Confederate 
works  on  Hatcher’s  Run,  while  Warren  should 
move  round  to  the  flank  and  strike  the  rear  of 
their  adversaries.  The  cavalry  had  pushed  on 
from  Reams’s  Station  to  Dinwiddie  Court-house, 
encountering  Wade  Hampton’s  horsemen,  dis¬ 
mounted  and  intrenched.  A  division  of  Hum¬ 
phrey’s  corps  carried  the  Confederate  works  on 
Hatcher’s  Run,  making  the  passage  of  it  safe 
for  the  Nationals.  The  latter  cast  up  tem¬ 
porary  earth  works,  which  were  assailed  in  the 
afternoon,  the  Confederates  pressing  through  a 
tangled  swamp.  They  were  repulsed.  The  Na¬ 
tionals  lost  about  three  hundred  men  ;  their  an¬ 
tagonists  a  few  more.  Warren’s  corps  took  po¬ 
sition  on  the  left  of  Humphrey’s  during  the 
night,  and  the  cavalry  was  recalled.  Two  other 
corps  were  disposed  so  as  to  assist,  if  necessary. 
Towards  noon  (Feb.  6),  Crawford,  moving  tow  ¬ 
ards  Dabney’s  Mills,  met  and  fought  the  Confed¬ 
erates  under  Pegram.  The  latter  were  repulsed, 
but  finally  the  Nationals  were  pushed  back  with 
heavy  loss.  Then  the  Confederates  attacked 
Humphrey’s  corps,  and  were  repulsed  in  dis¬ 
order.  The  Nationals  were  rallied  behind  in- 
trenchments  and  stood  firm,  and  made  a  perma¬ 
nent  extension  of  Grant’s  line  to  Hatcher’s  Run. 
The  City  Point  railroad  was  exteuded  to  that 
stream.  In  the  battle  of  Hatcher’s  Run  the  Na¬ 
tionals  lost  nearly  2000  men  ;  the  Confederates 
1000.  General  Pegram  w  as  killed. 

Hat-making.  In  1662  the  Legislature  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  offered  a  premium  of  ten  pounds  of  tobac¬ 
co  (then  the  currency)  for  every  good  hat,  of 
wool  or  fur,  made  in  the  colony.  The  business 
of  hat-making  rapidly  increased  in  the  colonies ; 


HATTERAS,  FORTS  AT,  CAPTURED  627  HAVRE  DE  GRACE,  ATTACK  ON 


so  rapidly  that,  in  1731,  the  felt-makers  in  Lon¬ 
don  complained  to  the  Parliament  that  the  for¬ 
eign  markets  were  almost  entirely  supplied  by 
hats  made  in  America.  They  proposed  to  have 
the  exportation  of  American  hats  to  foreign 
markets  prohibited ;  and  in  1732  Parliament  en¬ 
acted  that  “  no  hats  of  felt,  dyed  or  nndyed,  fin¬ 
ished  or  unfinished,  shall  be  put  on  board  any 
vessel,  in  any  place  within  any  British  planta¬ 
tion,  nor  be  laden  npon  any  horse  or  other  car¬ 
riage,  with  the  intent  to  be  exported  from  thence 
to  any  other  plantation,  or  to  any  other  place 
whatever,  upon  forfeiture  thereof;  and  the  of¬ 
fender  shall  likewise  pay  £500  for  every  such 
offence.”  This  law  remained  in  force  until  the 
Revolution,  but  it  was  constantly  evaded,  and 
the  American  establishments  were  able  to  supply 
the  home  demand  during  that  war.  It  is  now 
an  important  industry  in  the  United  States. 

Hatteras,  Forts  at,  Captured.  In  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1861  the  Confederates  built  two  forts  on 
Hatteras  Island,  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina, 
to  guard  the  entrance  to  Hatteras  Inlet,  through 
which  British  blockade-runuers  had  begun  to 
carry  supplies  to  the  insurgents.  General  B. 
F.  Butler,  then  in  command  at  Fortress  Monroe 
(which  see),  proposed  the  sending  of  a  land  and 
naval  force  against  these  forts.  It  was  done.  An 
expedition  composed  of  eight  transports  and  war¬ 
ships,  under  the  command  of  Commodore  String- 
ham,  and  bearing  about  900  land-troops,  under 
the  command  of  General  Butler,  left  Hampton 
Roads  for  Hatteras  Inlet  on  the  20th  of  August. 
On  the  morning  of  the  28th  the  vessels  of  war 
opened  their  guns  on  the  forts  ( Hatteras  and 
Clark )  and  some  of  the  troops  were  landed. 
The  war-vessels  of  the  expedition  were  the  Min¬ 
nesota  (flag-ship),  Pawnee,  Harriet  Lane,  Monti- 
cello,  Wabash,  Cumberland,  and  Susquehanna.  The 
condition  of  the  surf  made  the  landing  difficult, 
and  only  about  300  men  got  on  shore.  The  forts 
were  under  the  command  of  the  Confederate  Ma¬ 
jor  W.  S.  G.  Andrews,  and  a  small  Confederate 
naval  force,  lying  in  Pamlico  Sound,  was  in 
charge  of  Samuel  Barron.  An  assault  by  both 
arms  of  the  service  began  on  the  28th  and  was 
kept  up  until  the  next  day,  when  the  forts  were 
surrendered.  Not  one  of  the  Nationals  was  in¬ 
jured  ;  the  Confederates  lost  12  or  15  killed  and 
35  wounded.  The  number  of  troops  surrender¬ 
ed,  including  officers,  was  715,  and  with  these 
1000  stands  of  arms,  31  pieces  of  cannon,  vessels 
with  cotton  and  stores,  and  considerable  gun¬ 
powder.  The  victorious  expedition  returned  to 
Hampton  Roads,  when  General  Wool,  who  had 
succeeded  General  Butler  in  command  there,  is¬ 
sued  a  stirring  order,  announcing  the  victory. 
It  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  Confederates,  and 
led  to  important  results.  Colonel  Hawkins, 
with  a  portion  of  his  Ninth  New  York  (Zouave) 
Regiment,  was  sent  to  garrison  the  forts  at  Hat¬ 
teras  and  hold  the  island  and  inlet. 

Haverhill,  Massacre  at.  After  the  attack 
upon  Deerfield  (which  see),  Hertel  de  Renville, 
willing  to  lead  his  murderous  and  motley  band 
in  the  work  of  murdering  helpless  women  and 
children,  ascended  the  St.  Francis,  and,  passing 


the  White  Mountains,  made  their  rendezvous  at 
Winnipiseogee,  where  they  expected  to  meet  a 
party  of  Abenakes.  Disappointed  in  this,  they 
descended  the  Merrimac  to  Haverhill,  a  little 
cluster  of  thirty  cottages  and  log  cabins,  in  the 
centre  of  which  was  a  new  meeting-house.  On 
the  night  of  Aug.  29,  1708,  when  every  family 
was  slumbering,  this  baud  of  invading  savages 
rested  near,  and  at  daylight  the  next  morning 
fell  with  fury  upon  the  startled  sleepers  of  the 
village.  The  midday  sun  shone  on  a  charred 
village,  strewn  with  murdered  men,  women,  and 
children.  Hearing  of  these  cruelties,  Colonel 
Peter  Schuyler,  of  Albany,  wrote  to  Vaudreuil, 
governor  of  Canada  :  “I  hold  it  my  duty  tow¬ 
ards  God  and  my  neighbors  to  prevent,  if  possi¬ 
ble,  these  barbarous  and  heathen  cruelties.  My 
heart  swells  with  indignation  when  I  think 
that  a  war  between  Christian  provinces,  bound 
to  the  exactest  laws  of  honor  and  generosity, 
which  their  noble  ancestors  have  illustrated  by 
brilliant  examples,  is  degenerating  into  a  sav¬ 
age  and  boundless  butchery.  These  are  not  the 
methods  for  terminating  the  war.  Would  that 
all  the  world  thought  with  me  on  this  subject !” 

Haviland,  William,  born  in  Ireland  in  1718 ; 
died  Sept.  16,  1784.  He  served  in  the  British 
army  at  Carthagena  and  Porto  Bello,  and  was 
aid  to  General  Blakeney  in  suppressing  the  re¬ 
bellion  of  1745.  He  was  lieutenant-colonel  un¬ 
der  Loudon  in  America  (1757) ;  served  with  Aber¬ 
crombie  at  Ticonderoga  (1758),  and  under  Ain- 
lierst  (1759-60),  entering  Montreal  with  the  lat¬ 
ter  officer  in  September,  1760.  He  was  senior 
brigadier-general  and  second  in  command  at 
the  reduction  of  Martinique  in  1762,  and  at  the 
siege  of  Havana.  He  was  made  lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral  in  1772,  and  general  in  1783. 

Havre  de  Grace,  Attack  on  (1813).  Havre 
de  Grace  was  a  small  village,  two  miles  above 
the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  near  the  month 
of  the  Susquehanna  River,  containing  about  six¬ 
ty  houses,  mostly  built  of  wood.  It  was  on  the 
post-road  between  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore, 
as  it  now  is  upon  the  railway  between  the  two 
cities.  On  the  night  of  May  2,  1813,  Sir  George 
Cockburn,  commander  of  a  British  squadron  en¬ 
gaged  in  marauding  on  the  shores  of  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay,  approached  the  village,  and  at  dawn 
on  the  morning  of  the  3d  the  inhabitants  were 
awakened  by  the  sound  of  arms.  Fifteen  or 
twenty  barges,  filled  with  armed  men,  were  seen 
approaching,  when  a  few  lingering  militia  open¬ 
ed  heavy  guns  npon  them  from  a  battery  on  an 
eminence  called  Point  Comfort.  These  were 
answered  by  grape-shot  from  the  British.  The 
drums  iu  the  village  beat  to  arms.  The  af¬ 
frighted  inhabitants,  half  dressed,  rushed  to  the 
streets,  the  non-combatants  flying  in  terror  to 
places  of  safety.  Very  soon  hissing  Congreve 
rockets  set  buildings  on  fire  in  the  town,  and 
these  were  followed  by  more  destructive  bomb¬ 
shells.  While  panic  and  lire  were  raging,  the 
British  landed.  All  but  eight  or  ten  of  the  mi¬ 
litia  had  fled  from  the  village,  and  only  two 
men  (John  O’Neil  and  Philip  Albert)  remained 
at  the  battery.  These  were  captured,  with  the 


HAWK-EYE  STATE 


628 


HAYES 


battery,  when  the  guns  of  the  latter  were  turn¬ 
ed  upon  the  town.  The  invaders  were  four  hun¬ 
dred  strong.  They  were  divided  into  squads, 
and  began  the  work  of  plundering  and  destroy¬ 
ing  systematically,  officers  and  men  equally  in¬ 
terested  in  the  business.  When  half  the  village 
had  been  destroyed,  Cockburu  went  on  shore, 
and  was  met  on  the  common  by  several  ladies 
who  had  taken  refuge  ip  a  brick  dwelling  known 
as  the  “  Pringle  Mansion.”  They  entreated  him 


to  spare  the  rest  of  the  village,  and  especially 
the  roof  that  sheltered  them.  He  yielded,  and 
called  off  the  plunderers.  Meanwhile  a  large 
British  detachment  had  gone  up  the  Susque¬ 
hanna  about  six  miles,  to  the  head  of  tide¬ 
water,  and  destroyed  an  extensive  iron  and 
cannon  foundery.  A  number  of  vessels  there, 
which  had  escaped  from  the  bay,  were  saved  by 
being  scuttled  and  sunk.  After  the  lapse  of 
four  hours,  when  forty  of  the  sixty  houses  in 
the  village  were  destroyed,  and  nearly  every 
other  editice  injured,  the  marauders  assembled 
iu  their  vessels  in  the  stream,  and  at  sunset 
sailed  out  into  the  bay  to  pay  a  similar  visit  to 
villages  on  Sassafras  River.  (See  Cockburn  in 
the  Chesapeake.)  Havre  de  Grace  was  at  least 
sixty  thousand  dollars  poorer  when  the  invad¬ 
ers  left  than  when  they  came. 

Hawk-eye  State.  This  name  is  said  to  have 
been  given  to  Iowa  because  an  Indian  chief  of 
that  name  who  ruled  there  was  a  terror  to  the 
voyageurs  upon  the  Mississippi. 

Hawley,  Joseph,  was  born  at  Northampton, 
Mass.,  iu  1724;  died  March  10,  1788.  After  his 
graduation  at  Yale  College  iu  1742,  he  labored 
as  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  He  studied  law, 
and  in  the  practice  of  it  rose  to  distinction  rap¬ 
idly.  Early  espousing  the  republican  cause,  he 
was  regarded  as  one  of  its  ablest  advocates.  He 
steadily  refused  a  proffered  seat  in  the  govern¬ 
or’s  Council,  but  served  in  the  Assembly  from 
1764  to  1776,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his 


bold  and  manly  eloquence.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  committee  of  the  First  Provincial  Con¬ 
gress  of  Massachusetts  (October,  1774)  to  con¬ 
sider  the  state  of  the  country.  Mr.  Hawley  re¬ 
mained  in  public  life  until  failing  health  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  retire. 

Hawley,  Joseph  Roswell,  journalist,  soldier, 
and  statesman,  was  born  in  Richmond  County, 
N.  C.,  Oct.  31,  1826,  and  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  in  1847.  He  began  the  practice  of  law 
at  Hartford  iu  1850.  He  was  a 
captain  in  the  First  Connecticut 
Regiment  in  the  battle  of  Bull’s 
Run ;  and  was  active  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Terry  on  the  coasts  of  South 
Carolina  and  Florida.  He  com¬ 
manded  a  brigade  in  the  battle 
of  Olustee,  Fla.  (which  see) ;  join¬ 
ed  the  Army  of  the  James,  under 
Terry,  and  participated  in  bat¬ 
tles  agaiustPetersburg  and  Rich¬ 
mond  ;  was  made  brigadier-gen¬ 
eral,  and  became  Terry’s  cbief- 
of- staff  in  Virginia.  He  was 
breveted  major-general  iu  1865, 
and  in  1866-67  was  governor  of 
Connecticut.  He  was  President 
of  the  “  Centennial  Commission,” 
and  performed  the  duties  with 
great  efficiency  and  masterly 
skill.  He  was  theu  a  member  of 
Congress,  having  been  elected  in 
1874,  and  afterwards  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  a  seat  in  the  U.  S.  Sen¬ 
ate.  General  Hawley  has  been 
engaged  in  journalism  since  1857. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  was  born  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  July  4,  1804;  died  at  Plymouth,  N.  H., 
May  19,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1825.  His  first  novel  was  published 
anonymously  iu  Boston  in  1832.  In  1837,  a  num¬ 
ber  of  his  tales  and  sketches  were  published 
under  the  title  of  Twice  told  Tales.  A  second 
series  appeared  in  1842.  From  1838  to  1841,  he 
held  a  position  in  the  Boston  Custom-House. 
Afterwards  he  lived  at  Brook  Farm,  a  commu¬ 
nity  of  literary  men  and  philosophers.  Marrying 
in  1843,  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Concord.  He 
became  surveyor  of  the  port  of  Salem.  He  after¬ 
wards  settled  in  Lenox,  Mass.,  and  in  1852  re¬ 
turned  to  Concord.  In  1853  he  became  U.  S.  Con¬ 
sul  at  Liverpool,  which  place  he  resigned  in  1857. 
His  most  popular  writings  are  The  Scarlet  Letter 
and  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables.  Septimus, 
American  Note- Books,  English  Note- Books,  etc.,  ap¬ 
peared  after  his  death.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  in  18  volumes. 

Hayes,  Isaac  Israel,  explorer,  was  born  in 
Chester  County,  Penn.,  March  5,  1832,  and  grad¬ 
uated  an  M.D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  in  1853.  He  was  surgeon  of  the  second 
Grinnell  expedition  to  the  Polar  Seas,  under 
Dr.  Kane.  Satisfied  of  the  existence  of  an  open 
Polar  sea,  he  wrote  and  lectured  on  the  subject 
on  his  return.  He  excited  such  interest  in  the 
subject  that,  with  the  aid  of  subscriptions  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  he  was  enabled 


THE  PUIN'GLE  HOUSE. 


HAYES 


629  HAYNE’S  MISSION  AT  WASHINGTON 


to  fit  out  the  steamer  United  States,  of  133  tons, 
in  which  he  sailed  from  Bostou,  July  9,  1860, 
with  thirteen  other  persons,  for  the  Arctic  re¬ 
gions.  They  anchored,  after  a  perilous  voyage, 
in  Port  Foulke,  on  the  west  coast  of  Greenland, 
in  latitude  78°  17',  on  Sept.  9,  where  they  win¬ 
tered.  In  April,  1861,  with  twelve  men  and 
fourteen  dogs,  he  pushed  northward  over  the 
ice  in  a  boat;  but  finally  the  vessel  was  sent 
hack,  and  Dr.  Hayes,  with  three  companions 
and  two  dog-sledges,  pressed  on  to  land  in  lat¬ 
itude  81°  37",  beyond  which  they  discovered 
open  water.  The  expedition  returned  to  Bos¬ 
ton  in  October.  Dr.  Hayes  found  his  country 
in  civil  war,  and  he  served  in  it  as  a  surgeon. 
In  1867  he  published  an  account  of  his  expedi¬ 
tion,  under  the  title  of  The  Open  Polar  Sea;  and 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London  and 
the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  each  present¬ 
ed  to  him  a  gold  medal.  In  1869  he  sailed  in 
the  steamer  Panther,  in  company  with  the  artist 
William  Bradford,  and  exploited  the  southern 
coasts  of  Greenland.  Afterhisretnrn  hepublislied 
“  The  Laud  of  Desolation.”  Died  Dec.  17,  1881. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard,  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  horn  in  Delaware,  O., 
Oct.  4,  1822.  He  graduated  at  Kenyon  College, 
O.,  in  1842,  and  at  the  Cambridge  Law  School 
in  1845.  He  practised  law  in  Cincinnati  until 


RUTHERFORD  BIRCHARD  HAYES. 


1861,  when  he  became,  first  the  major,  and  then 
the  colonel,  of  the  Twenty-third  Regiment  Ohio 
Volunteers,  first  serving  in  western  Virginia. 
He  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  South  Moun¬ 
tain,  Md. ;  and  from  December,  1862,  to  Septem¬ 
ber,  1864,  he  commanded  the  First  Brigade,  Ka¬ 
nawha  Division.  He  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  in  October,  1864,  for  gallant  conduct  at 
Winchester,  Fisher’s  Hill,  and  Cedar  Creek.  In 
March,  1865,  he  was  breveted  major-general  of 
volunteers,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  to 
Congress.  In  1867  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Ohio,  and  was  re-elected  in  1869  and  1875.  In 
1876  lie  was  chosen  President  of  the  United  States 
by  a  majority  of  one  in  the  Electoral  College 
over  his  opponent,  Samuel  J.  Tilden. 


Hayne,  Isaac,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1745;  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Aug.  4, 1781.  He 
was  an  extensive  planter  and  owner  of  iron¬ 
works,  a  firm  patriot,  and  was  captain  of  artil¬ 
lery  and  state  senator  in  1780.  He  was  made 
a  prisoner  at  the  capture  of  Charleston  (which 
see),. and  returned  to  his  home  on  parole.  Early 
in  1781  he  was  ordered  to  take  up  arms  as  a 
British  subject  or  go  to  Charleston  a  prisoner, 
his  wife  and  children  then  being  dangerously 
sick  with  small-pox.  He  weut  to  Charleston, 
where  he  was  required  to  bear  arms  in  support 
of  the  royal  government  or  suffer  close  confine¬ 
ment.  On  being  assured  that  if  he  would  sign 
a  declaration  of  allegiance  to  the  British  crown 
he  would  not  be  required  to  bear  arms  against 
his  countrymen,  he  did  so,  and  hastened  home 
to  find  his  wife  dying  and  one  of  his  childreu 
dead.  Finally  he  was  summoned  to  take  up 
arms  against  his  people.  This  being  in  viola¬ 
tion  of  his  agreement,  it  dissolved  all  obliga¬ 
tions,  and  he  repaired  to  the  American  camp, 
received  a  commission  as  colonel,  and  was  soon 
made  a  prisoner.  Colonel  Balfour,  then  the  Brit¬ 
ish  commander  in  Charleston,  hesitated  about 
disposing  of  Hayue ;  but  when  Lord  Rawdou 
arrived  from  Orangeburg,  on  his  way  to  embark 
for  England,  pursuant  to  the  spirit  of  Cornwal¬ 
lis’s  orders  he  directed  Colonel  Hayne  to  he 
hung.  This  was  done  without  even  the  form 
of  a  trial.  The  prisoner  did  not  anticipate  such 
treatment  until  he  was  officially  informed  that 
he  had  not  two  days  to  live.  The  patriot’s 
children,  the  women  of  Charleston,  the  lieuten¬ 
ant-governor  of  the  province,  all  pleaded  for 
his  life,  but  in  vain.  The  savage  sentence  was 
executed.  After  Balfour’s  death,  Lord  Rawdon 
meanly  tried  to  fix  the  ignominy  of  the  act 
upon  that  humaue  officer. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young,  was  horn  near 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Nov.  10,  1791 ;  died  at  Ash- 
ville,  N.  C.,  Sept.  24, 1839.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1812;  and  when  his  law  tutor,  Lang- 
don  Cheves,  went  to  Congress  he  succeeded  to 
his  large  practice.  He  rose  rapidly,  and  in  1818 
was  Attorney- general  of  South  Carolina.  He 
was  United  States  Senator  from  1823  to  1832, 
and  was  distinguished  as  an  orator.  In  the 
latter  year  he  and  Daniel  Webster  had  their  fa¬ 
mous  debate  on  the  tariff,  during  which  Hayne 
declared  the  right  of  a  state  to  nullify  acts  of 
the  general  government.  In  a  state  convention 
he  drew  up  the  Ordinance  of  Nullification  ;  and 
when,  the  next  year,  he  was  governor  of  South 
Carolina,  he  maintained  that  right,  and  pre¬ 
pared  for  armed  resistance.  Clay’s  compromise 
(which  see)  allayed  the  fierce  dispute. 

Hayne’s  Mission  at  Washington.  On  Jan. 
11, 1861  (two  days  after  the  attack  on  the  Star 
of  the  West )  (which  see),  Governor  Pickens  sent 
two  of  his  executive  council  to  Major  Anderson 
to  demand  the  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter  to  the 
authorities  of  South  Carolina.  Anderson  re¬ 
fused  to  give  it  up,  and  referred  the  matter  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States;  whereupon 
Pickens  sent  Isaac  W.  Hayne,  the  Attorney-gen¬ 
eral  of  the  state,  with  Lieutenant  Hall,  of  An- 


HAYNES 


630 


HAZEN 


derson's  command,  to  present  the  same  demand 
to  the  national  executive.  Hayne  bore  a  letter 
from  Pickens,  in  which  the  latter  declared  to 
the  President  that  the  demand  for  surrender 
was  suggested  because  of  his  “  earnest  desire 
to  avoid  the  bloodshed  which  the  attempt  to 
retain  possession  of  the  fort  would  cause,  and 
which  would  be  unavailing  to  secure  that  pos¬ 
session.”  Hayne  arrived  in  Washington  Jan. 
13,  1861,  when  ten  of  the  disloyal  senators  still 
holding  their  seats  advised  him,  in  writing,  not 
to  present  the  letter  of’Pickens  to  the  President 
until  after  the  Southern  Confederacy  should  be 
formed — a  month  later — and  proposed  to  ask 
the  President  not  to  reinforce  Fort  Sumter 
meantime.  Mr.  Hayne  offered,  in  writing,  to 
refer  the  matter  to  the  authorities  of  his  state, 
if  the  President  would  make  such  a  promise. 
This  correspondence  was  laid  before  the  Presi¬ 
dent  by  some  of  the  Senators.  The  executive 
replied,  through  Secretary  Holt,  that  he  could 
not  give  such  a  pledge  without  usurping  the 
powers  of  Congress.  When  Pickens  was  in¬ 
formed  of  this  state  of  the  case,  he  directed 
Hayne  to  demand  the  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter 
forthwith.  He  did  so  (Jan.  31),  in  a  letter  of 
considerable  length.  The  President  refused  to 
receive  Hayne  excepting  as  a  private  citizen, 
and  also  refused  compliance  with  the  demands 
of  South  Carolina. 

Haynes,  John,  was  born  at  Copford  Hall,  Es¬ 
sex,  England;  died  March  1,1654.  He  accom¬ 
panied  Rev.  Mr.  Hooker  to  Boston  in  1633,  and 
in  1635  was  chosen  governor  of  Massachusetts. 
He  was  one  of  the  best  educated  of  the  early 
settlers  in  NewT  England,  and  possessed  the  qual¬ 
ities  of  an  able  statesman.  He  went  to  the  val¬ 
ley  of  the  Connecticut  with  Mr.  Hooker  in  1736 ; 
became  one  of  the  most  prominent  founders  of 
the  Connecticut  colony ;  was  chosen  its  first  gov¬ 
ernor,  in  1639;  and  served  alternately  with  Ed¬ 
ward  Hopkins  until  1654.  Mr.  Haynes  was  one 
of  the  live  who  drew  up  the  written  constitu¬ 
tion  of  Connecticut,  the  first  ever  framed  in 
America.  (See  Connecticut,  First  Constitution  of.) 
He  was  a  man  of  large  estate,  spotless  purity 
of  character,  a  friend  of  civil  and  religious  lib¬ 
erty,  and  was  always  performing  acts  of  benev¬ 
olence.  He  probably  did  more  for  the  true  in¬ 
terests  of  Connecticut  than  any  other  of  the 
earlier  settlers. 

Hays,  Alexander,  was  born  at  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.,  in  1820;  killed  in  battle  in  “The  Wilder¬ 
ness,”  Va.,  May  5,  1864.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1844 ;  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico ; 
left  the  army  in  1848 ;  did  good  service  as  cap¬ 
tain,  colonel,  and  brigadier- general  of  volun¬ 
teers  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  Civil  War,  distinguishing  him¬ 
self  in  the  seven  days’  battle  before  Richmond 
in  1862,  and  at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  leading  a  bri¬ 
gade  in  Hancock’s  corps.  He  was  breveted  ma¬ 
jor-general  of  volunteers. 

Hayti.  The  native  name  of  Santo  Domingo 
(which  see). 

Hayti,  Independence  of.  In  1803  France 


lost  her  hold  on  western  Santo  Domingo,  known 
as  Hayti.  The  negro  forces  were  commanded 
by  Christophe  and  Dessalines,  rebels  against 
Toussaint  (  which  see  ).  The  French  forces, 
under  Rocliambeau,  about  eight  thousand  in 
number,  were  driven  into  the  town  of  Cape 
Frangais,  and  they  were  saved  from  total  de¬ 
struction  only  by  flying  to  the  ships  of  the 
British  blockading  squadron.  On  Nov.  27, 1803, 
the  independence  of  Hayti  was  proclaimed. 
Upon  Dessaliues  the  negro  and  mulatto  gen¬ 
erals  conferred  the  governor-generalship,  and 
he  presently  proclaimed  himself  emperor.  The 
French  authorities,  however,  continued  to  hold 
possession  of  the  eastern,  or  formerly  Spanish, 
part  of  Santo  Domingo  for  some  time  longer. 

Hayward,  Thomas,  a  signer  of  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Independence,  was  born  in  St.  Luke’s 
Parish,  S.  C.,  in  1746;  died  in  March,  1809.  He 
studied  law  in  England,  made  a  tour  in  Europe, 
and  on  his  return  became  a  warm  defender  of 
the  rights  of  the  colonies.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  First  General  Assembly  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina  after  the  flight  of  the  royal  governor.  He 
was  also  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Safety, 
and  a  delegate  in  Congress  from  1775  to  1778, 
when  he  was  appointed  a  judge.  He  was  also 
in  active  military  service  in  South  Carolina, 
and  in  1780  was  wounded.  Captured  at  the 
fall  of  Charleston,  he  was  sent  a  prisoner  to 
St.  Augustine.  He  retired  from  public  life  in 
1799. 

Hazard,  Ebenezer,  was  the  first  Postmaster- 
general  under  the  Confederation  (1782-89),  and 
left  the  position  when  the  new  government  was 
organized  under  the  national  Constitution.  He 
was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1745;  died  there, 
June  13,  1817.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1762.  Mr.  Hazard  published  Historical  Collec¬ 
tions,  iu  two  volumes,  in  1792-94  ;  also,  Remarks 
on  a  Report  concerning  Western  Indians. 

Hazard,  Samuel,  was  boru  iu  Philadelphia, 
May  26, 1784 ;  died  there,  May  22, 1870.  He  was 
a  son  of  Ebenezer.  In  early  life  he  engaged  in 
commerce,  and  made  several  voyages  to  the  East 
Indies  before  he  began  a  literary  career.  He  was 
the  author  of  Register  of  Pennsylvania  (1828-36), 
in  sixteen  volumes;  United  States  Commercial  and 
Statistical  Register  { 1839-42),  in  six  volumes ;  An¬ 
nals  of  Pennsylvania,  from  the  discovery  of  the 
Delaware  in  1609  to  the  year  1682,  in  one  vol¬ 
ume;  and  Pennsylvania  Archives  (1682-1790),  in 
twelve  volumes  of  about  eight  hundred  pages 
each.  These  works  are  invaluable  to  histo¬ 
rians. 

Hazen,  Moses,  was  born  at  Haverhill,  Mass., 
in  1733;  died  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  3,  1803.  He 
served  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  (which 
see).  He  was  in  the  attack  on  Louisburg  in 
1758,  and  with  Wolfe  at  Quebec  in  1759,  where 
he  distinguished  himself.  He  fought  bravely 
at  Sillery  in  1760  and  was  made  a  lieutenant. 
A  half-pay  British  officer,  he  was  residing  near 
St.  John,  Canada,  when  the  Revolution  broke 
out,  and  he  furnished  supplies  to  Montgomery’s 
troops;  he  afterwards  became  an  efficient  offi¬ 
cer  in  the  Continental  army.  His  property  was 


HAZEN 


631 


HECKEWELDER 


destroyed  by  the  British.  In  June,  1781,  he 
was  made  a  brigadier-general.  He  and  his  two 
brothers  emigrated  to  Vermont  after  the  war, 
and  finally  settled  in  Albany. 

Hazen,  William  Babcock,  was  born  at  West 
Hartford,  Vt.,  Sept.  27, 1830.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1855,  when  he  was  a  resident  of 
Ohio.  He  served  against  the  Indians  in  Califor¬ 
nia  and  Oregon  (1856-57).  Afterwards  he  was 
in  Texas,  and  had  several  severe  encounters  ;  in 
one  of  these,  hand-to-hand  with  Comauches,  he 
was  severely  wounded.  At  the  breaking-out  of 
the  Civil  War  he  was  assistant  professor  of 
tactics  at  West  Point,  and  was  made  captain 
in  May,  1861.  Taking  command  of  the  Forty- 
first  Regiment  Ohio  volunteers,  he  joined  Buell 
at  Louisville  in  December  ;  and  in  January  had 
command  of  a  brigade,  with  which  he  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh.  After 
that  he  was  very  active  in  Kentucky,  Tennes¬ 
see,  and  northern  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  and 
did  excellent  service  in  the  battle  at  Stone 
River  or  Murfreesborough,  in  protecting  the  re¬ 
forming  army.  He  had  been  made  brigadier- 
general  in  November.  At  Chickamauga  and 
Missionaries’  Ridge  he  was  actively  engaged, 
and  he  served  through  the  Atlanta  campaign. 
In  Sherman’s  march  to  the  sea  he  commanded 
a  division,  with  which  he  captured  Fort  McAl¬ 
lister  (December,  1864).  He  was  engaged  in  the 
operations  which  ended  in  the  surrender  of 
Johnston’s  army ;  was  breveted  major-general 
in  1865,  and  in  1880  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  Weather  Signal  Bureau.  Died  Jan.  16,  1887. 

Head,  Sir  Francis  Bond,  Governor  of  Cana¬ 
da,  was  born  in  Kent  County,  Eng.,  Jan.  1, 1793. 
In  1825  he  explored  the  gold  and  silver  mines 
in  the  Argentine  Republic,  S.  A.  Late  in  1835 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Upper  Canada, 
where  his  injudicious  measures  caused  an  insur¬ 
rection,  in  which  American  sympathizers  with 
the  people  became  involved.  He  kept  the  out¬ 
break  in  check  until  his  resignation  in  March, 
1838.  The  same  year  lie  was  created  a  baronet. 
(See  Canadian  Rebellion .) 

Headquarters  of  Washington.  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  a  list  of  the  localities  of  the  principal 
headquarters  of  Washington  during  t  lie  old  war 
for  independence.  Those  marked  with  an  as¬ 
terisk  were  standing  in  1876.  Cragie  House,* 
Cambridge  (residence  of  the  late  H.  W.  Long¬ 
fellow),  1775-76;  at  No.  180  Pearl  Street  and  No. 
1  Broadway,*  New  York  city,  1776;  also  Morton 
House  (afterwards  Richmond  Hill),  at  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  Varick  and  Charlton  streets  ;  Roger  Mor¬ 
ris’s  house,*  Harlem  Heights,  New  York  Island, 
1776;  the  Miller  House,*  near  White  Plains, 
Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1776  ;  Freeman’s  Tavern, 
Morristown,  N.  J.,  1777-78 ;  Ford  Mansion,*  Mor¬ 
ristown,  1779-80 ;  Schuyler  House,*  Pomptou, 
N.  J.,  1777 ;  the  Ring  House,*  at  Chad’s  Ford,  on 
the  Brandywine,  and  the  Elmar  House,  White- 
marsli,  1777 ;  the  Potts  House,*  Valley  Forge, 
1777-78;  the  Brinkerhoff  House,  Fishkill,  N.Y., 
1778 ;  at  Fredericksburg  (now  in  Putnam  Coun¬ 
ty,  N.  Y.) ;  New  Windsor-on-the-Hudson,  1779, 
1780,  and  1781;  Hopper  House,*  Bergen  Co.,  N.J., 


1780;  Birdsall  House,*  Peekskill- on -the -Hud¬ 
son,  1780;  De  Wiudt  House,*  at  Tappau,  1780; 
Moore’s  house,  Yorktowu,  Va.,  1781 ;  Hasbrouck 
House,*  Newburg-on-the-Hudson,  1782,  1783; 
Farm-house,*  at  Rocky  Hill,  N.  J.,  near  Prince¬ 
ton,  1783 ;  Fraunce’s  Tavern,*  corner  of  Broad 
and  Pearl  streets,  New  York  city,  where  he  part¬ 
ed  with  his  officers,  1783. 

Heath,  William,  Avas  born  at  Roxlmry,  Mass., 
March  2,  1737  ;  died  there,  Jan.  24, 1814.  He  was 
bred  a  farmer;  joined  the  “  Ancieut  and  Honor¬ 
able  Artillery  Company,”  of  Boston  (Avhicli  see), 
and  was  made  its  commander  in  1770.  He  was 
also  colonel  of  a  Suffolk  regiment;  was  a  repre¬ 
sentative  in  the  General  Assembly  ;  member  of 
the  committees  of  Correspondence  and  Safety  ; 
delegate  to  the  Provincial  Congress  (1774-75), 
and  was  made  a  brigadier-general,  early  in  1776, 
in  the  Continental  army.  He  rose  to  major-gen¬ 
eral  in  August  following.  He  was  very  service¬ 
able  in  organizing  the  undisciplined  troops  at 
Cambridge  before  the  battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill, 
and  went,  to  NeAv  York  with  Washington  in  the 
spring  of  1776.  After  the  battle  of  White  Plains 
(Avhich  see),  he  took  post  in  the  Hudson  High¬ 
lands,  and  was  stationed  there  in  1779.  He  had 
supervision  of  Burgoyne’s  captured  troops,  in 
1777,  at  Cambridge.  He  went  to  Rhode  Island 
on  the  arrival  of  the  French  forces  in  1780. 
General  Heath  was  state  senator  in  1791-92 ; 
was  probate  judge  of  Norfolk  County  in  1793, 
and  declined  the  office  of  lieutenant-governor 
in  1806,  to  which  he  had  been  chosen. 

Heckewelder,  John,  Moravian  missionary 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Bedford,  Eng.,  March 
12, 1743 ;  died  at  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  Jan.  21, 1823. 
Becoming  a  preacher  in  his  youth,  he  came  to 
America  (1754)  and  labored  forty  years  among 
the  Indians  of  Pennsylvania,  studying  carefully 
their  language  and  producing  a  vocabulary.  In 


MISS  MARIA  IIKCKKWKLDRR. 


1762  he  accompanied  Christian  Post  on  a  mission 
to  the  Indians  in  Ohio ;  and  in  1797  he  was  sent  to 
superintend  a  mission  on  the  Muskingum  River. 


HEINTZELMAN 


632 


HENNEPIN 


He  settled  at  Bethlehem,  Perm.,  after  an  advent¬ 
urous  career,  and  published  (1819)  a  History  of 
the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the .  Indian  Rations 
who  formerly  inhabited  Pennsylvania  and  the  neigh¬ 
boring  States.  His  daughter,  Johanna  Maria,  was 
horn  at  the  present  village  of  Port  Washington, 
on  April  20, 1781,  and  was  the  first  white  child 
born  within  the  present  limits  of  Ohio.  She 
lived  a  maiden  at  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  until  about 
1870.  In  a  diary  kept  by  the  younger  pupils 
of  the  Bethlehem  boarding-school,  where  Miss 
Heckewelder  was  educated,  under  date  of  Dec. 
23, 1788  (the  year  when  Marietta,  O.,  was  found¬ 
ed),  occurs  the  following  sentence :  “  Little  Miss 
Maria  Heckewelder’s  papa  returned  from  Fort 
Pitt,  which  occasioned  her  and  us  great  joy.” 

Heintzelman,  Samuel  P.,  was  born  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  Sept.  30,  1805,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1826.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mex¬ 
ico,  organizing  at  Vera  Cruz  a  battalion  of  re¬ 
cruits  and  convalescents,  with  whom  he  inarched 
to  the  city  of  Mexico.  After  the  war  he  com¬ 
manded  in  the  Southern  District  of  California, 
and  effectually  suppressed  Indian  hostilities. 
Soon  after  the  treachery  of  Twiggs  (which  see), 
he  left  Texas,  and,  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  was 
made  inspector-general  there.  In  May  he  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  com¬ 
manded  a  division  under  McDowell  in  the  bat¬ 
tle  of  Bull’s  Run,  where  he  was  severely  wound¬ 
ed.  In  the  campaign  on  the  Peninsula  he  com¬ 
manded  an  army  corps,  having  been  made  ma¬ 
jor-general  of  volunteers  in  May.  General 


Heintzelman  commanded  the  right  wing  of 
Pope’s  army  in  the  battle  of  Manassas,  or  sec¬ 
ond  battle  of  Bull’s  Run  (which  see),  and  after¬ 
wards  took  command  of  the  defences  of  Wash¬ 
ington.  He  retired  in  February,  1869,  and  was 
made  major-general.  He  died  May  1, 1880. 

Helena,  Battle  at.  There  was  a  sharp  strug¬ 
gle  between  the  National  and  Confederate  troops 
at  Helena,  Ark.,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  on  July  4,  1863.  General  B.  M.  Prentiss 
was  in  command  there.  The  Confederates  in 
that  region  were  under  the  command  of  General 
Holmes,  assisted  by  Generals  Price,  Marmaduke, 


Fagan,  Parsons,  McRae,  and  Walker,  and  were 
the  remnants  of  shattered  armies,  about  8000 
strong  in  effective  men.  The  post  at  Helena 
was  strongly  fortified.  It  had  a  garrison  of 
3000  men,  supported  by  the  gunboat  Tyler. 
Holmes  was  ignorant  of  the  real  strength  of 
Preutiss,  and  made  a  bold  attack  upon  the 
works.  At  three  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  the 
Confederates  were  repulsed  at  all  points,  and 
withdrew  with  a  loss,  reported  by  Holmes,  of 
twenty  per  cent,  of  the  entire  force  —  or  1636 
men.  Prentiss  lost  250  men.  The  Confederate 
loss  must  have  been  much  greater  than  Holmes 
reported,  for  Prentiss  buried  300  of  their  dead 
left  behind,  and  captured  1100  men. 

Hendrick,  a  Mohawk  chief,  killed  near  Lake 
George,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8,  1755.  He  was  son  of  a 


HENDRICK. 

Mohegan  chief,  and  married  Hunnis,  a  Mohawk 
maiden,  daughter  of  a  chief.  He  was  a  leading 
spirit  in  that  nation,  wise  in  council  and  eloquent 
in  speech.  He  attended  the  Colonial  Conven¬ 
tion  at  Albany  (which  see)  in  1754,  and  in  1755 
joiued  General  William  Johnson  with  two  hun¬ 
dred  Mohawk  warriors,  at  the  head  of  Lake 
George.  In  company  with  Colonel  Williams, 
he  and  his  followers  were  ambushed  at  Rocky 
Brook,  near  Lake  George,  and  he  was  slain. 

Hennepin,  Louis,  a  Recollet,  or  Franciscan, 
missionary  and  explorer.  He  was  born  at  Ath, 
Belgium,  about  1640,  and  died  in  Holland  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  Entering  the  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Order,  he  made  a  tour  through  Germany 
and  Italy,  preached  a  while,  had  charge  of  a  hos¬ 
pital,  and  was  a  regimental  chaplain  at  the  bat¬ 
tle  of  Senef,  between  the  Prince  of  Condd  and 
William  of  Orange,  in  1674.  The  next  year  he 
was  ordered  to  Canada,  and  made  the  voyage 
with  Bishop  Laval  and  Robert  Cavalier  de  la 
Salle  (which  see).  After  preaching  in  Quebec, 
he  went  to  the  Indian  mission  at  Fort  Frontenac, 
and  visited  the  Mohawk  country.  In  1678  he  ac¬ 
companied  La  Salle  to  the  Western  wilds,  with 
Chevalier  de  Tonti  and  the  Sieur  de  la  Motte. 


HENRICO  COLLEGE 


633 


HENRY 


Left  by  La  Salle  a  little  below  the  present  site 
of  Peoria  to  prosecute  discoveries,  lie  and  two 
others  penetrated  to  the  Mississippi  in  a  canoe, 
by  way  of  the  Illinois  River,  in  February  and 
March,  1680.  Tliey  explored  the  Mississippi 
northward  until,  in  April,  they  were  captured 
by  a  party  of  Sioux  and  carried  to  their  vil¬ 
lages.  Hennepin,  at  the  beginning  of  the  voy¬ 
age,  had  invoked  the  aid  of  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua,  and  when  he  discovered  the  great  rapids 
of  the  Upper  Mississippi  he  gave  them  the  name 
of  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  He  claimed  to  have  dis¬ 
covered  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  but  uever 
went  above  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  and  there 
carved  the  arms  of  France  on  the  forest  trees. 
In  July  (1680)  Hennepin  and  his  companions 
were  rescued  from  the  Sioux  by  Graysolon  du 
Luht  (Duluth),  and  they  were  taken  down  to  the 
Wisconsin  River  and  made  their  way  to  Lake 
Michigan,  and  so  on  to  Quebec.  From  the  lat¬ 
ter  place  Heuuepiu  embarked  for  France,  and 
there,  in  1683,  he  published  a  full  account  of  his 
explorations,  which  contains  many  exaggera¬ 
tions.  Yet  it  is  a  work  of  much  value,  as  it 
pictures  the  life  and  habits  of  the  Iudiaus  of 
the  Northwest.  Iu  1697  he  published  his  New 
Discovery  of  a  vast  Country  situated  in  America, 
which  contained  his  former  work,  with  a  de¬ 
scription  of  a  voyage  down  the  Mississippi, 
largely  copied  from  the  narrative  of  Leclerc. 
This  fraud  was  exposed  by  Dr.  Sparks.  Hen¬ 
nepin  never  went  down  the  Mississippi  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin  River,  yet,  iu  that 
work,  he  claimed  to  be  the  first  who  descended 
the  great  river  to  its  mouth.  He  lost  the  favor 
of  Louis  XIV.,  and  when  he  endeavored  to  re¬ 
turn  to  Canada  the  king  ordered  his  arrest 
on  his  arrival  there./  The  time  of  his  death 
is  unknown.  As  late  as  1701  he  was  iu  Rome, 
seeking  to  establish  a  mission  on  the  Missis¬ 
sippi. 

Henrico  College.  The  London  Company 
took  the  first  steps  for  establishing  schools  in 
the  English- American  colonies.  In  1618  the 
king,  at  their  request,  permitted  contributions 
to  be  made  in  England  for  “  building  and  plant¬ 
ing  a  college  at  Henrico  for  the  training-up  of 
the  children  of  the  infidels,”  the  Indians.  Hen¬ 
rico  was  a  settlement  on  the  James  River,  below 
the  site  of  Richmond,  established  by  Governor 
Sir  Thomas  Dale,  and  so  named  in  honor  of 
Henry,  Priuce  of  Wales.  The  company  appro¬ 
priated  ten  thousand  acres  of  land  at  Henrico 
as  an  endowment  for  the  proposed  college  or 
university.  Edwin  Sandys  took  special  inter¬ 
est  in  the  undertaking,  and  wealthy  and  influ¬ 
ential  persons  in  England,  as  well  as  in  the  col¬ 
ony,  made  generous  donations  for  it.  In  1620 
George  Thorpe,  a  member  of  the  Council  for 
Virginia,  was  sent  to  take  charge  of  the  college 
land,  and  preparations  were  in  progress  for  es¬ 
tablishing  the  institution  when  the  dreadful 
massacre  by  the  Indians  (1622)  pccurred.  (See 
Opechancanough.)  Mr.  Thorpe  and  the  minister 
at  Henrico  were  victims,  and  a  blight  fell  upon 
the  enterprise.  In  1621  Rev.  Patrick  Copeland, 
returning  from  the  East  Indies  in  the  Royal 
James,  one  of  the  ships  of  the  East  India  Com¬ 


pany,  commanded  by  Martin  Pring  (see  New  Eng¬ 
land),  collected  about  three  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars  from  members  of  that  company  on  board 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  church  or  a 
school  iu  Virginia.  The  London  Company  de¬ 
termined  to  found  a  free  school  at  Charles  City, 
aud  call  it  the  “  East  India  School.”  Early  in 
1622  a  carpenter,  with  apprentices,  was  sent 
over  to  construct  a  building  for  it,  and  provi¬ 
sion  was  made  for  a  school-master,  when  the 
massacre  paralyzed  all  efforts  in  that  direction. 
The  university  scheme  was  abandoned,  but  in 
1625  efforts  were  made  to  establish  the  East 
India  School,  and  this  project  also  failed.  No 
school  for  the  education  of  the  Indians  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  was  established  afterwards  until  Robert 
Boyle’s  benefactions  towards  the  close  of  the 
century.  (See  William  and  Mary  College.) 

Henry,  John,  Disclosures  of.  An  Irish  ad¬ 
venturer,  but  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  produced  a  temporary  excitement  in  1812 
by  “disclosures”  concerning  a  plot  for  the  de¬ 
struction  of  the  Unipu.  According  to  his  story, 
he  purchased  an  estate  iu  Vermont,  near  the 
Canada  frontier,  and  there  studied  law  for  five 
years,  and  amused  himself  by  writing  articles 
against  republican  institutions,  which  he  de¬ 
tested.  These  essays  at  length  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  Governor  of  Canada  (Sir  J.  H. 
Craig),  who  invited  him  to  Montreal,  from  which 
be  sent  him  ou  a  mission  to  Boston  early  in  1809. 
That  was  the  period  of  the  Embargo,  when  vio¬ 
lent  opposition  to  the  measure  appeared  in  New 
England,  It  was  thought  that  the  United  States 
might  declare  war  against  England,  aud  Henry 
was  instructed  to  ascertain  whether  rumors  that 
in  such  an  event  the  New  England  States  would 
be  disposed  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  Union 
had  auy  solid  foundation.  He  was  to  make  dil¬ 
igent  inquiries  at  the  proper  sources  of  informa¬ 
tion  ;  and  should  any  such  disposition  appear, 
and  with  it  an  inclination  to  form  a  connection 
with  Great  Britain,  Henry  was  to  intimate  to 
the  leaders  that  the  British  government  might 
be  communicated  with  through  Governor  Craig ; 
and  should  the  prospect  seem  promising,  he  was 
to  exhibit  these  instructions  as  his  credentials. 
Henry  was  given  to  understand  that  he  would 
be  well  rewarded  for  bis  pains.  He  reached 
Boston  March  9,  1809,  where  he  remained  three 
months,  till  the  apparent  settlement  of  affairs 
by  Erskine’s  arrangement,  when  Henry'  was  re¬ 
called  by  Craig.  During  that  time  he  had  writ¬ 
ten  many  encouraging  letters  to  Craig’s  secre¬ 
tary.  He  spoke  of  the  extreme  discontent  in 
New  England,  and  expressed  an  opinion  that,  if 
war  against  England  should  be  declared,  the 
Legislature  of  Massachusetts  would  take  the 
lead  in  setting  up  a  separate  northern  confed¬ 
eration,  which  might  result,  perhaps,  in  some 
connection  with  Great  Britain.  He  finally  re¬ 
ported  that  a  withdrawal  from  the  Union  was 
an  unpopular  idea  there,  but  that  there  were 
leaders  in  favor  of  it.  Ho  did  not  mention  any 
names.  Henry  went  to  England  for  his  reward 
for  his  services,  when  he  was  treated  coolly  by 
the  officers  of  the  government,  and,  in  a  letter 
from  Under- secretary  Peel,  he  was  referred  to 


HENRY 


634 


HENRY 


Craig’s  successor  in  the  Canadian  government. 
Offended  at  this  treatment,  Henry  did  not  go  to 
Canada,  but  landed  in  Boston,  accompanied  by 
a  Frenchman,  who  called  himself  Count  de  Cril- 
lon,  but  who  was  an  impostor  and  swindler. 
Henry  visited  Governor  Gerry,  and  from  him 
obtained  a  letter  of  introduction  to  President 
Madison.  He  then  went  to  Washington,  and 
laid  the  whole  matter  before  the  President,  who 
was  so  well  satisfied  of  the  great  value  of  Hen¬ 
ry’s  disclosures,  at  the  moment  when  war  was 
about  to  be  declared  against  England  —  over¬ 
whelming  proof  of  the  secret  designs  of  the 
British  government  to  destroy  the  new  Repub¬ 
lic — that  he  gave  Henry  $50,000  out  of  the  se¬ 
cret  service  fund  in  his  possession  for  the  entire 
correspondence  of  the  parties  to  the  affair  in 
this  country  and  in  England.  At  Philadelphia, 
Henry  wrote  a  letter  to  the  President  (Feb.  26, 
1811)  as  a  preface  to  his  disclosures,  and  on  the 
9th  of  March  he  sailed  for  France  in  the  United 
States  schooner  Was tp,  where  he  would  be  safe 
from  British  vengeance.  On  the  same  day  the 
documents  were  laid  before  Congress,  with  a 
message  from  the  President,  in  which  he  charged 
that  the  British  government  had  employed  a  se¬ 
cret  agent  in  fomenting  disaffection  in  the  cap¬ 
ital  of  Massachusetts  to  the  constituted  author¬ 
ities  of  the  nation,  and  “  in  intrigues  with  the 
disaffected  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  about 
resistance  to  the  laws,  and  eventually,  in  con¬ 
cert  with  a  British  force,  of  destroying  the  Union 
and  forming  the  eastern  part  thereof  into  a  po¬ 
litical  connection  with  Great  Britain.”  Both 
political  parties  endeavored  to  make  political 
capital  out  of  these  “disclosures,”  but  the  ex¬ 
citement  created  soon  died  away.  Mr.  Foster, 
the  British  miuister  at  Washington,  declared 
publicly  that  he  had  no  knowledge  of  the  af¬ 
fair.  Lord  Holland  called  upon  the  British 
government  (May  5)  for  an  explanation,  and 
gave  notice  that  he  should  call  for  an  investi¬ 
gation.  Every  pretext  was  brought  to  bear  to 
defeat  such  a  measure;  and  when  it  could  no 
longer  be  resisted,  the  ministry  cast  the  odium 
of  the  transaction,  in  which  they  had  evidently 
been  engaged,  on  Sir  James  Craig.  Lord  Hol¬ 
land  declared  that,  until  such  investigation 
should  be  had,  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  had 
eutei’ed  into  a  “dishonorable  and  atrocious  in¬ 
trigue  against  a  friendly  power  would  stand 
uurefuted.”  And  so  it  stands  to  this  day. 

Henry,  Joseph,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  17,  1797.  He  was  a  watchmaker  for 
some  years.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  Profess¬ 
or  of  Mathematics  in  the  Albany  Academy,  and 
in  1827  he  began  a  series  of  experiments  in  elec¬ 
tricity.  He  fully  developed  the  power  of  elec¬ 
tro-magnetism,  and  perfected  the  electro-mag¬ 
netic  telegraph,  endowing  it  with  the  power 
of  intelligent  communication,  which  Professor 
Morse  achieved.  So  early  as  1831  he  transmit¬ 
ted  signals  through  a  wire  more  than  a  mile  in 
length,  an  account  of  which  was  published  in 
Silliman's  American  Journal  of  Science.  He  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the 
College  at  Princeton,  N.  J. ;  and,  going  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  1837,  he  explained  to  Professor  Wheat¬ 


stone  his  method  of  ringing  a  church-bell  one 
hundred  miles  away  by  an  electro-magnet.  On 
the  organization  of  the  Smithsouiau  Institute 
at  Washington  in  1846,  Professor  Henry  was  ap¬ 
pointed  its  secretary,  which  position  he  tilled 
with  great  ability  until  his  death,  May  13, 1878. 
He  published  many  scieutitic  papers. 

Henry,  Patrick,  was  born  in  Hanover  Coun¬ 
ty,  Va.,  May  29, 1736 ;  died  June  6, 1799.  He  was 
of  Scotch  descent.  His  father  was  a  native  of 


Aberdeen,  and  liberally  educated.  Embarking 
in  commercial  pursuits  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
years,  he  was  unsuccessful.  Marrying  Miss 
Shelton,  daughter  of  an  innkeeper,  at  eigh¬ 
teen,  he  assisted,  at  times,  in  “  keeping  a  hotel 
and  finally,  after  six  weeks’  study,  he  took  up 
the  profession  of  the  law.  But  want  of  busi¬ 
ness  kept  him  very  poor,  and  he  was  twenty- 
seven  years  old  before  his  oratorical  powers 
were  discovered.  Then,  in  a  celebrated  case 
tried  in  the  court-house  of  Hanover  County  (see 


HANOVER  COURT-HOUSE. 


Parsons’s  Case),  he  made  such  a  wonderful  foren¬ 
sic  speech  that  his  fame  as  an  orator  was  estab¬ 
lished.  Henry  became  a  member  of  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  House  of  Burgesses  in  1765,  wherein,  that 


635 


HEREON 


HENRY  VIII.,  STATUTE  OF 

year,  he  introduced  resolutions  for  their  bold 
opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act  (see  Henry's  Reso¬ 
lutions),  and  made  a  most  remarkable  speech. 
From  that  time  he  was  regarded  as  a  leader  of 
the  radical  patriots  of  his  colony.  He  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar  of  the  highest  court  iu  Vir¬ 
ginia  in  1769,  and  in  1773  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  Virginia  Committee  of  Correspondence. 
As  a  delegate  to  the  First  Continental  Congress 
in  1774,  he  opened  the  business  of  that  body  by 
declaring  the  union  of  the  provinces,  and  saying, 
“  I  am  not  a  Virginian — I  am  an  American .”  He 
was  an  eloquent  leader  in  the  famous  Provincial 
Convention  at  Richmond  (March,  1775),  and,  at 
the  head  of  the  militia  of  Hanover,  compelled 
Governor  Dunmore  to  restore  powder  he  had  re¬ 
moved  from  the  colonial  magazine  at  Williams¬ 
burg.  For  a  short  time  Henry  was  in  the  mili¬ 
tary  service,  and  was  the  first  governor  of  the 
State  of  Virginia  (1776-79).  He  was  again  elect¬ 
ed  governor  after  the  war;  and  was  a  member 
of  the  state  convention  that  ratified  the  na¬ 
tional  Constitution,  he  opposing  it  with  all  his 
strength  because  it  menaced  state  supremacy. 
Iu  1794  Henry  retired  from  the  bar,  and  took  up 
his  abode  at  Red  Hill,  in  Charlotte.  Washing¬ 
ton  appointed  him  Secretary  of  State  in  1795 ; 
but  he  declined  the  nomination,  as  he  did  that 
of  envoy  to  France,  offered  by  President  Adams, 
and  of  governor,  offered  by  the  people.  Henry 
was  elected  to  the  State  Senate  in  1799,  but  he 
never  took  his  seat. 

Henry  VIII.,  Statute  of.  Early  in  Janu¬ 
ary,  1768,  an  address  to  the  king  was  voted  by 
the  House  of  Lords,  iu  which  they  recommended 
the  transmission  of  instructions  to  the  governor 
of  Massachusetts  to  obtain  full  information  of 
all  treasons,  and  to  send  the  offenders  to  England 
to  be  tried  under  an  unrepealed  statute  of  Hen¬ 
ry  VIII.,  which  provided  for  the  punishment  of 
treason  committed  out  of  the  kingdom.  Against 
this  proposition  Edmund  Burke,  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  thundered  eloquent  anathemas.  “At. 
the  request  of  an  exasperated  governor,”  he  said, 
“  we  are  called  upon  to  agree  to  an  address  ad¬ 
vising  the  king  to  put  iu  force  against  the  Amer¬ 
icans  the  Act  of  Henry  VIII.  And  why  ?  Be¬ 
cause  you  cannot  trust  the  juries  of  that  coun¬ 
try,  sir !  That  word  must  convey  horror  to 
every  feeling  mind.  If  you  have  not  a  party 
among  two  millions  of  people,  you  must  either 
change  your  plan  of  government  or  renounce 
the  colonies  forever.”  He  denounced  the  meas¬ 
ure  as  “  cruel  to  the  Americans  and  injurious  to 
England.” 

Henry’s  Resolutions  in  the  Virginia  As¬ 
sembly.  When  the  news  of  the  passage  of  the 
Stamp  Act  and  kindred  measures  reached  Vir¬ 
ginia  (May,  1765)  the  House  of  Burgesses  was 
iu  session.  The  aristocratic  leaders  in  that  body 
hesitated,  and  the  session  was  drawing  near  its 
close,  when  Patrick  Henry,  finding  the  older 
and  more  influential  members  disinclined  to 
move  in  the  matter,  offered  a  series  of  resolu¬ 
tions,  in  which  all  the  rights  of  British-born 
subjects  were  claimed  for  the  Virginians ;  de¬ 
nied  any  authority,  anywhere,  excepting  iu  the 


Provincial  Assembly,  to  impose  taxes  upon 
them;  and  denounced  the  attempt  to  vest  that 
authority  elsewhere  as  inconsistent  with  the 
ancient  constitution  and  subversive  of  liberty 
in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  iu  America.  The 
aristocratic  members  were  startled,  and  a  hot 
debate  ensued.  Henry  supported  his  resolu¬ 
tions  with  rare  eloquence  and  boldness.  Some 
rose  from  their  seats,  and  others  sat  iu  breath¬ 
less  silence.  At  length,  when  alluding  to  ty¬ 
rants,  Henry  exclaimed,  “  Caesar  had  his  Brutus, 
Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell,  and  George  the 
Third — ”  At  this  moment  there  was  a  cry  of 
“Treason  !  treason!”  from  different  parts  of  the 
house.  Henry  paused  a  moment,  and  concluded 
his  sentence  by  saying  “  may  profit  by  these  ex¬ 
amples.  If  that  be  treason,  make  the  most  of 
it.”  The  resolution  passed  in  spite  of  the  old 
leaders ;  but  in  Henry’s  absence,  the  next  day, 
they  were  reconsidered  and  softened.  But  a 
manuscript  copy  had  already  been  sent  to  Phil¬ 
adelphia,  and  they  soon  appeared  in  the  news¬ 
papers,  producing  a  wonderful  effect.  These 
resolutions  were  followed  in  Massachusetts  by 
the  recommendation  of  a  committee  of  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Assembly  for  a  congress  of  delegates  from 
the  several  colonies  to  meet  iu  New  York  city 
iu  October  following.  (See  Stamp  Act  Congress.) 

Herkimer  (or  Herkheimer),  Nicholas,  was 
born  about  1727  ;  died  Aug.  16, 1777,  at  his  home 
at  Danube,  N.  Y.,  from  a  wound  received  in  the 
battle  at  Oriskany.  He  was  the  son  of  a  pala¬ 
tine  who  settled  in  that  region  in  the  time  of 
Queen  Anue,  and  one  of  the  original  patentees 
of  Burnet’s  Field  (now  in  Herkimer  County, 
N.  Y.).  Nicholas  was  made  a  lieutenant  of  Pro¬ 
vincials  in  1758,  and  was  iu  command  at  Fort 
Herkimer  during  the  attack  of  the  French  and 
Indians  upon  it  that  year.  In  1775  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  colonel  of  the  First  Battalion  of  Tryon 
County  militia.  He  was  also  chairman  of  the 
County  Committee  of  Safety;  and  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1776,  he  was  made  brigadier-general  by  the 
Provincial  Convention  of  New  York.  He  com¬ 
manded  the  Tryon  County  militia  in  the  battle 
at  Oriskany  (Aug.  6, 1777),  where  he  was  severe¬ 
ly  wounded  in  the  leg  by  a  bullet,  and  he  bled 
to  death  in  consequence  of  defective  surgery. 
On  the  4tli  of  October  following  the  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress  voted  the  erection  of  a  monument 
to  his  memory  of  the  value  of  $500,  but  it  has 
never  been  erected.  He  was  a  stanch  patriot 
and  brave  soldier. 

Herron,  Francis  J.,  was  born  at  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.,  and  removed  to  Dubuque,  Io.,  in  1856. 
He  organized  and  commanded  the  “Governor’s 
Grays,”  which  he  led  in  the  battle  of  Wilson’s 
Creek  (which  see) ;  and  in  the  battle  of  Pea 
Ridge  (which  see)  he  commanded  the  Ninth 
Iowa  Regiment,  which  he  had  raised,  and  of 
which  he  was  lieutenant-colonel.  In  July,  1862, 
he  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general,  and  dis¬ 
tinguished  himself  in  Arkansas.  In  November, 
1862,  he  was  made  a  major-general ;  and  ho  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  in  1863.  He 
was  with  General  Banks  afterwards  in  his  oper¬ 
ations  in  Louisiana.  After  the  war  he  practised 


HETH 


636  HIGGINSON  AND  BROWNES  AT  SALEM 


law  in  New  Orleans,  and  was  made  United  States 
Marshal  for  Louisiana. 

Hetli,  Henry,  was  born  in  Virginia  about 
1825;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847  ;  left  the 
service  and  joined  the  insurgents  in  April,  1861, 
and  entered  the  service  of  Virginia  as  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  made  a  Confederate  major- 
general  in  May,  1863,  and  commanded  a  division 
of  A.  P.  Hill’s  corps  in  Virginia.  He  fought  at 
Gettysburg,  and  in  the  campaign  in  defence  of 
Richmond  (1864-65),  and  surrendered  with  Lee. 

Hewes,  Joseph,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  at  Kingston,  N.  J., 
in  1730;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Nov- 10,  1779. 
His  parents  were  Quakers,  and  he  was  educat¬ 
ed  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  He  was  en¬ 
gaged  in  business  at  Edenton,  N.  C.,  in  1760,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Colonial  Legislature  in 
1763.  Mr.  Hewes  was  a  delegate  in  the  First 
Continental  Congress,  and  was  on  the  Commit¬ 
tee  to  “  State  the  Rights  of  the  Colonies.”  He 
was  active  in  the  most  important  committees 
of  that  body.  At  the  head  of  the  Naval  Com¬ 
mittee,  he  was,  in  etfect,  the  first  Secretary  of 
the  United  States  Navy.  He  declined  a  re-elec¬ 
tion  in  1777,  but  resumed  his  seat  in  1779,  which 
he  resigned  in  October  on  account  of  failing 
health. 

Hiacoomes  was  the  first  Indian  convert  to 
Christianity  in  New  England.  When  the  first 
white  settlers  landed  at  Martha’s  Vineyard 
(1642),  he  was  there,  and  he  was  converted 
under  the  preaching  of  Thomas  Mayhew.  He 
learned  to  read,  and  in  1645  he  began  to  preach 
to  his  countrymen.  An  Indian  church  was 
formed  there,  and  Hiacoomes  was  ordained  pas¬ 
tor,  and  Tackanash  was  appointed  teacher,  by 
Eliot  and  Colton.  Hiacoomes  died  about  1690, 
aged  eighty  years. 

Hi-a-wat-ha,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Iro¬ 
quois  Confederacy.  Tradition  tells  us  that,  he 
came  from  above,  dwelt  among  the  Onondagas, 
and  caused  the  five  related  nations  to  form  a 
Confederacy  for  their  mutual  protection.  (See 
Iroquois  Coufederacy.)  The  people  called  him 
Hiawatha,  the  “  wise  man.”  When  they  had 
assembled  at  the  great  conference  on  the  bor¬ 
der  of  the  lake,  Hiawatha  appeared  in  a  white 
canoe,  with  his  young  daughter;  and  as  they 
walked  up  the  bank,  a  sound  like  a  rushing  wind 
was  beard  in  the  air.  Then  a  dark  object,  in¬ 
creasing  in  size  every  moment  as  it  approached, 
appeared  in  the  heavens.  Fear  seized  the  peo¬ 
ple,  and  they  fled.  Hiawatha  stood  firm.  The 
object  was  an  immense  white  heron,  which  fell 
upon  and  crushed  the  beautiful  girl,  at  the  same 
time  being  destroyed  itself.  The  father  was  un¬ 
hurt,  and  after  grieving  three  days  for  the  loss 
of  his  darling  child,  he  reappeared  at  the  coun¬ 
cil,  and  addressed  the  assembled  nations.  He 
told  the  Mohawks  that  they  should  be  the  first 
nation,  because  they  were  warlike  and  mighty, 
and  should  be  called  the  “  Great  Tree ;”  the 
Oneidas  were  made  the  second  nation,  because 
they  were  wise  in  council,  and  received  the 
name  of  the  “  Everlasting  Stone  ;”  the  Ononda¬ 
gas  were  the  third  nation,  because  they  were 


gifted  in  speech  and  mighty  in  war,  and  they 
were  named  the  “Great  Mountain;”  the  Cayu- 
gas  were  the  fourth  nation,  for  they  were  cun¬ 
ning  hunters,  and  they  received  the  name  of 
the  “Dark  Forest;”  and  the  Senecas  were  the 
fifth  nation,  for  they  dwelt  in  the  open  country, 
and  were  skilful  in  the  cultivation  of  corn  and 
beaus  and  making  cabins.  To  these  he  gave 
the  name  of  “  Open  Country.”  These  five  na¬ 
tions  formed  a  league  like  that  of  the  Amphyc- 
tions  of  Greece,  and  became  almost  invulnerable. 
Hiawatha  was  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of 
wisdom,  and  was  sent  to  earth  by  the  Great 
Spirit  to  teach  savages  how  to  live  better  lives. 
The  story  of  his  life  is  fancifully  told  by  Long¬ 
fellow,  in  his  Song  of  Hiawatha. 

Hicks,  Elias,  was  born  at  Hempstead,  L.  I., 
March  19,  1748;  died  at  Jericho,  L.  I.,  Feb.  27, 
1830.  He  was  a  very  able  preacher  among 
Friends,  or  Quakers,  and  was  a  formally  recog¬ 
nized  minister  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven.  Af¬ 
ter  preaching  many  years,  he  embraced  Unita¬ 
rian  views,  and  boldly  promulgated  them.  This 
produced  a  schism  in  the  society,  and  a  separation, 
the  new  lights  receiving  the  name  of  “  Hicks- 
ites,”  and  the  old  church  of  “Orthodox.”  They 
have  never  fused.  He  preached  with  eloquence 
and  vigor  until  a  short  time  before  bis  death, 
when  he  was  about  eighty-two  years  of  age. 

Hicks,  Thomas  Holliday,  governor  of  Ma¬ 
ryland,  was  born  in  Dorchester  County,  Md., 
Sept.  2,  1798;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb. 

13,  1865.  He  was 
a  farmer  in  early 
life,  was  often  in 
the  state  Legisla¬ 
ture,  and  was  gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  com¬ 
monwealth  from 
1858  to  1862.  He 
was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Sen¬ 
ate,  in  1862,  for  the 
uuexpired  term  of 
a  deceased  sena¬ 
tor,  and  re-elected 
for  the  term  end¬ 
ing  in  1867.  When 
the  Civil  War 
broke  out,  Govern¬ 
or  Hicks  stood  firmly  for  the  Union.  He  de¬ 
clared,  in  a  proclamation  after  the  attack  on  the 
Massachusetts  regiment  in  Baltimore  (April  19, 
1861),  that  all  his  authority  would  be  exercised 
in  favor  of  the  government.  By  his  patriotism 
and  firmness,  Maryland  was  saved  from  attempt¬ 
ing  secession  from  the  Union. 

Higginson  and  the  Brownes  at  Salem.  With 

the  carefully  selected  compauy  of  pioneers  in 
the  founding  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
who  landed  at  Naumkeag  (afterwards  named 
Salem),  with  John  Endicott,  in  1629,  was  Fran- 
cisHigginson,an  eminent  non-conforming  minis¬ 
ter,  acting  as  the  pastor  to  the  emigrants  and  as 
missionary  to  the  heathen.  It  w  as  late  in  June 
when  the  little  company  arrived  at  their  desti¬ 
nation,  where  “  the  corruptions  of  the  English 


THOMAS  HOLLIDAY  HICKS. 


HIGGINSON 


637 


HILL 


Church  were  never  to  be  planted,”  and  Higgin- 
son  served  the  people  in  spiritual  matters  faith¬ 
fully  until  the  next  year,  when  he  died.  With 
the  same  company  came  two  excellent  brothers, 
John  and  Samuel  Browne.  Both  were  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Council,  were  reputed  to  be  “  sincere 
friends  of  the  plantation,”  had  been  favorites  of 
the  company  in  England,  and  one  of  them,  an 
experienced  lawyer,  had  been  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Assistants  in  London.  They  did  not 
expect  the  new  system  in  religious  worship  es¬ 
tablished  by  the  austere  Eudicott,  and  they  re¬ 
fused  to  unite  with  the  public  assembly.  Rest¬ 
ing  upon  their  rights  under  the  charter,  they 
gathered  a  company  in  which  the  Book  of  Com¬ 
mon  Prayer  was  used  in  worship.  This  was  a 
mortal  offence.  Should  the  hierarchy  of  Eng¬ 
land  be  allowed  to  thus  intrude  the  forms  of 
worship  of  the  prelacy  in  the  retreat  of  the  Pu¬ 
ritans  ?  Not  at  all.  Regarding  the  Brownes  as 
spies  in  the  camp,  these  excellent  men,  acting 
innocently  in  accordance  with  the  dictates  of 
their  own  consciences,  were  rudely  seized  like 
crimiuals  (after  their  mode  of  worship  was  for¬ 
bidden  as  a  mutiny  and  they  presented),  and 
were  sent  back  to  England  in  the  returning 
ships.  So  was  the  seed  of  Episcopacy  first  plant¬ 
ed  in  Massachusetts,  and  so  was  its  germ  ruth¬ 
lessly  plucked. 

Higginson,  Francis,  first  minister  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  was  born  in  England,  in  1588;  died  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  Aug.  6, 1630.  He  was  an  eloquent 
Puritan  divine,  and  accepted  an  invitation  to 
the  new  Puritan  settlement  at  Salem,  to  which 
place  he  emigrated  in  the  summer  of  1629,  and 
died  of  hectic  fever  the  uext  year.  His  sou  John 
succeeded,  became  a  leader,  and  so  supported 
his  mother  in  the  maintenance  of  her  six  chil¬ 
dren.  He  became  chaplain  of  the  fort  at  Say- 
brook,  was  one  of  the  “seven  pillars”  of  the 
Church  at  Guilford,  and  became  pastor  of  his 
father’s  church  at  Salem  in  1660,  where  he  con¬ 
tinued  until  his  death,  in  1708,  a  period  of  about 
fifty  years. 

High  Commission,  Court  of,  an  ecclesias¬ 
tical  tribunal  created  by  Queen  Elizabeth  (1559), 
by  which  all  spiritual  jurisdiction  was  vested  in 
the  crown.  It  was  designed  as  a  check  upon 
Puritan  and  Roman  Catholic  Separatists.  Orig¬ 
inally  it  had  no  power  to  fine  or  imprison,  but 
under  Charles  I.  and  Archbishop  Laud  it  as¬ 
sumed  illegal  powers,  and  became  an  instru¬ 
ment  of  persecution  of  the  non-conformists  of 
every  kind.  It  was  complained  of  to  Parlia¬ 
ment,  and  was  abolished  in  1641,  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  Civil  War  in  England. 

High  Hills  of  Santee,  The,  are  composed  of 
elevated  lands  extending  southward  from  the 
Kershaw  line  twenty-two  miles  parallel  with  the 
Wateree  River.  They  have  ever  been  noted  for 
their  salubrity  and  their  mineral  springs,  and 
were  made  famous  by  the  encampment  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Greene’s  army  upon  them  in  the  summer  of 
1781.  They  are  immense  sand-hills,  varying  in 
width  on  the  summit  from  one  to  five  miles. 
The  village  of  Statesburg  is  on  these  hills,  and 
there  was  the  residence  of  General  Sumter. 


Highland  Defences  Abandoned.  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  took  possession  of  Forts  Clinton  and 
Montgomery  on  Oct.  6,  1777,  and  sent  a  maraud¬ 
ing  expedition  up  the  Hudson.  (See  Kingston, 
Burning  of.)  The  news  that,  reached  the  ma¬ 
rauders  of  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  made  them 
flee  in  haste  back  to  New  York ;  and  at  the  same 
time  Clinton  was  ordered  by  General  Howe,  at 
Philadelphia,  to  abandon  the  Highland  posts, 
and  send  to  the  Delaware  a.  reinforcement  of  six 
thousand  soldiers. 

Hildreth,  Richard,  historian,  was  born  at 
Deerfield,  Mass.,  June  28,  1807;  died  in  Flor¬ 
ence,  Italy,  July  11,  1865.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1829.  He  studied  and  prac¬ 
tised  law  and  wrote  for  newspapers  and  maga¬ 
zines  until  1832,  when  he  began  to  edit  the  Bos¬ 
ton  Atlas.  In  the  course  of  many  years,  Mr.  Hil¬ 
dreth  wrote  several  books  and  pamphlets,  chief¬ 
ly  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  to  which  system  he 
was  opposed.  He  resided  on  a  plantation  in  the 
South  in  1834-35;  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  as  cor¬ 
respondent  of  the  Atlas ,  in  1837-38;  when  he  re¬ 
sumed  his  editorial  post  on  that,  paper;  and  re¬ 
sided  iu  Demerara,  British  Guiana,  from  1840  to 
1843,  when  he  edited,  successively,  two  newspa¬ 
pers  there.  Mr.  Hildreth’s  principal  work  was 
a  History  of  the  United  States,  in  six  volumes 
(1849-56).  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
New  York  Tribune  for  several  years.  In  1861, 
President  Lincoln  appointed  him  United  States 
Cousul  at  Trieste,  but  failing  health  compelled 
him  to  resign  the  position.  He  never  returned 
to  his  native  country.  ■> 

Hill,  Ambrose  Powell,  was  born  in  Culpep¬ 
per  County,  Va.,  in  1824  ;  killed  at  Petersburg, 
Va.,  April  2,  1865.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1847,  entered  the  First  Artillery,  and  served 
in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  against  the  Semi- 
noles  in  1849-50  ;  and,  resigning  in  1861,  join¬ 
ed  the  insurgents,  and  was  made  colonel  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  volunteers.  He  soon  rose  to  major-gen¬ 
eral  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  was  one  of  its 
most  efficient  officers  in  the  various  encounters 
in  1862  and  1863,  in  Virginia  and  Maryland.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  efficient  officers  of  Lee’s 
army,  in  the  defence  of  Petersburg  and  Rich¬ 
mond,  in  1864-65.  In  the  final  struggle  at  Pe¬ 
tersburg,  he  was  instantly  killed  by  a  musket, - 
shot. 

Hill,  Daniel  Harvey,  was  born  in  South  Car¬ 
olina,  iu  1822.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842 ;  entered  the  artillery  ;  served  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  and  was  breveted  captain  and  ma¬ 
jor;  left  the  army  in  1849,  and  became  profess¬ 
or  of  mathematics  —  first  in  Washington  Col¬ 
lege,  Lexington,  Va.,  and  then  in  Davidson  Col¬ 
lege,  North  Carolina.  In  1859  he  was  principal 
of  the  Military  Institute  at  Charlotte,  N.  C. ;  and 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  joined  the  in¬ 
surgents,  becoming  colonel  of  North  Carolina 
volunteers.  He  took  part  in  the  defence  of 
Richmond  iu  1862,  and  was  active  in  the  seven 
days’  battle.  He  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  ma¬ 
jor-general.  He  commanded  the  Department 
of  the  Appomattox,  and  in  February,  1865,  was 
in  command  at  Augusta,  Ga.  He  was  a  broth- 


HILLABEE  TOWNS,  DESTRUCTION  OF  638  HILLSBOROUGH’S  INSTRUCTIONS 


er-in-law  of  “  Stonewall”  Jackson,  and  a  skilful 
commander.  He  published  two  works  on  re¬ 
ligious  subjects. 

Hillabee  Towns,  Destruction  of.  There 
was  an  existing  jealousy  between  the  West  Ten¬ 
nessee  troops,  under  Generals  Jackson  and  Cof¬ 
fee,  and  the  East  Tennessee  troops,  under  Gen¬ 
erals  Cocke  and  White,  both  intent  upon  pun¬ 
ishing  the  Creeks.  After  the  battle  of  Tallade¬ 
ga  (which  see),  the  Hillabee  Creeks  were  dis¬ 
posed  to  peace,  and  otfered  to  make  terms  with 
Jackson.  He  cordially  responded,  and  prepara¬ 
tions  were  made  for  the  happy  transaction. 
Meanwhile  Generals  Cocke  and  White,  ignorant 
of  this  measure,  came  down  upon  the  Hillabees, 
and  spread  destruction  in  their  path.  Ockfus- 
kee  and  Geualga,  two  deserted  villages — one  of 
thirty  and  the  other  of  ninety  houses— were  laid 
in  ashes;  and  on  the  morning  of  Nov.  18, 1813, 
the  troops  appeared  before  the  principal  town. 
The  inhabitants  were  unsuspicious  of  danger, 
and  made  no  resistance  ;  yet  General  White,  for 
the  purpose  of  inspiring  terror  in  the  minds  of 
the  Creek  nation,  fell  furiously  upon  the  non- 
resistants,  and  murdered  no  less  than  sixty  war¬ 
riors.  Then,  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  wid¬ 
ows  and  orphans  as  prisoners  in  his  train,  he 
returned  to  Fort  Armstrong,  a  stronghold  which 
the  East  Tennesseeans  had  built  on  the  Coosa, 
in  the  present  Cherokee  County,  Ala.  The  Hil¬ 
labees,  knowing  no  other  American  commander 
than  Jackson,  regarded  this  outrage  as  most 
foul  perfidy  on  his  part,  and  thenceforth  they 
carried  on  the  war  with  malignant  fury. 

Hillsborough,  Lord,  and  Johnson  of  Con¬ 
necticut.  William  Samuel  Johnson,  a  strict 
Churchman  and  able  jurist,  was  agent  for  the 
Colony  of  Connecticut  in  England.  He  was 
very  desirous  to  avoid  a  rupture  between  the 
colonies  and  the  mother  country,  but  he  was 
faithful  to  the  interests  and  rights  of  his  colo¬ 
ny.  He  called  on  the  Earl  of  Hillsborough,  to 
congratulate  him  on  his  elevation  to  the  newly 
created  office  of  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colo¬ 
nies,  and  told  the  earl  that  he  might  count  on 
his  friendship  and  affection,  for  Connecticut  was 
a  “  loyal  colony.”  Hillsborough,  rather  curtly, 
complained  that  Connecticut  had  very  little  cor¬ 
respondence  wi  til  the  home  government,  and  that 
repeated  requests  for  copies  of  the  laws  of  the 
colony  had  been  disregarded.  “The  colony  has 
several  times  sent  over  a  copy  of  the  printed 
law-book,”  answered  Johnson.  “It  is  the  duty 
of  your  colony,”  said  the  earl,  “  to  transmit  from 
time  to  time  not  only  the  laws  that  pass,  but  all 
the  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Council 
and  Assembly,  that  we  may  know  what  you  are 
about,  and  rectify  whatever  is  amiss.”  “  If  your 
lordship  means,”  answered  Johnson,  “to  have 
the  laws  of  our  colony  transmitted  for  the  in¬ 
spection  of  the  ministry,  as  such,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  approbation  or  disapprobation  by 
his  majesty  in  council,  it  is  what  the  colony 
has  never  done,  and,  I  am  persuaded,  will  never 
submit  to.  By  the  charter  which  King  Charles 
II.  granted,  the  colony  was  invested  with  a  pow¬ 
er  of  legislation  not  subject  to  revision.”  “There 


are  such  things  as  extravagant  grants,  which 
are,  therefore,  void,”  said  Hillsborough.  “Yon 
will  admit  there  are  many  things  which  the 
king  cannot  grant,  as  the  inseparable  incidents 
of  the  crown,”  Johnson  answered.  “  Nobody  has 
ever  reckoned  the  power  of  legislation  among 
the  inseparable  incidents  of  the  crown  and  he 
presented  logical  arguments  in  favor  of  the  col¬ 
ony.  For  two  hours  they  discussed  the  subject 
of  the  rights  of  Connecticut,  and  Hillsborough 
showed  that  there  was  a  disposition  on  the  part 
of  the  ministry  to  declare  the  charter  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  as  well  as  those  of  the  other  colonies, 
void ;  not  because  of  any  pretence  that  the  char¬ 
ter  had  been  violated,  but  because  the  people, 
by  the  enjoyment  of  it,  were  too  free.  “You 
are  in  danger  of  being  too  much  a  separate,  in¬ 
dependent  state,”  said  Hillsborough,  “  and  of 
having  too  little  subordination  to  this  country.” 

Hillsborough’s  Instructions.  When  the 
Massachusetts  Circular  Letter  (which  see)  reach¬ 
ed  the  ministers,  they  were  highly  offended,  and 
Lord  Hillsborough,  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
Colonies,  instructed  the  governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts  to  require  the  Assembly  to  rescind  that 
circular,  and  in  case  of  refusal  to  dissolve  them. 
Instructions  were  also  sent  to  all  the  other  colo¬ 
nial  governors  to  take  measures  to  prevent  the 
respective  Assemblies  from  paying  any  atten¬ 
tion  to  the  circular.  This  excited  hot  indigna¬ 
tion  in  the  Assemblies  and  among  the  people. 
It  was  regarded  as  a  direct  attempt  to  abridge 
or  absolutely  control  public  discussion  in  the 
colonies.  They  resented  the  act  in  strong  but 
decorous  language ;  and  that  order  was  more 
potential  in  crystallizing  the  colonies  into  a  per¬ 
manent  union  than  any  event  in  their  past  his¬ 
tory.  The  colonial  Assemblies  everywhere  took 
decided  action.  The  Massachusetts  Assembly 
refused  to  rescind.  (See  Circular  Letter .)  New 
Hampshire.  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut  warm¬ 
ly  commended  the  action  of  Massachusetts.  The 
New  York  Assembly  adopted  the  circular,  and 
declared  the  right  of  the  colonists  to  correspond, 
through  their  representatives,  on  subjects  of  pub¬ 
lic  importance.  The  Legislature  of  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  treated  the  order  with  decorous  scorn,  and 
a  meeting  of  the  people  urged,  by  resolution,  a 
cordial  union  of  all  the  colonies  in  resistance  to 
oppression.  The  Assembly  of  Delaware,  also, 
took  bold  ground  in  the  matter.  When  Gov¬ 
ernor  Sharpe  made  an  arrogant  demand  in  the 
matter  of  the  Assembly  of  Maryland,  in  laying 
the  obnoxious  order  before  them,  that  body  as¬ 
sured  him  that  they  should  not  treat  a  letter 
“  so  replete  with  just  principles  of  liberty”  with 
indifference,  and  added,  “We  shall  not  be  in¬ 
timidated  by  a  few  sounding  expressions  from 
doing  what  we  think  is  right and  they  thanked 
the  Massachusetts  Assembly.  Virginia  not  only 
approved  the  circular,  but  sent  one  of  her  own 
to  the  colonial  Assemblies,  inviting  their  con¬ 
currence  with  it.  North  Carolina  rejected  the 
order  and  approved  the  circular.  A  commit¬ 
tee  of  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  declared, 
by  resolutions,  that  the  circulars  of  both  Massa¬ 
chusetts  and  Virginia  were  replete  with  duty  to 
the  king,  respect  for  Parliament,  attachment  to 


HINDMAN 


639 


HOBKIRK’S  HILL,  BATTLE  OF 


Great  Britain,  and  “founded  upon  undeniable 
constitutional  principles.”  The  resolutions  were 
adopted  by  the  Assembly,  and  the  royal  govern¬ 
or  dissolved  them.  Then  the  citizens  of  Charles¬ 
ton  paraded  the  streets  by  torch-light,  garland¬ 
ed  an  effigy  of  the  Goddess  of  Liberty  with  flow¬ 
ers  and  evergreens,  and  crowned  it  with  laurel 
and  palmetto  leaves.  They  also  burned  the 
seventeen  Massachusetts  “Resciuders”  in  effi¬ 
gy.  The  Georgia  Assembly  approved  the  Cir¬ 
cular,  and  were  dissolved  by  Governor  Wright. 

Hindman,  Thomas  C.,  was  born  in  Tennessee, 
in  1818  ;  died  at  Helena,  Ark.,  Sept.  27,  1868. 
He  served  in  the  War  with  Mexico  ;  was  member 
of  Congress  from  1859  to  1861,  and  of  the  Charles¬ 
ton  Convention  in  1860  (which  see).  He  became  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army,  and 
was  the  chief  leader  of  Confederate  troops  in 
Arkansas.  After  the  battle  of  Shiloh  (which 
see),  in  which  he  participated,  he  was  made  a 
major-general.  He  was  in  command  of  a  divis¬ 
ion  in  Polk’s  corps  at  Chickamauga.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Confederacy,  he  went  to  Mexico,  and 
returned  to  Helena  in  the  spring  of  1867,  where 
he  was  murdered  by  one  of  his  former  soldiers. 

Hinman,  Elisha,  was  born  at  Stonington, 
Conn.,  March  9,  1734  ;  died  there,  Ang.  29,  1807. 
He  went  to  sea  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years,  and 
was  a  captain  at  nineteen,  sailing  to  Europe  and 
the  Indies.  He  entered  the  navy  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion,  under  Hopkins,  in  1776,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  captains  appointed  by  Congress.  He  was 
a  very  active  officer.  Captured  when  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Alfred,  32  guns,  he  was  taken  to 
England,  whence  he  escaped  to  France,  and 
cruised  successfully  after  his  return,  in  1779-80. 
President  Adams  offered  him  the  command  of 
the  Constitution  in  1798,  but  on  account  of  his 
age  he  declined.  From  that  time  until  1802  he 
was  engaged  in  the  revenue  service. 

Hobkirk’s  Hill,  Battle  of  ( 1781 ).  When 
Greene  heard  of  the  retreat  of  Cornwallis,  lie 
pursued  him  as  far  as  the  Deep  River,  when  he 
turned  back  and  moved  south  ward  towards  Cam¬ 
den  to  strike  a  blow  for  the  recovery  of  South  Car¬ 
olina.  Lord  Rawdon,  one  of  Cornwallis’s  best  of¬ 
ficers,  was  in  command  at  Camden.  On  the  19th 
of  April  Greene  encamped  at  Hobkirk’s  Hill, 
only  about  a  mile  from  Rawdou’s  intrenchments, 
where,  six  days  afterwards,  he  was  surprised  by 
the  British  and  defeated,  after  a  sharp  battle  of 
several  hours.  Greene’s  force  was  too  weak  to 
assail  Rawdon’s  intrenchments  with  any  pros¬ 
pect  of  success,  and  he  encamped  on  a  wooded 
eminence  and  awaited  reinforcements  under 
Sumter.  On  the  night  of  the  24th  a  drummer 
deserted  to  the  British  and  informed  Rawdon 
of  Greene’s  weakness  and  his  expectation  of 
strength.  As  his  provisions  were  almost  ex¬ 
hausted,  Rawdon  saw  no  chance  for  success  in 
battle  unless  he  should  strike  immediately,  so 
he  prepared  to  fall  upon  Greene  early  on  the 
morning  of  the  25tli.  Unsuspicious  of  danger, 
Greene’s  army  were  unprepared  for  an  attack. 
The  cavalry  horses  were  unsaddled,  some  of  the 
soldiers  were  washing  their  clothes,  and  Greene 
and  his  staff-  were  at  a  spring  on  a  slope  of  Hob¬ 


kirk’s  Hill  taking  breakfast.  Rawdon  had  gained 
the  left  flank  of  the  Americans  by  marching 
stealthily  along  the  margin  of  a  swamp.  Par¬ 
tially  surprised,  Greene  quickly  formed  his  army 
in  battle-liue.  His  cavalry  were  soon  mounted. 


VIEW  AT  THE  SPRING;  HOBKIRK’S  HILL. 


The  Virginia  brigade,  under  General  Huger, 
with  Lieutenant-colonels  Campbell  and  Hawes, 
formed  the  right ;  the  Maryland  brigade,  with 
Delaware  troops  under  Kirkwood,  led  by  Colo¬ 
nel  Otho  H.  Williams,  with  Colonel  Gunby  and 
Lieutenant -colonels  Ford  and  Howe,  occupied 
the  left;  and  the  artillery,  under  Colonel  Har¬ 
rison,  were  in  the  centre ;  North  Carolina  mili¬ 
tia  were  held  in  reserve;  and  in  this  position 
Greene  was  prepared  to  receive  the  oncoming 
Rawdon,  whose  forces  ascended  the  slope  with 
a  narrow  front.  The  regiments  of  Ford  and 
Campbell  endeavored  to  turn  their  flank,  while 
Guuby’s  Marylanders  assailed  the  front  with 
bayonets  without  firing.  The  battle  was  thus 
opened  with  great  vigor,  Greene  commanding 
the  Virginians  in  person.  At  the  moment,  when 
the  Americans  felt  sure  of  victory,  Captain 
Beatty,  commanding  a  company  of  Gunby’s  vet¬ 
erans,  was  killed,  and  his  followers  gave  way. 
An  unfortunate  order  was  given  for  the  whole 
regiment  to  retire,  when  the  British  broke 
through  the  American  centre,  pushed  up  to  the 
brow  of  the  hill,  and  forced  Greene  to  retreat. 
Meanwhile  Washington  had  fallen  on  the  Brit¬ 
ish  rear  and  captured  about  two  hundred  sol¬ 
diers,  whose  officers  he  quickly  paroled,  and  in 
the  retreat  carried  away  fifty  of  the  captives. 
The  Americans  were  chased  a  short  distance, 
when  Washington  turned  upon  the  pursuers, 
made  a  gallant  charge,  and  checked  them.  By 
this  movement  Greene  was  enabled  to  save  all 
his  artillery  and  baggage.  He  rallied  his  men, 
crossed  the  Wateree  above  Camden,  and  rested 
in  a  strong  position  before  moving  on  Fort 
Ninety-six.  The  loss  of  each  army  in  the  bat¬ 
tle  was  about  the  same— less  than  two  hundred 
and  seventy.  This  defeat  disconcerted  Greene 
at  first,  but  his  genius  triumphed. 


640 


HOE 


HOBOKEN,  MASSACRE  AT 

Hoboken,  Massacre  at.  The  river  Indians, 
di  those  dwelling  on  the  borders  of  the  Hudson, 
were  tributary  to  the  powerful  Mohawks.  In 
the  midwinter  of  1643,  a  large  party  of  the  latter 
came  down  to  collect  by  force  of  arms  tribute 
which  had  not  been  paid.  The  River  Indians 
— five  hundred  in  number — fled  before  the  in¬ 
vaders,  and  took  refuge,  with  their  wives  and 
children,  among  the  Hackensacks  at  Hoboken, 
opposite  Manhattan  Island,  where  they  asked 
the  protection  of  the  Dutch.  At  the  same  time 
many  of  the  tribe  in  lower  Westchester  fled  to 
Manhattan  and  took  refuge  with  the  Holland¬ 
ers.  The  humane  De  Vries,  who  had  a  settle¬ 
ment  on  Staten  Island,  proposed  to  Governor 
Kieft  to  make  this  an  occasion  for  establishing 
a  permanent  peace  with  the  Indians,  whose  an¬ 
ger  his  cruelties  had  fearfully  aroused.  But  the 
“  man  of  blood”  refused;  and  it  was  made  the 
occasion  of  spilling  more  innocent  blood.  On  a 
cold  night  in  February,  1643,  the  fugitives  at 
Hoboken,  and  those  on  Manhattan,  slumbering 
in  fancied  security,  were  attacked  by  order  of 
Kieft,  without  the  shadow  of  an  excuse,  by 
armed  Hollanders  sent  by  the  governor  to  mur¬ 
der  them.  Eighty  of  these  Dutchmen  were  scut 
across  the  Hudson  stealthily,  among  floating 
ice,  and  fell  suddenly  upon  the  stricken  fami¬ 
lies  at  Hoboken.  They  spared  neither  age  nor 
sex.  “  Warrior  and  squaw,  sachem  and  child, 
mother  and  babe,  were  alike  massacred,”  says 
Brodhead.  “Daybreak  scarcely  ended  the  fu¬ 
rious  slaughter.  Mangled  victims,  seeking  safe¬ 
ty  in  the  thickets,  were  driven  into  the  river; 
and  parents,  rushing  to  save  their  children, 
whom  the  soldiers  had  thrown  into  the  stream, 
were  driven  back  into  the  water,  and  drowned 
before  the  eyes  of  their  unrelenting  murderers.” 
About  one  hundred  of  the  dusky  people  per¬ 
ished  there,  and  forty  of  Hiose  on  Manhattan. 
The  river  and  the  surrounding  country  were 
lighted  with  the  blaze  of  burning  wigwams; 
and  by  that  horrid  illumination  De  Vries  wit¬ 
nessed  the  butchery  from  the  ramparts  of  Fort 
Amsterdam.  He  told  the  cowardly  governor, 
who  remained  within  the  walls  of  the  fortress, 
that  he  had  begun  the  ruin  of  the  colony.  The 
governor  sneered  at  the  clemency  of  DeVries; 
and  when  the  soldiers  returned  to  the  fort  the 
next  morning,  with  thirty  prisoners  and  heads 
of  several  of  the  slain  Indians  of  both  sexes,  he 
shook  their  bloody  hands  with  delight,  praised 
them  for  their  bravery,  and  made  each  of  them 
a  present.  Then  DeVries  uttered  his  prophecy. 
(See  Kieft.) 

Hochelaga,  the  capital  of  the  Huron  king,  on 
the  site  of  Montreal,  Canada.  It  contained  fifty 
houses  when  Europeans  first  visited  it.  Each 
house  was  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long 
and  forty  wide,  covered  over  with  the  broad 
bark  of  trees,  finely  cut  and  joined  like  boards, 
and  divided  into  many  rooms.  Above  were  gar¬ 
rets,  in  which  the  Indians  kept  their  corn.  The 
town  was  circular  in  form,  stockaded,  and  envi¬ 
roned  by  three  courses  of  ramparts  made  of  tim¬ 
ber,  and  about  thirty  feet  in  height.  It  had 
one  sally-port,  which  was  closed  with  heavy 
timbers,  stakes,  and  bars.  On  the  ramparts 


were  magazines  of  stones  for  the  defence  of  the 
town.  It  was  to  this  capital  that  Cartier  as¬ 
cended  in  October,  1535.  He  and  his  compan¬ 
ions  landed  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids  below 
Montreal,  and  with  great  pomp  marched  to  the 
residence  of  the  king  at  the  town — a  village  of 
about  fifty  huts,  surrounded  with  a  triple  row 
of  palisades,  in  the  midst  of  extensive  corn¬ 
fields.  The  mountain  which  was  back  of  the 
village  Cartier  named  Mont  Real  (Royal  Moun¬ 
tain),  the  name  given  to  the  great  city  which 
now  lies  there.  Women  and  maidens  brought 
armfuls  of  children  to  see  the  white  men.  The 
king,  Azouhanna,  helpless  from  palsy,  was 
brought  to  Cartier  on  a  deer-skin,  and  he  prayed 
that  the  white  chief  might  cure  him  of  his  mal¬ 
ady.  Many  others  came  for  the  same  purpose, 
but  Cartier  could  only  pray  for  their  recovery. 
(See  Cartier.) 

Hoe.  Richard  March,  was  born  in  New  York 
city,  Sept.  12, 1812.  His  father,  Robert  Hoe,  was 
a  most  ingenious  mechanic,  born  in  Leicester¬ 
shire,  England,  in  1784,  and  died  in  Westchester 
County,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  4,  1833.  He  was  a  builder, 


RICHARD  MARCH  HOE. 


and  arrived  in  New  York  in  1803,  when  he  re¬ 
linquished  his  trade  and  began  the  manufact¬ 
ure  of  printing-materials  and  of  a  hand -press 
invented  by  his  brother-in-law,  Peter  Smith. 
Making  great  improvements  in  printing-presses, 
his  business  increased,  but,  his  health  failing, 
in  1832  his  eldest  son,  Richard,  took  charge  of 
the  business,  with  two  partners.  Meanwhile 
Richard  had  made  material  improvements  iu 
the  manufacture  of  saws,  and  the  production 
of  these  implements  became  an  important  part 
of  their  business.  In  1837  Richard  went  to  Eng¬ 
land  to  obtain  a  patent  for  an  improved  method 
of  grinding  saws.  His  observation  of  printing- 
presses  in  use  there  enabled  him  to  make  very 
great  improvements  in  printing-machines.  He 
patented  his  “Lightning  Press,”  so  called  be¬ 
cause  of  the  rapidity  of  its  motions,  in  1847. 
For  many  years  Richard  has  carried  on  the  man¬ 
ufacture  of  printing,  hydraulic,  and  other  press¬ 
es,  with  his  two  brothers,  Robert  and  Peter,  the 
senior  partner  adding  from  time  to  time,  by  his 
inventive  genius,  great  improvements,  especial¬ 
ly  iu  the  construction  of  power-presses,  for  rapid 


HOLLAND 


641 


HOLLAND 


and  excellent  printing.  The  “  Perfecting  Tress  ” 
manufactured  by  the  Hoes  is  capable  of  throw¬ 
ing  offabo'ut  fifteen  thousand  newspapers,  print¬ 
ed  on  both  sides,  in  one  hour.  (See  Printing.) 
Their  main  establishment  in  New  York  covers 
more  than  an  entire  square,  and  they  employ 
nearly  one  thousand  persons.  Educational  forces 
have  been  greatly  increased  by  the  inventions 
of  Richard  M.  Hoe.  He  died  suddenly  at  Flor¬ 
ence,  Italy,  in  June,  1886. 

Holland.  The  United  Provinces  of  Holland, 
by  their  States-General,  acknowledged  the  in¬ 
dependence  of  the  United  States  on  April  19, 
1782.  This  was  brought  about  by  the  energetic 
application  of  John  Adams,  who,  on  the  capture 
of  Laurens  (see  Laurens ,  Petition  of),  was  sent  to 
the  Hague  as  minister -plenipotentiary  to  the 
States-General,  or  government,  of  Holland.  His 
special  mission  was  to  solicit  a  loan,  but  he  was 
clothed  with  full  powers  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
of  amity  and  commerce.  Mr.  Adams  acquainted 
the  States-General,  and  also  the  Stadtholder 
(the  sovereign)  — the  Prince  of  Orange — with 
tiie  object  of  his  mission.  Mr.  Adams  was  not 
received  in  the  character  of  minister-plenipo¬ 
tentiary  until  nearly  a  year  after  his  arrival. 
He  persuaded  the  States-General  that  an  alli¬ 
ance  with  the  United  States  of  America  would 
be  of  great  commercial  advantage  to  the  Neth¬ 
erlands;  and  immediately  after  Holland  had 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  Mr.  Adams  negotiated  a  treaty  of  amity 
and  commerce  (Oct.  8,  1782)  ;  he  also  made  a 
successful  application  for  a  loan,  which  was  a 
seasonable  aid  for  the  exhausted  treasury  of  the 
colonies.  The  treaty  was  signed  at  the  Hague 
by  John  Adams  and  the  representatives  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  was  ratified  in  January,  1783. 

Holland  at  War  with  Great  Britain.  Late 
in  1780  Great  Britain,  satisfied  that  the  Nether¬ 
lands  would  give  national  aid  to  the  “  rebellious 
colonies,”  and  desirous  of  keeping  that  power 
from  joining  the  Armed  Neutrality  League 
(which  see),  sought  a  pretext  for  declaring  war 
against  the  Dutch.  British  cruisers  had  already 
depredated  upon  Dutch  commerce  in  time  of 
peace,  and  the  British  government  treated  the 
Netherlands  more  as  a  vassal  than  as  an  inde¬ 
pendent  nation.  The  British  ministry  found  a 
pretext  for  war  in  October  (1780),  when  Henry 
Laurens,  late  President  of  the  American  Con¬ 
gress,  was  captured  on  the  high  seas  by  a  Brit¬ 
ish  cruiser,  and  with  him  were  found  evidences 
of  a  negotiation  of  a  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Netherlands,  which  had  been  in 
progress  some  time.  On  Dec.  20  King  George 
declared  war  against  Holland.  Before  the 
declaration  had  been  promulgated,  and  while 
efforts  were  making  at  the  Hague  to  concili¬ 
ate  England  and  avoid  war,  British  cruisers 
pounced  upon  and  captured  two  hundred  un¬ 
suspecting  merchant  vessels  laden  with  cargoes 
of  the  aggregate  value  of  $5,000,000 ;  orders  had 
also  gone  forth  for  the  seizure  of  the  Dutch  isl¬ 
and  of  Eustatius.  This  cruel  and  unjust  war 
deepened  the  hatred  of  continental  Europe  for 
Great  Britain,  for  that  government  was  regard- 
I.— 41 


ed  as  a  bully,  ever  ready  to  oppress  and  plunder 
the  weak. 

Holland  Land  Company.  The  tract  of  land 
ceded  by  the  State  of  New  York  to  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  in  1786  (see  Territorial  Dispute  be¬ 
tween  Massachusetts  and  New  York )  was  sold  by 
the  latter  state  to  Oliver  Phelps  and  Nathaniel 
Gorham  for  $1,000,000.  These  gentlemen  soon 
afterwards  extinguished  the  Indian  title  to  a 
part  of  this  territory,  surveyed  it  into  tracts  de¬ 
nominated  ranges  and  townships,  and  sold  large 
parcels  to  speculators  and  actual  settlers.  In 
1790  they  sold  nearly  the  whole  of  the  residue  of 
the  survey  (1,204,000  acres)  to  Robert  Morris,  of 
Philadelphia,  for  eight  pence  an  acre,  who  resold 
it  to  Sir  William  Pulteney.  Phelps  and  Gorham 
being  uuable  to  fulfil  their  contract  in  full  with 
Massachusetts,  compromised,  and  surrendered 
that  portion  of  the  land  to  which  the  Indian  title 
was  unextiuguished,  in  consideration  of  which 
the  state  relinquished  two  thirds  of  the  contract 
price.  In  1796  Robert  Morris  purchased  from  the 
state  this  portion  also,  extinguished  the  Indian 
title,  sold  off  several  large  tracts  upon  the  east 
side  of  and  along  the  Genesee  River,  and  mort¬ 
gaged  the  residue  to  Wilhelm  Willink,  of  Am¬ 
sterdam,  and  eleven  associates,  called  the  “Hol¬ 
land  Land  Company.”  This  company,  by  the 
foreclosure  of  the  mortgage,  acquired  full  title 
to  the  land,  surveyed  it,  aud  opened  their  first 
land-office  in  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  in  1801.  It  was  in 
this  land  speculation  that  Robert  Morris  was 
involved  in  financial  ruin,  and  compelled  to  en¬ 
dure  the  privations  of  a  debtor’s  prison  for  a 
long  time.  The  Holland  Land  Company  having 
sold  the  larger  part  of  the  domain,  they,  in  1805, 
conveyed  the  residue  of  the  wild  lands  to  sev¬ 
eral  companies,  who  finally  disposed  of  all  to 
bona  fide  purchasers  and  settlers. 

Holland  Menaced.  The  consuls  and  other 
agents  of  the  British  government  were  enjoined 
to  exercise  great  watchfulness  in  every  part  of 
Europe  to  intercept  all  munitions  of  war  des¬ 
tined  for  the  American  colonies.  New  England 
mariners  resorted  to  the  island  of  St.  Eustatius. 
To  check  the  formation  of  magazines  there  which 
the  colonists  might  use,  the  British  envoy,  with 
haughty  menaces,  required  the  States-General 
of  Holland  to  forbid  their  subjects  from  even 
transporting  military  stores  to  the  West  Indies, 
except  sufficient  to  supply  the  wants  of  their 
own  colonies.  (See  Rule  of  1756.) 

Holland  Receives  an  American  Ambassa¬ 
dor  (1782).  For  eight  months  John  Adams  had 
been  waiting  in  Holland  for  an  audience  of  re¬ 
ception  by  the  States-General,  but  that  cautious 
body  delayed  until  the  voice  of  the  people  should 
be  heard.  When  he  heard  of  the  result  at  York- 
town,  Adams  presented  (June  9,  1782)  to  the 
President  of  the  States-General  a  request  that 
he  might  have  an  opportunity  to  offer  his  cre¬ 
dentials,  and  demanded  a  categorical  answer 
which  he  might  transmit  to  Congress.  He  then 
went  in  person  to  the  deputies  of  the  several 
cities  of  Holland,  making  the  same  demand  of 
each  one  of  them.  It  was  a  bold  and  novel  pro¬ 
cedure,  but  the  sturdy  diplomat  was  equal  to 


HOLLAND’S  NEUTRALITY 


642 


HOME  MANUFACTURES 


the  occasion.  First  Friesland  declared  (Feb. 
26, 1782)  in  favor  of  receiving  the  American  am¬ 
bassador.  On  April  4  Zealand  adhered ;  Over- 
yssel  on  the  5th,  Groningen  on  the  9th,  Utrecht 
on  the  10th,  and  Guelderlaud  on  the  17th.  On 
the  19th  of  April,  the  anniversary  of  the  affair 
at  Lexington,  their  high-mightinesses  the  States- 
General,  representing  the  unanimous  decision 
of  the  lower  provinces,  resolved  that  Mr.  Adams 
should  be  received.  So  it  was  that  the  Dutch 
Republic  was  the  second  power  on  the  earth 
to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  United 
States. 

Holland’s  Neutrality.  King  George  asked 
leave  to  recruit  troops  for  his  army  in  Holland, 
and  to  obtain  from  that  republic  the  loan  of  its 
“  Scottish  brigade.”  The  traditions,  the  dignity, 
the  principles,  and  the  policy  of  the  States-Gen- 
eral  forbade  compliance  with  the  request,  and  it 
was  refused.  This  gave  great  offence  to  Great 
Britain.  The  king  felt  that  “  He  that  is  not  with 
me  is  against  me.”  This  was  the  first  attempt 
of  either  party  to  induce  Holland  to  take  part 
in  the  American  war. 

Hollins,  George  N.,  was  born  at  Baltimore, 
Md.,  Sept.  20,  1799,  entered  the  United  States 
Navy  in  1814,  and  assisted  in  the  defence  of  the 
capital  in  August  of  that  year.  He  was  made  a 
prisoner  on  board  the  President,  and  kept  so  un¬ 
til  the  end  of  the  war.  In  1815  he  accompanied 
Decatur  to  the  Mediterranean.  He  became  no¬ 
torious  by  the  bombardment  of  a  town  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  (See  Greytoivn.)  In  1861  he  left 
the  navy  and  joined  the  insurgents,  and  in  the 
Confederate  service  operated  on  the  Mississippi 
with  “rams”  and  gunboats.  He  died  in  1867. 

Hollis,  Thomas,  was  born  in  England  in  1659, 
and  died  in  Loudon  in  February,  1731.  He  was 
a  benefactor  of  Harvard  College,  by  giving  it, 
altogether,  nearly  $20,000  in  endowments  of  pro¬ 
fessorships.  He  also  gave  books  to  the  library, 
and  fonts  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  type  for  the  use 
of  the  college. 

Holmes,  Abiel,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  was  born  at 
Woodstock,  Conn.,  Dec.  24, 1763 ;  died  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  Mass.,  June  4,  1837.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1783,  and  was  a  tutor  there  in 
1786  and  1787.  He  was  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Georgia  from  1785  to  1791,  and  of  the  First 
Church,  Cambridge,  from  1792  to  1832.  He  pre¬ 
pared  and  published,  in  two  octavo  volumes, 
very  valuable  Annals  of  America,  closing  in  1826. 
He  also  published  a  Life  of  his  father-in-law, 
President  Stiles  (1798),  a  Memoir  of  the  French 
Protestants,  a  History  of  Cambridge,  and  many 
sermons.  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  the  dis¬ 
tinguished  poet,  is  a  son  of  this  eminent  divine. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  M.D.,  son  of 
Abiel,  was  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  19, 
1809.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
1829 ;  began  the  study  of  law,  but  soon  aban¬ 
doned  it  for  the  study  of  medicine,  and  in  1822 
he  went  to  Europe,  and  studied  in  the  hospi¬ 
tals  of  Paris  and  other  large  cities.  In  1838  Dr. 
Holmes  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  in  Dartmouth  College ;  and  in 


1847  he  was  given  the  same  chair  in  Harvard, 
which  he  filled  till  1883.  He  began  his  brill¬ 
iant  literary  career  in  early  life  as  a  poet  and 
essayist,  and  has  sustained  the  bright  promise 
of  his  youth.  His  poems  are  often  strongly 
marked  with  the  most  delicate  humor,  and  lie’ 
ranks  high  as  a  poet  at  home  and  abroad.  His 
books,  aud  his  contributions  to  newspaper  and 
magazine  literature,  are  numerous  aud  highly 
esteemed. 

Holt,  Joseph,  was  born  in  Breckenridge 
County,  Ky.,  Jan.  6,  1807,  and  entered  upon  the 
practice  of  law  in  1828.  He  followed  his  pro¬ 
fession  in  Kentucky  and  Mississippi  until  1857, 
when  President  Buchanan  appointed  him  Com- 


JOSEPH  HOLT. 


missioner  of  Patents,  and  Postmaster-general  in 
1859.  When  John  B.  Floyd  left,  the  cabinet  at 
the  close  of  1860,  Mr.  Holt  assumed  the  charge 
of  the  War  Department,  in  which  position  he 
was  watchful  aud  efficient.  In  1863  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  judge  advocate  of  the  United  States 
Army,  and  was  a  thorough  supporter  of  Lin¬ 
coln’s  administration  throughout.  In  1864  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Bureau  of  Mili¬ 
tary  Justice,  and  declined  the  cabinet  appoint¬ 
ment  of  Attorney-general.  He  was  breveted  ma¬ 
jor-general  of  the  United  States  Army  in  March, 
1865. 

Home  Manufactures  (1768).  The  women  as¬ 
sisted  the  non-importation  leagues  by  self-de¬ 
nial  and  industry.  They  caught  the  spirit  of 
opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act,  and  resolved  to 
deny  themselves  foreign  luxuries ;  and  when  the 
new  taxation  scheme  (1767)  went  into  opera¬ 
tion,  they  set  their  fingers  at  work  producing 
home-made  clothing.  A  letter  written  .at  New¬ 
port,  R.  I.,  early  in  1768,  said  :  “  Within  eighteen 
months  past,  487  yards  of  cloth  and  36  pairs 
of  stockings  have  been  spun  and  knit  in  the 
family  of  James  Nixon,  of  this  town.  Another 
family,  within  four  years  past,  hath  manufact¬ 
ured  980  yards  of  woollen  cloth,  besides  two  cov¬ 
erlids  aud  two  bed-ticks,  and  all  the  stocking- 
yarn  for  the  family.  Not  a  skein  was  put  out  of 
the  house  to  be  spun,  but  the  whole  performed 
by  the  family.  We  are  credibly  informed  that, 
many  families  in  this  colony  within  the  year 
past,  have  each  manufactured  upwards  of  700 


HOOD  CHASED  BY  SHERMAN 


643 


HOOKER 


yards  of  cloth  of  different  kinds.”  In  Boston, 
forty  or  fifty  young  ladies,  calling  themselves 
“  Daughters  of  Liberty,”  met  at  the  house  of 
Rev.  Mr.  Moorhead,  where  they  spun,  during 
the  day,  237  skeins  of  yarn,  some  very  fine, 
which  were  given  to  the  pastor.  There  were 
upwards  of  100  busy  spiuuers  in  Mr.  Moor¬ 
head’s  congregation.  That  wool  might  not  be 
wanting,  the  colonists  entered  into  an  agree¬ 
ment  to  abstain  from  killing  and  eating  lambs. 
Through  the  industry  of  the  people  aud  the 
frugality  practised,  the  markets  were  soon 
sufficiently  supplied  with  coarse  and  common 
clothes,  which  were  cheerfully  worn.  The  spin¬ 
ning-wheel  was  the  weapon  with  which  the 
women  of  America  fought  the  ministry.  The 
infant  manufactories  of  America  received  a 
strong  impulse  from  non-importation  agree¬ 
ments,  and  home-made  articles,  first  worn  from 
necessity,  became  fashionable.  The  graduating 
class  at  Harvard  College  took  their  degrees  in 
homespun  suits  iu  1770. 

Hood  Chased  by  Sherman  (1864).  Instruct¬ 
ed  by  the  chief  of  t  he  Confederacy  to  draw  Sher¬ 
man  out  of  Georgia,  for  his  presence  was  creat¬ 
ing  great  disaffection  to  the  Confederate  cause, 
Hood  moved  rapidly  towards  Tennessee,  threat¬ 
ening  important  points  on  the  railway.  Sher¬ 
man  followed  as  rapidly,  and,  by  forced  marches, 
saved  Kingston  (Oct.  10, 1864),  which  was  one  of 
the  threatened  places.  Hood  turned  westward 
towards  Rome.  Sherman  followed,  and  sent 
Garrard’s  cavalry  and  the  Twenty-third  corps 
across  the  Oostenaula,  to  strike  Hood’s  flank  if 
he  should  turn  northward.  By  quick  move¬ 
ments  Hood  avoided  the  intended  blow,  and,  ap¬ 
pearing  before  Resaca,  demanded  its  surrender. 
A  vigorous  attack  by  the  Confederates  was  re¬ 
pulsed,  aud  Hood  moved  on,  closely  pursued  by 
Sherman.  The  Confederates  destroyed  the  rail¬ 
way  near  Buzzard’s  Roost  and  captured  the 
Union  garrison  at  Dalton.  Sherman  tried  to 
make  Hood  fight,  but  that  active  leader  avoided 
this  peril  and  puzzled  the  Nationals  by  his  in¬ 
explicable  movements.  Still  pursuing,  Sher¬ 
man  and  his  entire  force  were  grouped  about 
Gaylesville,  in  a  fertile  region  of  northern  Ala¬ 
bama.  Now  satisfied  that  Hood  did  not  mean 
to  fight,  but  was  luring  the  Nationals  out  of 
Georgia,  Sherman  determined  to  execute  a  plan 
which  he  had  already  submitted  to  Lieutenant- 
general  Grant — namely,  to  destroy  Atlanta  and 
its  railway  communications,  march  his  army 
through  the  heart  of  Georgia,  and  capture  and 
take  possession  of  Savannah  or  Charleston,  on 
the  Atlantic  seaboard.  He  abandoned  the  chase 
after  Hood  and  returned  to  Atlanta  early  in  No¬ 
vember. 

Hood,  John  B.,  was  born  in  Bath  County, 
Ky.,  in  1830  ;  died  of  yellow  fever  in  New  Or¬ 
leans,  Aug.  30,  1879.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1853,  became  a  cavalry  officer,  and 
fought  the  Comanche  Indians,  in  Texas,  in 
1857.  He  left  the  army  and  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  Confederates  iu  1861,  receiving  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  brigadier.  He  joined  Twiggs  in 
betraying  the  army  in  Texas  into  the  hands  of  | 


the  Secessionists.  He  was  promoted  to  major- 
general  in  1862,  and  commanded  the  largest  di¬ 
vision  of  Longstreet’s  corps  at  Gettysburg.  He 
lost  a  leg  at  Chickamauga.  In  the  Atlanta  cam¬ 
paign  iu  1864  he  was  with  Longstreet,  aud  su¬ 


perseded  Johnston  in  command  of  the  army  at 
Atlanta  in  July.  He  invaded  Tennessee  late  in 
that  year;  was  defeated  at  Nashville;  driven 
into  Alabama,  and  was  relieved  of  command  by 
General  Richard  Taylor.  He  died  Ang.  31, 1879. 

Hood’s  Invasion  of  Tennessee.  Late  in 
October,  1864,  General  Hood,  with  about  55,000 
troops,  crossed  the  Tennessee  River  at  Florence, 
where  Forrest,  the  guerilla  chief,  aided  him  (see 
Hood  Chased  by  Sherman)',  and  at  Johusville,  on 
the  Tennessee,  destroyed  National  stores  valued 
at  $1,500,000.  Hood  had  been  reinforced  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Taylor,  of  Louisiana.  General  Thomas,  then 
at  Nashville,  had  about  30,000  troops,  who,  un¬ 
der  Schofield,  confronted  Hood ;  aud  he  had 
about  as  many  more  at  different  points,  in  ac¬ 
tive  service.  Hood  moved  on  Nashville  (Nov. 
17).  General  Schofield,  who  was  at  Columbia 
with  a  large  force,  fell  back  to  Franklin,  where, 
with  not  more  than  18,000  men,  he  made  a 
stand.  He  fought  Hood  there  (Nov.  30)  and 
checked  his  onward  march.  (See  Franklin,  Bat¬ 
tle  of.)  Schofield  fell  back  to  Nashville,  follow¬ 
ed  by  Forrest’s  cavalry.  Hood  pushed  forward 
to  invest  that  city.  There  a  severe  battle  was 
fought  (Dec.  15),  when  Hood  was  repulsed  and 
made  a  hasty  retreat  across  the  Tennessee  into 
northern  Alabama,  closely  pursued  by  the  vic¬ 
tors.  (See  Nashville,  Battle  of.) 

Hooker,  Joseph,  was  born  at  Hadley,  Mass., 
in  1815 ;  died  at  Garden  City,  L.  I.,  Oct.  31, 1879. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837,  entering 
the  artillery.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mex¬ 
ico,  and  was  breveted  lieutenant -colonel  for 
bravery  therein.  He  resigned  in  1853  and  set¬ 
tled  in  California,  where  he  was  residing  when, in 
May,  1861,  ho  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  and  assigned  to  the  Army  of  the  Po¬ 
tomac,  in  which  he  acquired  the  name  of  “  Fight¬ 
ing  Joe  Hooker.”  In  May,  1862,  he  was  made 
major-general.  He  was  severely  wounded  iu 


HOOKER 


644 


HOPKINS 


the  battle  of  Antietam,  and  soon  afterwards  was 
commissioned  brigadier-general  in  the  United 
States  Army.  Early  in  1863  he  succeeded  Burn¬ 
side  in  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Po¬ 
tomac,  and  was  himself  succeeded  by  General 


JOSEPH  HOOKER. 


Meade  in  June.  He  performed  efficient  service 
near  Chattanooga  in  the  fall  of  1863,  and  in  the 
Atlanta  campaign  of  1864.  Hooker  was  brevet¬ 
ed  major-general  of  the  United  States  Army  in 
1868,  when  he  retired  from  active  service. 

Hooker,  Thomas,  founder  of  the  Colony  of 
Connecticut,  was  born  at  Marketfield,  Leicester¬ 
shire,  Eng.,  in  1586;  died  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
July  7, 1647.  He  was  a  popular  non-conformist 
preacher  in  London,  but  was  silenced,  when  he 
kept  a  school,  in  which  John  Eliot,  the  “  Apos¬ 
tle,”  was  his  assistant.  Hooker  fled  from  per¬ 
secution  to  Holland  in  1630,  and  arrived  at  Bos¬ 
ton  in  September,  1633.  He  was  ordained  pas¬ 
tor  of  the  church  at  Newtown,  and  in  June,  1636, 
he  and  his  whole  congregation  began  a  migra¬ 
tion  to  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut,  where 
they  founded  Hartford.  He  was  exceedingly  in¬ 
fluential  in  all  New  England. 

Hooper,  William,  a  signer  of  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Boston,  Jan. 
17,1742;  died  at  Hillsborough,  N.  C.,  October, 
1790.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1760.  He 
studied  law  under  James  Otis,  and  went  to 
North  Carolina  in  1764,  settling  in  Wilmington 
iu  1767.  He  was  a  representative  in  the  Pro¬ 
vincial  Legislature,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the 
first  Continental  Congress  in  1774,  in  which  he 
drew  up  an  address  to  the  inhabitants  of  Jamai¬ 
ca.  Soon  after  signing  the  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dependence  he  resigned  his  seat  and  returned 
home,  where  he  subsequently  took  part  in  local 
public  affairs. 

Hopkins,  Commodore  Esek,  Cruise  of.  A 
squadron  of  seven  vessels,  fitted  out  by  the  Ma¬ 
rine  Committee  (see  Navy  Department,  Continen¬ 
tal'),  sailed  on  a  cruise  (February,  1776),  under 
Commodore  Hopkins,  then  nearly  sixty  years  of 
age,  to  operate  against  the  fleet  of  Lord  Dun- 
more  (see  Nunmore’s  War  on  the  Virginians)  on 
the  Virginian  coast.  He  sailed  from  the  Dela¬ 


ware.  His  flag-ship  was  the  Alfred,  28  guns. 
Hopkins  proceeded  farther  south,  and  made  a 
descent  on  the  island  of  New  Providence,  one  of 
the  Bahamas,  capturing  its  governor,  its  fort, 
and  one  hundred  guns,  with  a  quantity  of  stores. 
Leaving  the  Bahamas  for  the  New  England 
coast,  he  fell  in  with  and  captured  two  British 
vessels  (April  4)  off  Long  Island,  for  which  the 
President  of  Congress  complimented  him  offi¬ 
cially.  He  attacked  another  British  vessel  of 
29  guns,  but  she  escaped.  For  this,  Hopkins 
and  one  or  two  of  his  lieutenants  were  censured. 
Charges  were  preferred  against  him,  and  he  was 
dismissed  from  the  service,  Jan.  2, 1777.  He  was 
a  brother  of  Stephen  Hopkins,  a  member  of  Con¬ 
gress.  No  commander-iu-chief  of  the  navy  was 
afterwards  appointed. 

Hopkins,  Edward,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury, 
Eng.,  in  1600;  died  iu  London,  March,  1657. 
He  was  a  successful  merchant  in  London,  and, 
being  much  attached  to  Mr.  Davenport,  came 
with  him  to  America,  in  1637,  and  accompanied 
him  to  the  banks  of  the  Quinnipiac  and  as¬ 
sisted  in  the  preliminary  work  of  founding  the 
New  Haven  Colony.  He  went  to  Hartford, 
where  he  was  chosen  governor  in  1639,  and 
ruled  the  Connecticut  Colony  from  1640  to  1654, 
alternately  every  other  year  with  Mr.  Haynes. 
On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Mr.  Hop¬ 
kins  returned  to  England,  where  he  became 
warden  of  the  fleet,  commissioner  of  the  admi¬ 
ralty,  and  member  of  Parliament.  In  1643  Mr. 
Hopkins  had  aided  in  forming  the  New  Eng¬ 
land  Confederacy,  and  he  never  lost  bis  interest 
in  the  colonies.  At  his  death  he  bequeathed 
much  of  his  estate  to  New  England  institutions 
of  learning— for  the  support  of  gi-ammar-schools 
at  Hartford  and  New  Haven,  which  are  still  kept 
up.  He  also  left  a  donation  of  £500,  which,  by 
a  decree  iu  chancery,  went  to  Harvard  College. 

Hopkins,  Esek,  was  the  first  commodore  of 
the  American  navy.  He  was  born  at  Scituate, 


ESEK  HOPKINS. 


R.  I.,  in  1718 ;  died  at  North  Providence,  R.  I., 
Feb.  26,  1802.  Governor  Cooke  commissioned 


HOPKINS 


645 

him  a  brigadier-general  at  the  breaking-out  of 
the  Revolution.  In  December,  1775,  Congress 
commissioned  him  commauder-iu-chief  of  the 
inchoate  navy,  and  he  put  to  sea  iu  the  first 
squadron  in  February,  1776,  consisting  of  four 
ships  and  three  sloops,  sailing  for  the  Bahama 
Islands.  There  he  captured  a  large  quantity  of 
ordnance  stores  and  ammunition,  and  one  hun¬ 
dred  cannons.  He  captured  two  British  vessels 
on  his  return.  Complaint  was  made  that  he  had 
not  annoyed  the  British  ships  on  the  Southern 
coast,  and  he  was  arraigned  before  the  Naval 
Committee  of  Congress,  on  the  charge.  He  was 
acquitted,  but  unavoidable  delays  in  getting 
vessels  to  sea  afterwards  caused  other  charges 
to  be  made,  and  he  was  dismissed  the  service, 
Jan.  2,  1777.  During  his  long  life  he  exerted 
great  political  influence  in  Rhode  Island. 

Hopkins,  Samuel,  D.D.,  father  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Colonization  Society  (which  see),  and  of  the 
so-called  Hopkinsian  divinity,  known  as  Hop- 
kinsian  Calvinism.  He  was  born  at  Waterbury, 
Conn.,  in  September,  1721 ;  died  at  Newport, 

R.  I.,  Dec.  20,  1803.  Graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1741,  he  studied  divinity  with  Jonathan  Ed¬ 
wards,  and  became  a  pastor  iu  1743.  He  settled 
in  Newport  in  1770,  but,  during  the  British  oc¬ 
cupation  of  that  place,  his  parish  was  so  much 
impoverished  that  he  was  compelled  to  live  on 
weekly  contributions  and  the  voluntary  aid  of 
a  few  friends  the  remainder  of  his  life.  New¬ 
port  was  a  great  slave-mart,  and  Dr.  Hopkins 
powerfully  opposed  the  traffic.  So  early  as  1773 
he  formed  a  plan  for  evangelizing  Africa  and 
colonizing  it  with  free  negroes  from  America. 
He  exerted  such  influence  against  slavery  that, 
in  1774,  Rhode  Island  passed  a  law  forbidding 
the  importation  of  negroes  into  the  colony,  and, 
early  in  1784,  the  Legislature  declared  that  all 
children  born  after  the  following  March  should 
be  free. 

Hopkins,  Stephen,  LL.D.,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Scitnate,  R.  I.,  March  7, 1707 ;  died  at  Providence, 
July  19,  1785.  He  was  engaged  in  early  life  iu 
mercantile  business  and  land-surveying;  be¬ 
came  an  active  member  of  the  Rhode  Island 
Legislature,  and  was  speaker  of  the  Assembly 
from  1732  till  1741.  In  1739  he  was  chief-jus¬ 
tice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  of  the 
Supreme  Court  from  1751  to  1754.  Mr.  Hopkins 
was  a  delegate  in  the  Colonial  Convention  at 
Albany  in  1754,  and  one  of  the  committee  who 
drew  up  a  plan  of  union.  From  1754  to  1768  he 
was  governor  of  Rhode  Island,  excepting  four 
years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress,  and  remained  in  that  body  from 
1776  to  1778.  He  had  been  from  the  beginning 
a  stanch  opposer  of  the  oppressive  measures  of 
Parliament.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  that 
drafted  the  Articles  of  Confederation  (which 
see) ;  was  a  good  mathematician,  and  was  for 
many  years  chancellor  of  Brown  University. 
Notwithstanding  his  defective  early  education, 
Mr.  Hopkins’s  knowledge  of  literature,  science, 
and  political  economy  was  varied  and  exten¬ 
sive. 


HORNET  AND  PEACOCK,  BATTLE  OF 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1738 ;  died  there,  May  9,  1791. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1763.  In  1765  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  ;  visited  England  ;  and 
on  his  return  married  Miss  Borden,  of  Borden- 
town,  N.  J.  His  republican  principles  caused 
his  removal  from  a  lucrative  office  in  New  Jer¬ 
sey.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1776-77, 
and  was  distinguished  during  the  Revolution 
by  political  and  satirical  writings.  His  best 
known  is  The  Battle  of  the  Kegs.  He  was  for 
several  years  Commissioner  of  the  Loan-office, 
and  was  Judge  of  Admiralty  for  ten  years — 
1779-89. 

Hopkinson,  Joseph,  author  of  Rail,  Columbia, 
was  a  son  of  Francis,  and  was  born  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Nov.  12, 1778  ;  died  there,  Jan.  15, 1842.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
became  a  lawyer  of  much  repute,  and  was  the 
leading  counsel  of  Dr.  Rush  in  his  suit  against 
Cobbett.  (See  Cobbett's  Revenge.)  He  was  also 
counsel  for  Judge  Chase  in  his  impeachment  trial. 
(See  Chase,  Samuel.)  As  a  member  of  Congress 
(1816-20),  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  course 
on  the  tariff  question,  and  by  his  opposition  to 
a  recharter  of  the  United  States  Bank.  In  1828 
Mr.  Hopkinson  was  appointed  Judge  of  the 
United  States  District  Court  of  eastern  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  an  office  which  his  father  and  grand¬ 
father  had  held.  He  was  a  leading  member  of 
the  convention  that  revised  the  Constitution  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1837.  Mr.  Hopkinson  was  Vice- 
President  of  the  American  Philosophical  Socie¬ 
ty.  His  best-known  literary  production  is  Hail, 
Columbia  (which  see). 

Hornet  and  Peacock,  Battle  of  the.  Af¬ 
ter  the  capture  of  the  Java  (see  Constitution  and 
Java)  Bainbridge  left  the  sloop-of-war  Hornet, 
Commander  James  Lawrence,  to  blockade  the 
Bonne  Citoyenne,  an  English  vessel  laden  with 
treasure  in  the  harbor  of  San  Salvador,  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil.  The  Hornet  was  driven  away 
by  a  larger  British  vessel,  and  on  the  24tli  of 
February,  1813,  she  fell  iu  with  the  British  brig 
Peacock,  18  gnus,  Captain  Peake,  off  the  mouth 
of  the  Demerara  River.  The  Hornet,  gaining  a 
good  position,  with  quick  and  incessant  firing, 
came  down  upon  the  Peacock,  closed  upon  her, 
and  in  this  advantageous  position  poured  in  her 
shot  with  so  much  vigor  for  fifteen  minutes  that 
her  antagonist  not  only  struck  her  colors,  but 
raised  the  union  in  a  position  that  indicated  a 
cry  of  distress.  Very  soon  afterwards  the  main¬ 
mast  of  the  Peacock  fell  and  went  over  her  side. 
She  was  sinking  when  officers  from  the  Hornet 
went  on  board  of  her.  Her  guns  were  thrown 
overboard,  the  holes  made  by  balls  were  plugged, 
and  every  exertion  was  made  to  keep  her  afloat 
until  her  wounded  could  be  removed,  but  in  vain. 
She  rapidly  filled  and  went  to  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  taking  down  with  her  nine  British  and  three 
American  seamen.  Lawrence  sailed  immediate¬ 
ly  for  the  United  States,  and  the  story  of  the  ex¬ 
ploit  of  the  Hornet  created  a  profound  sensation. 
A  Halifax  newspaper  said:  “It  will  not  do  for 
i  our  vessels  to  fight  those  of  the  Americans  sin- 


HORNET  AND  PENGUIN 


646 


HORNET  AND  PENGUIN 


gle-handed  ;  they  are  a  dead  nip.”  Public  hon¬ 
ors  were  awarded  to  Lawrence,  and  Congress 
voted  him  thanks  and  a  gold  medal.  The  cor¬ 
poration  of  New  York  resolved  to  present  him 
with  the  freedom  of  the  city  (which  see),  with  a 


vous  together  at  the  middle  of  March.  On  the 
23d  they  entered  the  port,  and  the  Hornet  was 
about  to  cast  anchor,  when  a  strange  sail  was 
discovered  at  the  windward.  Biddle  immedi¬ 
ately  went  seaward  to  reconnoitre.  The  stran- 


MEDAL  AWARDED  TO  CAPTAIN  LAWRENCE  BY  CONGRESS. 


piece  of  plate  bearing  appropriate  devices  and 
inscriptions,  and  to  give  a  public  dinner  to  the 
officers  and  crew  of  the  Hornet.  The  banquet 
was  given  at  Washington  Hall,  on  Tuesday,  May 
4,  1813,  only  a  few  weeks  before  Lawrence  was 
slain.  Art  and  song  made  contributions  to  the 
praise  of  Lawrence,  and  the  pencil  caricature 
made  fun  of  the  vanquished  British,  as  seen  in 
the  annexed  sketch,  which  wTas  published  by 


HORNET  AND  PEACOCK. 

Charles,  a  Philadelphian,  soon  after  the  victory. 
A  silver  medal  was  given  to  each  of  the  other 
officers  of  the  Hornet.  The  officers  of  the  Pea¬ 
cock  sent  a  public  letter  of  thanks  to  Lawrence 
for  his  generous  treatment  of  the  prisoners. 

Hornet  and  Penguin.  When  Decatur  de¬ 
parted  with  the  President  (see  President  and  En- 
dymion )  he  ordered  the  remainder  of  his  squad¬ 
ron  to  rendezvous  at  the  port  of  Tristan  d’Acun- 
ha,  the  principal  of  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
South  Atlantic,  in  latitude  37°  south  and  12° 
west  from  Washington.  They  followed  the 
President  to  sea  (Jan.  22, 1815),  not  knowing  her 
fate,  and  the  Hornet,  18  guns,  Captain  James 
Biddle,  and  Tom  Bowline  arrived  at  the  rendez- 


ger  came  down  before  the  wTind,  and  a  little  be¬ 
fore  two  o’clock  was  within  musket-shot  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  Hornet,  displayed  English  colors, 
and  tired  a  gun.  The  challenge  was  accepted 
by  the  Hornet,  and  for  fifteen  minutes  a  sharp 
cannonade  was  kept  up.  Then  the  British  ves¬ 
sel  ran  down  upon  the  Hornet  with  the  inten¬ 
tion  of  boarding  her.  The  vessels  became  en¬ 
tangled,  and  the  opportunity  for  boarding  was 
lost  by  the  refusal  of  the  men  of  the  stranger 
to  undertake  it.  Biddle’s  men,  on  the  contrary, 
were  eager  for  a  hand-to-hand  fight,  but,  as 
his  advantage  lay  with  his  guns,  he  would  not 
allow  it.  His  broadsides  terribly  raked  his  an¬ 
tagonist,  and  in  a  few  minutes  she  was  sur¬ 
rendered.  Springing  upon  the  taffrail  to  in¬ 
quire  if  she  had  actually  surrendered,  Biddle 
was  fired  upon  by  two  British  marines  and 
wounded  in  the  neck.  His  assassins  were  in¬ 
stantly  slain  by  bullets  tired  from  the  Hornet. 
The  latter  became  disentangled,  and  wore  to 
give  her  antagonist  a  broadside,  when  twenty 
men  on  the  stranger  threw  up  their  hands  and 
asked  for  quarter.  The  conquered  vessel  had 
st  ruck  her  colors  after  a  battle  of  twenty-three 
minutes.  She  was  the  brig  Penguin,  18  guns, 
Captain  Dickenson.  She  mounted  nineteen  car¬ 
riage-guns,  besides  guns  in  her  top.  Her  comple¬ 
ment  of  men  was  one  hundred  and  thirty-two, 
and  her  size  and  weight  of  metal  was  the  same 
as  those  of  the  Hornet.  The  latter  lost  one  mau 
killed  and  ten  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Penguin 
was  unknown.  Among  her  slain  were  her  com¬ 
mander  and  boatswain.  After  taking  from  her 
all  that  was  valuable,  Captain  Biddle  scuttled 
her  (March  25),  and  she  went  to  the  bottom  of 
the  deep  South  Atlantic  Ocean.  Special  honors 
were  bestowed  upon  Captain  Biddle.  When 
he  arrived  at  New  York  a  public  dinner  was 
given  to  him,  and  his  native  town  (Philadel¬ 
phia)  gave  him  a  beautiful  service  of  silver- 


647 


HOUDON 


HORNET.  CHASE  OF  THE 


* 

plate.  Congress  thanked  him  in  the  name  of 
the  Republic,  and  voted  him  a  gold  medal. 
Converting  the  Tom  Bowline  into  a  cartel  ship, 
he  sent  his  prisoners  in  her  to  Rio  Janeiro. 

Hornet,  Chase  of  the.  When  sailing  tow¬ 
ards  the  Indian  seas  on  the  morning  of  April  27, 
1815,  the  Hornet  and  Peacock  were  close  together, 
and  Captain  Warrington,  of  the  latter,  signalled 
to  Biddle,  of  the  former,  that  a  strange  vessel 
was  seen  in  the  distance.  Both  sloops  started 
in  chase,  with  a  light  wind,  and  gained  on  the 
stranger.  The  Peacock  was  ahead,  and  on  the 
afternoon  of  the  28th  displayed  caution  in  her 
movements,  for  she  had  discovered  that  the 
stranger  was  a  heavy  British  line-of- battle  ship, 
and  that  she  was  about  to  turn  upon  and  chase 
the  American  vessels.  Then  the  Peacock  and 
Hornet  spread  their  sails  for  flight.  The  latter 
wras  in  greater  peril,  for  she  was  a  slower  sailer 
than  her  consort.  The  huge  Englishman  was 
gaining  upou  her.  Biddle  began  to  lighten  her, 
and  during  the  entire  night  of  the  28th  and  early 
morning  of  the  29th  the  chase  became  exceed¬ 
ingly  interesting.  At  dawn  the  British  vessel 
was  within  gunshot  distance  of  the  Hornet ,  on 
her  lee  quarter.  At  seveu  o’clock  the  pursuer 
threw  out  British  colors  and  a  rear-admiral’s 
flag,  and  began  tiring.  Onward  the  Hornet  sped, 
casting  overboard  anchors,  shot,  cables,  spars, 
boats,  many  heavy  articles  on  deck  and  below, 
and  all  of  her  gnus  but  one.  At  noon  the 
pursuer  was  within  a  mile  of  her,  and  again 
commenced  firing.  Onward  the  Hornet  still 
sped,  her  commander  having  resolved  to  save 
his  ship  at  all  hazards.  By  consummate  sea¬ 
manship  and  prudence  he  did  so,  and,  with  her 
single  gun,  aud  without  boat  or  anchor,  the 
Hornet  arrived  at  New  York,  June  9, 1815.  The 
vessel  that  had  pursued  her  was  the  British 
ship  Cornwallis,  74  guns,  on  her  way  to  the  East 
Indies. 

Hosmer,  Harriet  G.,  sculptor,  was  born  at 
Watertown,  Mass.,  Oct.  9, 1830.  She  began  mod¬ 
elling  in  clay  at  an  early  age,  and,  having  finish¬ 
ed  her  education  in  school,  she  took  a  course  of 
anatomical  instruction  in  a  medical  college  at 
St.  Louis,  Mo.  She  made  a  bust  of  “  Hesper,” 
in  marble,  in  1852,  which  attracted  much  atten¬ 
tion,  and  her  father  (a  physician)  placed  her 
under  the  tuition  of  Mr.  Gibson,  sculptor,  at 
Rome.  Her  best-known  work — “  Beatrice  Ceu- 
ci” — was  executed  for  the  public  library  at  St. 
Louis.  She  soon  became  a  distinguished  and 
popular  artist.  One  of  her  best  productions, 
finished  in  1859,  is  “Zenobia  in  Chains.”  Miss 
Hosmer  makes  Rome  her  permanent  abiding- 
place,  where  she  is  constantly  and  profitably 
employed. 

Hospitality  to  the  Continental  Congress. 

The  Philadelphians  gave  the  members  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  assembled  in  their  city 
in  September,  1774,  a  most  hospitable  reception. 
The  Carpenters’  Association,  themselves  warm 
patriots,  gave  them  the  free  use  of  their  hall — 
the  famous  Carpenters’  Hall — and  their  library 
above;  and  the  directors  of  the  Library  Com¬ 
pany  of  Philadelphia  requested  their  librarian 


to  furnish  the  members  of  the  Congress  with 
any  books  which  they  might  wish  to  use  during 
the  session.  They  were  also  recipients  of  un¬ 
bounded  hospitality  at  the  hands  of  leading 
citizens,  among  whom  they  were  continually 
entertained  at  tables  sumptuously  provided. 
John  Adams  recorded  in  his  diary  an  entertain¬ 
ment  given  by  a  young  lawyer,  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  “  This  plain  Friend,” 
says  Adams,  “and  his  plain  though  pretty  wife, 
with  her  ‘  thees  ’  and  ‘  thous,’  had  provided  a 
most  costly  entertainment  in  ducks,  hams,  chick¬ 
ens,  beef,  pig,  tarts,  creams,  custards,  jellies,  fools, 
trifles,  floating  islands,  beer,  porter,  punch,  wine,” 
etc.  His  diary  contains  notices  of  many  such 
entertainments  at  that  time. 

Hostile  Forces  in  the  West  Indies  (1778). 
So  soon  asD’Estaing’s  destination  became  known 
in  England,  a  British  fleet,  under  Admiral  By¬ 
ron,  was  sent  to  follow  him  across  the  Atlantic. 
It  did  not  arrive  at  New  York  until  late  in  the 
season.  Byron  proceeded  to  attack  the  French 
fleet  in  Boston  harbor.  His  vessels  were  dis¬ 
persed  by  a  storm,  aud  D’Estaing,  his  ships  per¬ 
fectly  refitted,  sailed  (Nov.  1, 1778)  for  the  West 
Indies,  then,  as  between  England  and  France, 
the  principal  seat  of  war.  On  the  same  day 
five  thousand  British  troops  sailed  from  New 
York  for  the  same  destination,  escorted  by  a 
strong  squadron.  The  English  fleet  arrived 
first,  aud,  joining  some  other  vessels  already 
there,  proceeded  to  attack  the  Island  of  St. 
Lucia.  D’Estaing  unsuccessfully  tried  to  re¬ 
lieve  it.  Soou  afterwards  Byron’s  fleet,  from 
the  northeast  coast,  arrived,  when  D’Estaing 
took  refuge  at  Martinique.  Byron  tried  in 
vain  to  draw  him  into  action,  and  then  started 
to  convoy,  a  part  of  the  way,  the  homeward- 
bound  West  Indiamen  of  the  mercantile  marine. 
During  his  absence  a  detachment  from  Marti¬ 
nique  captured  the  English  island  of  St.Vincent. 
Being  largely  reinforced  soon  afterwards,  D’Es¬ 
taing  sailed  with  his  whole  fleet  and  conquered 
the  island  of  Grenada.  Before  the  conquest 
was  quite  completed  Byron  returned,  when  an 
indecisive  engagement  took  place,  and  the  much 
damaged  British  fleet  put  into  St.  Christopher’s. 
D’Estaing  then  sailed  (August,  1779)  to  escort, 
part  of  tlie  way,  the  homeward-bound  French 
West  Indiamen  ;  aud,  returning,  sailed  for  the 
coast  of  Georgia  to  help  the  Americans  to  re¬ 
cover  that  state. 

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine,  an  eminent  French 
sculptoi-,  was  born  in  Versailles,  March  20, 1741 ; 
died  in  Paris,  July  15, 1828.  He  passed  ten  years 
at  Rome  in  the  study  of  the  antiques.  In  1785 
he  was  employed  to  make  a  marble  statue  of 
Washington  for  the  State  of  Virginia,  which 
now  stands  in  the  rotunda  of  the  state  Capitol 
at  Richmond.  He  visited  Mount  Vernon  and 
made  a  cast  of  the  living  face  only,  and,  after 
returning  to  France,  modelled  the  entire  full 
length  of  the  patriot.  That  original  cast  is  at 
Mount  Vernon.  It  is  the  true  model  of  Wash¬ 
ington’s  face,  and  should  be  the  standard  por¬ 
trait,  instead  of  that  of  Stuart,  in  which  the  art¬ 
ist  avowedly  exaggerated.  (See  p.  648.) 


HOUSTON 


HOUS ATONIC  048 


UOl'DON’S  STATUE  OP  WASHINGTON. 


Housatoiiic,  New  England  Trading -post 
on  the.  Denied  a  footing  on  the  Delaware  by 
the  Dutch,  the  New -Englanders  pressed  their 
encroachments  towards  the  Upper  Hudson. 
High  up  on  the  Housatonic  River  they  estab¬ 
lished  a  trading-post,  as  the  Dutch  alleged,  to 
draw  off  the  Indian  trade  from  them. 

House  of  Burgesses,  the  name  given  to  the 
collected  representatives  of  boroughs  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  when  representative  government  was  first 
established  there  under  the  administration  of 
Governor  Yeardly.  That  body  was  elected  by 
the  people,  and  at  first  consisted  of  two  rep¬ 
resentatives  from  seven  corporations.  These, 
with  the  governor  and  Council,  formed  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Assembly  of  Virginia.  That  general  form 
of  government  was  maintained  until  that  col¬ 
ony  became  an  independent  state  in  1776.  That 
first  House  of  Burgesses  assembled  at  James¬ 
town  in  July,  1619,  and  by  the  end  of  summer 
four  more  boroughs  were  established  and  rep¬ 
resentatives  chosen.  The  character  of  the  per¬ 
sonnel  of  that  popular  branch  of  the  Virginia 
Legislature  for  many  years  was  sometimes  se¬ 
verely  criticised  by  contemporary  writers.  A 
clergyman  who  lived  there  wrote  that  the  popu¬ 
lar  Assembly  was  composed  largely  of  those  un¬ 
ruly  men  whom  King  James  had  sent  over  from 
the  English  prisons  as  servants  for  the  plant¬ 
ers,  and  were  not  only  vicious,  but  very  igno¬ 
rant.  These  men  (Stith,  an  accurate  historian 
observes)  disgraced  the  colony  in  the  eyes  of  the 
world.  Finally  better  material  found  its  way 
into  the  House  of  Burgesses;  and  when  the  old 
war  for  independence  was  kindling,  some  of  the 
brightest  and  purest  men  in  the  commonwealth 


HOUDON’S  MASK  OF  WASHINGTON’S  FACE. 


composed  that  House,  and  were  the  conserva¬ 
tors  of  the  rights  of  man  in  Virginia  as  opposed 
to  the  governor  and  his  council. 

Houston  and  Texas.  Samuel  Houston,  the 
hero  of  Texan  independence,  was  governor  of 
that  state  when  the  Secessionists,  in  convention, 
declared  its  withdrawal  from  the  Union.  The 
convention  officially  informed  the  governor  of 
the  act,  and  that  they  had  instructed  their  ap¬ 
pointed  delegates  to  ask  for  the  admission  of 
Texas  into  the  “  Southern  Confederacy.”  To 
this  communication  Houston  promptly  replied, 
in  substance,  that  the  convention  had  trans¬ 
cended  its  delegated  powers ;  that  its  acts  were 
usurpations ;  and  that  he  should  consider  it  his 
duty  to  act  as  governor  until  the  Legislature  of 
the  state  should  take  action  in  the  matter,  re¬ 
gardless  of  all  alleged  changes  in  the  political 
relations  of  the  state.  This  reply  produced 
great  excitement.  Believing  the  governor  was 
about  to  assemble  the  militia  of  the  state  to  re¬ 
sist  the  convention,  that  body  passed  an  ordi¬ 
nance  (March  8, 1861)  which  defied  his  author¬ 
ity.  Then  the  venerable  Houston,  in  a  stirring 
address  to  the  people,  recounted  his  services 
and  his  trials,  and  complained  bitterly  of  the 
“  usurpations”  of  the  convention,  which,  he  said, 
“  had  transferred  the  people,  like  sheep  from  the 
shambles,  from  the  Union  to  an  unlawful  league.” 
Loving  Texas  too  well  to  do  aught  that  should 
kindle  civil  war  upon  its  soil,  he  said  he  should 
not  attempt,  under  the  circumstances,  to  exer¬ 
cise  his  authority  as  governor,  nor  would  he 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  “  Southern 
Confederacy.” 

Houston,  Samuel,  first  President  of  Texas, 
was  born  near  Lexington,  Va.,  March  2,  1793; 
died  at  Huntersville,  Tex.,  July  25,  1863.  His 
family  went  to  Teunessee  in  his  early  days, 
where  the  Cherokee  Indians  adopted  him  as  one 
of  their  nation.  He  served  with  distinction  un- 


HOVEY  AND  WASHBURNE’S  RAID  649 


HOWARD 


der  Jackson  in  tlie  Creek  War,  in  1813-14,  and 
was  severely  wounded.  Leaving  the  army  in 
1818,  he  became  a  lawyer,  and  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1823  to  1827.  He  was  govern- 


SAMU1SL  HOUSTON. 


or  of  Tennessee  in  1827,  and  afterwards  lived 
among  the  Cherokees,  as  their  legal  protector 
from  fraud.  Emigrating  to  Texas,  he  took  a 
leading  part  in  its  public  affairs.  Instrumental 
in  achieving  its  independence  (1836),  he  was 
elected  its  first  President  that  year;  also  from 
1841  to  1844.  He  favored  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States,  and  was  elected  its 
first  United  States  Senator  in  1846.  In  that  po¬ 
sition  he  remained  until 
1849,  when  he  was  chosen 
governor  of  Texas.  He  op¬ 
posed  the  secession  and  in¬ 
surrectionary  movements 
in  that  state  with  all  his 
might,  and  retired  from 
office  rather  than  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
Southern  Confederacy. 

Hovey  and  Wash- 
burne’sRaid.  While  Gen¬ 
eral  Pemberton  was  con¬ 
fronting  General  Grant  on 
the  Tallahatchie,  late  in 
1862,  Generals  Hovey  and 
Washburne  crossed  the 
Mississippi,  and,  with  their  cavalry,  made  such 
destructive  raids  upon  the  railways  in  Northern 
Mississippi  that  the  Confederates  fell  back  to 
Grenada.  They  had  broken  up  railways  and 
destroyed  rolling-stock  on  which  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  greatly  depended. 

Howard,  John  Eager,  was  born  in  Baltimore 
County,  Md.,  June  4,  1752;  died  there,  Oct.  12, 
1827.  He  was  a  captain  in  Hull’s  regiment  at 
the  battle  of  White  Plains.  He  became  a  major 
in  the  Continental  army  in  1777,  and  was  dis¬ 
tinguished  in  the  battle  of  Germantown.  He 
was  in  the  battle  of  Monmouth  (which  see),  and 
was  made  lieutenant-colonel.  In  1780  he  was  de¬ 
tailed,  with  the  Maryland  and  Delaware  troops, 
to  serve  in  the  Southern  Department.  In  Gates’s 
defeat,  near  Camden,  he  participated,  and  he  led 


the  Continental  infantry  in  the  battle  of  the 
Cowpens,  at  one  time  holding  in  his  hands  the 
swords  of  seven  surrendered  British  officers.  For 
his  conduct  there  Congress  voted  him  a  silver 


medal.  It  was  the  first  occasion  during  the  old 
war  for  independence  in  which  the  bayonet  was 
effectively  used.  He  was  distinguished  in  the 
battles  of  Guilford,  Hobkirk’s  Hill,  and  Eutaw 
Spring,  and  was  severely  wounded  in  the  latter 
engagement.  After  the  war  he  married  a  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Chief-justice  Chew,  of  Pennsylvania.  He 


was  a  member  of  Congress  (1787-88),  and  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Maryland  from  1789  to  1792.  Colonel 
Howard  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland  Senate 
in  1795,  and  United  States  Senator  from  1796  to 
1803.  He  was  named  by  Washington  for  one  of 
his  brigadier-generals  in  1798.  When  Baltimore 
was  threatened  in  1814,  Howard  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  aged  men  armed  for  its  defence. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis,  LL.D.,  was  born  at 
Leeds,  Me.,  Nov.  8, 1830.  He  graduated, at  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1850,  and  at  West  Point  in  1854, 
entering  the  Ordnance  Corps,  and  becoming  in¬ 
structor  in  mathematics  at  West  Point  in  1857. 
He  took  command  of  a  Maine  volunteer  regi¬ 
ment  in  June,  1861,  and  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run.  In  September  he 
was  made  a  brigadier-general.  At  the  battle 


SILVER  MEDAL  AWARDED  TO  COLONEL  HOWARD. 


HOWE 


650 


HOWE 


of  Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines  (which  see),  he 
lost  his  right  arm.  After  the  battle  of  Antietam 
(which  see)  he  commanded  Sumner’s  corps ;  and 
while  Hooker  led  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  in 
1863,  he  was  in  command  of  the  Eleventh  Corps. 


OLIVER  OTIS  HOWARD. 


Howard  was  conspicuous  at  Gettysburg  (which 
see),  and  in  Lookout  Valley  and  Missionaries’ 
Ridge;  also  in  the  relief  of  Knoxville,  late  in 
the  year.  He  was  in  command  of  the  Army 
of  the  Tennessee  in  1864,  and  was  in  all  of  the 
battles  in  the  Atlanta  campaign.  The  right  of 
Sherman’s  army,  on  its  march  to  the  sea,  was 
commanded  by  Howard,  as  well  as  in  the  march 
through  the  Carolinas  afterwards.  In  Decem¬ 
ber,  1864,  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  United  States  Army,  and  was  afterwards 
breveted  major-general.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  war,  General  Howard  was  made  commis¬ 
sioner  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau,  and  held  the 
office  until  the  bureau  was  closed,  in  June, 
1872.  Trustee  and  president  of  Howard  Uni¬ 
versity,  he  resigned  in  April,  1873,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  commissioner  to  the  Indians.  In  1880- 
82  he  was  Superintendent  of  the  Military  Acad¬ 
emy  at  West  Point. 

Howe,  Elias,  Jr.,  inventor  of  a  sewing-ma- 
chiue,  was  born  at  Spencer,  Mass.,  July  9,  1819; 
died  in  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  Oct.  3, 1867.  In  1835  he 
engaged  in  manufacturing  cotton-mill  machin¬ 
ery  at  Lowell,  and  contrived  the  sewing-ma¬ 
chine  of  which  he  was  the  inventor,  producing 
his  first  machine,  with  pecuniary  assistance 
from  a  friend,  in  May,  1845,  and  patented  it  in 
September,  1846.  Public  indifference,  violation 
of  his  rights,  and  extreme  poverty  tended  to 
discourage  him,  but  did  not.  In  1854  he  was 
enabled  to  establish  his  legal  claim  to  priority 
of  invention.  Then  a  flood-tide  of  prosperity 
flowed  in,  and  by  the  time  his  patent  expired,  in 
September,  1867,  he  had  realized  about$2,000,000. 
At  the  Paris  exposition  that  year,  he  received  a 
gold  medal  and  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
He  had  contributed  largely  in  support  of  the 
government  during  the  Civil  War,  and,  until  his 
health  failed,  did  duty  as  a  private  soldier  in  a 
Connecticut  regiment. 


Howe,  General,  abandons  New  Jersey. 
The  campaigu  of  1777  was  long  delayed.  The 
British  army,  not  having  received  its  supply  of 
tents,  as  well  as  reinforcements  and  stores,  did 
not  move  until  towards  the  middle  of  June. 
Washington  had  watched  all  Howe’s  movements 
with  much  anxiety  and  perplexing  uncertain¬ 
ty.  Whether  he  would  move  up  the  Hudson  or 
ou  Philadelphia  was  a  question  that  caused 
Washington  to  make  disposition  of  his  troops 
to  meet  either  enterprise.  He  moved  a  large 
portion  of  his  main  army  from  Morristown  to 
Middlebrook,  twelve  miles  from  Princeton,  leav¬ 
ing  Putnam,  with  a  division  of  Eastern  troops, 
in  the  Highlands.  Howe  moved  out  of  New 
Brunswick  (June  13)  with  the  apparent  design 
of  forcing  his  way  to  Philadelphia.  As  Wash¬ 
ington  had  only  eight  thousand  men  with  him, 
he  called  troops  from  the  Highlands,  and  the 
New  Jersey  militia  turned  out  in  force  to  aid 
him.  Howe’s  real  object  seems  to  have  been 
to  draw  Washington  into  an  engagement,  for 
he  had  another  plan  for  reaching  Philadelphia. 
He  made  a  sudden  and  rapid  retreat,  evacu¬ 
ated  New  Brunswick,  and  fell  back  to  Am¬ 
boy.  Washington  sent  Stirling,  with  his  divis¬ 
ion,  to  the  low  ground,  and  moved  with  the 
main  army  to  Quibbletown.  Then  Howe  turn¬ 
ed  suddenly,  to  gain  the  rear  of  the  Americans, 
when  Washington  fell  back  to  his  strong  posi¬ 
tion  at  Middlebrook,  where  Howe  did  not  choose 
to  attack  him.  In  that  movement  Stirling’s  di¬ 
vision  lost  a  few  men  and  three  pieces  of  artil¬ 
lery.  Howe  now  abandoned  New  Jersey,  crossed 
over  to  Staten  Island,  and  there  embarked  his 
main  army,  about  sixteen  thousand  strong  (leav¬ 
ing  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  with  five  thousand  men, 
to  hold  New  York),  to  co-operate  with  Burgoyne, 
who  was  to  descend  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  iu 
defending  the  city  from  assault.  Howe  final¬ 
ly  sailed,  iu  his  brother’s  fleet,  for  Chesapeake 
Bay. 

Howe,  George  Augustus  (Viscount),  born 
1724  ;  killed  near  Ticonderoga,  July  8, 1758.  He 
succeeded  to  his  father’s  title  when  he  was  elev¬ 
en  years  of  age.  In  1757  he  was  commissioned 
colonel  of  the  Sixtieth  (Royal  American)  regi¬ 
ment.  Later  iu  the  year  he  was  made  colonel 
of  the  Fifty-fifth  Foot,  and  soon  afterwards  brig¬ 
adier-general,  and  sent  to  America  with  General 
Abercrombie  iu  the  spring  of  1758.  He  led  the 
right  wing  of  the  army  in  the  expedition  against 
Ticonderoga.  At  the  head  of  an  advanced  par¬ 
ty,  he  met  a  detachment  of  French  troops  in  the 
forest  between  the  foot  of  Lake  George  and  Ti¬ 
conderoga,  and  in  a  skirmish  with  them  was 
killed  at  the  outset.  His  body  was  taken  back 
to  the  head  of  the  lake,  and  thence  to  Albany, 
by  young  Major  Philip  Schuyler,  where  it  was 
entombed  iu  the  family  vault  of  the  Schnylers. 
There  it  remained  several  years.  The  remains 
were  finally  placed  iu  a  leaden  coffin,  and  de¬ 
posited  under  the  chancel  of  St.  Peter’s  Church, 
in  Albany.  When  his  remains  were  taken  from 
the  vault,  his  hair,  which  had  been  cut  short  as 
an  example  for  his  soldiers,  had  grown  to  long, 
flowing,  and  beautiful  locks.  The  province  of 
Massachusetts  erected  a  monument  to  his  mem- 


HOWE 


651 


HOWE 


ory  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Lord  Howe  was 
elder  brother  of  Richard  and  William  Howe, 
who  came  to  fight  the  Americans  in  their  war 
for  independence.  His  fall  was  regarded  as  an 
ill  omen  in  the  army,  and  produced  almost  uni¬ 
versal  consternation  and  languor.  Mante  says, 
“  With  him  the  soul  of  the  expedition  seemed  to 
expire.”  Abercrombie  returned  with  his  troops 
to  Albany. 

Howe,  Richard  (Earl),  born  March  19, 1725; 
died  August  5,  1799.  Educated  at  Westminster 
and  Eton,  he  succeeded  to  the  Irish  viscounty 
and  the  family  estate  on  the  death  of  his  broth¬ 
er,  killed  near  Ticonderoga  in  1758.  In  1739  he 
was  a  midshipman  in  Anson’s  fleet,  and  was 
made  post-captain  for  gallantry  in  1745.  He 
entered  Parliament  in  1757,  and  in  1765  was 
made  Treasurer  of  the  British  Navy.  In  Octo¬ 
ber,  1770,  he  was  promoted  to  rear-admiral  of 
the  Blue,  and  in  1776  was  sent  to  command  the 
British  fleet  ou  the  American  station,  charged 
with  a  commission,  jointly  with  his  brother,  to 
make  peace  with  or  war  upon  the  Americans. 
They  failed  to  secure  peace,  and  made  war.  Af¬ 
ter  leaving  the  Delaware  with  his  fleet,  in  1778, 
he  had  an  encounter  off  Rhode  Island  with  a 
French  fleet,  under  the  Count  D’Estaiug,  when 
he  disappeared  from  the  American  waters.  In 
1782  he  was  made  admiral  of  the  Blue,  and  cre¬ 
ated  an  English  viscount ;  and  in  September 
of  that  year  he  relieved  Gibraltar,  and  received 
the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  In 
1787  he  was  made  admiral  of  the  White,  and  in 
August  the  next  year  was  raised  to  an  earldom. 


RICHARD  HOWE. 


Because  of  a  complete  victory  over  the  French, 
which  he  obtained  in  1794,  he  was  rewarded 
with  a  gold  medal,  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  and 
the  commission  of  admiral  of  the  fleet,  which  he 
resigned  in  1797.  His  last  service  in  the  royal 
navy  was  persuading  mutineers  at  Spithead  to 
return  to  duty.  In  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral  a  fine 
monument  was  erected  to  the  memory  of  Admi¬ 
ral  Howe. 

Howe,  Robert,  was  a  native  of  Brunsw  ick, 
N.  C.  History  bears  no  record  of  his  private 
life.  He  was  in  the  Legislature  in  1773.  He 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  uncompromising  of  the  patriots  of  the 
Capo  Fear  region,  for  we  find  him  honored  with 
an  exception,  together  with  Cornelius  Harnett, 
when  royal  clemency  was  offered  to  the  rebels 


by  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  in  1776.  He  was  appoint¬ 
ed  colonel  of  the  first  North  Carolina  regiment, 
and  with  his  command  went  early  into  the  field 
of  Revolutionary  strife.  In  December,  1775,  he 
joined  Woodford  at  Norfolk,  in  opposition  to 


ROBERT  HOWE. 


Lord  Dunmore  and  his  motley  army.  For  his 
gallantry  during  this  campaign,  Congress,  on 
the  29th  of  February,  1776,  appointed  him,  writh 
five  others,  brigadier-general  in  the  Continen¬ 
tal  army,  and  ordered  him  to  Virginia.  In  the 
spring  of  1776,  British  spite  towards  General 
Howe  was  exhibited  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who 
sent  Cornwallis,  with  nine  hundred  men,  to  rav¬ 
age  his  plantation  near  old  Brunswick  village. 
He  was  placed  in  chief  command  of  the  South¬ 
ern  troops  in  1778,  and  was  unsuccessful  in  an 
expedition  against  Florida  and  in  the  defence 
of  Savannah.  His  conduct  was  censured,  but 
without  just  cause.  Among  others  wThose  voices 
were  raised  against  him  was  Christopher  Gads¬ 
den,  of  Charleston.  Howe  required  him  to  deny 
or  retract.  Gadsden  would  do  neither,  and  a 
duel  ensued.  They  met  at  Cannousburg,  and 
all  the  damage  either  sustained  was  a  scratch 
upon  the  ear  of  Gadsden  by  Howe’s  ball. 

Howe,  Samuel  Gridley,  M.D.,  was  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  10,  1801 ;  died  there,  Jan.  6, 
1876.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
1821,  became  a  physician,  and,  sympathizing 
with  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for  indepen¬ 
dence,  went  there  in  1824,  and  served  as  a  sur¬ 
geon  in  the  army  and  in  other  capacities  until 
1830.  Iu  1831  he  became  interested  in  the  es¬ 
tablishment  of  an  institution  for  the  blind  in 
Boston.  The  Perkins  Institute  was  the  result. 
It  was  put  iu  operation  iu  1832,  with  Dr.  Howe 
at  the  head  of  it.  In  that  institution,  through 
the  unwearied  efforts  of  Dr.  Howe,  Laura  Bridg¬ 
man,  a  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  girl,  became  edu¬ 
cated.  Dr.  Howe,  while  in  Europe,  preparatory 
to  opening  the  institution,  engaged  a  little  in 
politics,  and  was  in  a  Prussian  prison  about  six 
weeks.  He  was  ever  active  iu  every  good  work. 
He  went  to  Greece  again  in  1867,  as  bearer  of 
supplies  to  the  Cretans  in  their  struggle  with 
the  Turks.  In  1871  he  was  one  of  the  commis¬ 
sioners  sent  by  the  government  of  the  United 
States  to  Santo  Domingo  to  report  upon  the  an¬ 
nexation  of  that  island  to  the  American  Repub- 


IIOWE 


652 


HUDDY  AND  ASGILL 


lie. — Julia  Ward,  wife  of  Dr.  Howe,  was  born 
in  New  York  in  1819,  and  is  distinguished  for 
her  literary  talents  and  benevolent  work. 

Howe,  William,  was  born  Aug.  10, 1729;  died 
July  12,  1814.  He  was,  by  illegitimate  descent, 
uncle  of  George  III.  He  entered  the  army  as  cor¬ 
net  of  dragoons,  and  distinguished  himself  un¬ 
der  Wolfe  at  Quebec.  Made  colonel  of  infantry 
in  1764,  he  rose  to  the  ranK  of  major-general  in 
1772.  In  May,  1775,  he  arrived  at  Boston  with 
reinforcements  for  General  Gage.  At  that  time 
there  was  much  reluctance  among  British  offi¬ 
cers  to  serve  against  the  American  colonists. 
The  Earl  of  Effingham  and  the  eldest  son  of 
William  Pitt  resigned  their  commissions  rather 
than  engage  in  the  unnatural  service  ;  and  Gen¬ 
eral  Oglethorpe,  the  senior  general  of  the  royal 
army,  declined  the  proffered  service  of  com- 
mauder-in-chief  of  the  British  army  in  America. 
After  Gage’s  recall,  it  was  offered  to  General 
Howe,  and  accepted.  He  was  in  chief  command 
in  the  battle  on  Bunker’s  (Breed’s)  Hill  (June  17, 

1775) ,  and  when  forced  to  leave  Boston  (March, 

1776)  he  went  with  his  troops  to  Halifax.  In 
August,  the  same  year,  he  landed  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  troops  on  Staten  Island,  near  New  York. 
With  them  the  Americans  were  defeated  in  bat¬ 
tle  on  Long  Island  (Ang.  27,  1776),  and  for  this 
he  was  soon  afterwards  knighted.  He  took  pos¬ 
session  of  New  York  city  Sept.  15,  and  was  de¬ 
feated  in  battle  at  White  Plains,  Oct.  28.  (See 
White  Plains,  Battle  of.)  On  the  16th  of  Novem¬ 
ber  he  captured  Fort  Washington,  on  New  York 
island,  and  in  July,  1777,  he  sailed  in  the  fleet 
of  his  brother,  Admiral  Howe,  for  Chesapeake 
Bay.  Marching  for  Philadelphia,  he  defeated 
Washington  in  battle  on  Brandywine  Creek 
(Sept.  11,  1777),  and  entered  Philadelphia  on 
the  26th  of  September.  Howe  repulsed  an  at¬ 
tack  made  by  Washington  (Oct.  4)  at  German¬ 
town,  and  spent  the  ensuing  winter  in  Philadel¬ 
phia.  In  May,  1778,  he  was  succeeded  by  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  and  returned  to  Englaud.  Sir 
William  was  made  lieutenant-general  of  ord¬ 
nance  in  1782,  and  in  1786  colonel  of  dragoons 
aud  full  general.  In  1795  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Berwick,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
brother,  in  1799,  succeeded  to  his  Irish  viscounty. 
Howe  was  governor  of  Plymouth  aud  a  Privy- 
Councillor  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Howe,  William,  Commander  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Army  in  America.  The  ministry  resolved 
to  raise  the  military  force  in  Boston  to  ten  thou¬ 
sand  men,  and  supersede  the  incapable  Gage. 
The  command  was  offered  to  General  Amherst, 
who  declined  it;  it  was  then  offered  to  William 
Howe,  a  man  of  inferior  genius  as  a  military 
commander.  “  Is  it  a  proposition  or  order  from 
the  king  ?”  he  asked,  when  it  was  offered.  When 
told  it  was  an  order,  be  said,  “  It  is  my  duty  to 
obey  it.”  His  constituents  in  Nottingham  re¬ 
proached  him,  saying,  “  Your  brother  died  there 
(see  Howe,  George  Augustus )  in  the  cause  of  free¬ 
dom;  the  Americans  have  shown  their  gratitude 
to  your  name  and  family  by  erecting  a  monu¬ 
ment  to  him.”  “  If  you  go,”  said  some  of  them, 
“  we  hope  you  may  fall.” 


Howe’s  Expedition  against  St.  Augustine 
(1778).  In  retaliation  for  incursions  from  Flor¬ 
ida  (see  Florida,  Incursions  from),  General  Robert 
Howe,  at  the  head  of  two  thousand  Americans, 
mostly  militia  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
attempted  the  capture  of  St.  Augustine.  He  met 
with  very  little  opposition  before  he  reached  the 
St.  Mary  River,  where  the  British  had  erected  a 
fort,  called  Tonyn,  in  complimeut  to  the  govern¬ 
or  of  the  province.  On  the  approach  of  Howe 
they  destroyed  the  fort ;  and,  after  some  slight 
skirmishing,  retreated  towards  St.  Augustine. 
But  the  Americans  wrere  driven  back  from  Flor¬ 
ida  by  a  fever  which  swept  away  nearly  one 
fourth  of  their  number,  and  rendered  their  re¬ 
treat  absolutely  necessary. 

Howitzer,  A,  is  a  short  cannon,  or  species  of 
mortar,  of  iron  or  brass.  They  are  generally 
four  or  five  feet  long  and  ten  iuclies  in  diame¬ 
ter.  There  are  mountain  howitzers,  sometimes 
carried  on  horseback,  weighing  220  pounds,  the 
whole  length  about  37  inches,  and  diameter  of 
bore  4^  inches.  The  range  varies,  according  to 
elevation,  from  150  to  1000  yards. 

Hubbardton,  Battle  at  (1777).  Generals 
Fraser  and  Riedesel,  with  British  and  German 
troops,  began  a  pursuit  of  the  Americans  as  soon 
as  their  flight  from  Ticonderoga  was  discover¬ 
ed.  They  overtook  their  rear-guard,  about  1200 
strong  (July  7,  1777),  at  Hubbardton,  Yt.  The 
main  body  of  St.  Clair’s  army  had  marched 
towards  Castleton,  leaving  the  rear-guard,  under 
Colonel  Seth  Warner,  to  gather  up  stragglers. 
While  waiting  their  arrival,  Warner  was  struck 
by  the  van  of  the  pursuers,  and  a  sharp  engage¬ 
ment  took  place.  Colonel  Francis,  of  New  Hamp¬ 
shire,  was  killed.  The  Americans  were  dispersed, 
and  fled,  excepting  200  who  were  made  prisoners. 
The  pursuers  lost  almost  as  many  in  killed  and 
wounded,  aud  soon  gave  up  the  chase.  St.Clair, 
with  about  2000  men,  made  bis  way  through  the 
woods  to  Fort  Edward.  The  Americans  also 
lost  120  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  British 
captured  about  200  stand  of  arms. 

Huddy  and  Asgill.  Captain  Joseph  Huddy 
was  a  captain  in  the  New  Jersey  line  during  the 
Revolution.  Late  in  1781  he  was  in  charge  of  a 
block-house  on  Tom’s  River,  Monmouth  County, 
N.  J.  There  he  and  his  little  garrison  were  capt¬ 
ured  in  March,  1782,  by  a  baud  of  refugee  loy¬ 
alists  sent  by  the  “  Board  of  Associated  Loyal¬ 
ists  ”  of  New  York,  of  which  ex-Governor  Frank¬ 
lin  of  New  Jersey  was  president,  aud  taken  to 
that  city.  On  April  8,  these  prisoners  were  put 
in  charge  of  Captain  Richard  Lippincott,  a  New 
Jersey  loyalist,  who  took  them  in  a  sloop  to 
the  British  guard-ship  at  Sandy  Hook.  There 
Huddy  was  falsely  charged  with  being  concern¬ 
ed  in  the  death  of  Philip  White,  a  desperate 
Tory,  who  was  killed  while  trying  to  escape 
from  his  guard.  While  a  prisoner,  Huddy  was 
taken  by  Lippincott  to  a  point  at  the  foot  of  the 
Navesink  Hills,  near  the  present  light -houses, 
and  there  hanged.  Lippincott  affixed  a  label  to 
the  breast  of  the  murdered  Huddy,  on  which 
retaliation  wras  threatened,  and  ending  with 
the  words,  “  Up  goes  Huddy  for  Philip  White  '" 


HUDDY  AND  ASGILL 


653 


HUDSON 


This  murder  created  intense  excitement  at  Free¬ 
hold,  N.  J.,  where  Huddy  was  buried,  and  the 
leading  citizens  petitioned  Washington  to  re¬ 
taliate.  A  council  of  his  officers  decided  in  favor 
of  retaliation,  and  that  Lippiucott,  the  leader, 
ought  to  suffer.  He  was  demanded  of  Sir  Henry 
Clinton.  Congress  authorized  retaliation,  and 
from  among  several  British  officers,  prisoners  of 
war,  Captain  Charles  Asgill,  a  handsome  young 


CAPTAIN  CHARLES  ASGILL. 


officer,  twenty  years  of  age,  and  son  of  Sir  Charles 
Asgill,  was  chosen  by  lot,  to  be  executed  imme¬ 
diately.  Washington  postponed  the  execution 
until  he  should  hear  from  Clinton  about  the 
surrender  of  Lippiucott.  Clinton  at  once  con¬ 
demned  the  action  of  Lippiucott,  and  ordered 
(April  26)  the  Board  of  Associated  Loyalists  not 
to  remove  or  exchange  any  prisoners  of  war  with¬ 
out  the  authority  of  the  commander-iu-chief.  He 
caused  the  arrest  of  Lippiucott  for  trial,  who 
claimed  that  he  acted  under  the  orders  of  the 
Board  of  Associated  Loyalists.  Franklin  tried 
to  get  him  to  sign  a  paper  that  he  had  acted 
without  their  orders  or  approbation,  but  he 
stoutly  refused,  and  was  acquitted.  Sir  Guy 
Carleton  succeeded  Clinton,  and  he  promised 
that  further  inquiry  in  the  matter  should  be 
had.  Meanwhile  months  elapsed  and  the  exe¬ 
cution  was  postponed.  Lady  Asgill  appealed  to 
the  king  in  behalf  of  her  only  son.  She  also 
wrote  to  the  King  and  Queen  of  France  asking 
them  to  intercede  with  Washington.  She  also 
wrote  a  touching  letter  to  Washington,  who  was 
disposed  to  save  the  young  officer,  if  possible. 
The  King  and  Queen  of  France  did  intercede, 
and  on  Nov.  5,  1782,  Congress  resolved,  “  That 
t  he  commander-in-chief  be,  and  hereby  is,  di¬ 
rected  to  set  Captain  Asgill  at  liberty.”  It  was 
done.  The  case  of  young  Asgill  had  created 
an  intense  interest  in  Europe,  and,  on  the  arrival 
of  every  ship  from  America  at  any  European 
port,  the  first  inquiry  was  about  the  fate  of  As¬ 
gill.  In  1836,  Congress  granted  to  Martha  Piatt, 
only  surviving  child  of  Captain  Huddy,  then  sev¬ 
enty  years  of  age,  $1200  in  money  and  600  acres 


in  land,  the  “  amount  due  Captain  Huddy  for 
seven  years’  service  as  captain  of  artillery.”  As¬ 
gill  succeeded  to  the  title  and  estate  of  his  father, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  in  the  British 
army.  The  famous  Madame  de  Sevigiffi  made 
the  story  of  Captain  Asgill  the  grouudwork  of 
a  tragic  drama. 

Hudson,  Henry,  was  born  about  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  an  ex¬ 
pert  English  navigator,  and  was  first  employed 
by  English  merchants,  in  1607,  to  search  for  a 
northeastern  passage  to  India.  He  sailed  from 
Gravesend  on  the  1st  of  May,  1607,  in  a  small 
vessel  manned  by  oidy  ten  men  and  a  boy — the 
latter  his  son.  In  latitude  80°,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Greenland,  he  was  stopped  by  the  ice¬ 
pack.  He  fought  the  ice-floes  and  storms  for 
many  weeks,  and  then  returned  to  England  in 
September,  bearing  only  the  fruit  of  the  discov¬ 
ery  of  the  island  of  Spitzbergen.  Neither  he 
nor  his  employers  were  disheartened,  and  late  in 
April,  1608,  he  sailed  again,  expecting  to  make  a 
passage  between  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla. 
Again  he  was  compelled  by  the  ice  to  turn  back. 
His  employers  were  now  discouraged,  and  Hud¬ 
son  went  over  to  Holland  and  offered  his  services 
to  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  and  they 
were  accepted.  On  the  6th  of  April,  1609,  he 
sailed  from  Amsterdam  in  the  Half  Moon ,  a 
stanch  vessel  of  ninety  tons,  aud  steered  for 
Nova  Zembla.  Again  the  ice-barrier  forbade  his 
entrance  to  the  polar  seas.  Determined  not  to 
return  fruitless  to  Amsterdam,  he  sailed  around 
the  southern  shores  of  Greenland,  into  the  beaten 
track  of  searchers  after  a  northwest  passage. 


HENRY  HUDSON. 


Again  he  was  repulsed  by  the  ice.  Sailing 
southward,  he  discovered  the  American  conti¬ 
nent  off’ the  coast  of  Maine,  and  in  Casco  Bay  he 
repaired  his  storm -shattered  vessel.  He  then 
sailed  southward  as  far  as  the  Capes  of  Virginia, 
touching  at  Cape  Cod  on  the  way.  Returning, 
he  discovered  Delaware  Bay,  and  early  in  Sep¬ 
tember  he  entered  Raritan  Bay,  south  of  Staten 
Island,  and  afterwards  entered  the  (present)  liar- 


654 


HUGUENOTS  IN  AMERICA 


HUDSON,  CRUEL  FATE  OF 

bor  of  New  York.  Treating  the  Indians  unkind-  ] 
ly,  they  were  hostile,  and  one  of  his  seamen  was 
killed  by  them,  who  attacked  a  boat’s  crew  in 
canoes.  From  the  north  flowed  a  large  river 
into  New  York  Bay.  Believing  it  would  afford  a 
northwest  passage,  he  sailed  up  the  stream,  and 
was  not  undeceived  until  he  met  fresh-water  in 
the  Highlands.  He  kept  on  in  his  ship  as  far 
as  the  site  of  Albany,  and  in  small  boats  several 
miles  farther.  Returning  to  the  sea,  he  followed 
the  coast  southward  as  far  as  Chesapeake  Bay, 
and  then  returned  to  England  and  told  the  story 
of  his  discoveries.  The  unworthy  monarch  on 
England's  throne,  jealous  of  the  advantage  which 
the  Dutch  might  derive  from  Hudson’s  discov¬ 
eries,  detained  him  as  an  English  subject ;  but 
the  navigator  outwitted  his  sovereign,  for  he 
had  sent  an  account  of  his  voyage  to  his  Am¬ 
sterdam  employers  by  a  trusty  hand.  Hudson 
made  a  fourth  voyage,  in  1610,  leaving  England 
in  April,  and  in  June  and  July  discovered,  far 
up  the  coast  of  North  America,  the  bay  that 
bears  his  name,  and  intended  to  winter  there, 
but  his  provisions  ran  short  and  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  return.  Some  of  his  crew  mutinied, 
and,  seizing  him,  placed  him,  his  son,  and  seven 
of  his  adherents  iu  an  open  boat,  and  set  them 
adrift.  His  fate  was  revealed  by  one  of  the  mu¬ 
tineers.  England  sent  an  expedition  in  search 
of  him,  but  no  trace  could  be  found. 

Hudson,  Henry,  Cruel  Fate  of.  In  1610 
Henry  Hudson  sailed  from  England  on  his 
fourth  voyage  in  search  of  a  polar  ocean  pas¬ 
sage  to  India;  this  time  in  the  northwest.  He 
discovered  the  bay  that  bears  his  name  in  the 
far  north  of  the  western  hemisphere,  and  in¬ 
tended  to  winter  there;  but  a  majority  of  his 
crew  became  mutinous  and  compelled  him  to 
sail  homeward.  On  the  way  his  son  and  seveu 
of  his  men  who  had  remained  faithful  to  him 
were  seized  by  the  mutineers,  and,  with  the  com¬ 
mander,  were  placed  in  an  open  shallop  and 
abandoned  on  the  icy  sea,  where,  of  course,  they 
soon  perished.  The  names  of  the  w  retched  pas¬ 
sengers  in  that  little  vessel,  left  to  perish,  were 
Henry  Hudson,  John  Hudson,  Arnold  Ludlow, 
Shadrach  Fauna,  Philip  Staffe,  Thomas  Wood- 
house,  Adam  Moore,  Henry  King,  and  Michael 
Bute.  The  compassionate  carpenter  of  the  ship 
furnished  them  with  a  fowliug-piece,  some  pow¬ 
der  and  shot,  some  meal  and  an  iron  pot  to  cook 
it  in,  and  a  few  other  things.  They  were  towed 
by  the  ship  out  of  the  ice-floes  to  the  open  sea, 
and  then  cut  adrift. 

Hudson’s  Bay  Company,  Foundation  of 
the.  In  1666  Captain  Gillam  was  sent  from 
England  iu  a  ship  to  search  for  a  northwest 
passage  to  India  through  Hudson’s  Bay.  He 
sailed  into  Baffin’s  Bay,  but  was  turned  back  at 
the  seventy -fifth  degree  by  the  ice-pack.  He 
then  entered  Hudson’s  Bay,  and  sailed  to  the 
southern  end  of  it,  where,  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river  which  he  named  Rupert,  he  built,  a  fort 
which  he  named  Charles,  and  laid  the  founda¬ 
tions  of  a  fur-trade  with  the  natives.  Two  years 
afterwards  the  Hudson’s  Bay  Company  was 
chartered.  The  king  gave  to  Prince  Rupert, 


and  several  lords,  knights,  and  merchants  asso¬ 
ciated  with  him,  a  charter,  under  the  title  of 
the  ‘‘Governor  and  Company  of  Adventurers  of 
England  trading  into  Hudson’s  Bay.”  The  char¬ 
ter  ceded  to  the  company  the  whole  trade  of  the 
waters  within  the  entrance  to  Hudson’s  Strait 
and  of  the  adjacent  territories.  The  original 
sum  invested  by  the  company  was  a  little  more 
than  $50,000.  No  trade  in  the  world  was  so 
profitable  as  that  engaged  in  by  the  Hudson’s 
Bay  Company.  It  was  said  that  at  one  time  the 
proprietors  of  the  stock,  not  ninety  iu  number, 
gained  about  two  thousand  per  cent. 

Hudson’s  Voyage  up  the  North  River, 

Limit  of.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  limit  of  Hudson’s  voyage  in  the  river 
that  bears  his  name,  De  Laet  making  it  the  for¬ 
ty-third  degree  of  north  latitude,  which  is  about 
twenty-five  miles  above  Albany.  Juet,  in  his 
journal  of  the  voyage,  says  the  Half  Moon  an¬ 
chored  (probably  near  the  site  of  Albany),  and 
sent  out  small  boats  to  explore  the  rapidly  shal¬ 
lowing  stream.  The  boats  probably  went  a  lit¬ 
tle  distance  above  the  site  of  Waterford  ;  prob¬ 
ably  to  between  latitude  42°  and  43°.  Brod- 
liead,  the  latest  historian  of  New  Netherlaud, 
says  he  thinks  the  boats  went,  probably,  “  some 
distance  above  Waterford.” 

Huger,  Isaac,  was  born  in  South  Carolina, 
March  19,  1742;  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  No¬ 
vember,  1797.  He  and  his  four  brothers — Dan¬ 
iel,  John,  Francis,  and  Benjamin — were  distin¬ 
guished  in  the  struggle  for  independence,  the 
latter  falling  in  the  lines  at  Charleston,  May  11, 
1780.  They  were  of  Huguenot  descent.  Isaac 
was  in  the  Cherokee  expedition  in  1760,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  patriot  army  of  South  Carolina  as  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel  in  June,  1775.  He  rose  to  briga¬ 
dier  iu  January,  1779,  for  active  and  gallant 
services.  Iu  the  attack  on  Savannah,  in  the  fall 
of  that  year,  he  led  the  Georgia  and  South  Car¬ 
ol  iua  militia.  His  force  was  defeated  and  dis¬ 
persed  by  Tarletou  at  Monk’s  Corner,  S.  C.  He 
distinguished  himself  under  Greene,  especially 
at  Guilford  and  Hobkirk’s  Hill  (which  see). 

Huguenots  in  America.  The  name  of  Hu¬ 
guenot  was  first  given  to  the  Protestants  of 
France  who  favored  the  Reformation,  but  after¬ 
wards  it  was  confined  to  the  Calvinists,  or  fol¬ 
lowers  of  John  Calvin,  who  was  the  morning- 
star  of  the  Reformation  iu  that  country.  Under 
his  teaching  the  number  of  Protestants  in  France 
rapidly  increased  from  1528  to  1559,  when  the 
great  synod  held  in  May  adopted  Calviu’s  ideas 
of  church  government  and  discipline,  as  well  as 
doctrine,  iu  an  embodied  confession  of  faith. 
The  Huguenots  were  then  so  strong  that  they 
confidently  expected  to  be  the  dominant  party 
iu  the  state  in  time.  They  included  some  of  the 
royal  family  and  many  of  the  nobility.  Among 
the  latter  were  Admiral  Coligni,  a  man  respect¬ 
ed  by  both  parties,  a  brave  and  patriotic  sol¬ 
dier,  and  for  a  while  the  favorite  of  the  queen- 
mother  and  regent  of  France,  Catharine  de’  Medi¬ 
ci.  Iu  1555  he  formed  a  project  of  a  settlement 
for  the  persecuted  Huguenots  in  America;  and 
in  that  year  Henry  II.  furnished  two  ships,  com- 


HUGUENOTS  IN  AMERICA 


655 


HUGUENOTS  IN  AMERICA 


manded  by  the  Chevalier  de  Villagagnon,  'who, 
with  a  small  Protestant  colony,  sailed  from  Ha- 
vre-de-Grace  in  May  (1555),  and  reached  the  bay 
of  Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil,  in  September.  Coligni 
provided  ministers  for  his  colony,  and  in  a  synod 
that  year,  held  at  Geneva,  of  which  Calvin  was 
president,  the  church  determined  to  send  two 
ministers  to  Brazil.  The  enterprise  was  a  fail¬ 
ure.  On  the  death  of  Henry,  Queen  Catharine 
became  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the  mi¬ 
nority  of  her  son  Charles.  She  cared  nothing 
for  religion,  but  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Protestants  because  the  leader  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  was  the  Duke  of  Guise,  a  descendant 
of  Charlemagne,  and  a  claimant  of  a  right  to 
the  French  throne.  The  Protestants  were  still 
suffering  greatly  from  persecution,  and  late  in 
1561  Coligni  sought  permission  from  Catharine 
to  provide  a  refuge  for  them  in  the  wilds  of 
America.  She  readily  granted  all  he  desired, 
and  early  in  1562  he  sent  John  Ribault,  an  ex¬ 
pert  mariner  of  Dieppe,  with  two  caravels  (small 
two -masted  ships  without  whole  decks),  with 
sailors  and  soldiers,  and  a  few  gentlemen  of  fort¬ 
une,  who  were  prompted  by  a  love  of  adventure 
aud  the  prospect  of  gain  to  seek  a  place  wherein 
to  plant  a  colony.  They  arrived  off  the  coast 
of  Anastasia  Island  (it  is  supposed),  below  the 
site  of  St.  Augustine,  at  the  close  of  April.  Sail¬ 
ing  along  the  “  sweet-smelling  coast  ”  of  Flori¬ 
da,  northward,  the  two  vessels  entered  a  river 
which  was  named  Mary,  and  were  kindly  re¬ 
ceived  by  the  natives  when  they  lauded.  The 
Frenchmen  were  delighted  with  everything  they 
beheld— the  climate;  the  forest,  redolent  with 
the  perfume  of  the  magnolia;  birds  with  gor¬ 
geous  plumage  and  sweetest  notes ;  and  “people 
of  the  finest  forms  and  kindest  natures.”  In  the 
presence  of  half- naked,  wondering  semi -wor¬ 
shippers,  the  Christians  knelt  in  the  shadows  of 
a  flower-laden  magnolia-tree,  and  offered  thanks¬ 
givings  to  God  for  their  safe  voyage.  At  twi¬ 
light  they  returned  to  their  ships ;  and  the  next 
morning  conveyed  a  stone  column,  on  which  were 
carved  the  arms  of  France,  planted  it  on  a  flow¬ 
ery  knoll,  and  in  the  usual  manner  took  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  boy-king 
Charles  IX.,  son  of  Catharine.  A  few  days  later 
they  sailed  northward,  entered  a  broad  sound 
which  they  named  Port  Royal,  on  the  coast  of 
South  Carolina,  explored  the  Coosa  aud  the 
Combahee,  in  the  land  where  D’Allyon  met  a  de¬ 
served  fate  (see  Vasquez),  and  on  Port  Royal  Isl¬ 
and,  near  the  site  of  Beaufort,  made  choice  of  a 
spot  for  a  colony.  The  Indians  were  kind,  and 
so  were  the  Frenchmen,  and  there  was  mutual 
friendship.  Ribault  addressed  his  company  on 
the  glory  to  be  obtained  and  the  advantage  to 
the  persecuted  Huguenots  by  planting  there  the 
seed  of  empire,  and  asked,  “  Who  will  under¬ 
take  the  work?”  Nearly  all  were  willing.  A 
colony  of  thirty  persons  was  organized  by  the 
choice  of  Albert  Pierria  for  governor.  Ribault 
built  a  fort,  and  named  it  Carolina,  in  honor  of 
his  king,  the  remains  of  which  were  yet  visible 
when  the  writer  visited  it  in  1866.  After  giving 
the  colonists  good  advice,  Ribault  departed  for 
Europe  with  the  rest  of  the  company.  Coligni 


was  delighted  with  his  report,  but  was  unable 
to  do  anything  for  his  colony  then,  for  civil 
war  was  raging  between  the  Huguenots  and 
Roman  Catholics.  When  it  subsided  the  admi¬ 
ral  sent  three  vessels — the  Elizabeth  of  Honfleur, 
the  Petite  Britain,  and  the  Falcon  —  under  the 
command  of  Rcn6-Laudonuicre,  who  was  with 
the  former  expedition,  to  the  aid  and  reinforce¬ 
ment  of  the  colony.  He  was  accompanied  by 
Jacob  Lemoyne,  an  artist  and  geographer;  two 
skilful  pilots  (the  brothers  Vasseur)  of  Dieppe; 
aud  many  young  men  of  family  and  fortune,  as 
well  as  mechanics  and  laborers.  Laudonniere 
left  Havre -de- Grace  on  the  22d  of  April,  1564, 
reached  the  coast  of  Florida  in  two  months,  and, 
instead  of  going  to  Port  Royal,  he  proceeded  to 
plant  a  colony  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  John.  He 
had  evidently  heard  of  the  fate  of  the  first  colo¬ 
ny  before  leaving  France.  That  colony,  expect¬ 
ing  supplies  from  home,  had  not  planted,  and 
wheu  Ribault  did  not  return  they  were  menaced 
with  starvation.  The  friendly  Indians  supplied 
them  with  corn,  but  it  was  consumed  by  fire. 
Dissensions  arose  among  them,  a  mutiny  broke 
out,  and  their  governor  was  murdered.  The  In¬ 
dians  became  distrustful  of  the  Frenchmen  and 
withheld  supplies,  and  the  latter  determined  to 
desert  Port  Royal.  Constructing  a  frail  brigan¬ 
tine,  they  departed  for  home,  with  scanty  sup¬ 
plies.  Tempest-tossed  on  the  ocean,  their  food 
was  exhausted,  and  their  vessel  floated,  a  mere 
wreck,  on  the  waters.  One  after  another  died 
and  fell  into  the  sea,  and  the  survivors  were 
about  to  eat  the  last  victim  when  a  green  shore 
greeted  their  eyes,  aud  a  small  vessel  saved  them 
from  death.  It  is  believed  they  were  on  the 
shores  of  England,  for  it  is  known  that  some 
of  these  French  adventurers  were  taken  before 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and  gave  her  the  first  infor¬ 
mation  concerning  that  beautiful  middle  region 
of  America  which  Raleigh  afterwards  tried  to  col¬ 
onize.  (See  Baleigh.)  Laudonniere  anchored  his 
ship,  lauded  where  Ribault  had  set  up  the  arms  of 
France,  and  erected  a  fort  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
river,  which  he  named  Carolina.  Rumors  came 
of  rich  mines  in  the  interior,  and  a  violent  gold- 
fever  raged.  Disappointment  cured  the  fever, 
but  idleness  and  improvidence  were  the  rule  in 
the  colony.  There  were  too  many  “gentlemen” 
who  would  not  soil  their  hands  with  labor.  At 
length  there  was  a  mutiny,  and  some  of  the  sol¬ 
diers  and  sailors  seized  two  of  the  vessels,  sailed 
for  the  West  Indies,  and  turned  pirates.  The  rich 
soil  was  neglected,  starvation  was  threatened, 
and  Laudonniere  determined  to  return  to  France. 
From  Sir  John  Hawkins  (see  Drake,  Sir  Francis), 
who  sailed  into  the  St.John,  he  bought  a  ship, 
and  was  about  to  embark  for  Europe  with  the 
whole  company,  when  Ribault  appeared  with  a 
squadron  of  seven  ships,  with  supplies,  and  a 
fresh  colony  of  men,  women,  and  children.  He 
arrived  near  the  close  of  August,  1565.  A  few 
days  afterwards  Pedro  Menendez,  a  Spanish  of¬ 
ficer,  appeared  oft'  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John 
with  five  ships,  who  told  Laudonniere  that  he 
was  sent  by  his  master,  Philip  of  Spain,  to  hang 
and  destroy  all  Protestants  whom  he  should  find 
on  land  or  sea ;  that  he  should  execute  his  or- 


HUGUENOTS  IN  BRAZIL 


656 


HULL 


tiers  to  the  letter,  and  that  if  any  Roman  Cath¬ 
olics  were  among  the  Huguenots  they  should  be 
well  treated.  The  captains  of  the  French  ves¬ 
sels  cut  their  cables  and  put  to  sea,  chased  by 
the  Spaniards,  who  could  not  overtake  them, 
and  returned  to  the  coast  farther  south.  The 
Frenchmen  returned  to  the  St.John,  where  In¬ 
dians  brought  the  news  that  the  Spaniards  had 
landed,  and  were  building  fortitications.  Ri- 
banlt,  who  was  in  chief  command,  believing  the 
Spaniards  meant  to  march  overland  aud  attack 
Fort  Carolina,  with  three  ships  manned  by  sail¬ 
ors  aud  soldiers  went  to  sea  to  drive  their  ene¬ 
mies  from  the  coast.  Meanwhile  Meuendez  had 
sent  a  galleon  to  Cuba  for  a  reinforcement  of 
Spanish  troops.  The  spot  fortified  by  Meneu- 
dez  was  the  site  of  St.  Augustine,  Fla.  During 
Ribault’s  absence  the  Spanish  marched  over  the 
country,  captured  Fort  Carolina,  butchered  a 
greater  portion  of  the  Huguenots  there,  and 
hanged  some  of  them  upon  trees,  with  the  in¬ 
scription  over  them,  “Not  as  Frenchmen,  but 
as  Lutherans.”  The  number  of  Huguenots  mur¬ 
dered  there  was  one  hundred  and  forty -two. 
Ribault’s  vessels  meanwhile  had  been  wrecked 
below  St.  Augustine,  and  while  making  his  way 
towards  Fort  Carolina,  with  about  three  hun¬ 
dred  men,  they  were  caught  by  the  Spaniards 
and  massacred.  Laudonnifere  and  a  few  others 
escaped  from  the  St.  John,  aud  so  ended  the  Hu¬ 
guenot  colony.  (See  Coligni.)  A  tiery  French¬ 
man,  Chevalier  Dominic  de  Gonrges,  a  Roman 
Catholic,  determined  to  avenge  this  outrage. 
He  sold  his  property  to  obtain  money  to  fit  out 
an  expedition  to  Florida.  He  kept  his  destina¬ 
tion  a  secret,  even  from  his  followers.  He  ar¬ 
rived  in  Florida  in  the  spring  of  1568,  aud  was 
joined  by  the  natives  in  an  attack  upon  two 
forts  on  the  St.  John  occupied  by  the  Spaniards 
below  Fort  Carolina.  The  strong  places  were 
captured,  and  the  whole  of  the  Spaniards  were 
slaughtered,  excepting  a  few  whom  De  Gourges 
hanged  upon  trees,  under  the  words,  “Not  as 
Spaniards  and  mariners,  but  as  traitors,  rob¬ 
bers,  and  murderers.”  Meuendez  firmly  planted 
a  colony  at  St.  Augustine.  In  1598  Henry  IV., 
of  France,  issued  an  edict  at  Nantes  (see  Edict 
of  Nantes)  that  secured  full  toleration,  civil  and 
religious,  for  the  Huguenots,  and  there  was  com¬ 
parative  rest  for  the  Protestants  until  the  death 
of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  in  1661.  Then  the  Hugue¬ 
nots  began  to  be  persecuted,  and  in  1685  Louis 
XIV.  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  The  fires  of 
intolerance  were  kindled,  and  burned  so  furi¬ 
ously  that  at  least  five  hundred  thousand  Prot¬ 
estants  took  refuge  in  foreign  lands.  In  1705 
there  was  not  a  single  organized  congregation 
of  Huguenots  in  all  France.  Many  came  to 
America — some  to  South  Carolina,  some  to  New 
York,  and  a  few  to  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Virginia.  They  formed  excellent  social  ele¬ 
ments  wherever  they  settled,  and  many  leading 
patriots  in  our  old  war  for  independence  were 
descended  from  them.  Three  of  the  presidents 
of  the  Continental  Congress — Henry  Laurens, 
John  Jay,  and  Elias  Boudinot — were  of  Hugue¬ 
not  parentage. 

Huguenots  in  Brazil.  The  benevolent  Ad¬ 


miral  De  Coligni  formed  a  project  in  1555  to  es¬ 
tablish  a  colony  ox’  Huguenots,  or  French  Prot¬ 
estants  (see  Huguenots)  in  Brazil,  where  they 
might  have  freedom  iu  divine  worship;  also  to 
promote  the  interests  of  his  nation.  Two  ships, 
furnished  by  Henry  II.,  of  France,  were  placed 
under  the  command  of  the  Chevalier  De  Villa- 
gagnon,  who  sailed  with  a  colony  of  Protestants 
from  Havre-de-Grace  in  May.  They  arrived  on 
the  coast  of  South  America  in  September,  at 
the  harbor  of  (present)  Rio  Janeiro.  There  on 
au  island  an  attempt  was  made  to  build  a  fort, 
but  it  was  washed  away  by  the  sea.  Some 
Protestant  ministers  were  invited  from  Geneva. 
At  a  synod  held  at  Geneva  in  that  year,  of  which 
Calvin  was  president,  it  was  resolved  to  send 
two  ministers  to  Brazil ;  they  finally  sent  four¬ 
teen  missionaries  in  1556.  Three  ships  Avere 
fitted  out  at  the  royal  expense  to  convey  more 
Protestants  to  Brazil,  under  the  command  of 
Villagagnon,  who  had  embraced  the  Reformed 
religion,  but  abandoned  it  and  returned  to  the 
bosom  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  His 
treatment  of  the  colony  under  his  charge  caused 
its  ruin,  and  nearly  all  of  the  emigrants  returned 
to  France.  But  for  the  treachery  of  Villaga¬ 
gnon  Rio  Janeiro  might  now  have  been  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  a  French,  instead  of  a  Portuguese,  empire. 

Hull,  Isaac,  was  born  at  Derby,  Conn.,  March 
9, 1775;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  13,  1843.  At 
the  age  of  nineteen  he  commanded  a  merchant 
ship  which  sailed  to  London.  He  entered  the 
navy  as  lieutenant  in  1798.  and  rose  to  captain 


ISAAC  HULL. 


in  1806.  He  was  in  the  Constitution,  and  distin¬ 
guished  himself  in  the  West  Indies  and  iu  the 
Mediterranean.  He  sailed  in  the  Constitution  in 
July,  1812,  and  had  a  remarkable  chase  by  a 
British  squadron.  (See  Constitution,  Famous  Re¬ 
treat  of  the.)  Iu  August  he  encountered  the 
Guerriere,  and  made  her  a  captive.  (See  Consti¬ 
tution  and  Guernere.)  For  this  exploit  Congress 


HULL 


657  HULL’S  EVACUATION  OF  CANADA 


ties  in  the  North,  Hull  was  active  and  coura¬ 
geous,  and  a  participant  in  the  capture  of  Corn¬ 
wallis.  He  served  as  inspector  under  the  Baron 
von  Steuben,  was  promoted  to  lieutenant-col¬ 
onel  in  1779,  and  soon  afterwards  to  colonel. 
Hull  practised  law  with  reputation  at  Newton 
after  the  war,  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  Legislature  in  both  houses,  and  was 
a  noted  man  in  wealth  and  reputation  in  that 
state  when  he  became  major-general  of  militia. 
He  commanded  a  portion  of  the  troops  which 
suppressed  Shays’s  Rebellion  (which 
see).  In  1793  he  was  a  commission¬ 
er  to  Canada  to  treat  with  the  In¬ 
dians  ;  and  on  his  return  from  Europe, 
in  1798,  he  was  made  a  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas.  From  1805 
to  1812  he  was  governor  of  Michigan 
Territory,  where,  after  a  fruitless  and 
brief  campaign  for  the  invasion  of 
Canada,  as  commander  of  the  Army 
of  the  Northwest,  he  was  compelled  to 
surrender  Detroit  and  the  territory  into 
the  possession  of  the  British.  ( See 
Canada,  Invasion  of.)  For  this  act  he 
was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  sentenced 
to  death,  pardoned  by  the  President, 
and  afterwards  published  such  a  thor¬ 
ough  vindication  of  his  conduct  that 
his  uauie  and  fame  now  appear  in  his¬ 
tory  untarnished. 

Hull's  Evacuation  of  Canada.  Hull’s  army, 
which  had  crossed  the  Detroit  River  into  Cana¬ 
da.,  lay  almost  inactive  between  Sandwich  and 
Fort  Malden.  The  young  officers  of  the  army 
became  exceedingly  impatient,  and  almost  muti¬ 
nous,  because  Hull  continually  restrained  them, 
and  was  unwilling  to  send  out  detachments  on 
offensive  expeditions.  He  had  given  Van  Horne 
so  few  men  wherewith  to  escort  Captain  Brush, 
with  his  cattle  and  provisions  (see  Van  Horne's 
Defeat),  that  when  the  army  heard  of  the  disas¬ 
ter  to  the  troops  there  was  plain  and  loud  talk 
at  headquarters  that  startled  the  general.  “  Send 
five  hundred  men  at  once,”  said  McArthur  and 
Cass,  “  to  escort  Brush  to  headquarters.”  “  I 
cannot  spare  more  than  one  hundred,”  replied 
Hull.  The  mutinous  spirit  was  then  so  threat¬ 
ening  that  Hull  called  a  council  of  officers,  when 
it  was  agreed  to  march  immediately  upon  Fort 
Malden.  The  troops  were  delighted.  Prepara¬ 
tions  went  on  vigorously,  and  an  order  to  march 
for  Amherstburg  was  momentarily  expected, 
when,  near  the  close  of  the  day,  an  order  was 
promulgated  for  the  army  to  recross  the  river  to 
Detroit!  —  an  order  to  abandon  Canada.  This 
order  was  in  consequence  of  intelligence  just 
received  that  a  large  force  of  British  regulars, 
Canadian  militia,  and  Indians  were  approach¬ 
ing  from  the  east,  under  Governor  Sir  Isaac 
Brock.  Sullenly  the  humiliated  army  obeyed 
their  cautious  commander,  and  on  the  night  of 
Aug.  7  and  the  morning  of  the  8th  they  crossed 
the  Detroit  River,  and  encamped  upon  the  roll¬ 
ing  plain  in  the  rear  of  Fort  Detroit.  Major 
Denny  was  left  on  the  Canada  side  with  one 
hundred  and  thirty  convalescents  and  a  corps 
of  artillerists,  to  occupy  Sandwich  and  afford 


voted  Captain  Hull  a  gold  medal.  Afterwards 
he  was  a  naval  commissioner,  and  commodore 
of  the  navy-yards  at  Boston,  Portsmouth,  and 
Washington.  He  served  in  the  American  navy, 
afloat  and  ashore,  thirty-seven  years.  His  re¬ 
mains  rest  in  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery,  and  over 
them  is  a  beautiful  altar-tomb  of  Italian  marble 
—a  copy  of  the  tomb  of  Scipio  Barbatus  at  Rome. 
It  is  chastely  ornamented,  and  surmonuted  by. 
an  American  eagle,  in  the  attitude  of  defending 
the  national  flag,  upon  which  it  stands. 


HULL’S  monument. 

Hull,  William,  was  born  at  Derby,  Conn., 
June  24,  1753;  died  at  Newton,  Mass.,  Nov.  29, 
1825.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1772, 
studied  divinity  a  year,  then  became  a  stu¬ 
dent  at  the  Litclifleld  Law  School,  and  was  ad- 


WILLIAM  HULL. 

in  it  ted  to  the  bar  in  1775.  He  soon  afterwards 
became  captain  in  Webb’s  regiment,  and  joined 
the  Continental  army  at  Cambridge.  He  be¬ 
haved  bravely  at  Dorchester  Heights,  White 
Plains,  Trenton,  and  Princeton,  and  after  the 
battle  at  the  latter  place  he  was  promoted  to 
major.  Through  all  the  most  conspicuous  bat- 


I.— 42 


HULL’S  INVASION  OF  CANADA 


658 


HUMPHREYS 


“all  possible  protection  to  the  well-disposed  in¬ 
habitants.”  The  chief  object  of  the  evacuation 
was  to  secure  a  permanent  communication  be¬ 
tween  his  army  and  the  sources  of  his  supplies 
in  the  Ohio  settlements. 

Hull’s  Invasion  of  Canada.  When  General 
Hull  arrived  near  Detroit  with  his  army  (July 
6,  1812),  he  encamped  at  Spring  Wells,  opposite 
SandwiOh,  where  the  British  were  casting  up 
iutrenchments.  His  troops  were  anxious  to 
cross  the  Detroit  River  immediately  and  invade 
Canada,  but  Hull  had  orders  to  await  advices 
from  Washington.  The  troops  became  almost 
mutinous.  The  general  was  perplexed,  but  was 
relieved  by  receiving  a  despatch  front  the  Sec¬ 
retary  of  War  telling  hint  to  “commence  opera¬ 
tions  immediately.”  He  could  not  procure  boats 
enough  to  carry  over  a  sufficient  force  to  land 
in  the  face  of  the  enemy  at  Sandwich,  so  he  re¬ 
sorted  to  strategy.  Towards  the  evening  of  j 
July  11  all  the  boats  were  sent  down  to  Spring 
Wells,  in  full  view  of  the  British,  and  Colonel 
McArthur,  with  his  regiment,  marched  to  the 
same  place.  After  dark  troops  and  boats  moved 
up  the  river  unobserved  to  Bloody  Run,  above 
Detroit.  The  British,  finding  all  silent  at  Spring 
Wells,  believed  the  Americans  had  gone  down 
to  attack  Malden,  eighteen  miles  below,  so  they 
left  Sandwich  and  hurried  to  its  defence.  At 
dawn  there  were  no  troops  to  oppose  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  the  Americans,  and  Hull’s  troops  passed 
the  river  unmolested.  Colonel  Cass  hoisted  the 
American  flag  at  Sandwich,  and  the  American 
troops  encamped  near.  On  the  same  day  Hull 
issued  a  stirring  proclamation,  in  which  he  set 
forth  the  reasons  for  the  invasion,  and  assured 
the  inhabitants  that  all  who  remained  at  home 
should  be  secure  in  person  and  property.  He  did 
not  ask  them  to  join  him,  but  to  remain  quiet. 
This  proclamation,  and  the  presence  of  a  consid¬ 
erable  army,  caused  many  Canadian  militia  to 
desert  their  standard.  To  the  Americans  the 
conquest  of  Canada  appeared  like  an  easy  task. 
(See  Canada,  Attempted  Conquest  of.) 

Hull’s  Surrender.  (See  Detroit,  Surrender  of.) 

Hull’s  Trial.  General  William  Hull,  on  his 
release  at  Montreal,  on  parole  (see  Detroit ,  Sur¬ 
render  of),  returned  to  his  farm  at  Newton,  Mass., 
from  which  he  was  summoned  to  appear  before 
a  court-martial  at  Philadelphia  on  the  25th  of 
February,  1813,  of  which  General  Wade  Hamp¬ 
ton  was  appointed  president.  The  members  of 
the  court  were  three  brigadier-generals,  nine 
colonels,  and  three  lieutenant-colonels.  A.  J. 
Dallas,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  judge  -  advocate. 
This  court  was  suddenly  dissolved  by  the  Pres¬ 
ident,  without  giving  any  reason  for  the  act; 
and,  almost  a  year  afterwards,  Hull  was  sum¬ 
moned  before  another,  convened  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  3,  1814,  composed  of  three  brigadiers, 
four  colonels,  and  five  lieutenant-colonels,  with 
Dallas  as  judge- advocate.  General  Dearborn 
was  appointed  president  of  the  court.  His 
neglect  of  duty  to  inform  Hull  of  an  armistice 
he  had  entered  into  with  the  British  (and  so 
allowed  Brock  to  go  unopposed  to  Fort  Malden 
with  troops)  was  charged  by  the  accused  and  his 


friends  as  the  chief  cause  of  the  disaster  at  De¬ 
troit.  The  defendant  might  justly  have  object¬ 
ed  to  that  officer  as  his  chief  judge,  for  the  ac¬ 
quittal  of  Hull  would  have  been  a  condemna¬ 
tion  of  Dearborn.  But  Hull  was  anxious  for 
trial,  and  he  waived  all  feeling.  He  was  charged 
with  treason,  cowardice,  neglect  of  duty,  and 
unofficerlike  conduct  from  April  9  until  Aug.  16, 
1812.  He  was  tried  on  the  last  two  charges 
only.  Colonel  Cass  was  his  chief  accuser.  The 
specifications  under  the  charge  of  “  Cowardice” 
were:  “1.  Not  attacking  Malden,  and  retreating 
to  Detroit.  2.  Appearance  of  alarm  during  the 
cannonade.  3.  Appearance  of  alarm  on  the  day 
of  the  surrender.  4.  Surrendering  of  Detroit.” 
The  specifications  under  the  last  charge  Mere 
similar  to  those  under  the  first.  After  a  session 
of  eighty  days,  the  court  decided  (March  26, 
1814)  that  he  was  not  guilty  of  treason,  but 
I  found  him  guilty  of  cowardice  and  neglect  of 
duty,  and  sentenced  him  to  be  shot  dead,  and 
his  name  stricken  from  the  rolls  of  the  army. 
The  court  strongly  recommended  him  to  the 
mercy  of  the  President,  on  account  of  his  age 
and  his  Revolutionary  services.  On  the  25th 
of  April,  1814,  the  President  approved  the  sen¬ 
tence  of  the  court-martial,  and  on  the  same  day 
the  following  order,  bearing  the  signature  of 
Adjutant-general  Walbach,  Mas  issued:  “The 
rolls  of  the  army  are  to  be  no  longer  disgraced 
by  having  upon  them  the  name  of  Brigadier- 
general  William  Hull.  The  General  Court-mar¬ 
tial,  of  which  General  Dearborn  is  president,  is 
hereby  dissolved.”  For  about  twelve  years  Hull 
lived  under  a  cloud.  His  applications  to  the  War 
Department  at  Washington  for  copies  of  papers 
which  would  vindicate  him  M  ere  denied,  until 
John  C.  Calhoun  became  Secretary  of  War,  when 
he  promptly  furnished  them.  With  these  Gen¬ 
eral  Hull  set  about,  writing  his  vindication, 
which  was  contained  in  a  pamphlet  of  a  little 
more  than  three  hundred  pages,  entitled  Me¬ 
moirs  of  the  Campaign  of  the  Northwestern  Army 
of  the  United  States.  It  wrought  a  great  change 
in  the  public  mind.  It  was  seen  that  he  had 
been  misjudged  by  his  impetuous  young  officers ; 
that  his  motives  in  making  the  surrender  were 
humane  and  just,  and  that  his  assuming  the 
whole  responsibility  of  the  act  was  heroic  in  the 
extreme.  To  Mr.  Wallace,  one  of  his  aids,  he 
said,  when  they  parted  at  Detroit :  “  God  bless 
you,  my  young  friend !  You  return  to  your  fam¬ 
ily  without  a  stain  ;  as  for  myself,  I  have  sacri¬ 
ficed  a  reputation  dearer  to  me  than  life ;  but  I 
have  saved  the  inhabitants  of  Detroit,  and  my 
heart  approves  the  act.”  Colonel  Cass,  later  in 
life,  declared  it  to  be  his  conviction  that  the 
main  defect  of  General  Hull  w  as  “  the  imbecili¬ 
ty  of  age.”  To-day,  the  character  of  General 
William  Hull,  purified  of  unwarranted  stains, 
appears  in  history  without  a  blemish  in  the  eye 
of  just  appreciation. 

Humphreys,  Andrew  Atkinson,  LL.D.,  w-as 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1812,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1831.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  Florida  (see  Seminole  War)  in  1832,  and  re¬ 
signed  in  1836.  He  re-entered  the  army  as  lieu¬ 
tenant  of  topographical  engineers  in  1838.  From 


HUMPHREYS 


659 


HUNT 


1845  to  1849  he  assisted  iu  the  coast  survey,  and 
iu  1853  took  charge  of  the  office  of  Explorations 
and  Surveys,  in  the  War  Department.  He  be¬ 
came  a  member  of  General  McClellan’s  staff  in 
March,  1862,  and  soon  afterwards  was  made 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  fought  at 
Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville ;  became 
General  Meade’s  cbief-of-staff  from  July,  1863, 
to  November,  1864,  and  commanded  the  Second 
Corps  from  November,  1864,  to  June,  1865.  He 
was  breveted  major-general  for  meritorious  ser¬ 
vices  in  the  siege  of  Petersburg  and  the  pursuit 
and  capture  of  General  Lee. 

Humphreys,  David,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Der¬ 
by, Conn.,  July,  1752  ;  died  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Feb.  21,  1818.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1771,  and  was  for  a  short  time  tutor  in  the  fami¬ 
ly  of  Colonel  Phillipse,  of  Phillipse  Manor,  N.  Y. 


DAVID  HUMPHREYS. 


He  entered  the  army  as  captain  early  in  the  war 
for  independence,  and  iu  October,  1777,  was  ma¬ 
jor  of  a  brigade.  He  was  aid  to  General  Put¬ 
nam  in  1778,  and  early  in  1780  was  made  aid  to 
Washington.  Having  distinguished  himself  at 
Yorktown,  he  was  made  the  bearer  of  the  capt¬ 
ured  British  standards  to  Congress,  when  that 
body  voted  him  an  elegant  sword.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  accompanied  Washington  to  Mount 
Vernon,  and  in  July,  1784,  went  to  France  as  sec¬ 
retary  of  legation  to  Jefferson,  accompanied  by 
Kosciuszko.  In  1787  he  was  appointed  colonel 
of  a  regiment  for  the  Western  service,  but  when 
it  was  reduced,  in  1788,  he  again  went  to  Mount 
Vernon,  where  he  remained  with  Washington  un¬ 
til  sent  as  minister  to  Portugal  in  1790.  He  was 
master  of  ceremonies  in  regulating  the  etiquette 
of  the  republican  court  of  the  first  President. 
Appointed.  Minister  to  Spain  (1797),  he  contin¬ 
ued  there  until  1802,  and  concluded  treaties 
with  Algiers  and  Tripoli.  Colonel  Humphreys 
was  extensively  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
manufactures  after  his  return  to  America,  and 
in  1812  he  took  command  of  the  militia  of  Con¬ 
necticut.  Colonel  Humphreys  was  a  poet  of 
considerable  genius;  also  a  dramatic  writer. 
He  wrote  a  life  of  General  Putnam  in  1798. 

Hundred,  A,  was  a  territorial  division,  having 
for  its  chief  object  the  more  convenient  and  effi¬ 
cient  administration  of  justice.  The  name  was 


originally  derived  from  the  fact  that  each  of 
these  divisions  was  to  contain  one  hundred  free 
families.  In  England,  to  each  hundred  belonged 
a  court  baron,  similar  iu  its  nature  and  extent 
of  jurisdiction  to  a  county  court.  Our  towns 
are  the  equivalents  of  the  ancient  hundreds. 

Hundred  Associates — New  France.  Car¬ 
dinal  Richelieu,  in  1627,  annulled  a  charter  of 
the  “Trading  Company  of  New  France,”  then 
held  by  the  Sieurs  De  Caen, who  were  Huguenots, 
and  in  pursuance  of  his  plans  for  the  suppres¬ 
sion  of  these  Protestants  and  the  aggrandize¬ 
ment  of  his  monarch,  organized  a  company  un¬ 
der  the  name  of  the  Hundred  Associates,  to 
whom  he  gave  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  the 
whole  of  New  France,  then  claimed  to  include 
the  American  territory  from  Florida  to  Hud¬ 
son’s  Bay.  They  were  given  complete  monopo¬ 
ly  of  the  trade  in  that  region,  excepting  in  the 
whale  and  cod  fisheries.  The  charter  required 
the  company  to  settle  four  thousand  Roman 
Catholics  there  within  fifteen  years,  to  main¬ 
tain  and  permanently  endow  the  Roman  Catho¬ 
lic  Church  in  New  France,  and  to  banish  all  Hur 
guenots  or  Protestants  from  the  colony.  Cir¬ 
cumstances  frustrated  this  magnificent  scheme 
of  temporal  and  spiritual  dominion  in  America. 
Canada  was  conquered  by  the  British  in  1629, 
but  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain- 
en-Laye  (March  27, 1632),  tlie  whole  of  Canada, 
Cape  Breton,  and  Acadia  being  restored  to  the 
French.  The  scheme  of  the  Hundred  Associates 
was  not  revived. 

Hunker,  a  name  given  to  a  conservative  in 
politics  in  the  United  States;  one  opposed  to 
progress;  an  “old  fogy.”  It  was  one  of  the 
names  applied  to  opposing  sections  of  the  Dem¬ 
ocratic  party.  The  other  name,  at  the  time,  was 
“  Barnburner”  (which  see). 

Hunt,  Henry  Jackson,  was  born  in  Ohio 
about  1821,  aud  graduated  at  West  Poiut  in 
1839.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and 
in  May,  1861,  was  made  major  of  artillery.  In 
September  he  became  aid  to  General  McClel¬ 
lan,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  in  September, 
1862,  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 
In  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run  he  was  engaged  in 
command  of  the  artillery  on  the  extreme  left. 
He  was  chief  of  staff  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto¬ 
mac  in  the  campaign  on  the  Peninsula,  and  con¬ 
tinued  with  that  army  as  one  of  its  most  effi¬ 
cient  and  useful  officers  until  the  close  of  the 
war.  In  March,  1865,  he  was  breveted  major- 
general  of  the  United  States  Army. 

Hunt,  Rev.  Robert,  the  first  pastor  of  the 
Virginia  Colony.  He  went  out  with  Newport 
and  the  first  settlers  as  chaplain,  having  been 
recommended  by  Richard  Hakluyt.  (See  Hak¬ 
luyt,  Rickard.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
rector  in  Kent.  He  was  a  peace-maker  amid 
the  dissenters  of  the  first  colonists.  Mr.  Hunt 
held  the  first  public  service  at  Jamestown,  un¬ 
der  an  awning,  but  soon  afterwards  a  barn-like 
structure  was  erected  for  worship.  In  the  win¬ 
ter  of  1608  a  fire  burned  Mr. Hunt’s  little  library, 
and  the  next  year  he  died.  He  was  succeeded 
for  a  brief  season  by  Rev.  Mr.  Glover,  who  soon 


HURLBUT 


HUNTER  6G0 


died.  He  had  accompanied  Sir  Thomas  Gates 
to  Virginia. 

Hunter,  David,  wasborn  in  Washington, D.  C., 
July  21,  1802,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1822.  He  was  appointed  colonel  of  cavalry  in 
May,  1861,  and  commanded  the  main  column  of 
the  Union  troops,  as  brigadier,  in  the  battle  of 
Bull’s  Run,  and  was  severely  wounded.  In  Au¬ 
gust  he  was  made  major-general  of  volunteers ; 
served  under  Fremont  in  Missouri,  and  super¬ 
seded  him  in  November.  In  the  spring  of  1862 
he  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the 
South.  He  commanded  the  Department  of  West 
Virginia  in  the  summer  of  1864,  where  he  was  ac¬ 
tive  for  a  while.  For  his  various  services  he 
was  breveted  major-general  in  the  United  States 
Army  in  March,  1865,  and  retired  in  June,  1866. 

Hunter,  Robert  Mercer  Taliaferro,  was 
born  in  Essex  County,  Va.,  April  21,  1809,  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Virginia.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  House  of  Delegates 
when  twenty-four  years  of  age,  and  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  Congress  from  1837  to  1841,  and  from 
1845  to  1847.  From  1839  to  1841  he  was  speak¬ 
er.  Mr.  Hunter  was  always  one  of  the  most 
persistent  supporters  of  the  doctrine  of  state  su¬ 
premacy  and  of  the  slave-labor  system,  advocat¬ 
ing  with  vehemence  all  measures  calculated  to 
enforce  the  practical  operations  of  the  former 
and  to  nationalize  the  latter.  In  1847  he  became 
a  United  States  Senator,  and  remained  such  by 
re-election  until  July,  1861,  when  he  was  ex¬ 
pelled  from  that  body  for  treason  against  the 
government.  He  became  the  Confederate  “  Sec¬ 
retary  of  State,”  and  afterwards  a  member  of  the 
Confederate  Congress.  After  the  war  he  was 
arrested  and  held  for  a  while  as  a  prisoner  of 
state,  but  was  released  on  his  parole  and  par¬ 
doned  by  President  Johnson  in  1867. 

Hunter's  Emancipation  Proclamation.  In 
the  spring  of  1862  General  David  Hunter  was 
in  command  of  the  “  Department  of  the  South.” 
He  declared  martial  law  iu  his  department. 
Giving  a  free  interpretation  to  his  instructions 
from  the  War  Department,  he  took  measures  for 
organizing  regiments  of  negro  troops  ;  and  to  fa¬ 
cilitate  the  business  of  recruiting  he  issued  a 
general  order  (April  25, 1862)  which  proclaimed 
the  absolute  freedom  of  all  the  slaves  within 
his  department,  declaring  that  “  slavery  and 
martial  law,  in  a  free  country,  are  incorypati- 
ble.”  This  was  a  step  too  far  in  advance  of 
public  sentiment,  then,  and  of  the  government 
policy  of  that  period;  so  President  Lincoln  an¬ 
nulled  the  order,  and  President  Davis  outlawed 
Generals  Hunter  and  Phelps.  General  Mitchell 
took  Hunter’s  place. 

Hunters’  Lodges.  When  the  insurrection 
broke  out  in  Canada  in  1837,  the  Americans 
strongly  sympathized  with  the  insurgents,  re¬ 
garding  them  as  patriots  seeking  for  political 
freedom.  This  sympathy  was  most  vehement 
along  the  frontier  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  Men  banded  in  secret  organiza¬ 
tions  with  a  view  to  give  material  aid  to  the  in¬ 
surgents,  and  this  was  given  pretty  freely  by 
bodies  of  excitable  citizens,  led  by  such  uieu  as 


Van  Rensselaer,  who  took  possession  of  Navy 
Island  in  the  Niagara  River,  belonging  to  Cana¬ 
da,  or  William  Johnson,  who  was  called  the  “  Pi¬ 
rate  of  the  Thousand  Islands,”  a  nd  was  outlawred 
by  the  governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain.  These  secret  organizations  were 
called  “  Hunters’  Lodges.”  Among  their  mem¬ 
bers  were  many  Canadian  refugees,  and  William 
Lyon  Mackenzie,  the  chief  agitator  in  Upper  Can¬ 
ada,  who  had  been  driven  from  the  province,  or¬ 
ganized  an  “Executive  Committee”  at  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  for  the  purpose  of  directing  the  invasion 
of  Canada.  These  “  Hunters’  Lodges  ”  organized 
invading  parties  at  Detroit,  Sandusky,  Oswego, 
and  Watertown,  iu  northern  New  York,  and  in 
Vermont.  At  one  time,  Van  Rensselaer  and 
Johnson  had  under  them  about  2000  men,  at  an 
island  a  little  below  Kingston,  U.  C.  It  is  said 
that  these  “  Hunters’  Lodges”  within  the  Amer¬ 
ican  lines  numbered,  at  one  time,  nearly  1200, 
with  a  membership  of  80,000  souls.  They  were 
kept  up  after  the  insurrection  was  crushed  and 
its  leaders  were  hanged,  imprisoned,  or  exiled. 
The  “  Hunters’  Lodges”  were  suppressed  by  or¬ 
der  of  President  Tyler  in  1842. 

Huntington,  Ebenezer,  was  born  at  Nor¬ 
wich,  Conn.,  Dec.  26, 1754  ;  died  there,  June  17, 
1834.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1775, 
and  joined  the  patriot  army  as  lieutenant  in 
Wyllys’s  regiment.  He  served  under  Heath, 
Parsons,  and  Watts,  and  commanded  the  regi¬ 
ment  of  the  latter  in  Rhode  Island  iu  1778  as 
lieutenant-colonel.  At  Yorktown  he  command¬ 
ed  a  battalion  of  infantry,  and  served  on  Gen¬ 
eral  Lincoln’s  staff'  until  the  end  of  the  war, 
when  be  was  made  a  general  of  the  Connecticut 
militia.  Huntington  was  named  by  Washing¬ 
ton  for  brigadier-general  in  1798.  In  1810-11 
and  1817-19  he  was  a  member  of  Congress.  His 
father,  Jabez,  was  an  earnest  patriot,  devoting 
his  five  sons  as  soldiers  in  the  cause  of  freedom, 
and  was  active  himself,  serving  on  the  Commit¬ 
tee  of  Safety  during  the  war. 

Huntington,  Jedediah,  was  born  at  Nor¬ 
wich,  Conn.,  Aug.  4,  1743;  died  at  New  London, 
Sept.  25,  1813.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  Col¬ 
lege  in  1763.  He  was  an  active  Sou  of  Liberty, 
and  joined  the  army  at  Cambridge,  April  26, 
1775;  was  made  brigadier-general  in  May,  1777; 
joined  the  Continental  army  near  Philadelphia 
in  the  fall  of  1777  ;  and  in  1778  was  on  the 
court  -  martial  that  tried  General  Lee.  After 
the  war  he  held  several  civil  offices,  among 
them  collector  of  customs  at  New  London, 
which  he  tilled  during  four  administrations. 
General  Huntington  was  a  member  of  the  first 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

Hurlbut,  Stephen  Augustus,  was  born  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  March  24, 1815 ;  became  a  law¬ 
yer;  served  in  the  Florida  War ;  and  in  1845  set¬ 
tled  in  Illinois.  He  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  May,  1861 ;  commanded 
a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh  ;  and  was  made 
major-general  iu  1862.  He  served  under  Sher¬ 
man  in  Mississippi;  succeeded  Banks  in  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Gulf;  and  in  1869  was 
sent  as  minister  to  Colombia,  South  America. 


661 


HUTCHINGS 


HURON-IROQUOIS 


He  was  afterwards  seut  to  Peru,  where  he  died, 
March  27, 1882. 

Huron  -  Iroquois.  The  name  Iroquois  was 
given  by  the  French  to  the  most  interesting  of 
all  the  dusky  nations  in  North  America.  They 
prefixed  the  name  Huron,  because  their  lan¬ 
guage  indicated  the  Hu  runs — who  were  seated 
uear  the  shores  of  Georgian  Bay — to  be  a  part 
of  the  Iroquois  family,  and,  like  them,  were  iso¬ 
lated  in  the  midst  of  the  Algonquins  when  dis¬ 
covered  by  the  French.  (See  Hurom.)  The 
Huron  -  Iroquois  have  been  considered  in  the 
article  on  the  “  Iroquois  Confederacy  ”(  which 
see).  The  “  Six  Nations,”  as  they  were  called  at 
the  period  of  the  Revolution,  now  number  about 
13,600,  distributed  as  follows :  7000  in  Canada, 
at  the  following  places:  Bay  of  QuintA,  on  the 
Grand  River,  on  the  Thames,  at  Sault  St.  Louis, 
at  St.  Regis,  and  at  the  Lake  of  the  Two  Moun¬ 
tains.  The  6600  in  the  United  States  are  most¬ 
ly  in  the  State  of  New  York,  where  there  are 
over  5000.  The  remainder  are  at  Green  Bay 
and  the  Quapaw  agency. 

Husband,  Hehmann,  a  leader  of  the  North 
Carolina  “Regulators,”  was  born  in  Pennsylva¬ 
nia,  and  died  near  Philadelphia  in  1795.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends  by  birth 
and  profession.  Removing  to  Orange  County, 
N.  C.,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Legislature 
of  that  colony,  and  a  leader  among  the  oppo¬ 
nents  of  the  royal  government  called  Regula¬ 
tors  (which  see)  in  1768,  organized 
for  the  forcible  redress  of  public 
grievances.  When,  ou  May  14, 

1771,  a  battle  began  on  the  Alle- 
mance  Creek  between  one  thou¬ 
sand  men  under  Governor  Tryon 
and  two  thousand  Regulators  (in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated), 

Husband  declared  that  the  peace 
principles  of  his  sect  would  not 
allow  him  to  fight.  He  had  not 
objected  to  the  arming  of  the 
people,  but  when  they  were  about 
to  use  their  arms  he  rode  away, 
and  was  never  afterwards  seen  in 
that  region  until  the  struggle  for 
independence  was  over.  He  had 
made  his  way  to  Pennsylvania, 
v'here,  in  1771,  he  published  an 
account  of  the  Regulator  move¬ 
ment.  Husband  was  a  member 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature 
in  1778,  and  was  concerned  in  the 
Whiskey  Insurrection  (which  see) 
in  1794,  with  Gallatin,  Brecken- 
ridge,  and  others,  as  a  committee  of  safety.  For 
this  offence  he  suffered  a  short  imprisonment  at 
Philadelphia.  He  died  on  his  way  home. 

Hutchings,  William,  one  of  the  latest  sur¬ 
vivors  of  the  Continental  soldiers  (which  see), 
w  as  born  at  York,  Me.,  Oct.  6,  1764  ;  died  May  2, 
1866.  He  and  Lemuel  Cook  (which  see  ),  an¬ 
other  of  the  later  survivors,  were  born  the  same 
year,  and  died  the  same  month.  They  were  the 
last  survivors  of  the  soldiers  in  the  old  war  for 
indexiendence.  His  father  lived  until  he  was 


ninety-one  years  old.  When  William  was  four 
years  old  the  family  removed  to  “Plantation 
Number  Three,”  at  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot 
(now  Castine).  There,  on  a  farm,  which  his  de¬ 


scendants  occupied,  he  continued  to  live  until 
bis  death,  excepting  a  short  interval  of  time. 
He  was  a  witness  to  tire  stirring  scenes  of  the 
Massachusetts  expedition  to  Penobscot  (which 
see)  in  1779,  and  aided  (by  compulsion)  the  Brit¬ 
ish  in  the  construction  of  Fort  George,  on  the 
peninsula.  After  the  destruction  of  the  British 
licet,  his  father,  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 


REMAINS  OP  PORT  GEORGE,  IN  1860. 

allegiance  to  the  crown,  retired  to  New  Castle, 
where  ho  remained  until  the  close  of  the  war. 
At  the  ago  of  fifteen,  having  acquired  a  man’s 
stature,  William  Hutchings  entered  the  Conti¬ 
nental  army.  He  enlisted  in  a  regiment  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  militia  commanded  by  Colonel  Sam¬ 
uel  McCobb,  Captain  Benjamin  Lemont’s  com¬ 
pany,  as  a  volunteer  for  six  months.  That  was 
in  the  spring  of  1780  or  1781 ;  and  he  was  hon¬ 
orably  discharged  about  Christinas,  the  same 
year,  at  Cox’s  Head,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Konue- 


HUTCHINSON  AND  THE  KING 


662 


HUTCHINSON 


bee  River.  He  received  an  annual  pension  of 
$21.60  until  1865,  when  an  annual  gratuity  of 
$300  was  granted  by  Congress  to  each  of  the 
five  Revolutionary  soldiers  then  supposed  to  bo 
living.  Only  four  of  the  number  lived  to  re¬ 
ceive  this  gratuity.  William  Hutchings  and 
Lemuel  Cook  were  the  last.  Mr.  Hutchings 
was  a  devout  member  of  the  Methodist  Church 
for  nearly  seventy  years,  and  for  many  of  his 
latter  years  he  was  an  advocate  and  professor 
of  total  abstinence  from  intoxicating  drinks. 
In  1865,  when  over  one  hundred  years  of  age, 
he  received  an  invitation  from  the  city  author¬ 
ities  of  Bangor  to  join  in  the  celebration  of  the 
Fourth  of  July  there.  He  accepted  it.  A  rev¬ 
enue  cutter  conveyed  him  from  Castine  to  Ban¬ 
gor.  The  guns  of  Fort  Knox,  on  the  Penobscot, 
gave  him  a  salute  of  welcome  as  he  passed.  At 
Bangor  multitudes  rushed  to  get  a  glimpse  of 
the  veteran  as  he  was  escorted  through  the 
streets.  Senator  Hamlin  delivered  an  oration 
on  that  occasion,  and  at  the  close  Mr.  Hutch¬ 
ings  responded  at  some  length  to  a  toast.  “My 
friends  told  me,”  he  said,  “  that  the  effort  to  be 
here  might  cause  my  death  ;  but  I  thought  I 
could  never  die  any  better  than  by  celebrating 
the  glorious  Fourth.”  (See  Cook,  Lemuel.) 

Hutchinson  and  the  King.  So  eager  was 
the  king  to  see  Governor  Hutchinson,  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  on  his  arrival  in  England  in  July, 
1774,  that  he  was  hurried  by  Lord  Dartmouth 
to  the  presence  of  his  majesty  without  time  to 
change  his  clothes.  He  gave  the  king  much 
comfort.  He  assured  him  that  the  Port  Bill 
was  a  wise  and  effective  method  for  bringing 
the  Boston  people  into  submission;  that  it  had 
occasioned  extreme  alarm ;  that  no  colony  would 
comply  with  their  request  for  a.  general  suspen¬ 
sion  of  commerce;  and  that  Rhode  Island  had 
accompanied  its  refusal  with  a  sneer  at  the  self¬ 
ishness  of  the  Bostonians.  The  king  had  heard 
and  believed  that  the  Boston  clergy  preached 
toleration  for  all  kinds  of  immoralities  for  the 
sake  of  liberty,  and  scores  of  other  tales,  which 
Hutchinson  did  not  deny;  and  for  two  hours 
the  conversation  went  on,  until  the  king  was 
satisfied  that  Boston  would  be  unsupported  in 
its  rebellious  attitude  by  the  other  colonies. 
“The  author  of  this  intelligence,”  says  Ban¬ 
croft,  “  became  at  once  a  favorite,  was  offered 
the  rank  of  a  baronet,  and  was  consulted  as  an 
oracle  by  Gibbon,  the  historian,  and  other  poli¬ 
ticians  at  court.” 

Hutchinson  and  the  Massachusetts  As¬ 
sembly  (1770).  Thomas  Hutchinson,  a  native 
of  Boston,  a  colonial  councillor,  and  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  was,  on  the  recall  of 
Governor  Bernard  in  1769,  made  governor  of  the 
province.  He  was  already  unpopular  because 
of  his  opposition  to  all  movements  tending  tow¬ 
ards  popular  freedom.  When,  in  May,  1770,  he 
called  a  meeting  of  the  Assembly  at  Cambridge, 
that  body  insisted  that,  by  the  terms  of  the  char¬ 
ter,  the  General  Court  could  only  be  held  at  Bos¬ 
ton.  A  dispute  arose  that  consumed  much  of 
the  time  of  two  sessions,  and  it  was  October  be¬ 
fore  the  Assemblj7  would  agree  to  proceed  with 


needed  business,  and  then  under  protest,  after  a 
day  spent  in  solemn  humiliation  and  prayer. 
Then  they  made  a  bitter  complaint  against  the 
governor  because  he  had  withdrawn  from  the 
castle  in  Boston  harbor  the  company  in  the  pay 
of  the  province  and  given  the  fortress  up  to  the 
regulars.  They  also  complained  of  the  unusual 
number  of  ships  of  war  in  Boston  harbor;  all 
of  which  they  charged  to  misrepresentations  at 
court  by  Governor  Bernard,  as  well  as  the  in¬ 
cumbent.  They  appointed  Dr.  Franklin  as 
agent  of  the  province  in  England.  And  then 
began  that  series  of  contests  between  Hutchin- 
son  and  the  people  which  speedily  caused  his 
exile  from  his  native  land. 

Hutchinson,  Anne,  was  born  at  Alford,  Lin¬ 
colnshire,  England,  in  1591 ;  died  in  Westchester 
County,  N.  Y.,  August,  1643.  She  was  a  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Rev.  Francis  Marbury,  Rector  of  St.  Mar¬ 
tin,  Vintry,  and  other  London  parishes.  The 
preaching  of  John  Cotton  and  her  brother-in- 
law,  John  Wheel wright,  greatly  interested  her, 
and  she,  with  her  husband,  followed  them  to 
Boston  in  the  autumn  of  1634,  where  she  was 
admitted  to  membership  in  the  church.  Being 
a  woman  of  strong  mind,  fluent  in  speech,  bold 
in  defence  of  her  convictions,  she  soon  acquired 
great  influence  in  the  church.  She  called  meet¬ 
ings  of  the  women  of  the  church  to  discuss  doc¬ 
trines  and  sermons,  and  she  expressed  views  on 
religions  matters  which  had  offended  some  of 
her  fellow-passengers  on  the  voyage.  She  was 
tolerated  for  a  while,  but  finally  the  contro¬ 
versy  between  her  supporters  and  opponents 
became  a  public  controversy  (1636).  Governor 
Vane,  Cotton,  Wheelwright,  and  the  whole  Bos¬ 
ton  church  excepting  five  members  were  her 
supporters,  while  the  country  clergy  and  church¬ 
es  were  united  against  her.  The  dispute  per¬ 
meated  every  department  of  the  colony  and  in¬ 
fluenced  public  action  in  civil,  military,  and  ec¬ 
clesiastical  affairs.  On  Aug.  30, 1637,  an  ecclesi¬ 
astical  synod  at  Newtown  condemned  her  opin¬ 
ions,  and  she  was  summoned  before  the  General 
Court  to  answer.  After  a  trial  of  two  days’  du¬ 
ration,  she  and  some  of  her  adherents  were  sen¬ 
tenced  to  banishment  from  the  territory  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts.  She  went  to  Rhode  Island,  where  a 
deputation  sent  by  the  church  at  Boston  vainly 
tried  to  reclaim  her.  Her  husband  died  in  1642, 
when  she  removed,  with  her  surviving  family, 
into  the  territory  of  New  Netherland  to  avoid 
persecution.  The  Indians  and  Dutch  were  then 
at  war.  The  former  invaded  her  retreat  and 
murdered  her,  her  son,  and  son-in-law,  and  car¬ 
ried  off  her  little  granddaughter,  Anna  Collins. 
Some  of  her  neighbors  also  su  tiered,  eighteen  of 
them  being  killed,  and  their  cattle,  put  into 
barns,  were  burned.  The  place  of  the  tragedy 
was  on  Pelham  Neck.  The  region  was  called 
Anne’s  Hoeek,  or  Point.  Several  women  and 
childi’en  wTere  saved  in  a  boat.  When  Mrs. 
Hutchinson’s  little  granddaughter  was  deliver¬ 
ed  to  the  Dutch  at  New  Amsterdam,  four  years 
afterwards,  according  to  the  terms  of  a  treaty, 
to  be  sent  to  her  friends  in  Boston,  she  had  for¬ 
gotten  her  own  language,  and  did  uot  w  ish  to 
leave  her  Indian  friends. 


HUTCHINSON 


663  HUTCHINSONIAN  CONTROVERSY,  THE 


Hutchinson  in  the  Massachusetts  Council. 

Thomas  Hutchinson,  appointed  lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor  of  Massachusetts,  having  received  com¬ 
pensation  for  his  losses  (see  Riot  in  Boston),  took 
a  seat  in  Governor  Bernard’s  Council  (January, 
1767),  where  he  had  no  right.  The  Massachu¬ 
setts  Assembly  resented  this  usurpation,  this 
“lust  of  power,”  in  intruding  into  an  elective 
body  to  which  he  had  not  been  chosen.  The 
Council,  by  unanimous  vote,  denied  the  preten¬ 
sions  of  the  intruder,  for  the  language  of  the 
charter  was  too  clear  to  admit  of  a  doubt;  yet 
Bernard  urged  the  interposition  of  the  British 
government  to  keep  him  there.  This  conduct 
of  the  crown  officers  greatly  irritated  the  people. 

Hutchinson  Letters,  The.  Early  in  1773, 
letters  written  by  Governor  Hutchinson  and 
others  of  the  crown  officers  in  Massachusetts  to 
Mr.  Whately,  one  of  the  under  secretaries  of  the 
government,  were  put  into  the  hands  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  agent  for  Massachusetts,  by  Dr.  Hugh 
Williamson,  of  Philadelphia.  In  these  letters 
the  popular  leaders  were  vilified,  the  liberal 
clauses  of  the  colonial  charter  were  condemned, 
the  punishment  ®f  Bostonians  by  restraints  upon 
their  commercial  privileges  was  recommended, 
and  “  an  abridgment  of  what  are  called  English 
privileges”  in  America,  by  coercive  measures, 
was  strongly  urged.  Franklin  saw  in  these 
letters  evidences  of  a  conspiracy  against  his 
country  by  enemies  in  its  bosom,  and  he  sent 
them  to  Thomas  Cushing,  Speaker  of  the  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  Assembly.  They  were  finally  pub¬ 
lished,  and  created  intense  excitement  through¬ 
out  the  colonies.  The  tempest  of  indignation 
which  they  raised  was  fearful  to  Hutchinson 
and  his  friends.  When  a  committee  waited 
upon  him  for  an  explicit  answer  as  to  the  au¬ 
thenticity  of  his  own  letters,  he  replied,  “They 
are  mine,  but  were  quite  confidential.”  This 
was  not  satisfactory,  and  the  Assembly  adopted 
a  petition  to  the  king  for  his  removal.  The 
writers  of  the  letters  were  Thomas  Hutchinson, 
Andrew  Oliver  (Lieutenant-governor),  Charles 
Paxton,  Thomas  Moffatt,  Robert  Auclimuty,  Na¬ 
thaniel  Rogers,  and  George  Rome. 

Hutchinson,  Thomas,  Governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  was  born  in  Boston,  Sept.  9,  1711;  died  at 
Brompton,  near  London,  June  3,  1780.  He  was 
a  graduate  of  Harvard  University  (1727),  and, 
after  engaging  unsuccessfully  in  commerce, 
studied  law,  and  began  its  practice  in  Boston. 
That  city  sent  him  to  London  as  its  agent  in 
important  business ;  and  he  represented  that 
city  in  the  General  Court  for  ten  years.  In 
1752  he  was  chosen  judge  of  probate;  was  a 
councillor  from  1749  to  1766 ;  was  lieutenant- 
governor  from  1758  to  1771 ;  and  was  made 
chief-justice  of  the  province  in  1768.  At  that 
time  lie  held  four  high  offices  under  the  king’s 
appointment,  and  he  naturally  sided  with  the 
crown  in  the  rising  disputes,  and  became  very 
obnoxious  to  the  republicans.  When,  in  1769, 
Governor  Bernard  was  recalled,  Hutchinson  be¬ 
came  acting-governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  was 
commissioned  governor  in  1771.  He  was  con¬ 
tinually  engaged  in  controversies  with  the  pop¬ 


ular  Assembly,  and  often  with  his  Council.  The 
publication  of  some  of  his  letters  (1773),  which 
proved  that  he  had  been  for  years  urging  upon 
Parliament  the  necessity  for  the  strict  euforce- 


THOMAS  HUTCHINSON. 


ment  of  power  over  the  colonies,  raised  a  storm 
of  indignation,  and  his  recall  was  demanded. 
This  indignation  was  increased  by  his  action 
concerning  the  landing  of  cargoes  of  tea  in  Bos¬ 
ton  (see  Boston  Tea-party),  and  he  sailed  for  Eng¬ 
land,  June  1,  1774,  where  he  was  rewarded  with 
a  pension.  He  never  returned  to  his  native 
country.  He  wrote  and  published  a  history  of 
Massachusetts  from  the  first  settlement  until 
1750.  The  official  residence  of  the  governor  of 
Massachusetts  was  called  the  “Province  House.” 


THE  PROVINCE  HOUSE. 


It  was  standing  a  few  years  ago,  in  the  rear 
of  stores  on  Washington  Street,  in  front  of  Milk 
Street.  It  was  a  large  brick  building,  three 
stories  in  height,  and  was  formerly  decorated 
with  the  king’s  arms,  richly  gilded.  A  cupola 
surmounted  the  roof.  In  front  of  the  house  was 
a  lawn,  with  an  iron  fence,  and  on  each  side  of 
the  gate  was  a  large  oak-tree.  The  ground 
sloped,  and  in  front  were  about  twenty  stone 
steps.  The  king’s  arms  are  in  possession  of  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 

Hutchinsonian  Controversy,  The.  The  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  theocracy,  actuated  by  the  spirit  of 
the  English  persecuting  bishops  and  of  the  Court 
of  High  Commission,  persecuted  relentlessly,  as 
heretics  and  schismatics,  the  persons  who  occu- 


IDAHO 


HUTCHINSONIAN  CONTROVERSY,  THE  664 


pied  towards  them  the  position  which  they  had 
held  towards  their  own  persecutors.  With  the 
influx  of  new-comers  from  England,  new  opin¬ 
ions  flowed  into  Massachusetts  from  the  seeth¬ 
ing  caldron  of  disputations  in  the  mother-coun¬ 
try.  Among  the  new-comers  was  Anne  Hutch¬ 
inson,  who  was  independent  in  thought  and  bold 
in  the  expression  of  opinion — a  religious  enthu¬ 
siast,  whose  care  of  a  numerous  family  did  not 
prevent  her  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Church,  and,  at  meetings  of  the  women,  which 
she  instituted,  freely  discussing  religious  doc¬ 
trines  and  criticising  sermons.  She  maintained 
the  leading  tenet  of  the  Reformation  (justifica¬ 
tion  by  faith  alone),  involuntary  faith,  and  the 
free  grace  of  God.  She  declared  that  it  was  this 
faith,  and  not  in  the  repetition  of  acts  of  devo¬ 
tion  or  in  acts  of  morality,  that  made  the  true 
religious  person.  This  doctrine  of  justifica¬ 
tion  by  faith  was  accepted  by  the  theocracy  as 
sound  orthodoxy,  but,  as  Mrs.  Hutchinson  put 
it,  it  struck  a  vital  blow  at  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  in  Massachusetts,  for  it  mercilessly 
smote  the  self-esteem  and  influence  of  the  lead¬ 
ers.  Their  “  sanctification,”  this  smart  woman 
alleged,  in  which  they  prided  themselves — their 
sanctimonious  carriage  and  austere  lives— fur¬ 
nished  no  evidence  whatever  of  their  “justifi¬ 
cation” — their  change  of  heart  and  acceptance 
with  God.  The  only  evidence  of  justification, 
she  said,  was  an  internal  evidence  and  conscious¬ 
ness  on  the  part  of  believers  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
dwelt  within  them.  The  clergy  were  embar¬ 
rassed,  for  they  preached  justification  by  faith 
and  the  internal  and  supernatural  assurance  of 
election  to  salvation,  but  they  also  held  that 
such  assurances  were  false  and  deceptive,  unless 
accompanied  by  outward  evidence  of  sanctity  in 
life  and  conversation.  Hence  their  austerity. 
While  the  Boston  churches,  tinder  the  influence 
of  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  inclined  to  embrace  her  doc¬ 
trines,  ex-Goverhor  Winthrop  and  most  of  the 
clergy  throughout  the  colony  denounced  her  as 


an  antinomian,and  the  pretended  personal  union 
with  the  Holy  Ghost  as  no  better  than  blasphe¬ 
my.  The  governor  and  Cotton  and  Wheelwright 
(see  Hutchinson,  Anne )  supported  her  views,  while 
most  of  the  magistrates,  ex-Governor  Winthrop, 
and  the  clergy  of  the  colony  were  her  stern  and 
active  opponents.  They  were  cautious,  howev¬ 
er,  how  they  condemned  their  favorite  doctrine 
of  faith  and  free  grace;  but  they  zealously  up¬ 
held  the  necessity  of  a  system  of  worship  and 
austere  self-denial  which  they  had  crossed  the 
Atlantic  to  establish.  Mrs.  Hutchinson  irritated 
them  by  classifying  the  two  parties — her  friends 
as  “  under  the  covenant  of  grace,”  and  her  op¬ 
ponents  “under  the  covenant  of  works;”  and 
because  Mr.  Wheelwright  made  the  distinction 
in  a  sermon,  he  was  arraigned  for  sedition,  and 
found  guilty.  The  governor  and  a  few  others 
offered  a  protest,  but  the  General  Court  refused 
to  receive  it.  Disputes  ran  high,  and  the  whole 
colony  was  ablaze  with  excitement.  Men  of  op¬ 
posite  opinions  sometimes  came  to  blows;  fam¬ 
ilies  were  divided,  and  society  was  fearfully  rent. 
In  the  midst  of  the  turmoil,  Winthrop  was  elect¬ 
ed  ( 1637  )  governor,  and  the  orthodox  party 
claimed  a  triumph.  The  Hutch insonians  were 
beaten,  but  not  subdued.  The  theological  ques¬ 
tions  raised  by  Mrs.  Hutchinson  were  referred 
to  a  synod — a  conference  of  delegates  from  all 
the  churches.  That  body  pronounced  the  wom¬ 
en’s  meeting  in  Boston  “disorderly;”  for  the 
feminine  church  members,  though  “heirs  of  sal¬ 
vation,”  had  no  power  in  the  earthly  theocracy. 
They  condemned  the  Hutchinsouians  as  schis¬ 
matics,  and  the  General  Court  proceeded  to  end 
the  controversy  by  the  wretched  argument  of 
force.  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  Wheelwright,  and 
several  others,  were  sentenced  to  banishment. 
It  being  winter,  the  former  was  allowed  to  re¬ 
main  at  Roxbury,  vigilantly  watched,  until 
spring;  and  about  sixty  of  her  most  active  ad¬ 
herents  were  disfranchised  and  deprived  of  their 
fire-arms. 


Iberville,  Pierre  ee  Moyne,  born  at  Montreal, 
July  16,  1661;  died  in  Havana,  W.  I.,  July  9, 
1706.  He  was  one  of  eleven  brothers  who  fig¬ 
ure  in  some  degree  in  French  colonial  history. 
Entering  the  French  navy  at  fourteen,  he  be¬ 
came  distinguished  in  the  annals  of  Canada  for 
his  operations  against  the  English  in  the  north 
and  east  of  that  province.  In  1698  he  was  sent 
from  France  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  with  two 
frigates  (Oct.  22),  to  occupy  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  region  neglected  after  the 
death  of  La  Salle.  On  finding  that  stream,  he 
received  from  the  Indians  a  letter  left  by  De 
Tonty,  in  1686,  for  La  Salle.  There  he  built  Fort 
Biloxi,  garrisoned  it,  and  made  his  brother  Bien¬ 
ville  the  king’s  lieutenant.  In  May,  1699,  he  re¬ 
turned  to  France,  but  reappeared  at  Fort  Biloxi 
in  January,  1700.  On  visiting  France  and  re¬ 
turning  in  1701,  he  found  the  colony  reduced 
by  disease,  and  transferred  the  settlement  to 
Mobile,  and  began  the  colonization  of  Alabama. 


Disease  had  impaired  his  health,  and  the  gov¬ 
ernment  called  him  away  from  his  work  as  the 
founder  of  Louisiana.  (S ee  Louisiana.)  He  was 
engaged  in  the  naval  service  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  was  destroyed  by  yellow  fever  at  Ha¬ 
vana. 

Idaho  (Id-ali'-o)  was  created  a  territory  by 
act  of  Congress  approved  March  3,  1863,  from 
portions  of  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Washington 
territories  (which  see),  and  embracing  the  pres¬ 
ent  territory  of  Montana  and  nearly  all  of  Wyo¬ 
ming.  Within  its  domain  the  Ccenr  d’Alene 
mission  was  established,  in  1842.  The  perma¬ 
nent  settlement  of  the  territory  did  not  begin 
until  the  discovery  of  gold,  in  1860.  This  metal 
is  found  at  the  head-waters  of  all  the  rivers,  and 
the  territory  is  very  rich  in  developed  and  un¬ 
developed  beds  of  the  precious  metals.  These 
drew  large  numbers  of  settlers  from  California, 
Oregon,  and  settlements  eastward.  Its  capital 
is  Bois6  City.  Population  in  1880,  32,610. 


IDIOTS 


665 


Idiots.  Institutions  for  idiots  are  of  recent 
origin  in  our  country.  In  1818,  Mr.  Gallaudet 
admitted  an  idiot  boy  into  tbe  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Asylum  at  Hartford,  and  bis  mind  was  strength¬ 
ened.  The  tirst  asylum  for  idiots  was  opened 
in  a  wing  of  the  Perkins  Institute,  in  Boston, 
late  in  1848.  In  New  York,  in  1851,  the  “New 
York  Asylum  for  Idiots”  was  created,  and  was 
permanently  located  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1855. 
The  number  of  idiots  in  the  United  States  in 
1870  was  24,527.  All  but  1645  were  born  in  the 
United  States. 

Illinois  Indians.  This  family  of  the  Algon¬ 
quin  nation  comprised  several  clans — Peorias, 
Moingwenas,  Kaskaskias,  Tamaroas/aud  Caho- 
ltias.  At  a  very  early  period  they  drove  a  Da¬ 
kota  tribe,  whom  they  called  the  Arkansas,  to 
the  country  on  the  Southern  Mississippi.  These 
were  the  Quapaws.  In  1640  they  almost  exter¬ 
minated  the  Winnebagoes  ;  and  soon  afterwards 
they  waged  war  with  the  Iroquois  and  Sioux. 
Their  domain  was  between  Lakes  Michigan  and 
Superior  and  the  Mississippi  River.  Marquette 
found  some  of  them  (the  Peorias  and  Moingwe¬ 
nas)  near  Des  Moines,  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in 
1672 ;  also  the  Peorias  and  Kaskaskias  on  the 
Illinois  River.  The  Tamaroas  and  Cahokias 
were  on  the  Mississippi.  The  Jesuits  found  the 
chief  Illinois  town  consisting  of  eight  thousand 
people,  in  nearly  four  hundred  large  cabins,  cov¬ 
ered  with  water-proof  mats,  with,  generally,  four 
fires  to  a  cabin.  In  1679  they  were  badly  de¬ 
feated  by  the  Iroquois,  losing  about  thirteen 
hundred,  of  whom  nine  hundred  were  prison¬ 
ers  ;  and  they  retaliated  by  assisting  the  French, 
under  De  la  Barre  and  De  Nonville,  against  the 
Five  Nations.  The  Illinois  were  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Father  Marquette  and  other  mis¬ 
sionaries,  and  in  the  year  1700  Chicago,  their 
great  chief,  visited  France,  where  he  was  much 
caressed.  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  maintained 
great  influence  in  the  tribe  until  his  death,  in 
1754.  When  Detroit  was  besieged  by  the  Fox¬ 
es,  in  1712,  the  Illinois  went  to  its  relief,  and  in 
the  war  that  followed  they  suffered  severely. 
Some  of  them  were  with  the  French  at  Fort 
Duquesne  ;  but  tliejr  refused  to  join  Pontiac  in 
his  conspiracy.  (See  Pontiac.)  With  the  Mi- 
amis,  they  favored  the  English  in  the  war  of  the 
Revolution,  and  joined  in  the  treaty  at  Green¬ 
ville  in  1795.  (See  Greenville.)  By  the  provi¬ 
sion  of  treaties,  they  ceded  their  lands,  and  a 
greater  portion  of  them  went  to  a  country  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  within  the  present  limits  of 
Kansas,  where  they  remained  until  1867,  when 
they  were  removed  to  a  reservation  of  seventy- 
two  thousand  acres  southwest  of  the  Quapaws. 
In  1872  the  whole  Illinois  nation  had  dwindled 
to  forty  souls.  This  tribe,  combined  with  the 
Weas  and  Piankeshaws,  numbered  only  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixty  in  all. 

Illinois,  Position  of  (  1861 ).  This  young 
state,  with  a  population  of  1,700,000,  had  a  loyal 
governor  (Richard  Yates)  at  the  beginning  of 
1861.  The  Legislature  assembled  at  Springfield, 
the  home  of  the  Republican  President  elect,  on 
January  7.  The  governor’s  message  was  tem- 


ILLINOIS,  TERRITORY  OF 

perate,  but  firm.  He  summed  up  what  he  be¬ 
lieved  to  be  the  sentiment  of  the  people  of  Illi¬ 
nois  in  the  words  of  General  Jackson’s  toast 
thirty  years  before — “  Our  Federal  Union  :  it 
must  be  preserved!”  Great  enthusiasm  and  de¬ 
termination  prevailed,  and  throughout  the  war 
that  ensued  the  men  of  Illinois  were  seen  almost 
everywhere  battliug  in  defence  of  the  life  of  the 
Republic. 

Illinois,  State  of,  was  first  explored  by  Mar¬ 
quette  and  Joliet  (which  see),  French  mission¬ 
aries  from  Canada,  in  1763,  who  were  followed 
by  La  Salle  and  Hennepin  (which  see).  Twenty 
years  later  mission  stations  were  established  at 
Kaskaskia, Caliokia, and  Peoria;  and  early  in  the 
18th  century  a  French  monastery  was  established 
at  Kaskaskia.  By  the  treaty  of  1763,  the  “  Illi¬ 
nois  country,”  as  it 
was  called,  passed 
under  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  the  English. 
By  the  treaty  of 
1783  it  was  ceded  to 
the  United  States, 
and  it  formed  a  part 
of  the  Northwest 
Territory  (which 
see).  The  country 
conquered  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Clarke,  in  1778- 
79  (see  Clarke's  Ex¬ 
pedition ),  the  Virginia  Assembly  erected  into  a 
county,  which  they  called  Illinois.  It  embraced 
all  territory  north  of  the  Ohio  claimed  as  within 
the  limits  of  Virginia,  and  ordered  500  men  to  be 
raised  for  its  defence.  In  1809,  when  the  pres¬ 
ent  boundaries  of  Indiana  were  defined,  Illinois 
included  Wisconsin  and  a  part  of  Minnesota, 
and  in  1810  contained  more  than  12,000  inhabi¬ 
tants.  Among  the  prominent  events  of  the  War 
of  1812-15  in  that  region  was  the  massacre  at 
Chicago  (which  see).  After  that  war  the  popu¬ 
lation  rapidly  increased,  and  on  Dec.  3,  1818, 
Illinois,  with  its  present  limits,  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  state.  The  census  of  1820 
showed  a  population  in  that  state  of  more  than 
55,000  souls.  The  Black  Hawk  War  (which  see) 
occurred  in  Illinois  in  1832.  There  the  Mormons 
established  themselves  in  1840,  at  Nauvoo  (see 
Mormons)  ;  their  founder  was  slain  by  a  mob  at 
Cart  hage,  in  1844,  and  soon  afterwards  a  general 
exodus  of  this  people  occurred.  A  new  state  con¬ 
stitution  was  framed  in  1847,  and  in  July,  1870, 
the  present  constitution  was  adopted.  The  Il¬ 
linois  Central  Railroad,  completed  in  1856,  has 
been  a  source  of  great  material  prosperity  for  the 
state.  During  the  late  Civil  War,  Illinois  furnish¬ 
ed  to  the  national  government  (to  Dec.  1,  1864) 
197,364  troops.  Population  in  1880,  3,077,871. 

Illinois,  Territory  of.  During  the  last  ses¬ 
sion  of  the  Tenth  Congress,  1809,  the  Territory 
of  Illinois  was  erected,  and  Ninian  Edwards  was 
appointed  its  governor.  The  inhabited  portions 
of  this  territory,  including  the  (present)  states 
of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin,  were  chiefly  near  the 
Mississippi  River,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
vlissouri.  The  old  village  of  Kaskaskia  was 


STATE  SEAL  OF  ILLINOIS. 


IMPEACHMENT 


666 


made  the  seat  of  government.  The  population  \ 
then  was  about  ten  thousand. 

Impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  On 

Jan.  7,  1867,  Mr.  Ashley,  representative  in  Con¬ 
gress  from  Ohio,  rose  in  his  place  and  charged 
the  “Acting  President  of  the  United  States” 
with  the  commission  of  “  high  crimes  and  misde¬ 
meanors,  for  which  he  ought  to  be  impeached.” 
He  charged  him  with  usurpations  and  violations 
of  law  :  1.  “  In  that  he  has  corruptly  used  the 
appointing  power;  2.  In  that  he  has  corruptly 
used  the  pardoning  power;  3.  In  that  he  has 
corruptly  used  the  veto  power ;  4.  In  that  he 
has  corruptly  disposed  of  public  property  of  the 
United  States;  and,  5.  In  that  he  has  corrupt¬ 
ly  interfered  in  elections,  and  committed  acts 
which,  in  contemplation  of  the  Constitution, 
are  high  crimes  and  misdeineauors.”  For  more 
than  a  year  afterwards  Congress  bore  with  the 
opposition  and  unseemly  acts  of  the  President. 
Their  patience  became  exhausted.  On  Feb.  22, 
1868,  the  House  of  Representatives,  by  a  vote 
of  126  to  47,  “  Resolved ,  That  Andrew  Johnson, 
President  of  the  United  States,  be  impeached 
of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.”  A  commit¬ 
tee  presented  nine  articles  of  impeachment:  1. 
Unlawfully  ordering  the  removal  of  Secretary 
Stanton,  in  violation  of  the  Tenure-of-Office  Act 
(which  see);  2.  Unlawfully  appointing  Lorenzo 
B.  Thomas  as  Secretary  of  War  ad  interim;  3. 
Substantially  the  same  as  the  2d  ;  4.  Conspiring 
with  Thomas  and  other  persons  to  prevent,  by 
threats,  Mr.  Stanton  from  holding  office  ;  5.  Con¬ 
spiring  to  hinder  the  execution  of  the  Tenure-of- 
Office  Act;  6.  Conspiring  to  take  forcible  pos¬ 
session  of  the  War  Department;  7  and  8  sub¬ 
stantially  the  same  as  5  and  6;  9.  Charged  that 
he  had  tried  to  induce,  by  false  representations, 
the  commander  of  the  Department  of  Washing¬ 
ton  to  violate  the  laws  and  to  obey  the  orders 
of  the  President  only.  Managers  were  appoint¬ 
ed,  and  on  March  3  they  presented  two  other 
charges:  1.  Seditious  speech  while  on  a  polit¬ 
ical  tour  (see  President  Johnson's  Tour),  trying  to 
excite  the  hostility  of  the  people  against  Con¬ 
gress  ;  and,  2.  That  at  Washington  he  had  de¬ 
clared  that  Congress  was  not  a  legal  body,  au¬ 
thorized  to  exercise  legislative  powers.  The 
trial  was  begun  on  March  30,  before  the  Senate, 
sitting  as  a  High  Court  of  Impeachment,  Chief- 
justice  Chase  presiding.  The  examination  of 
witnesses  ended  April  22.  The  arguments  of 
counsel  were  concluded  May  5,  and  t  wenty  days 
were  consumed  in  debates  in  the  Senate.  The 
votes  of  fifty-four  senators  present  were  taken  on 
the  verdict,  of  whom  35  were  for  conviction,  and 
19  for  acquittal.  As  two  thirds  of  the  votes 
were  necessary  for  conviction,  the  President 
was  acquitted  by  one  vote. 

Impediments  to  Burgoyne’s  March.  From 
Skeuesborough  (now  Whitehall),  at  the  head  of 
Lake  Champlain,  to  the  Hudson  River,  the  con- 
qneringBnrgoyne  marched  through  a  very  rough 
and  thickly  wooded  country,  intersected  by  nu¬ 
merous  streams  and  dotted  with  morasses.  There 
was  a  single  military  road,  over  which,  between 
Fort  Anne  (on  the  route)  and  Fort  Edward,  there 


IMPRESS,  THE 

were  full  fifty  bridges  and  causeways.  These 
Schuyler  destroyed  as  he  fell  back  towards  the 
Hudson,  and  felled  great  trees  across  the  road, 
with  theirbranches  intertwining,  at  places  w here 
it  was  difficult  to  turn  aside.  All  the  stock  was 
drawn  off,  and  the  New  England  militia  were 
summoned  to  the  rescue. 

Impending  Crisis.  The  state  elections  in  1858 
and  1859  satisfied  the  opponents  of  the  rapidly 
growing  Republican  party  that  there  was  im¬ 
pending  a  great  change  in  national  politics. 
The  political  leaders  in  the  slave-labor  states, 
who  had  been  interested  in  a  scheme  for  forming 
an  empire  whose  corner-stone  should  be  negro 
slavery  and  its  bounds  the  Golden  Circle  (which 
see),  perceived  the  peril.  They  believed  they 
would  not  be  able  to  elect  another  President  of 
their  choice.  They  were  in  full  alliance  with 
the  Democratic  party  of  the  North,  then  in  pow¬ 
er,  but  they  saw  signs  of  disintegration  going  on 
in  that  party,  caused  by  disgust  with  the  work¬ 
ings  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  and  the  attempt 
to  nationalize  slavery.  A  large  portion  of  that 
party,  led  by  Senator  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  showed 
a  proclivity  towards  independent  action,  and 
even  affiliation  with  the  Republican  party,  on 
|  the  subject  of  slavery.  The  hopes  of  the  friends 
of  the  slave  system  of  ihe  further  undivided  sup¬ 
port  of  the  Northern  Democracy  vanished.  In 
view*  of  this  impending  crisis,  the  Southern  pol¬ 
iticians,  who  wished  to  dissolve  the  Union, 
deemed  it  expedient,  it  is  averred,  to  absolutely 
destroy  all  unity  in  the  Democratic  party,  and 
make  it  powerless,  w  hen  the  Republicans  might- 
elect  their  candidate  for  President  in  the  fall  of 
1860.  Then  would  appear  a  sufficient  pretext 
for  a  revolution— the  election  of  a  sectional  Pres¬ 
ident.  This  danger  to  the  slaveholders’  interest 
might  be  magnified  by  a  sectional  war-cry  that 
would  “  fire  the  Southern  heart,”  and  produce  a 
“solid  South”  in  favor  of  secession,  a  dissolu¬ 
tion  of  the  Union,  and  the  construction  of  a  new 
republic  or  kingdom  within  the  Golden  Circle. 
It  is  asserted  that  with  this  view’  politicians 
who  were  afterwards  Confederate  leaders  in  the 
late  Civil  War  entered  the  Democratic  nomina¬ 
ting  convention  held  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  late 
in  April,  1860.  (See  Democratic  Convention  at 
Charleston.) 

Impress,  The — Treaty  of  1806.  Proofs  of 
the  sufferings  of  Americau  seamen  from  the  op¬ 
erations  of  the  British  impress  system  w  ere  con¬ 
tinually  received,  and  so  frequent  and  flagrant 
were  these  outrages,  tow’ards  the  close  of  1805, 
that  Congress  took  action  on  the  subject.  Ir- 
was  felt  that  a  crisis  was  reached,  when  the  in¬ 
dependence  of  the  United  States  must  be  vindi¬ 
cated,  or  the  national  honor  would  be  imperilled. 
There  was  ample  cause  not  only  for  retaliatory 
measures  against  Great  Britain,  but  even  for 
war.  A  Non-importation  Act  (which  see)  was 
passed.  It  wras  resolved  to  try  negotiations 
once  more.  William  Pinkney,  of  Maryland,  was 
appointed  (May,  1806)  minister  extraordinary  to 
England,  to  become  associated  with  Monroe,  the 
resident  minister,  in  negotiating  a.  treaty  that 
should  settle  all  disputes  between  the  two  gov- 


IMPRESSMENT 


667 


IMPRESSMENT  IN  BOSTON 


ernments.  He  sailed  for  England,  and  negotia¬ 
tions  were  commenced  Ang.  7.  As  the  Amer¬ 
ican  commissioners  were  instructed  to  make  no 
treaty  which  did  not  secure  the  vessels  of  their 
countrymen  on  the  high  seas  against  press- 
gangs,  that  topic  received  the  earliest  attention. 
The  Americans  contended  that  the  right  of  im¬ 
pressment,  existing  by  municipal  law,  could  not 
he  exercised  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  Great 
Britain,  and,  consequently,  upon  the  high  seas. 
The  British  replied  that  no  subject  of  the  king 
could  expatriate  himself — “once  an  English¬ 
man,  always  an  Englishman  ” — and  argued  that 
to  give  up  that  right  would  make  every  Ameri¬ 
can  vessel  an  asylum  for  British  seamen  wishing 
to  evade  their  country’s  service.  Finally,  the 
British  commissioners  stated  in  writing  that  it 
was  not  intended  by  their  government  to  exer¬ 
cise  this  claimed  right  on  board  any  American 
vessel,  unless  it  was  known  it  contained  British 
deserters.  In  that  shape  this  portion  of  a  trea¬ 
ty  then  concluded  remained,  and  was  unsatis¬ 
factory  because  it  was  based  upon  contingen¬ 
cies  and  provisions,  and  not  upon  positive  trea¬ 
ty  stipulations.  The  American  commissioners, 
then,  on  their  own  responsibility,  proceeded  to 
treat  upon  other  points  in  dispute,  and  an  agree¬ 
ment  was  made,  based  principally  upon  Jay’s 
treaty  of  1794.  The  British  made  some  conces¬ 
sions  as  to  the  rights  of  neutrals.  The  treaty 
w  as  more  favorable  to  the  Americans,  on  the 
whole,  than  Jay’s,  and,  for  the  reasons  which  in¬ 
duced  him,  the  American  commissioners  signed 
it.  It  was  satisfactory  to  the  merchants  and 
most  of  the  people  ;  yet  the  President,  consult¬ 
ing  only  his  Secretary  of  State,  and  w  ithout  re¬ 
ferring  it  to  the  Senate,  rejected  it. 

Impressment.  The  British  government 
claimed  the  right  for  commanders  of  British 
ships  of  war  to  make  up  any  deficiency  in  their 
crews  by  pressing  into  their  service  British- 
born  seamen  found  anywhere  not  within  the 
immediate  jurisdiction  of  some  foreign  state. 
As  many  British  seamen  were  employed  on 
hoard  of  American  merchant-vessels,  the  exer¬ 
cise  of  this  claimed  right  might  (and  often  did) 
seriously  cripple  American  A  essels  at  sea.  To 
distinguish  between  British  and  American  sea¬ 
men  was  not  an  easy  matter,  and  many  British 
captains,  eager  to  fill  up  their  crews,  frequently 
impressed  native-born  Americans.  These  were 
sometimes  dragged  by  violence  from  on  board 
their  own  vessels  and  condemned  to  a  life  of 
slavery  as  seamen  in  British  ships  of  war. 
These  acts  were  among  the  causes  of  the  War 
of  1812-15,  or  second  war  for  independence. 
When  Jonathan  Russell,  minister  at  the  British 
court,  attempted  to  negotiate  writli  that  govern¬ 
ment  (August,  1812)  for  a  settlement  of  disputes 
between  the  Americans  and  British,  and  pro¬ 
posed  the  withdrawal  of  the  claims  of  the  latter 
to  the  right  of  impressment  and  the  release  of 
impressed  seamen,  Lord  Castlereagh,  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  refused  to  listen 
to  such  a  proposition.  He  even  expressed  sur¬ 
prise  that,  “as  a  condition  preliminary  even  to 
a  suspension  of  hostilities,  the  government  of 
the  United  States  should  have  thought  fit  to 


demand  that  the  British  government  should  de- 
sist  from  its  ancient  and  accustomed  practice  of 
impressing  British  seamen  from  the  merchant- 
ships  of  a  foreign  state,  simply  on  the  assurance 
that  a  law  was  hereafter  to  be  passed  to  pro¬ 
hibit  the  employment  of  British  seamen  iu  the 
public  or  commercial  service  of  that  state.” 
The  United  States  had  proposed  to  pass  a  law 
making  such  a  prohibition  in  case  the  British 
government  should  relinquish  the  practice  of 
impressment  and  release  all  impressed  sea¬ 
men.  Castlereagh  acknowledged  that  there 
might  have  been,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1811,  sixteen  hundred  bona  fide  American  citi¬ 
zens  serving  by  compulsion  in  the  British  navy. 
Several  hundreds  of  them  had  been  discharged, 
and  all  would  be,  Castlereagh  said,  upon  proof 
made  of  their  American  birth;  but  the  British 
government,  he  continued,  could  not  consent 
“to  suspend  the  exercise  of  a  right  upon  which 
the  naval  strength  of  the  empire  mainly  de¬ 
pended,  unless  assured  that  the  object  might  be 
attained  in  some  other  w7ay.”  There  were  then 
upwards  of  six  thousand  cases  of  alleged  im¬ 
pressment  of  American  seamen  recorded  in  the 
Department  of  State,  and  it  was  estimated  that, 
at  least  as  many  more  might  have  occurred,  of 
which  no  information  had  been  received.  Cas¬ 
tlereagh  had  admitted  on  the  floor  of  the  House 
of  Commons  that  an  official  inquiry  had  reveal¬ 
ed  the  fact  that  there  were,  in  1811,  thirty-five 
hundred  men  claiming  to  be  Americau  citizens. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  various  causes 
combined  wdiich  produced  the  war  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  1812-15, 
when  it  w  as  declared,  the  capital  question,  and 
that  around  which  gathered  in  agreement  a  lar¬ 
ger  portion  of  the  people  of  the  Republic,  was 
that  of  impressment.  The  contest  was,  by  this 
consideration,  resolved  into  a  noble  struggle  of 
a  free  people  against  insolence  and  oppression, 
undertaken  on  behalf  of  the  poor,  the  helpless, 
and  the  stranger.  It  was  this  conception  of  the 
essential  nature  of  the  conflict  that  gave  vigor 
to  every  blow7  of  the  American  soldier  and  sea¬ 
man,  and  the  w'atch- words  “  Free  Tra.de  and  Sail¬ 
ors’  Rights”  prevailed  on  land  as  wrell  as  on  the 
sea.  (See  Impress ,  The.) 

Impressment  in  American  Ports.  In  1707 

Parliament,  by  act,  forbade  the  impressment  of 
seamen  in  American  ports  and  waters  for  priva¬ 
teering  service,  unless  of  such  sailors  as  had  pre¬ 
viously  deserted  from  ships  of  w  ar. 

Impressment  in  Boston  (1747).  Commodore 
Knowles,  w  hile  in  Boston  harbor,  in  November, 
1747,  finding  himself  short  of  men,  sent  a  press- 
gang  into  the  town  one  morning  which  seized 
and  carried  to  the  vessels  several  of  the  citizens. 
This  violence  aroused  the  populace.  Several  of 
the  naval  officers  on  shore  were  seized  by  a  mob 
and  held  as  hostages  for  their  kidnapped  coun¬ 
trymen.  They  also  surrounded  the  Town  House, 
where  the  Legislature  was  iu  session,  and  de¬ 
manded  the  release  of  the  impressed  men.  The 
governor  called  out.  the  militia,  who  reluctantly 
obeyed.  Then,  alarmed,  he  withdrew  to  the 
castle.  Knowles  offered  a  company  of  marines 


INAUGURATION  BALL 


663  INAUGURATION  OF  PRESIDENT  GRANT 


to  sustain  bis  authority,  and  threatened  to  bom¬ 
bard  the  town  if  bis  officers  were  not  released. 
The  populace  declared  that  the  governor’s  flight 
was  abdication.  Matters  became  so  serious  that 
the  influential  citizens,  who  bad  favored  the  pop¬ 
ulace,  tried  to  suppress  the  tumult.  The  As¬ 
sembly  ordered  the  release  of  the  officers,  aud 
Knowles  sent  back  most  of  the  impressed  men. 
The  authorities  attributed  the  outbreak  to  “  ne¬ 
groes  and  persons  of  vile  condition.”  This  was 
the  first  of  a  series  of  impressments  of  American 
citizens  by  British  officers  which  finally  led  to 
war.  (See  Second  War  for  Independence.) 

Inauguration  Ball.  On  the  evening  of  the 
inauguration  of  Mr.  Lincoln,  a  grand  ball  was 
given  in  honor  of  the  occasion,  in  a  large  tem¬ 
porary  building  near  the  City  Hall,  in  Wash¬ 
ington.  Several  foreign  ministers,  and  heads 
of  departments,  with  their  families,  were  pres¬ 
ent.  The  dancing  began  at  eleven  o’clock.  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Lincoln,  in  whose  honor  the  ball  was 
given,  appeared  soon  afterwards.  The  President 
entered  the  room  with  Mayor  Berret,  of  Wash¬ 
ington,  and  Mrs.  Lincoln  entered  leaning  on  the 
arm  of  Senator  Douglas.  The  incident  was  ac¬ 
cepted  as  a  proclamation  of  peace  and  friendship 
between  the  two  late  rivals  for  the  Presidency. 
Joy  and  gayety  prevailed.  Of  all  the  company 
present,  the  most  honored  aud  the  most  bur¬ 
dened  was  Abraham  Lincoln.  With  that  brill¬ 
iant  pageant  ended  the  poetry  of  Abraham  Lin¬ 
coln’s  life;  after  that,  it  was  spent  in  the  sober 
prose  of  dutiful  endeavor  to  save  and  redeem 
the  nation. 

Inauguration  of  Jefferson  Davis.  Mr.  Davis 
was  at  bis  home,  not  far  from  Vicksburg,  when 
apprised  of  his  election  as  President  of  the. Con¬ 
federacy  formed  at  Montgomery,  February,  1861. 
He  hastened  to  that  city,  and  his  journey  was 
a  continuous  ovation.  He  made  twenty- five 
speeches  on  the  way.  Members  of  the  conven¬ 
tion,  and  the  authorities  of  Montgomery  met 
him  eight  miles  from  the  city.  He  arrived  at 
the  Alabama  capital  at  eight  o’clock  at  night. 
Cannons  thundered  a  welcome,  and  the  shouts 
of  a  multitude  greeted  him.  Formally  received 
at  the  railway- station,  he  made  a  speech,  in 
which  he  briefly  reviewed  the  theu  position  of 
the  South,  and  said  the  time  for  compromises 
had  passed.  “We  are  now  determined,”  he 
said,  “to  maintain  our  position,  and  make  all 
who  oppose  us  smell  Southern  powder  and  feel  South¬ 
ern  steel.  .  .  .  We  will  maintain  our  rights  and 
our  government  at  all  hazards.  We  ask  noth¬ 
ing — we  want  nothing — and  we  will  have  no 
complications.  If  the  other  states  join  our  Con¬ 
federacy,  they  can  freely  come  in  on  our  terms. 
Our  separation  from  the  old  Union  is  complete, 
and  no  compromise,  no  reconstruction,  can  now 
he  entertained.”  The  inaugural  ceremonies  took 
place  at  noon,  Feb.  18,  on  a  platform  erected  in 
front  of  the  portico  of  the  State  House.  Davis 
and  Stephens,  with  Rev.  Dr.  Marly,  rode  in  an 
open  barouche  from  the  Exchange  Hotel  to  the 
Capitol,  followed  by  a  multitude  of  state  officials 
and  citizens.  The  oath  of  office  was  adminis¬ 
tered  to  Davis  by  Howell  Cobb,  President  of 


the  “  Congress,”  at  the  close  of  his  inaugural 
address.  In  the  evening,  in  imitation  of  the 
custom,  President  Davis  held  a  “levee”  at  Es¬ 
telle  Hall,  and  the  city  was  brilliantly  lighted 
up  by  bonfires  and  illuminations. 

Inauguration  of  President  Buchanan. 

James  Buchanan,  fifteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  inaugurated  on  March  4, 
1857.  The  day  was  clear  and  pleasant.  The 
number  of  spectators  of  the  scene  from  abroad 
was  immense,  there  being,  it  was  said,  repre¬ 
sentatives  from  every  state  in  the  Union.  The 
President  elect  moved  in  a  barouche  from  Wil¬ 
lard’s  Hotel,  escorted  by  military  under  General 
Quitman.  Mr.  Buchanan  was  accompanied  in 
his  carriage  by  President  Pierce,  and  Senators 
Bigler  and  Foote,  of  the  Committee  of  Arrange¬ 
ments.  Chief-justice  Taney  administered  the 
oath  of  office. 

Inauguration  of  President  Fillmore.  (See 
Fillmore,  Millard.) 

Inauguration  of  President  Garfield.  Gener- 
al  Garfield  was  inaugurated  March  4, 1881.  Chief- 
justice  Waite  administered  the  oath  of  office. 

Inauguration  of  President  Grant.  The 
turbulent  administration  of  President  Johnson 
closed  on  March  4,  1869,  and  Ulysses  S.  Grant 
was  inaugurated  the  eighteenth  President  of 
the  United  States.  On  the  same  day,  the  retir¬ 
ing  President  issued  a  long  address  to  his  coun¬ 
trymen  in  vindication  of  his  course  as  chief 
magistrate  of  the  Republic.  He  recited  the  most 
prominent  acts  of  his  administration,  declaring 
the  necessity  for  them;  and,  having  done  this, 
he  assailed  the  majority  of  the  Congress  with 
his  usual  vehemence  of  tone,  accusing  them  of 
acting  in  “  utter  disregard  of  the  Constitution,” 
accusing  them  of  “  preveuting  the  return  of 
peace,”  and  “  making  the  liberties  of  the  people 
and  the  rights  aud  power  of  the  President  ob¬ 
jects  of  constant  attack.”  He  charged  them 
with  the  commission  of  nearly  every  act  of  op¬ 
pression  enumerated  in  the  indictment  against 
George  III.,  of  England,  contained  in  the  Decla¬ 
ration  of  Independence,  and  added,  “This  cata¬ 
logue  of  crimes,  long  as  it  is,  is  not  yet  com¬ 
plete.”  General  Giant  was  honored  at  his  in¬ 
auguration  with  a  large  civic  and  military  dis¬ 
play,  and  an  immense  gathering  of  citizens  from 
all  parts  of  the  Union.  The  ceremonies  took 
place  at  the  eastern  front  of  the  Capitol,  as  usu¬ 
al,  at  a  little  past  noon,  when  Chief-justice  Chase 
administered  the  oath  of  office.  His  inaugural 
address  foreshadowed  the  course  of  his  adminis¬ 
tration.  He  declared  his  intention  to  have  on 
all  subjects  a  policy  to  recommend,  but  none  to 
enforce;  to  always  express  his  views  clearly  to 
Congress,  and  to  exercise  the  constitutional  pow¬ 
er  of  the  veto  whenever  his  judgment  bade  him 
interfere ;  to  treat  the  momentous  subjects  grow¬ 
ing  out  of  the  recent  civil  war  with  calmness, 
and  “without  prejudice,  hate,  or  sectional  pride.” 
He  declared  that,  to  protect  the  national  honor, 
every  dollar  of  the  public  debt  should  be  paid  in 
gold,  unless  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  contract. 
He  recommended  the  adoption  of  some  plan  for 
the  payment  of  the  debt,  and  for  the  resumption 


INAUGURATION  OF  HARRISON 


669  INAUGURATION  OF  JOHN  ADAMS 


of  specie  payments.  In  foreign  policy  he  pro¬ 
posed  to  deal  with  nations  with  equal  justice  as 
with  individuals.  He  called  attention  to  the 
Indians,  and  said  he  would  favor  any  course  that 
would  tend  to  their  civilization,  Christianiza¬ 
tion,  and  ultimate  citizenship.  He  expressed  a 
hope  that  the  question  of  suffrage  might  be 
speedily  settled  by  the  adoption  of  the  Fifteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution  (which  see). 

Inauguration  of  President  Harrison.  The 

city  of  Washington  was  thronged  with  people 
from  every  part  of  the  Union  to  witness  the  in¬ 
auguration  of  President  Harrison,  on  March  4, 
1841.  He  was  then  a  month  beyond  the  age  of 
sixty-eight  years,  yet  thei'e  was  remarkable  vig¬ 
or  in  his  movements  for  one  who  had  experi¬ 
enced  so  much  of  the  rougher  circumstances  pf 
life’s  career.  He  was  accompanied  to  the  Capi¬ 
tol  by  ex-President  Van  Buren,  in  a  carriage, 
and  on  a  platform  at  the  eastern  entrance  to 
the  building  he  delivered  his  inaugural  address, 
in  a  clear  voice,  frequently  interrupted  by  cheers. 
When  it  was  concluded,  Chief-justice  Taney  ad¬ 
ministered  the  oath  of  office,  and  then  succes¬ 
sive  cannon-peals  announced  to  the  multitude 
that  the  ninth  President  of  the  United  States 
was  duly  installed  into  office.  His  inaugural 
speech  was  well  received  by  all  parties,  and  an¬ 
other  “era  of  good  feeling”  seemed  about  to 
dawn. 

Inauguration  of  President  Hayes.  The  4  th 

of  March,  1877,  fell  on  Sunday.  President-elect 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes  was  in  Washington,  the 
gnest  of  Senator  John  Sherman.  There  had 
been  threats  made  by  the  Opposition  of  taking 
forcible  possession  of  the  Presidential  office  and 
inaugurating  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  the  rival  candi¬ 
date  for  President.  It  was  thought  best  by  the 
friends  of  the  President-elect  not  to  postpone 
the  administering  of  the  oath  of  office  to  him 
until  Monday,  as  had  been  done  in  other  cases 
when  the  time  for  inaugurating  a  new  President 
fell  on  Sunday.  Mr.  Hayes  therefore  took  the 
oath  of  office  privately,  in  Senator  Sherman’s 
house  on  Sunday,  and  on  the  following  day  the 
public  inauguration  ceremonies  were  performed 
at  the  usual  place  on  the  east  front  of  the  Capi¬ 
tol,  in  the  presence  of  an  immense  multitude  of 
people.  The  oath  of  office  was  administered  by 
Chief-justice  Waite. 

Inauguration  of  President  Jackson.  There 
were  incidents  of  peculiar  interest  connected 
with  the  inauguration  of  Andrew  Jackson,  the 
seventh  President  of  the  United  States.  Presi¬ 
dent  Adams  had  convened  the  Senate  on  the 
morning  of  March  4,  1829,  and  at  twelve  M. 
that  body  adjourned  for  one  hour.  During  that 
time  the  President-elect  entered  the  Senate- 
chamber,  having  been  escorted  from  Gadsby’s 
Hotel  by  a  few  surviving  officers  and  soldiers  of 
the  old  war  for  independence.  These  having 
addressed  him  at  the  hotel,  and  in  the  Senate- 
chamber,  in  the  presence  of  the  chief  officers  of 
government,  foreign  ministers,  and  many  ladies, 
lie  made  a  feeling  reply,  as  follows :  “  Respected 
Friends :  Your  affectionate  address  awakens  sen¬ 
timents  and  recollections  which  I  feel  with  sin- 1 


cerity  and  cherish  with  pride.  To  have  around 
my  person,  at  the  moment  of  undertaking  the 
most  solemn  of  all  duties  to  my  country,  the 
companions  of  the  immortal  Washington,  will 
afford  me  satisfaction  and  encouragement.  That 
by  my  best  endeavors  I  shall  be  able  to  exhibit 
more  than  an  imitation  of  his  labors,  a  sense  of 
my  own  imperfections  and  the  reverence  I  en¬ 
tertain  for  his  virtues  forbid  me  to  hope.  To 
you,  respected  friends,  the  survivors  of  that  he¬ 
roic  band  that  followed  him  so  long  and  so  val¬ 
iantly  on  the  path  to  glory,  I  offer  my  sincere 
thanks,  and  to  Heaven  my  prayers,  that  your  re¬ 
maining  years  may  be  as  happy  as  your  toil  and 
your  lives  have  been  illustrious.”  The  whole 
company  then  proceeded  to  the  eastern  portico 
of  the  Capitol,  where,  in  the  presence  of  a  vast 
assembly  of  citizens,  the  President-elect  deliv¬ 
ered  his  inaugural  address  and  took  the  oath  of 
office,  administered  by  Chief-justice  Marshall. 

Inauguration  of  President  Jefferson.  On 

the  morning  of  March  4,  1801,  Jefferson  was  es¬ 
corted  by  a  body  of  militia  and  a  procession 
of  citizens  to  the  Capitol,  where  the  Senate  had 
met  in  special  session,  called  some  months  be¬ 
fore  by  the  President.  Aaron  Burr,  already 
sworn  in  as  Vice-President,  gave  up  the  chair 
to  Jefferson,  taking  a  seat  at  his  right  hand. 
On  bis  left  sat  John  Marshall,  then  chief-justice, 
ready  to  administer  the  oath  of  office.  The  late 
speaker  and  ex-President  Adams  were  not  pres¬ 
ent,  the  latter  having  left  for  home  that  morn¬ 
ing  on  account  of  sickness  in  his  family.  Jeffer¬ 
son  delivered  a  carefully  written  inaugural  ad¬ 
dress,  in  which  he  pleaded  for  harmony.  “Every 
difference  of  opinion,”  he  said,  “is  not  a  differ¬ 
ence  of  principle.  Brethren  of  the  same  prin¬ 
ciple,  we  are  called  by  different  names.  We  are 
all  Republicans ;  we  ai’e  all  Federalists.” 

Inauguration  of  President  John  Adams 

(1797).  The  Senate  adjourned  to  the  chamber 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  with  Jefferson 
at  their  head,  where  a  brilliant  assemblage  of 
ladies  had  gathered  to  witness  the  inaugura¬ 
tion  of  the  second  President  of  the  Republic,  in 
the  old  State  House,  Philadelphia.  In  front  of 
the  speaker’s  chair  sat  the  chief-justice  (Jay), 
with  three  other  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  new  Vice-President  and  the  secretary  of 
the  Senate  took  seats  on  their  right;  on  the 
left  sat  the  speaker  and  clerk  of  the  House. 
The  doors  being  opened,  a  crowd  instantly  tilled 
the  galleries.  When  Washington  entered  he 
was  greeted  with  shouts  of  applause  from  all 
sides.  Being  now  a  private  citizen,  he  took  a 
seat  in  front  of  the  judges.  The  President-elect 
entered,  attended  by  the  heads  of  departments 
and  the  marshal  of  the  district,  and  was  re¬ 
ceived  with  shouts  as  ho  ascended  to  the  chair. 
In  a  few  minutes  he  arose  and  read  an  elaborate 
inaugural  address,  when  the  oath  was  adminis¬ 
tered  by  the  chief-justice.  Then  he  took  his 
seat  for  a  few  minutes,  arose,  bowed  to  all 
around,  and  retired.  The  Vice-President  fol¬ 
lowed,  and  he,  in  turn,  was  followed  by  the  ex- 
President.  It  was  the  last  time  Washington 
and  Jcffcrsou  met.  Washington  was  greeted 


INAUGURATION  OF  JOHN  Q.  ADAMS  670 


INAUGURATION  OF  MONROE 


with  prolonged  shouts  in  and  out  of  the  House,  I 
and  that  evening  (March  4, 1797)  he  was  sumpt¬ 
uously  entertained  by  the  merchants  and  oth¬ 
ers  of  Philadelphia.  He  departed  for  Mount 
Vernou  a  few  days  afterwards. 

Inauguration  of  President  John  Q.  Adams. 

At  about  half-past  twelve  o’clock  on  the  4th  of 
March,  1825,  Mr.  Adams  entered  the  Capitol,  ac¬ 
companied  by  ex-President  Monroe  and  his  fam¬ 
ily,  by  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  in  their 
robes  of  office,  and  the  members  of  the  Senate, 
preceded  by  the  Vice-President,  with  a  number 
of  the  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Mr.  Adams,  dressed  in  a  plain  suit  of  black,  as¬ 
cended  to  the  speaker’s  chair.  The  doors  of  the 
hall  of  Representatives,  in  which  the  people  had 
assembled,  being  closed,  Mr.  Adams  read  his  in¬ 
augural  address  and  immediately  afterwards  took 
the  oath  of  office,  administered  by  Chief-justice 
Marshall. 

Inauguration  of  President  Johnson.  On 

the  death  of  President  Lincoln,  Andrew  John¬ 
son,  the  Vice-President,  succeeded  him  in  office, 
in  accordance  with  t  he  provisions  of  the  Consti¬ 
tution.  At  that  time  he  occupied  rooms  at  the 
Kirkwood  House,  in  Washington.  On  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  the  death  of  Mr.  Lincoln  (April  15,  1865), 
the  cabinet  ministers,  excepting  Mr.  Seward, 
who  was  very  ill,  addressed  a  note  to  the  Vice- 
President,  officially  notifying  him  of  the  decease 
of  the  President,  and  that  the  emergency  of  the 
government  demanded  that  he  should  immedi¬ 
ately  enter  upon  the  duties  of  the  Presidency. 
Mr.  Johnson  appointed  ten  o’clock  that  morn¬ 
ing,  when  he  would  be  ready  to  take  the  oath 
of  office  at  his  rooms.  That  oath  was  duly  ad¬ 
ministered  at  the  appointed  time  by  Chief-jus¬ 
tice  Chase,  in  the  presence  of  the  cabinet  min¬ 
isters  and  several  members  of  Congress.  Then 
the  President  delivered  a  brief  speech  to  the 
gentlemen  present.  There,  in  the  midst  of  uni¬ 
versal  and  unparalleled  excitement,  the  author¬ 
ity  of  the  nation  was  quietly  transferred  to  oth¬ 
er  hands  a  few  hours  after  the  death  of  Presi¬ 
dent  Lincoln.  Mr.  Johnson  requested  Mr.  Lin¬ 
coln’s  cabinet  (which  see)  to  remain,  and  the 
government  went  on,  without  a  shock  to  its 
steady  movement. 

Inauguration  of  President  Lincoln.  Mr. 

Lincoln  arrived  in  Washington  in  the  early 
morning  of  Feb.  23, 1861,  schemes  to  prevent  his 
reaching  there  having  been  frustrated.  (See 
Lincoln ,  Plot  to  Assassinate.)  On  March  4,  1861, 
Mr.  Lincoln  was  inaugurated,  under  circum¬ 
stances  of  peculiar  interest.  In  expectation  of 
open  violence  on  the  part  of  conspirators 
against  the  life  of  the  Republic  and  its  ad¬ 
herents,  General  Scott  had  made  ample  provi¬ 
sion  for  the  preservation  of  order  by  the  strong 
arm  of  military  power.  This  fact  was  known, 
and  no  disorder  occurred.  Chief-justice  Taney 
administered  the  oath  of  office  as  quietly  as  on 
any  former  occasion.  It  was  done  at  the  east¬ 
ern  front  of  the  Capitol,  and  from  the  platform 
there  erected,  Mr.  Lincoln,  in  a  clear,  firm  voice, 
delivered  his  inaugural  address.  In  it  he  ex¬ 
pressed  the  most  kindly  feelings  towards  the 


people  of  all  parts  of  the  Union,  and  his  deter¬ 
mination  to  administer  the  government  impar¬ 
tially  for  the  protection  of  every  citizen  and  of 
every  interest.  “  I  have  no  purpose,”  he  said, 
“  directly  or  indirectly,  to  interfere  with  the  in¬ 
stitution  of  slavery  in  the  states  where  it  ex¬ 
ists.  I  believe  I  have  no  lawful  right  to  do  so, 
and  I  have  no  inclination  to  do  so.”  He  then 
discussed  the  political  structure  of  our  govern¬ 
ment,  showing  that  union  was  older  thau  the 
Constitution  ;  that  it  was  necessarily  perpetu¬ 
al  ;  that,  there  is  no  iuherent  power  in  the  whole 
or  in  part  to  terminate  it,  and  that  the  secession 
of  a  state  was  an  impossibility.  He  declared 
that  he  should  use  the  powers  intrusted  to  him 
for  the  protection  of  the  Union.  “In  this,”  he 
said,  “  there  need  be  no  bloodshed  or  violence ; 
and  there  shall  be  none,  unless  it  be  forced  upon 
the  national  authority.”  He  expressed  a  firm 
determination  “  to  hold,  occupy,  and  possess  the 
property  and  places  belonging  to  tbe  govern¬ 
ment,  and  to  collect  the  duties  and  imposts.” 

.  Inauguration  of  President  Madison.  On 

the  4th  of  March,  1809,  James  Madison,  tbe 
fourth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  in¬ 
augurated  at  Washington  city.  He  was  then 
fifty-eight  years  of  age.  The  ceremony  was  per¬ 
formed  in  the  hall  of  the  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate,  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  late  House,  the  heads  of  depart¬ 
ments,  foreign  ministers,  and  an  assemblage  of 
citizens.  The  President  was  dressed  in  a  full 
suit  of  clothes  of  American  manufacture,  from 
the  wool  of  merino  sheep,  raised  in  this  country 
from  a  flock  brought  from  Spain  by  Colonel 
Humphreys.  His  coat  was  from  the  manufac¬ 
tory  of  Colonel  Humphreys,  and  his  waistcoat 
and  breeches  from  that  of  Chancellor  Living¬ 
ston,  presents,  respectively,  of  those  gentlemen. 
George  Clinton  was  inaugurated  Vice-President 
at  the  same  time.  The  oath  of  office  was  ad¬ 
ministered  to  Madison  by  Chief-justice  John 
Marshall.  In  the  evening  the  citizens  of  Wash¬ 
ington  and  the  members  of  Congress  indulged 
in  a  ball  or  dancing  assembly  in  honor  of  the 
occasion. 

Inauguration  of  President  Monroe  (1817). 
The  President-elect,  accompanied  by  the  Vice- 
President,  D.  D.  Tompkins,  left  the  residence  of 
the  former,  attended  by  a  vast  concourse  of  citi¬ 
zens,  on  horseback,  under  the  guidance  of  a  mar¬ 
shal  appointed  for  the  occasion,  and  proceeded  to 
the  Senate-chamber  in  the  Capitol,  where  the  oath 
of  office  was  administered  to  the  Vice-President 
before  the  Senate,  then  in  session.  This  done, 
the  Senate  adjourned,  and  the  President,  Vice- 
President,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  the 
senators  present,  accompanied  by  ex-President 
Madison,  proceeded  to  an  elevated  portico  tem¬ 
porarily  erected  for  the  purpose,  where,  in  the 
presence  of  a  vast  assemblage  of  citizens  and 
strangers,  including  government  officers  and 
foreign  ministers,  he  delivered  his  inaugural 
address.  Then  the  oath  of  office  was  adminis¬ 
tered  by  Chief-justice  Marshall  (March  4, 1817), 
and  the  new  President  entered  upon  his  impor¬ 
tant  duties.  The  tone  of  his  inaugural  address 


INAUGURATION  OF  PIERCE 


671  INAUGURATION  OF  YAN  BUREN 


was  so  patriotic  and  conciliatory  that  it  was  re¬ 
ceived  with  almost  universal  satisfaction. 

Inauguration  of  President  Pierce.  A  disa¬ 
greeable  storm  of  sleet  and  rain  prevailed  at 
Washington  city  on  the  day  of  the  inauguration 
of  Franklin  Pierce  as  President  of  the  United 
States,  March  4,  1853.  It  was  estimated  that 
the  population  of  Washington  and  Georgetown 
had  been  increased  full  twenty  thousand  with¬ 
in  a  week  of  that  event.  The  military  array  on 
that  occasion  was  on  a  scale  grander  than  any 
that  had  preceded  it.  General  Pierce  rode  to 
the  Capitol  in  a  barouche,  with  President  Fill¬ 
more  and  Senators  Bright  and  Hamlin.  The 
Vice-President-elect  was  too  ill  to  be  present, 
and  died  a  little  more  than  a  month  later  (April 
17, 1853).  The  usual  proceedings  of  inaugurat¬ 
ing  a  Vice-President  were  dispensed  with,  and 
the  President’s  party,  diplomatic  corps,  and  gov¬ 
ernment  officers  proceeded  directly  to  a  plat¬ 
form  at  the  eastern  entrance  to  the  Capitol, 
where  General  Pierce  took  the  oath  of  office, 
administered  by  Chief-justice  Taney,  and  then 
delivered  his  inaugural  address.  Salvos  of  ar¬ 
tillery  announced  the  conclusion  of  the  cere¬ 
monies,  and  the  new  President  repaired  to  the 
White  House,  or  presidential  mansion.  The 
oath  of  office  was  afterwards  administered  to 
Mr.  King  at  Matanzas  by  the  United  States  con¬ 
sul.  Then  he  retired  to  his  residence,  near  Sel¬ 
ma,  Ala.,  w  here  he  died. 

Inauguration  of  President  Polk.  The  weath¬ 
er,  on  the  4th  of  March,  1845,  w  hen  James  Knox 
Polk  was  inaugurated  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  inclement;  yet  an  immense  multi¬ 
tude  of  his  fellow'-citizeus  were  in  Washington 
to  witness  the  ceremony.  It  was  low’ery  in  the 
morning,  and  tow  ards  noon,  before  the  proces¬ 
sion  reached  the  Capitol,  rain  began  to  fall, 
which  diminished  the  intended  exhibition  and 
display  on  the  occasion.  The  inaugural  proces¬ 
sion  moved  about  eleven  A.M.,  from  the  quar¬ 
ters  of  the  President-elect  at  Coleman’s  Hotel, 
under  the  direction  of  General  McCall  and  his 
aids.  It  was  composed  of  military  corps  and 
civilians.  The  President-elect  and  Mr.  Tyler 
rode  together  in  an  open  barouche.  They  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  the  Senate -chamber,  where  the  Vice- 
Presideut,  George  M.  Dallas,  had  taken  the  oath 
of  office.  Thence  all  proceeded  to  a  platform  at 
the  eastern  entrance  to  the  Capitol,  where  Mr. 
Polk  delivered  his  inaugural  address.  Chief- 
justice  Taney  then  administered  the  oath  of  of¬ 
fice,  and  during  the  afternoon  the  new  President 
received  the  congratulations  of  his  fellow'-citi- 
zens.  In  the  evening  he  and  his  wife  attended 
the  two  inauguration  balls  given  in  the  city. 

Inauguration  of  President  Taylor.  The  4  th 
of  March,  1849,  fulling  on  Sunday,  Zachary  Tay¬ 
lor,  the  twelfth  President  of  the  United  States, 
was  inaugurated  on  Monday,  the  5th.  There 
was  a  greater  number  of  people  present  at  that 
ceremony,  from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  than 
there  had  ever  been  before  on  a  like  occasion. 
The  bells  of  the  city  of  Washington  rang  out 
merry  peals  on  that  morning,  and  the  streets  re¬ 
sounded  with  martial  music.  At  nine  o’clock 


one  hundred  citizens,  who  officiated  as  marshals, 
proceeded  in  a  body  to  Willard’s  Hotel,  for  the 
purpose  of  paying  their  respects  to  General  Tay¬ 
lor.  The  President-elect,  dressed  in  a  plain  black 
suit,  was  borne  in  a  carriage  to  the  Capitol,  ac¬ 
companied  by  ex- President  Polk,  R.  C.  Win- 
throp,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  Mayor  Seaton,  of  Washington.  The  car¬ 
riage  was  drawn  by  four  horses.  The  Senate 
was  convened  at  eleven  o’clock,  when  Mr.  Fill¬ 
more  took  the  oath  of  office  as  Vice-President, 
in  the  presence  of  the  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  foreign  representatives.  At  a  little 
past  twelve  o’clock  President-elect  Taylor  ap¬ 
peared  and  took  a  seat,  and,  after  a  pause  of  a 
fewr  minutes,  the  whole  company  proceeded  to  a 
platform  at  the  eastern  entrance  to  the  Capitol, 
where,  at  one  o’clock,  the  new'  chief  magistrate 
delivered  his  inaugural  address,  in  the  presence 
of  an  immense  multitude  of  his  fellow-citizens. 
Then  Chief-justice  Taney  administered  the  oath 
of  office.  These  ceremonies  were  ended  by  sal¬ 
vos  of  artillery,  and  the  President  proceeded  im¬ 
mediately  to  the  White  House  (the  presidential 
mansion),  w  here  he  received  the  friendly  salutes 
of  thousands  of  citizens. 

Inauguration  of  President  Tyler.  In  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  the  Vice-President,  John  Tyler,  succeeded 
to  the  office  of  the  deceased  President  Harrison. 
Mr.  Tyler  was  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  at  the  time. 
The  cabinet  jointly  sent  a  letter  to  him,  by  the 
hand  of  Fletcher  Webster,  acquainting  him  of 
the  death  of  the  President.  By  great  despatch 
both  ways  the  Vice-President  arrived  at  the 
capital  at  four  o’clock  on  April  6  (1845),  and  at 
twelve  M.  he  was  waited  upon  by  the  cabinet, 
when  he  took  the  oath  of  office  as  President, 
administered  by  Judge  Cranch,  of  the  Circuit 
Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia.  After  the 
funeral  of  the  dead  President,  Mr.  Tyler  issued 
an  inaugural  address  to  the  people,  through  the 
press,  which  gave  general  satisfaction.  He  re¬ 
tained  the  cabinet  of  President  Harrison  (w  hich 
see). 

Inauguration  of  President  Van  Buren  took 
place  at  the  national  Capitol,  March  4, 1837.  It 
was  a  beautiful  day  at  Washington,  and  the 
President-elect  took  his  seat,  with  his  venerable 
predecessor,  in  a  phaeton  made  of  wood  from  the 
frigate  Constitution,  and  presented  to  Jackson  by 
the  democracy  of  New  York.  They  were  escort¬ 
ed  from  the  President’s  house  to  the  Capitol, 
through  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  by  a  body  of 
cavalry  and  infantry,  and  accompanied  by  an 
immense  concourse  of  citizens.  After  reaching 
the  Senate-chamber,  Mr.  Van  Buren,  attended 
by  the  ex-President,  the  members  of  the  Senate, 
of  the  cabinet,  and  the  diplomatic  corps,  led  the 
way  to  the  rostrum  erected  at  the  ascent  to  the 
eastern  portico  of  the  Capitol,  where  lie  delivered 
his  inaugural  address  in  clear  and  impressive 
tones,  and  in  an  easy  and  eloquent  manner.  At 
the  close  of  the  address  the  oath  of  office  was 
administered  by  Chief-justice  Taney.  The  tone 
of  his  inaugural  address  satisfied  the  people  that 
in  the  administration  of  Van  Buren  there  w  ould 


INAUGURATION  OF  WASHINGTON  672  INCAS  OF  PERU,  EMPIRE  OF  THE 


be  no  change  in  policy  from  that  of  President 
Jackson. 

Inauguration  of  President  Washington, 

who  was  elected  the  first  chief- magistrate  of 
the  United  States  under  the  national  Constitu¬ 
tion,  with  John  Adams  as  Vice-President.  Pres¬ 
idential  electors  were  chosen  by  the  people  in 
the  autumn  of  1788,  who  met  in  electoral  col¬ 
lege  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  February,  1789, 
and  chose  the  President  and  Vice-President. 
His  election  was  announced  to  him  by  Charles 
Thomson,  who  had  been  sent  to  Mount  Vernon 
for  the  purpose,  with  a  letter  from  John  Lang- 
don, pro  tempore  President  of  the  Senate.  Thom¬ 
son  arrived  on  April  14,  1789.  Washington  ac¬ 
cepted  the  office,  and  towards  evening  the  same 
day  rode  rapidly  to  Fredericksburg  to  bid 'fare¬ 
well  to  his  aged  mother.  On  the  morning  of 
the  16th,  accompanied  by  Thomson,  Colonel 
Humphreys,  and  his  favorite  body-servant,  he 
began  his  journey  towards  New  York,  every¬ 
where  on  the  way  greeted  with  demonstrations 
of  reverence  and  affection.  He  was  received  at 
New  York  with  great  honors,  and  on  the  30th 
of  April  he  took  the  oath  of  office  as  President 
of  the  United  States,  administered  by  Robert  R. 
Livingston,  Chancellor  of  the  State  of  NewT  York. 
The  ceremony  took  place  in  the  open  outside 
gallery  of  the  old  City  Hall,  on  the  corner  of 
Wall  and  Nassau  Streets,  in  the  presence  of 
both  Houses  of  Congress  and  a  vast  multitude 
of  citizens.  He  was  dressed  in  a  plain  suit  of 
dark-brown  cloth  and  white  silk  stockings,  all 
of  American  manufacture.  He  never  wore  a 
wig.  His  ample  hair  was  powdered  and  dressed 
in  the  fashion  of  the  day,  clubbed  and  ribboned. 
After  taking  the  oath  and  kissing  the  sacred 
volume  on  which  he  had  laid  his  hands,  he  rev¬ 
erently  closed  his  eyes,  and  in  an  attitude  of  de¬ 
votion  said,  “  So  help  me,  God!”  The  chancel¬ 
lor  said,  “  It  is  done !”  And  then,  turning  to  the 
people,  he  shouted,  “  Long  live  George  Washing¬ 
ton,  the  first  President  of  the  United  States.” 
The  shout  was  echoed  and  re-echoed  by  the 
populace,  when  Washington  and  the  members 
of  Congress  retired  to  the  Senate  -  chamber, 
wffiere  the  President  delivered  a  most  impres¬ 
sive  inaugural  address.  Then  he  and  the  mem¬ 
bers  went  in  procession  to  St.  Paul’s  Chapel, 
and  there  invoked  the  blessings  of  Almighty 
God  upon  the  new  government. 

Incas.  These  ancient  rulers  of  Peru  first  be¬ 
came  known  to  Europeans  by  rumor,  and  then 
by  conquest,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Their  empire  extended  from  Quito,  in  Ecuador, 
on  the  north,  to  Tucuman,  in  the  Argentine  Re¬ 
public,  on  the  south,  and  eastward  to  the  sum¬ 
mit  of  the  Andes  and  beyond.  The  first  Inca, 
tradition  says,  was  Manco  Capac,  who  appeared 
on  an  island  in  Lake  Titicaca.  He  founded 
Cuzco,  and  that  was  the  seat  of  the  Inca  em¬ 
pire.  Capac  introduced  a  knowledge  of  the 
arts  and  promoted  civilization.  His  advent  is 
supposed  to  be  at  about  the  time  when  the 
Northmen  discovered  America  (see  Northmen), 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  The 
empire,  extended  by  conquest  and  annexation, 


included  many  nations.  Of  these,  the  Quicli- 
nas  were  dominant,  for  from  that,  tribe  the 
Incas  sprung.  Their  last  conquest  was  the 
annexation  of  Quito,  which  produced  a  civil 
war  that  made  the  Spanish  conquest  of  the 
whole  empire  in  1532  an  easy  matter.  It  was 
done  by  a  few  Spaniards  led  by  an  illiterate 
and  cruel  adventurer  named  Pizarro.  (See  Pi- 
zarro.)  The  kingdom  was  destroyed  and  the 
dynasty  of  the  Incas  was  blotted  out.  The  In¬ 
cas  claimed  to  have  descended  from  the  sun, 
and  worshipped  that  luminary.  They  culti¬ 
vated  the  arts,  indulged  in  poetry,  kept  records 
by  means  of  knotted  cords,  were  diligent  agri¬ 
culturists,  and  ruled  despotically,  yet  wisely. 
The  supreme  Inca  had  wives  and  concubines, 
and  his  eldest  son  by  his  sister  or  other  nearest 
of  kin  was  his  successor.  The  inhabitants  were 
divided  into  groups  of  ten  thousand,  over  whom 
a  governor  Inca  ruled,  and  all  industry  was  reg¬ 
ulated  by  the  state  with  as  much  liberty  as  pos¬ 
sible.  Every  individual  had  a  right  to  as  much 
land  as  would  support  life.  They  had  just  laws, 
the  arts  flourished,  and  the  Incas  left  monuments 
of  skill  and  industry  in  aqueducts  and  a  great 
highway  upon  the  Andes  that  excite  the  wonder 
of  the  traveller  to  this  day. 

Incas  of  Peru,  Empire  of  the,  overthrown. 
Among  the  conquerors  of  the  West  India  islands 
and  Central  America  were  Francisco  Pizarro  and 
Diego  de  Almagro.  The  success  of  Cortez  in¬ 
spired  these  men  to  attempt  greater  conquests. 
Pizarro  was  with  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  (see 
Nunez )  when  the  latter  discovered  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  there  received  hints  of  the  opulent 
countries  farther  south  on  the  coast  of  that 
ocean.  He  and  Almagro  associated  themselves 
with  a  wealthy  priest  at  Panama  (Hernando  de 
Luque),  and  took  a  joint  oath  that  they  would 
never  forsake  each  other  until  they  had  fully 
conquered  that  country.  Pizarro  first,  and  Al¬ 
magro  afterwards,  sailed  for  Peru ;  and  both 
w  ere  repulsed  and  compelled  to  leave  the  coun¬ 
try.  Pizarro  then  went  to  Spain,  and  received 
from  the  monarch  a  commission  as  governor 
and  captain-general  of  all  the  country  which  he 
had  discovered,  and  was  vested  with  supreme 
authority.  Pizarro  returned,  and,  joining  his 
associates  at  Panama,  they  fitted  out  three  ves¬ 
sels,  with  one  hundred  and  eighty  soldiers,  and 
sailed  in  February,  1531,  to  conquer  the  empire 
of  the  Incas.  They  marched  steadily  along  the 
coast  after  landing,  plundering  the  principal 
settlements,  but  were  kept  at  bay  six  months 
on  the  Bay  of  Guayaquil  by  the  valor  of  the  in¬ 
habitants.  They  w  ere  reinforced  by  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  thirty  men  soon  afterwards.  Near 
the  mouth  of  the  River  Piuro  Pizarro  estab¬ 
lished  the  first  Spanish  colony  in  Peru.  With 
a  small  train  of  followers  (sixty-two  horse  and 
one  hundred  and  six  foot,  telling  them  his  ob¬ 
ject  was  “  to  propagate  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  and  not  to  injure  any  one”), Pizarro  push¬ 
ed  forward  towards  Caxamalca,  one  of  the  seats 
of  the  Inca  power,  near  which  Atahualpa,  the 
reigning  monarch  of  Peru,  was  encamped  with 
a  considerable  body  of  soldiers.  The  Inca  sent 
a  deputation  to  welcome  Pizarro.  The  latter, 


INDEPENDENCE 


INCAS  OF  PERU,  EMPIRE  OF  THE  673 


feigning  warm  friendship  for  Atahualpa,  and 
assuiniug  the  character  of  an  ambassador  from 
a  powerful  monarch,  entered  the  town,  and  in¬ 
vited  the  Inca  to  an  audience  the  next  day,  that 
Pizarro  might  renew  his  assurances  of  friend¬ 
ship.  Meanwhile  the  treacherous  Spaniard  dis¬ 
posed  his  troops  so  as  to  seize  the  Inca  and  carry 
him  to  camp  a  prisoner.  Atahualpa  appeared 
in  great  pomp  and  splendor,  sitting  on  a  throne 
overlaid  with  plates  of  gold  and  silver,  gar¬ 
nished  with  precious  stones  and  adorned  with 
plumes.  He  was  borne  upon  the  shoulders  of 
attendants,  and  was  followed  by  several  officers 
of  his  court  and  bands  of  singers  and  dancers. 
At  the  same  time  the  plain  became  hlled  with 
about  thirty  thousand  troops.  As  the  Inca  ap¬ 
proached,  Father  Val verde,  chaplain  of  the  ex¬ 
pedition,  advanced  with  a  crucifix  in  one  hand 
and  a  breviary  in  the  other,  and  expounded  the 
doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith.  He  told  the 
Inca  of  the  Pope  and  his  gift  to  the  monarch  of 
Spain  of  all  lands  in  the  West  (see  Pope’s  Gift) ; 
required  him  to  become  a  Christian ;  to  ac¬ 
knowledge  the  supreme  jurisdiction  of  the 
Pope;  and  to  acknowledge  the  King  of  Spain 
as  his  lawful  sovereign.  Atahualpa  rejected 
all  these  proposals  with  scorn  and  indignation, 
and  asked  the  priest  where  he  had  heard  of  the 
right  of  a  foreigner  to  take  possession  of  the 
country  of  the  Incas.  “  In  this  book,”  said  Val- 
verde,  handing  Atahualpa  the  breviary.  The 
Inca  held  it  to  his  ear,  and,  casting  it  upon  the 
ground  in  disdain,  said,  “This  is  silent;  it  tells 
me  nothing.”  The  enraged  monk  ran  to  his 
countrymen  and  cried  out,  “To  arms,  Christians ! 
to  arms  !  The  word  of  God  is  insulted.  Avenge 
this  profanation  on  these  impious  dogs.”  Pi¬ 
zarro  gave  the  word,  and  a  furious  assault  be¬ 
gan.  The  astouislied  Peruvians  fled  without 
making  any  resistance.  Pizarro  pressed  for¬ 
ward  on  horseback  through  the  crowd  of  no¬ 
bles,  and,  dragging  the  Inca  to  the  ground,  car¬ 
ried  him  away  a  prisoner  to  the  quarters  of  the 
Spaniards.  The  Peruvians  were  pursued  and 
slaughtered  with  great  barbarity  until  night 
fell  upon  the  scene.  About  five  thousand  of 
them  were  killed.  The  Inca  found  that  gold 
was  the  object  of  this  pretended  friendly  em¬ 
bassy,  and  he  offered,  as  a  ransom,  to  fill  the 
room  in  which  he  was  confined  with  vessels  of 
gold  to  a  certain  height.  They  were  brought, 
and  amounted  in  value,  when  melted  down,  to 
$17,500,000.  After  this  immense  sum  was  di¬ 
vided  among  the  victors  the  Inca  demanded  his 
release.  Pizarro  had  determined  to  have  the 
kingdom.  He  made  charges  against  Atahualpa 
— some  true,  some  false ;  among  others,  that  he 
had  incited  his  subjects  to  take  up  arms  against 
the  Spaniards,  and  that  he  was  an  idolater.  For 
these  offences  he  was  tried  and  condemned  to 
be  burned  alive.  Amazed,  the  Inca  begged  for 
his  life,  and  to  be  sent  to  Spain.  Pizarro  si¬ 
lenced  his  entreaties  by  ordering  an  immediate 
execution  of  the  sentence.  At  that  critical  mo¬ 
ment  Father  Yalverde,  intent  upon  effecting  the 
conversion  of  this  heathen,  promised  him  a  mit¬ 
igation  of  the  horrid  death  if  he  would  become 
a  Christian.  Atahualpa  thereupon  desired  to 
I.— 43 


be  baptized.  This  done,  instead  of  being  burn¬ 
ed,  he  was  strangled  at  the  stake  (Aug.  29, 1533). 
“An  evidence  of  God’s  mercy,”  said  a  Spanish 
historian.  Pizarro  now  forced  his  way  to  Cuz¬ 
co — the  Holy  City — (November,  1533),  the  an¬ 
cient  capital,  which  contained  a  magnificent 
Temple  of  the  Sun  and  nearly  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants.  Pizarro  took  possession 
of  it  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the 
amount  of  gold  and  silver  which  he  found  there 
nearly  equalled  that  of  the  ransom  of  Ata- 
hualpa.  The  empire  of  the  Incas  was  now  over¬ 
turned,  and  Pizarro  founded  Lima,  nearer  the 
sea,  as  the  capital  of  Peru. 

Independence,  First  Proposition  in  Con¬ 
gress  for.  In  a  debate  in  the  Continental 
Congress  ( February,  1776 )  on  the  subject  of 
opening  the  American  ports  to  commerce,  the 
power  of  a  nationality  became  a  topic.  Roger 
Sherman  wished  first  to  procure  a  protective 
treaty  with  some  foreign  power.  Benjamin 
Harrison  said,  indicating  a  desire  for  indepen¬ 
dence,  “  We  have  hobbled  on  under  a  fatal  at¬ 
tachment  to  Great  Britain.  I  feel  that  attach¬ 
ment  as  much  as  any  man,  but  I  feel  a  stronger 
one  for  my  country.”  His  colleague,  George 
Wythe,  said,  “It  is  too  true,  our  ships  may  be 
taken  unless  we  provide  a  remedy ;  but  we  may 
authorize  vessels  to  arm,  and  we  may  give  let- 
ters-of-marque  and  reprisal.  We  may  also  invite 
foreigu  powers  to  make  treaties  of  commerce 
with  us ;  but  before  this  measure  is  adopted  it 
is  to  be  considered  in  what  character  we  shall 
treat — as  subjects  of  Great  Britain  ?  as  rebels  ? 
No ;  we  must  declare  ourselves  a  free  people.” 
Then  he  moved  a  resolution  “  That  the  colonies 
have  a  right  to  contract  alliances  with  foreign 
powers.”  A  timid  member  said,  “  Why,  this  is 
independence.”  Seven  colonies  decided  to  con¬ 
sider  the  motion,  but  nothing  more  was  done  at 
that  time.  This  was  between  three  and  four 
mouths  before  Lee  offered  his  resolution  for  in¬ 
dependence  (which  see). 

Independence  in  the  British  Parliament. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  had  lost  Amer¬ 
ica  many  friends  in  England,  for  it  aroused  the 
national  spirit  against  the  attempt  to  dismem¬ 
ber  the  British  empire.  But  there  were  still 
warm  friends  to  the  American  cause  amoug 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  king, 
having  heard  of  Howe’s  success  on  Long  Island, 
felt  assured  of  soon  suppressing  the  rebellion ; 
and  in  his  opening  speech  on  the  assembling  of 
Parliament  (October,  1776),  expressed  a  desire 
to  restore  “to  the  Americans  the  blessings  of 
law  and  liberty,”  of  which  their  fanatical  lead¬ 
ers  had  deprived  them.  A  warm  debate  ensued, 
in  which  Charles  James  Fox  boldly  took  ground 
in  favor  of  the  independence  of  the  Americans. 
“  The  administration,”  he  said,  “  deserve  noth¬ 
ing  but  reproach  for  having  brought  the  Amer¬ 
icans  into  such  a  situation  that  it  is  impossible 
for  them  to  pursue  any  other  conduct  than  what 
they  have  pursued.  In  declaring  independence, 
they  have  done  no  more  than  the  English  did 
against  James  II.  .  .  .  But  if  this  happy  time  of 
‘  law  and  liberty  ’  is  to  be  restored  to  Americans, 


INDEPENDENCE,  LONGINGS  FOR  674  INDEPENDENCE,  RESOLUTION  OF 


why  was  it  ever  disturbed?  It  reigned  there 
till  the  abominable  doctrine  of  gaining  money 
by  taxes  infatuated  the  heads  of  our  statesmen. 
Why  did  you  destroy  the  fair  work  of  so  many 
ages  in  order  to  re-establish  it  by  the  bayonets 
of  disciplined  Germans  ?  If  we  are  reduced  to 
the  dilemma  of  conquering  or  abandoning  Amer¬ 
ica,  I  am  for  abandoning  America.”  The  sagac¬ 
ity  and  fearlessness  of  Fox,  then  only  twenty- 
seven  years  of  age,  made  him  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  his 
speech  above  alluded  to  was  highly  lauded  by 
Burke  and  Gibbon.  Yet  he  was  not  a  states¬ 
man — only  a  great  speaker.  He  was  licentious, 
dissipated,  and  without  strong  moral  convic¬ 
tions,  and  loved  to  be  talked  about. 

Independence,  Longings  for.  During  the 
long  quarrel  between  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies,  to  1776,  the  latter  had  honestly  dis¬ 
claimed  any  desire  for  political  independence 
of  Great  Britain.  They  felt  a  pride  iu  being  a 
part  of  the  British  empire;  but  when  the  king 
and  Parliament  had  declared  the  colonists  reb¬ 
els,  the  royal  governor  had  abdicated,  fleets  and 
armies  had  come  to  compel  them  to  submit  to 
oppressive  laws,  and  German  mercenaries  had 
been  hired  to  fight  and  crush  them,  their  re¬ 
spectful  petitions  treated  w  ith  disdain,  and  sub¬ 
mission  had  become  a  synonym  of  slavery, 
there  was  a  spontaneous  desire  and  bold  ex¬ 
pression  for  independence  throughout  the  colo¬ 
nies.  A  few  men  like  Samuel  Adams  had  de¬ 
sired  it  from  the  beginning;  now, early  in  1776, 
Samuel  Adams  found  the  people  with  him. 
Washington  and  other  military  leaders  did  not 
hesitate  to  express  their  wishes  for  indepen¬ 
dence.  “  When  I  took  command  of  the  army 
(July,  1775),”  Washington  wrote,  “I  abhorred 
the  idea  of  independence ;  but  I  am  now  fully 
convinced  nothing  else  will  save  us.”  Thomas 
Paine’s  Commoti  Sense  (which  see)  gave  powerful 
impetus  to  the  idea.  Legislative  bodies  soon 
began  to  move  iu  the  matter.  The 
Continental  Congress  was  firm  at 
heart,  but  timorous  in  action.  In 
January  (1776)  Dr.  Franklin  tried  to 
get  a  day  set  for  the  consideration 
of  his  plan  for  a  confederation,  but 
the  privilege  was  denied.  Their  con¬ 
stituents  everywhere  were  ahead  of 
the  representatives;  but  in  February, 
when  it  was  proposed  to  Congress  to 
send  out  an  address  disclaiming  all 
ideas  of  independence,  there  was  a 
general  expression  of  disgust  and  re¬ 
sentment.  It  was  presented  by  Wil¬ 
son,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  a  long,  ill- 
written  draught  of  an  address  to  his 
constituents.  Harrison  and  Wythe, 
of  Virginia,  both  spoke  warmly 
against  it,  and  the  latter  offered  a 
brief  resolution  (see  Independence, 

First  Proposition  in  Congress  for), 
which  made  timid  members  start  in 
alarm,  for  it  meant  independence ;  but  the  resolu¬ 
tion  w'as  adopted.  As  the  spring  advanced  other 
measures  having  the  same  tendency  were  adopt¬ 
ed  by  Congress.  The  Committee  of  Secret  Cor¬ 


respondence  (which  see)  appointed  Silas  Deane 
a  political  and  commercial  agent  to  operate  in 
France  and  elsewhere ;  and  finally  a  resolution 
for  independence  was  passed  (June,  1776)  by  the 
Congress.  Of  the  colonial  authorities,  those  of 
Massachusetts  and  North  Carolina  were  the  first 
to  act  officially.  The  Provincial  Congress  author¬ 
ized  (April  22,  1776)  their  delegates  iu  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress  “to  concur”  with  others  in 
“  declaring  independence.”  On  the  next  day  the 
people  of  Massachusetts  did  the  same.  Those 
of  Rhode  Island  and  Virginia  instructed  their 
representatives  to  propose  independence.  The 
delegates  from  Connecticut  were  instructed  to 
assent  to  it.  The  Provincial  Congress  of  New 
Hampshire  issued  similar  instructions.  The 
delegates  of  New  Jersey  were  left  to  act  as  they 
pleased.  The  New  York  Congress  took  no  ac¬ 
tion.  Neither  did  the  authorities  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  give  any  instructions  in  the  matter.  The 
Maryland  convention,  at  the  close  of  May,  for¬ 
bade  their  delegates  votiug  for  independence ; 
but  at  the  close  of  June  they  were  in  accord 
with  Virginia.  Delaware,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia  took  no  official  action  on  the  subject. 
By  the  first  of  June  (1776)  a  great  majority  of 
the  colonists  were  longing  for  independence. 

Independence  of  the  United  States,  Ac¬ 
knowledgment  of,  by  European  Powers. 
France,  by  treaty,  acknowledged  their  indepen¬ 
dence  in  February,  1778;  Holland  in  April,  1782; 

:  Sweden  iu  February,  1783;  Denmark  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  Spain  in  March,  and  Russia  in  July,  1782; 
and  Great  Britain  in  1783.  (See  Treaty  of  Peace.) 

Independence,  Resolution  of  Congress 
on.  Virginia  had  instructed  her  representa¬ 
tives  in  Congress  to  propose  independence. 
On  the  7th  of  June,  1776,  Richard  Henry  Lee 
offered  in  that  body  the  following  resolution : 
“That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  light 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states,  and 


THE  STATE  HOUSE  AS  IT  APPEARED  IX  1774. 

(From  a  vignette  on  an  old  map  of  Philadelphia.) 

that  all  political  connection  between  us  and 
the  State  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be, 
totally  dissolved.”  It  was  instantly  seconded 
by  John  Adams.  To  shield  him  and  Lee  from 


INDIAN  CESSIONS  OF  LAND 


“  INDEPENDENT  REFLECTOR,”  THE  675 


ministerial  wratli  as  arch-rebels,  the  Secretary 
of  Cougress  was  directed  to  omit  their  names  in 
the  entry  on  the  journal,  and  that  record  simply 
declared  that  “  certain  resolutions  respecting  in¬ 
dependence  being  moved  and  seconded,”  it  was 
resolved  that  the  further  consideration  of  them 
should  be  postponed  until  the  next  day.  The 
postponement  was  extended  to  the  2d  of  July, 
on  which  day  it  was  adopted  by  a  vote  of  eleven 
colonies  in  the  affirmative.  The  representatives 
of  Pennsylvania  were  divided,  four  of  the  seven 
delegates  voting  in  favor  of  it,  and  three  against 
it.  The  two  delegates  from  Delaware,  present, 
were  divided.  At  that  time  the  meeting-place 
of  the  Continental  Cougress  was  in  a  large  room 
on  the  lower  floor  of  the  State  House  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  which  has  since  been  known  as  “Inde¬ 
pendence  Hall.”  (See  Declaration  of  Indepen¬ 
dence.  ) 

“Independent  Reflector,”  The,  was  estab¬ 
lished  as  a  weekly  magazine,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  by  James  Parker.  It  was  neatly  printed 
on  foolscap  paper,  and  contained  moral  and  po¬ 
litical  essays,  but  no  current  news.  Its  first 
number  was  issued  on  Thursday,  Nov.  30,  1752, 
and  it  continued  about  two  years.  Its  papers 
were  contributed  by  a  society  of  literary  gentle¬ 
men  in  and  near  New  York,  the  principal  of  whom 
Avere  William  Livingston,  President  Aaron  Burr, 
John  Morin  Scott,  William  Alexander  (Lord 
Stirling),  and  William  Smith,  who  died  chief- 
justice  of  Canada.  It  finally  gave  great  offence 
to  the  crown  officers  in  the  colonies,  and  their 
threats  so  intimidated  Parker  that  he  refused 
to  print  it  any  longer,  and  it  was  discontinued. 
The  writer  had  spared  no  party — -social,  politi¬ 
cal,  or  religious — and  the  editor-in-chief  (the  un¬ 
known  William  Livingston)  was  denounced  in 
private  circles  as  an  infidel  and  libertine,  and  from 
the  pulpit  as  the  Gog  and  Magog  of  the  Apoca¬ 
lypse.  The  mayor  of  the  city,  who  had  felt  the 
scorching  heat  of  the  Reflector ,  recommended  the 
grand  jury  to  present  it  as  a  libel  and  nuisance, 
and  the  editor  was  publicly  charged  with  pro¬ 
fanity,  irreligion,  and  sedition.  In  the  spring  of 
1753,  Livingston  (still  unknown)  violently  as¬ 
sailed  the  Episcopalians  in  the  Reflector.  The 
occasion  was  the  effort  (which  was  successful) 
of  establishing  King’s  (now  Columbia)  College 
under  the  control  of  the  Episcopalians.  Liv¬ 
ingston  was  one  of  the  small  minority  of  the 
trustees,  and  it  was  his  pen  that  furnished  the 
papers  under  different  signatures  in  the  Reflector, 
in  which  (March,  1753)  he  opened  his  batteries 
upon  the  Anglican  Church.  Violent  opposition 
immediately  appeared,  in  which  the  pens  of 
Johnson,  Barclay,  Auchmuty,  and  other  church¬ 
men  were  employed.  The  Reflector  was  discon¬ 
tinued  Nov.  22,  1753,  at  its  fifty-second  number. 
For  his  services  in  opposing  the  pretensions  of 
the  Episcopalians,  the  Synod  of  Connecticut 
voted  thanks  to  Livingston  ;  and  in  Gaines’s  New 
Torlc  Mercury  he  was  lampooned  in  a  poem  of 
two  hundred  lines,  in  which  the  anonymous 
writer  thus  alluded  to  the  mysterious  editor  of 
the  Reflector : 

“Some  think  him  a  Tindall .  some  think  him  a  Chubb. 

Some  think  him  a  Ranter ,  that  spouts  from  his  Tub; 


Some  think  him  a  Newton ,  some  think  him  a  Locke. , 

Some  think  him  a  Stone ,  some  think  him  a  Stock — 

But  a  Stock,  he,  at  least,  may  thank  nature  for  giving, 

And  if  he’s  a  Stone ,  I  pronounce  it  a  Living.” 

Indian  Allies  of  the  Americans  (1814).  In 
March,  1814,  a  council  of  the  Northern  Indian 
tribes  was  convened  at  Dayton,  O.,  at  which 
those  present  were  required,  as  an  earnest  of 
their  peaceful  intentions,  to  take  up  arms  against 
the  British,  with  the  pay  of  seventy-five  cents  a 
day  to  each  warrior.  Another  council,  more  nu¬ 
merously  attended,  gathered  at  the  old  council- 
ground  of  Greenville  (June  and  July,  1814),  Avhen 
the  Indian  boundary-lines,  as  they  existed  be¬ 
fore  the  war,  were  confirmed.  After  that  the 
Wyandots,  Delawares,  Senecas,  Shawnoese,  and 
most  of  the  Miamis  joined  in  the  war-dance  and 
took  up  arms  as  required.  A  large  body  of  the 
barbarian  allies  soon  assembled  at  Detroit ;  but 
after  one  or  two  inroads  into  Canada,  they  were 
dismissed  as  troublesome, expensive,  and  useless. 

Indian  Allies  of  the  Confederates.  West  of 
Arkansas  lie  the  Indian  territories,  where,  in 
1861,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  dwelt  the 
semicivilized  natious  of  Cherokees,  Choctaws, 
and  Chickasaws,  then  numbering  about  forty 
thousand  souls.  There  were  also  some  Creeks 
and  Senecas  and  Sluvwnoese  on  a  visit  there  at 
the  same  time.  A  brother  of  Governor  Rector,  of 
Arkansas,  was  then  the  government  agent  among 
the  Cherokees.  The  Confederate  government 
formed  at  Montgomery  directed  Governor  Rec¬ 
tor  to  endeavor  to  attach  these  half-barbarians 
to  the  insurgent  cause.  To  this  work  the  govern¬ 
or’s  brother  addressed  himself.  When,  in  June, 
1861,  Jefferson  Davis  ordered  three  regiments  to 
be  formed  of  these  Indians,  he  commissioned  Al¬ 
bert  Pike,  a  poet  of  some  pretensions  and  a  native 
of  New  England,  to  make  a  treaty  with  them. 
Pike  met  them  in  council  in  their  own  country. 
He  succeeded  with  the  less  civilized  Choctaws 
and  Chickasaws.  By  a  treaty  made  they  were 
allowed  two  delegates  in  the  Congress  at  Mont¬ 
gomery.  Pike  was  also  commissioned  a  briga¬ 
dier-general,  and  led  two  regiments  in  the  Con¬ 
federate  army.  A  third  regiment  was  raised  be¬ 
fore  the  close  of  1861.  With  these  half-sava ires 
Pike  fought  in  the  battle  at  Pea  Ridge  (Avhich 
see),  and  there  they  were  hopelessly  dispersed. 

Indian  Bureau  (1786).  (See  Commissioners 
of  Indian  Affairs .)  In  August,  1786,  the  Indian 
Bureau  was  reorganized  by  ordinance,  and  made 
subordinate  to  the  Department  of  War.  Two 
superintendents  were  appointed,  one  for  the  dis¬ 
trict  north  of  the  Ohio,  the  other  for  the  region 
south  of  that  river,  Avhose  functions  Avere  to  see 
that  the  regulations  of  Congress  were  enforced; 
to  keep  the  Indians  quiet  by  doing  them  justice 
and  to  prevent  their  encroachments  ;  also  to  pre¬ 
vent  that  misconduct  on  the  part  of  the  frontier 
settlers  by  which  Indian  hostilities  were  gener¬ 
ally  provoked. 

Indian  Cessions  of  Land  (1803).  Ohio  hav¬ 
ing  become  a  state  of  the  Union  (1802),  proposi¬ 
tions  Avere  made  for  four  other  states  out  of  the 
northwestern  territory  (which  see).  At  a  treaty 
held  with  Governor  Harrison,  of  the  Indian  Ter- 


INDIAN  CESSIONS  OF  LAND 


676 


INDIAN  COMMISSIONS 


ritory,  Aug.  13, 1803,  a  large  extinguishment  was 
made  of  Iudiau  titles  north  of  the  Ohio.  In 
consideration  of  the  protecting  care  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States,  of  $580  in  cash,  of  an  increase  of  their 
annuity  to  $1000,  of  $300  towards  building  a 
church,  and  of  annual  payment,  for  seven  years, 
of  $100  to  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  the  remnant 
of  the  Kaskaskia  tribe,  reduced  to  a  few  hun¬ 
dred  persons — the  feeble  representation  of  the 
once  powerful  confederacy  of  the  Illinois — ceded 
to  the  United  States  (excepting  a  small  reserva¬ 
tion),  all  the  vast  tract  lying  within  the  lines 
beginning  at  the  month  of  the  Illinois  River, 
descending  the  Mississippi  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Ohio,  ascending  the  Ohio  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Wabash,  and  from  a  point  up  that  stream  west¬ 
ward  to  the  Mississippi,  embracing  all  the  south¬ 
ern  portion  of  the  State  of  Illinois.  By  two 
treaties  made  at  Vincennes  (Aug.  18  and  27)  with 
the  Delawares  and  Piankeshaws,  and  at  St. 
Louis  (Nov.  3),  in  1804,  with  the  Sacs  and  Foxes 
(which  see),  by  Governor  Harrison,  of  Indiana, 
the  Indian  title  to  large  additional  tracts  in 
that  region  was  extinguished.  The  Delawares 
and  Piankeshaws,  in  consideration  of  small  ad¬ 
ditional  annuities,  ceded  all  the  country  south  of 
Vincenues  to  the  falls  of  the  Ohio,  at  Louisville. 
The  Sacs  and  Foxes,  in  consideration  of  an  an¬ 
nuity  in  goods  to  the  value  of  $1000,  ceded  a 
great  tract  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi  of 
near  80,000  square  miles,  extending  on  the  east 
bank  from  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  River  and 
thence  to  the  Wisconsin,  and  including  on  the 
west  a  considerable  part  of  the  (present)  State 
of  Missouri,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Gasconade 
northward.  In  the  summer  of  1805  large  tracts 
of  land  in  Ohio  and  Indiana  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States  hy  Western  Indians.  By  a  treaty 
made  by  Governor  Harrison,  of  Indiana  (July  4), 
at  Fort  Industry,  on  the  Maumee,  with  the 
Wyandots,  Ottawas,  Chippewas,  Munsees,  Dela¬ 
wares,  Shawnoese,  and  Potawatomies,  they  re¬ 
linquished  all  claim  to  the  tract  of  land  in  Ohio 
known  as  “  The  Connecticut  Reserve,”  in  con¬ 
sideration  of  a  perpetual  annuity  of  $1000,  in 
addition  to  $16,000  already  paid  or  secured  to 
some  of  their  tribes  by  the  Connecticut  Land 
Company,  the  purchasers  for  Connecticut  of  that 
tract.  By  another  treaty  (Aug.  21,  1805)  with 
the  Delawares,  Potawatomies,  Miamis,  Eel  Riv¬ 
er  Indians,  and  Weas,  the  Iudiau  title  was  extin¬ 
guished  to  all  that  part  of  the  (present)  State 
of  Indiana  within  fifty  miles  of  the  Ohio,  except 
a  narrow  tract  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Wa¬ 
bash  ;  and  thus,  in  connection  with  former  ces¬ 
sions,  was  opened  to  settlement  the  whole  north¬ 
ern  banks  of  the  Ohio,  from  its  source  to  its 
mouth.  In  1808  there  were  again  cessions  of 
large  tracts  of  land  by  the  Indians  south  of  the 
Ohio  River.  The  Choctaws  (which  see)  ceded 
that  wide  tract  intervening  between  the  settle¬ 
ments  about  Natchez  and  those  on  the  Tombig- 
bee,  including  all  the  southern  portion  of  the 
(present)  State  of  Mississippi,  for  $50,000,  to  be 
appropriated  to  the  discharge  of  debts  due  to 
certain  traders,  a  gratuity  of  $500  each  to  three 
of  the  principal  chiefs,  besides  an  annuity  of 
$50  during  their  chieftaincy,  and  goods  of  the 


value  of  $3000  to  he  annually  furnished  to  the 
nation.  The  Ottawas,  Chippewas,  Wyandots, 
and^Potawatomies  ceded  a  great  tract  of  terri¬ 
tory  north  of  the  Maumee  River,  from  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  Auglaize  eastward,  extending  up  the 
Detroit  River  aud  Lake  Huron  so  as  to  include 
a  third  part  or  more  of  the  peninsula  of  Mich¬ 
igan,  for  $10,000,  payable  in  goods,  and  an  au- 
uuity  of  $2400. 

Indian  Cessions  of  Lands  in  1818.  By  a 

treaty  negotiated  in  September,  1817,  and  again 
in  1818,  the  Wyandots,  Delawares,  Senecas,  and 
Shawnoese,  with  some  bands  of  the  Potawato¬ 
mies,  Ottawas,  aud  Chippewas,  ceded  all  their 
remaining  lauds  in  Ohio  —  about  four  million 
acres,  embracing  the  valley  of  the  Maumee. 
For  this  cession  $14,000  were  paid  to  the  several 
tribes,  in  various  proportions,  in  the  name  of 
damages  suffered  from  the  British  in  the  late 
war:  $500  to  the  Delawares;  $10,000  annually 
to  the  Wyandots,  Senecas,  Shawnoese,  aud  Ot¬ 
tawas  forever;  aud  $3300  annually  for  fifteen 
years  to  the  Potawatomies  and  united  Chippe¬ 
was  aud  Ottawas.  About  three  hundred  thou¬ 
sand  acres  were  reserved  in  various  tracts,  and 
assigned  to  different  bands,  families,  and  indi¬ 
viduals,  under  the  idea  that  the  Indians  might 
adopt  the  habits  of  civilization  and  become 
farmers.  An  annuity  of  $1000  had  already  been 
granted  (in  1816)  for  twelve  years  to  the  united 
Chippewas,  Ottawas,  aud  Potawatomies  of  the 
Illinois  and  Milwaukee  reservations,  in  consid¬ 
eration  of  a  tract  twenty  miles  wide,  including 
the  site  of  Chicago,  aud  extending  back  from 
Lake  Michigan  southwesterly  to  the  Kankakee 
and  Fox  rivers.  Some  considerable  cessions 
were  also  obtained  in  Illinois  and  Indiana  from 
the  Potawatomies, Weas,  Miamis,  and  Delawares. 
The  states  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  also  re¬ 
ceived  large  accessions  to  their  territories  by  a 
cession  in  1818  by  the  Chickasaws  of  all  the 
tract  of  land  included  between  the  Mississippi 
and  the  northern  course  of  the  Tennessee  River. 
The  Chickasaw  villages  were  mostly  lower  down 
the  Mississippi,  this  tract  having  been  used  as 
hunting-grounds.  In  consideration  for  this  im¬ 
portant  cession,  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay 
to  the  Choctaw  nation  (besides  reservations 
made  to  certain  chiefs)  $70,000  annually  for  fif¬ 
teen  years.  This  whole  tract  was  already  cov¬ 
ered  by  old  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  land- 
grants,  which  the  government  paid  for,  but  in¬ 
dividuals  profited  by. 

Indian  Commissioners.  (See  Commissioners 
of  Indian  Affairs.) 

Indian  Commissions.  The  importance  of 
keeping  on  good  terms  with  the  Indians,  and 
especially  with  the  Six  Nations,  was  felt  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  for  independence.  Three 
boards  for  the  management  of  Indian  affairs 
were  constituted:  one  for  the  Six  Nations  and 
other  Northern  tribes,  a  second  for  the  Chero- 
kees  and  Creeks,  and  a  third  for  the  interven¬ 
ing  nations;  and  $500  was  voted  for  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  Indian  youths  at  Wlieelock’s  school  at 
Hanover,  N.  H.  Louis,  a  half-breed  of  negro 
aud  Indian  blood,  was  given  a  commission  as 


INDIAN  COMMONWEALTH  PROPOSED  677 


INDIAN  HOSPITALITY 


colonel,  and  faithfully  adhered  to  the  American 
cause. 

Indian  Commonwealth  Proposed.  In  a  mes¬ 
sage  to  Congress,  Jan.  17,  1825,  President  Mon¬ 
roe  suggested  the  propriety  of  removing  all  the 
scattered  Indian  tribes  in  the  United  States  and 
concentrating  them  in  one  nation  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Measures  were  taken  to  car¬ 
ry  this  plan  into  effect.  Treaties  were  made 
with  the  Osage  and  Kansas  Indians  extinguish¬ 
ing  their  titles  to  territory  west  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  and  so  a  territory  was  provided  for  those 
Indians  who  might  be  induced  to  emigrate  from 
the  states  on  the  east  side  of  that  river.  But 
they  were  generally  unwilling  to  remove,  and 
such  a  scheme  has  never  been  carried  out.  The 
nearest  approach  to  it  was  the  establishment  of 
the  Indian  Territory.  (See  Indian  Territory .) 

Indian  Congress  in  Georgia.  In  1774  Sir 

James  Wright,  royal  governor  of  Georgia,  called 
a  congress  of  the  principal  heads  of  the  Creek 
and  Cherokee  Indians,  who  were  induced  to  cede 
to  the  British  crown  several  million  acres  of 
valuable  land  in  the  most  healthful  and  fer¬ 
tile  portion  of  the  province  for  the  payment 
of  debts  which  the  barbarians  owed  to  white 
traders. 

Indian  Corn.  When  the  English  settlers 
first  went  to  Virginia,  they  found  the  Indians 
cultivating  maize,  and  the  Europeans  called  it 
“Indian  corn.”  It  proved  to  be  a  great  bless¬ 
ing  to  the  emigrants  to  our  shores,  from  Maine 
to  Florida.  Indian  corn  appears  among  the  ear¬ 
liest  exports  from  America.  So  early  as  1748 
the  two  Carolinas  exported  about  100,000  bush¬ 
els  a  year.  For  several  years  previous  to  the 
Revolution  Virginia  exported  600,000  bushels 
annually.  The  total  amount  of  this  grain  ex¬ 
ported  annually  from  all  the  English-American 
colonies  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  was 
between  560,000  and  580,000  bushels.  At  the 
beginning  of  this  century  the  annual  export  was 
2,000,000  bushels.  But  its  annual  product  was 
not  included  in  the  census  reports  of  our  coun¬ 
try  until  1840,  when  the  aggregate  yield  was 
nearly  400,000,000  bushels.  The  largest  produc¬ 
tion  we  have  ever  had  was  in  1855,  when  it  was 
1,000,000,000  bushels,  valued  at  $400,000,000. 
While  Captain  Miles  Standish  and  others  of  the 
Pilgrims  (which  see)  were  seeking  a  place  to 
land,  they  found  some  maize  in  one  of  the  de¬ 
serted  huts  of  the  Indians.  Afterwards  Samo- 
set,  the  friendly  Indian,  and  others,  taught  the 
Pilgrims  how  to  cultivate  the  grain,  for  it  was 
unknown  in  Europe,  and  this  supply,  serving 
them  for  seed,  saved  the  little  colony  from  star¬ 
vation  the  following  year.  The  grain  now  first 
received  the  name  of  “  Indian  corn.”  Mr.  School¬ 
craft  tells  us  that  Indian  corn  entered  into  the 
mythology  of  the  barbarians  in  the  region  of 
the  upper  lakes.  In  legend  the  Indians  tell  us 
that  a  youth,  on  the  verge  of  manhood,  went 
into  the  forest  to  fast,  where  he  built  himself  a 
lodge  and  painted  his  face  in  sombre  colors ;  and 
then  he  asked  the  Master  of  Life  for  some  pre¬ 
cious  gift  that  should  benefit  his  race.  Being 
weak  from  fasting,  ho  lay  down  in  his  lodge  and 


gazed  through  its  opening  into  the  blue  depths 
of  the  heavens,  from  which  descended  a  visible 
spirit  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  youug  man 
dressed  in  green,  and  having  green  plumes  on 
his  head.  This  embodied  spirit  bade  the  young 
Indian  to  rise  and  wrestle  with  him  as  the  only 
way  to  obtain  the  coveted  blessing.  Four  days 
the  wrestlings  were  repeated,  the  youth  feeling 
each  time  an  increasing  moral  and  supernatural 
energy,  while  his  bodily  strength  declined.  This 
mysterious  energy  promised  him  the  final  vic¬ 
tory.  On  the  third  day  his  celestial  visitor  said 
to  him :  “  To-morrow  will  be  the  seventh  day 
of  your  fast,  and  the  last  time  I  shall  wrestle 
with  you.  You  will  triumph  over  me  and  gain 
your  wishes.  As  soon  as  you  have  thrown  me 
down,  strip  off  my  clothes  and  bury  me  on  the 
spot  in  soft,  fresh  earth.  When  you  have  done 
this,  leave  me,  but  come  occasionally  to  visit  the 
place  to  keep  the  weeds  from  growing.  Once 
or  twice  cover  me  with  fresh  earth.”  The  spirit 
then  departed,  but  returned  the  next  day;  and, 
as  he  had  predicted,  the  youth  threw  him  on 
the  ground.  The  yonug  man  obeyed  his  visit¬ 
or’s  instructions  faithfully,  and  very  soon  was 
delighted  to  see  the  green  plumes  of  the  heav¬ 
enly  strauger  shooting  up  through  the  mould. 
He  carefully  weeded  the  ground  around  them, 
and  kept  it  fresh  and  soft,  and  in  due  time  his 
eyes  were  charmed  at  beholding  a  full-grown 
plant  bending  with  fruit  that  soon  became  gold¬ 
en  just  as  the  frost  touched  it.  It  gracefully 
waved  its  long  leaves  and  its  yellow  tassels  in 
the  autumn  wind.  The  young  man  called  his 
parents  to  behold  the  new  plant.  “  It  is  Men- 
du-min ,”  said  his  father;  “it  is  the  grain  of  the 
Great  Spirit.”  They  invited  their  friends  to  a 
feast  on  the  excellent  grain,  and  there  were 
great  rejoicings.  Such  is  the  legend  of  the  or¬ 
igin  of  Indian  corn,  or  maize. 

Indian  Hospitality.  Everywhere  Europeans 
lauding  on  the  shores  of  America  were  treated 
with  great  kindness  by  the  natives,  who  saw 
them  for  the  first  time;  and  such  might  have 
been  the  pleasing  intercourse  with  the  barbari¬ 
ans  until  now  but  for  the  cruelty  and  injustice 
with  which  the  hospitality  of  the  aborigines 
was  frequently  requited.  When  Amidas  and 
Barlow,  sent  out  to  America  by  Sir  Walter  Ra¬ 
leigh,  visited  Roanoke  Island,  thejr  were  hospi¬ 
tably  entertained  by  the  wife  of  a  brother  of 
the  Hatteras  king,  in  the  absence  of  her  hus¬ 
band,  who  had  been  on  board  their  ships.  When 
these  navigators  were  alarmed  by  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  some  hunters,  she  caused  several  of  her 
men  to  go  out  and  take  away  and  break  their 
bows  and  arrows ;  and  when,  in  alarm,  the  Eng¬ 
lish  were  preparing  to  leave  in  their  boat,  she 
carried  them  supper  half  cooked  in  pots,  at  the 
same  time  ordering  several  men  and  thirty 
women  to  act  as  a  guard  to  them  through  the 
night,  sitting  on  the  sandy  beach.  She  also 
sent  them  some  fine  mats  to  screen  them  from 
the  weather.  This  kindness  was  afterwards  so 
requited  by  cruelties  by  men  under  Grenville, 
Lane,  and  other  Englishmen,  that  destruction 
was  brought  upon  a  colony  planted  on  Roanoke 
Island. 


678 


INDIAN  TERRITORY 


INDIAN  LANDS,  CESSIONS  OF 

Indian  Lands,  Cessions  of,  in  the  South. 
The  people  of  Tennessee  had  regarded  the  tract 
of  country  on  the  southern  course  of  the  Teu- 
uessee  River  as  yielded  up  by  the  late  treaty 
with  the  Creeks ;  but  the  Cherokees  claimed  it 
towards  the  east,  and  the  Choctaws  and  Chick¬ 
asaws  towards  the  west.  A  treaty  signed  at 
Washington  (March  22,  1816),  which  recognized 
the  Cherokee  claim,  offended  the  Tennesseeans. 
In  consequence  of  loud  complaints,  a  new  treaty 
was  made,  by  which  the  Cherokees  relinquished 
their  claim  to  lands  ou  the  south  side  of  the  Ten¬ 
nessee  to  the  parallel  of  Huntsville.  By  two 
other  treaties  the  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws 
relinquished  all  claim  to  territory  east  of  the 
Tombigbee,  excepting  the  valley  of  Bear  Creek, 
a  small  tributary  of  the  Tennessee.  By  these 
treaties  a  larger  portion  of  Alabama  and  a  large 
tract  in  southern  Tennessee  were  laid  open  to  set¬ 
tlement.  The  Chickasaws,  besides  gratuities  to 
certain  chiefs,  received  a  consideration  of  $4500 
down,  and  an  annuity  of  $12,000  for  ten  years  ; 
the  Choctaws,  $10,000  down,  and  an  annuity  of 
$6000  for  twenty  years ;  the  Cherokees,  $5000 
down,  and  an  annuity  of  $6000  for  ten  years. 
The  latter  also  received  $5000  in  consideration 
of  their  relinquishment  of  any  claims  of  theirs 
to  any  part  of  South  Carolina. 

Indian  Policy,  A  New.  On  the  accession  of 
General  Grant  to  the  Presidency,  the  “  Indian 
Problem,”  so  called,  or  that  of  the  best  policy 
to  be  pursued  towards  the  wild  Indian  tribes  of 
this  continent,  wras  pressed  upon  the  attention 
of  Congress.  An  “Indian  war”  seemed  to  be 
an  ever-present  evil.  “The  best  way  for  the 
government  is  to  make  them  poor  by  the  de¬ 
struction  of  their  stock,  aud  then  settle  them 
on  lands  allowed  them,”  said  a  distinguished 
army  officer.  Another  distinguished  army  offi¬ 
cer  said,  “  The  only  good  Iudian  is  a  dead  In¬ 
dian.”  With  such  a  spirit  had  much  of  the 
government  policy  towards  the  barbarians  been 
pervaded.  Injustice,  dishonesty,  aud  violence 
had  been  meted  out  to  them,  and  the  conse¬ 
quence  was  they  became  the  implacable  enemies 
of  the  white  people.  President  Grant  was  dis¬ 
posed  to  try  a  policy  of  humanity  and  justice. 
He  recommended  the  appointment  of  a  number 
of  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quak¬ 
ers,  as  Indian  agents.  The  members  of  that 
society  have  always  been  noted  as  friends  of 
the  Indians  (see  Friendly  Association)  and  all  suf¬ 
fering  people,  and  for  general  uprightness  and 
peaceful  principles.  Congress  approved  the 
proposition,  and  on  April  11, 1869,  on  the  nomi¬ 
nation  of  the  President,  appointed  sixteen  of 
them  such  agents.  The  new  system,  or  policy, 
promised  the  happiest  results.  There  has  been 
a  rapid  advancement  in  the  arts  of  peace  among 
many  Iudian  nations.  In  1875  the  Indian  Com¬ 
missioner  reported  that,  out  of  a  barbarian  popu¬ 
lation  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-nine  thou¬ 
sand,  more  than  forty  thousand  men  and  boys 
supported  themselves  by  the  labor  of  their  own 
hands.  He  also  reported  that  ten  thousand  In¬ 
dian  children  were  attending  schools.  It  seems 
evident  that  the  true  policy  is  to  abolish  the 
whole  machinery  of  Indian  reservations,  super¬ 


intendents,  agents,  etc.,  make  every  Indian  a 
citizen  of  the  state  or  territory  in  which  he  may 
reside,  give  him  all  the  rights  and  duties  of  cit¬ 
izenship,  aud  hold  him  individually  responsible 
to  the  laws.  Only  in  this  way  can  our  barba¬ 
rian  brethren  be  civilized. 

Indian  Reservations.  Many  years  ago  the 
United  States  government  adopted  the  policy 
of  placing  Indian  tribes  on  reservations  of  land, 
with  a  view  to  winning  them  from  the  hunting 
and  nomadic  state  to  that  of  permanent  resi¬ 
dents  and  cultivators  of  the  soil.  In  1876  there 
were  about  one  hundred  of  these  reservations, 
upon  which  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  thou¬ 
sand  of  the  barbarians  were  seated.  The  aggre¬ 
gate  area  of  these  reservations  is  about  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  sixty-eight  thousand  square  miles.  Of 
these,  thirty-one  are  east  of  the  Mississippi  Riv¬ 
er,  and  nineteen  on  the  Pacific  slope.  The  re¬ 
mainder  are  between  these.  There  are  about  for¬ 
ty  thousand  Indians  who  have  no  lands  awarded 
by  treaty,  but  they  have  reservations  set  apart 
for  them  upon  the  public  lands  of  the  United 
States,  fifteen  in  number,  aggregating  about  six¬ 
ty  thousand  square  miles. 

Indian  Slaves  first  sent  to  Europe.  Fer¬ 
dinand  and  Isabella,  on  hearing  of  the  murder 
of  Spaniards  by  natives  of  the  West  India  Isl¬ 
ands,  ordered  that  whoever  should  be  found 
guilty  of  that  crime  should  be  sent  to  Spain  as 
slaves.  Bartholomew  Columbus,  with  whom  his 
brother  Christopher  left  the  command  in  Santo 
Domingo,  gave  much  latitude  in  his  interpreta¬ 
tion  of  the  order,  and  when  he  sent  back  some 
vessels  that  brought  provisions  from  Spain,  he 
sent  three  hundred  natives  of  both  sexes  for 
slaves. 

Indian  Territory.  By  act  of  Congress,  June 
30,  1834,  “all  that  part  of  the  United  States 
west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  not  within 
the  states  of  Missouri  and  Louisiana,  or  the  Ter¬ 
ritory  [now  the  state]  of  Arkansas,  shall  be  con¬ 
sidered  the  Indian  country.”  It  has  been  re¬ 
duced  in  area  by  the  successive  formation  of 
states  and  territories,  until  now  it  is  bounded 
north  by  Colorado  and  Kansas,  east  by  Missouri 
aud  Arkansas,  south  by  Texas,  and  west  by 
Texas  and  New  Mexico,  and  contains  an  area 
of  69,000  square  miles.  A  narrow  strip  of  ter¬ 
ritory  w'est  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Texas,  and  is 
classed  geographically  with  the  Indian  Terri¬ 
tory.  The  population  is  estimated  at  68,152,  of 
whom  2407  are  white  people,  6378  colored,  and 
59,367  Indians.  Of  the  latter,  nearly  25,000  were 
on  reservations  or  agencies  in  1873,  and  34,400 
were  rovers.  The  territory  includes  seventeen 
Indian  reservations,  besides  considerable  unas¬ 
signed  land.  The  tribes  consist  of  the  Chero¬ 
kees,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  Creeks,  Seminoles, 
Sacs  and  Foxes;  Potawatomies,  Shawnoese, 
Osage,  Kaws,  Kiowas,  Comanches,  Apaches,  Ar- 
apahoes,  and  Cheyennes  ;  the  Quapaws,  the  con¬ 
federated  Peorias,  Kaskaskias,  Piankeshaws, 
Weas,  and  Mi  am  is ;  the  Otta  was,  W  y  an  dots,  and 
Senecas;  the  affiliated  bands  of  Wichitas,  Kee- 
chies,  Wacoes,  Tawacanies,  Caddoes,  Ioueis,  Del- 


INDIAN  TRUST  FUND,  EOBBEEY  OF  679  INDIAN  WAR  IN  MINNESOTA 


awares,  and  Penetethka  Comanckes.  In  the  lat¬ 
ter  part  of  1873  the  Modocs  (a  remnant  of  Cap¬ 
tain  Jack’s  band)  and  about  400  Kickapoos  and 
Potawatomies,  from  the  borders  of  Texas  and 
Mexico,  were  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory. 
The  territory  is  well  watered  and  wooded,  and 
has  much  fertile  land  suitable  for  raising  ce¬ 
reals  and  cotton,  while  the  climate  is  mild  and 
salubrious,  but  dry.  In  1873  the  Indian  pop¬ 
ulation  cultivated  217,790  acres  of  land,  and 
raised  92,574  bushels  of  wheat,  1,599,924  bushels 
of  corn,  60,750  bushels  of  oats,  198,470  bushels 
of  potatoes,  138,745  tons  of  hay,  with  considera¬ 
ble  quantities  of  barley,  beans,  pease,  rice,  sugar, 
turnips,  and  7000  bales  of  cotton  ;  they  also 
produced  3,930,460  feet  of  sawed  lumber.  A 
portion  of  the  territory  is  tine  grass  land,  well 
fitted  for  raising  live-stock.  The  several  Indian 
tribes  possessed  in  1873,  in  the  aggregate,  the  fol¬ 
lowing  live-stock :  212,155  horses,  322,854  horned 
cattle,  13,100  sheep,  and  430,445  swine.  The 
aggregate  value  of  the  live-stock  was  $9,408,178. 
The  territory  also  produces  iron,  coal,  marble, 
sandstone,  and  brick-clay.  Buffaloes,  wild  horses, 
and  wild  turkeys  are  abundant.  There  are 
eleven  agencies  in  the  territory,  viz.,  Cherokee, 
Choctaw  (including  also  the  Chickasaw),  Creek, 
Kaw,  Kiowa,,  Neosho  (the  Osages),  Quapaw,  Sac 
and  Fox  (including  absentee  Shawnoese),  Semi¬ 
nole,  upper  Arkansas  (Cheyennes  and  Arapa- 
hoes),  and  Wichita.  The  agents  represent  the 
United  States,  but  each  tribe  has  its  own  inter¬ 
nal  government.  In  certain  instances,  where 
white  men  are  concerned,  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States  courts  extends  over  the  territory. 
The  subject  of  a  territorial  government  for  the 
Indian  country  has  long  been  discussed,  but,  as 
there  are  two  opposing  parties  who  take  cogni¬ 
zance  of  the  matter,  no  decision  has  yet  been 
reached.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  United  States 
to  settle  the  various  Indian  tribes  in  this  region 
upon  separate  reservations,  as  far  as  possible, 
where  they  may  be  free  from  the  encroachment 
of  the  white  people,  and  under  the  general  su¬ 
perintendence  and  protection  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  ;  but  already  about  two  thousand  five 
hundred  “pale  faces”  have  intruded  and  seated 
themselves  in  the  territory.  The  Methodists, 
Presbyterians,  and  Baptists  have  each  several 
missions  in  the  territory,  and  one  or  more  are 
maintained  by  the  Friends,  Moravians,  and  Ro¬ 
man  Catholics.  There  are  many  thousand  church 
members  among  the  Indians,  and  the  number  is 
rapidly  increasing. 

Indian  Trust  Fund,  Robbery  op  the.  At 
the  close  of  1860  it  was  discovered  that  Indian 
Trust  Funds,  in  bonds,  in  the  custody  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  (Thompson)  had  been 
stolen.  They  were  in  the  special  custody  of 
Goddard  Bailey,  a  South  Carolinian,  and  a  rela¬ 
tive  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  Floyd.  The  latter 
had  been  chiefly  instrumental  in  getting  up  a 
military  expedition  to  Utah,  in  which  full 
$6,000,000  had  been  squandered,  at  a  critical 
time  in  the  affairs  of  the  nation,  and  helped  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  embarrass  the  na¬ 
tion  by  injuring  the  public  credit.  The  troops 
iu  Utah  were  stationed  at  “Camp  Floyd,”  and 


the  secretary  had  contracted  with  the  firm  of 
Russell  &  Co.  for  the  transportation  of  supplies 
to  that  post.  For  this  service  they  were  to  re¬ 
ceive  $1,000,000  a  year.  Floyd  accepted  from 
them  drafts  on  his  department,  before  the  service 
was  performed,  to  the  amount  of  over  $2,000,000. 
These  acceptances  were  so  manifestly  illegal 
that  it  was  difficult  to  negotiate  them.  The 
contractors  became  embarrassed,  and  hit  upon 
a  scheme  for  raising  money  more  rapidly.  Rus¬ 
sell  induced  Bailey  to  exchange  Indian  Trust 
Fund  bonds  for  Floyd’s  illegal  acceptances,  it 
is  believed,  with  the  connivance  of  the  secreta¬ 
ry.  They  were  hypothecated  in  New  York  and 
money  raised  on  them.  When  the  national 
treasury  became  embarrassed,  late  in  1860,  un¬ 
der  the  manipulations  of  Cobb,  these  bonds  de¬ 
preciated,  and  the  holders  called  on  Russell  for 
additional  security.  Bailey  supplied  him  with 
more  bonds,  until  the  whole  amounted  to  $870,- 
000.  As  the  time  approached  for  his  being  called 
upon  for  the  abstracted  coupons  on  these  bonds, 
payable  Jan.  1, 1861,  Bailey  was  driven  to  a  con¬ 
fession.  Thompson  was  then  in  North  Carolina 
as  commissioner  of  the  “  sovereign  state  of  Mis¬ 
sissippi,”  conspiring  with  the  disunionists.  Bai¬ 
ley  confessed  to  him  in  a  letter,  which  he  ante¬ 
dated  Dec.  1,  pleading  for  himself  that  his  mo¬ 
tive  had  been  to  save  the  honor  of  Floyd,  com¬ 
promised  by  his  illegal  advauces.  Thompson 
returned,  and,  after  a  consultation,  it  is  said, 
with  Floyd,  revealed  the  matter  to  the  Presi¬ 
dent,  who  was  astonished.  Thompson,  who 
knew  all  about  it,  conducted  the  farce  of  dis¬ 
covering  the  thief.  In  due  time  Bailey  made  a 
public  confession.  The  grand  jury  at  Washing¬ 
ton  indicted  Floyd  on  three  counts,  namely, 
malversation  in  office,  complicity  in  the  abstrac¬ 
tion  of  the  bonds,  and  conspiracy  against  the 
government.  Floyd  fled.  Rumor  magnified  the 
amount  of  money  thus  stolen  to  millions,  and 
the  impression  wreut  abroad  that  plunder  was 
the  business  of  the  cabinet.  The  blow  to  the 
public  credit  was  staggering.  A  congressional 
committee  of  investigation  mildly  expressed  the 
opinion  that  Floyd’s  conduct  “  could  not  be  rec¬ 
onciled  with  purity  of  motives  and  faithfulness 
to  public  trusts.”  He  was  then  the  honored 
guest  of  the  authorities  at  Richmond,  Va. 

Indian  War  in  Minnesota  (1862).  At  mid¬ 
summer,  Little  Crow,  a  saintly-looking  savage 
in  civilized  costume,  leader  of  Sioux  warriors, 
began  war  on  the  white  people,  and  in  August 
and  September  butchered  inhabitants  at  three 
points  in  Minnesota,  and  at  posts  beyond  the 
boundary  of  that  state.  For  nine  days  the  Sioux 
besieged  Fort  Ridgely.  Fort  Abercrombie  was 
also  besieged,  and  twice  assaulted  ;  and  in  that 
region  the  Indians  murdered  about  five  hundred 
white  inhabitants,  mostly  defenceless  women 
and  children.  General  H.  H.  Sibley  was  sent 
with  a  body  of  militia  to  crush  the  Indians. 
He  attacked  a  large  force  under  Little  Crow  at 
Wood  Lake,  and  drove  them  into  Dakota,  mak¬ 
ing  five  hundred  of  their  number  prisoners. 
Tried  by  court-martial,  three  hundred  of  them 
were  sentenced  to  be  hanged.  The  President 
interfered,  and  only  thirty-seven  of  the  worst 


INDIAN  WAR  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA  G80 


INDIAN  WAR  IN  VIRGINIA 


offenders  were  executed,  Feb.  28,  1863.  The 
“Sioux  War”  was  not  ended  until  the  summer 
of  1863,  when  General  Pope  took  command  of 
that  department,  picketed  the  line  of  settle¬ 
ments  in  the  far  Northwest  with  two  thousand 
soldiers,  and  took  vigorous  measures  to  disperse 
the  hostile  bands.  Generals  Sibley  and  Sully 
moved  against  them  in  June,  1863,  fought  the 
savages  at  different  places,  and  finally  scattered 
them  among  the  wilds  of  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  spurs  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Indian  War  in  North  Carolina  (1711).  The 
Indians  in  northeastern  North  Carolina  beheld 
with  jealousy  and  discontent  the  spreading  Eu¬ 
ropean  settlements  in  their  land  along  the  re¬ 
gions  of  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds  and  up 
the  streams.  The  remnants  only  of  once  pow¬ 
erful  tribes  remained,  of  whom  the  Tuscaroras 
were  the  most  numerous.  These  had  been  driv¬ 
en  into  the  forests,  and  there  had  nursed  their 
revenge  until  it  became  too  strong  to  be  repress¬ 
ed,  and,  led  by  the  dominant  tribe,  they  struck 
a  sudden  blow  for  the  extermination  of  the  white 
people.  German  settlements  under  Count  Graf- 
fenreidt  were  first  smitten,  at  midnight  (Oct.  2, 
1711),  and  one  hundred  and  thirty  men,  women, 
and  children  were  slaughtered,  and  for  scores 
of  miles  the  country  was  lighted  up  with  the 
flames  of  burning  dwellings.  For  three  days 
they  scourged  the  settlers  near  the  sounds  with 
the  hatchet  and  the  torch,  and  left  a  terrible 
pathway  of  blood  and  cinders.  Those  who  es¬ 
caped  the  massacre  called  upon  their  brethren 
of  the  southern  colony  for  aid,  when  Colonel 
Barnwell,  with  a  party  of  South  Carolinians  and 
friendly  Indians,  marched  to  their  relief.  He 
drove  the  Tuscaroras  to  their  fortified  town  in 
(the  present)  Craven  County,  and  there  made  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  them.  The  white  people 
soon  violated  it,  and  war  began  again.  Again 
the  South  Carolinians  were  called  upon  for  help. 
Back  to  the  rescue  of  their  brethren  went  the 
Carolinians,  with  a  large  body  of  Indians,  all 
led  by  Colonel  Moore.  The  barbarians  were 
soon  defeated,  and  at  their  fort  in  Greene  Coun¬ 
ty  he  made  (March,  1713)  eight  hundred  of  the 
Tuscaroras  captives,  when  the  remainder  fled, 
and  joined  their  kindred  in  the  North.  (See 
Tuscaj-oras.)  A  treaty  of  peace  was  made  with 
the  Corees  in  1755,  and  North  Carolina  never 
suffered  from  Indian  hostilities  afterwards. 

Indian  War  in  Oregon.  Settlers  in  Oregon 
and  in  Washington  Territory,  in  1855,  suffered 
much  from  parties  of  barbarians,  who  went  in 
bauds  to  murder  and  plunder  the  white  people. 
The  savages  were  so  well  organized  at  one  time 
that  it  was  thought  the  white  settlers  would 
be  compelled  to  abandon  the  country.  Major- 
general  Wool,  stationed  at  San  Francisco,  went 
to  Portland, Or.,  and  there  organized  a  campaign 
against  the  Indians.  The  latter  had  formed  a 
powerful  combination,  but  Wool  brought  hos¬ 
tilities  to  a  close  during  the  summer  of  1856. 
The  bad  conduct  of  Indian  agents,  and  possibly 
encouragement  given  the  Indians  by  employes 
of  the  Hudson’s  Bay  Company,  were  the  chief 
causes  of  the  trouble. 


Indian  War  in  South  Carolina  (1703).  Be¬ 
fore  the  settlement  of  Georgia  was  begun,  below 
the  Savannah  River,  the  South  Carolinians  were 
often  aunoyed  by  Indian  depredations,  incited 
by  the  Spaniards  in  Florida.  In  1703,  the  Appa¬ 
lachian  Indians  (a  tribe  of  the  Mobilian  family), 
in  league  with  the  Spaniards,  were  attacked  by 
Governor  Moore  and  a  body  of  white  men  and 
Indians.  Their  chief  village  was  desolated ; 
nearly  eight  hundred  of  the  Appalachians  were 
made  prisoners,  and  their  whole  territory  was 
made  tributary  to  the  white  people.  A  few 
years  later  a  secret  general  Indian  confederacy 
was  formed  to  exterminate  the  white  people  by 
a  single  blow.  Within  forty  days,  in  the  spring 
of  1715,  the  Indian  tribes  from  the  Cape  Fear  to 
the  St.  Mary  and  hack  to  the  mountains  had 
coalesced  in  the  conspiracy,  and  before  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  Charleston  had  any  intimation  of  danger, 
one  hundred  white  victims  had  been  slain  in  the 
remote  settlements.  The  Creeks,  Yamasees,  and 
Appalachians  in  the  South  had  confederated  with 
the  Cherokees,  Catawbas,  and  Congarees  in  the 
West,  in  all  about  six  thousand  strong,  while 
more  than  one  thousand  warriors  issued  from 
the  Neuse  region  to  avenge  their  misfortunes 
in  the  war  of  1712-13.  (See  Indian  War  in  North 
Carolina.)  The  people  were  filled  with  terror. 
Governor  Craven  acted  with  the  utmost  wisdom 
and  energy.  He  declared  the  province  to  be 
under  martial  law,  and  at  the  head  of  twelve 
hundred  men,  black  and  white,  he  marched  to 
meet  the  foe.  The  Indians  were  at  first  victo¬ 
rious,  but  after  several  bloody  encounters  the 
Southern  warriors  were  driven  across  the  Sa¬ 
vannah  River  (May,  1715),  and  halted  not  until 
they  found  refuge  under  the  Spanish  guns  at 
St.  Augustine.  The  Cherokees  and  their  north¬ 
ern  neighbors  had  not  yet  engaged  in  the  war, 
and  they  wearily  returned  to  their  hunting- 
grounds,  deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the 
greatness  and  strength  of  the  white  people. 

Indian  War  in  Virginia  (1675).  For  trifling 
offences  the  white  people  in  Virginia  colony 
were  in  the  habit  of  punishing  the  Indians  cru¬ 
elly.  Retaliations  followed,  and  in  1675  Mary¬ 
land  and  Virginia  joined  in  fitting  out  an  expe¬ 
dition  to  confront  various  tribes  who  had  joined 
for  the  purpose  of  avenging  the  death  of  many 
warriors,  some  of  them  through  rank  treachery. 
The  expedition,  composed  of  one  thousand  men, 
was  led  by  Colonel  John  Washington  (great¬ 
grandfather  of  the  patriot),  whose  men  mur¬ 
dered  a  number  of  Indian  chiefs  who  came  out 
for  a  parley.  For  this  Washington  was  hlamed, 
and  was  publicly  reprimanded  in  the  Virginia 
Assembly  by  Governor  Berkeley,  who  said,  “If 
they  [the  Indians]  had  killed  my  grandfather 
and  my  grandmother,  my  father,  my  mother, 
and  all  my  friends,  yet,  if  they  had  come  to  treat 
in  peace,  they  should  have  gone  in  peace.” 
Dreadful  desolations  by  the  Indians  followed. 
In  the  following  winter  they  penetrated  Vir¬ 
ginia  almost  to  Jamestown,  animated  more  by 
revenge  than  eagerness  for  plunder.  Before 
spring  sixty  of  the  colonists  had  fallen  victims. 
In  this  season  of  distress  Berkeley  seemed  very 
inefficient,  and  this  fact  called  forth  the  ener- 


INDIAN  WAR  WITH  THE  DUTCH  681 


INDIANA  TERRITORY 


pies  of  Bacon  to  save  tlie  colony  from  farther 
injuries  by  the  barbarians.  (See  Bacon’s  Rebell¬ 
ion.) 

Indian  War  with  the  Dutch  in  New  Neth- 
erland.  The  oppressions  of  Kieft  (which  see) 
aroused  the  surrounding  Indians  to  war.  Elev¬ 
en  petty  tribes  —  some  on  the  main,  some  on 
Long  Island — united  to  make  war  in  the  spring 
of  1643.  They  desolated  the  scattered  farms 
which  extended  thirty  miles  from  Manhattan. 
Massacre,  plunder,  and  burning  prevailed  ev¬ 
erywhere,  and  in  all  directions  the  terrified  Eu¬ 
ropeans  were  seen  flying  to  New  Amsterdam  for 
their  lives.  Satiated  with  revenge,  the  Indians 
made  peace.  An  Indian  war  broke  out  again  in 
September  the  same  year.  First  a  tribe  above 
the  Highlands  attacked  and  plundered  a  Dutch 
canoe  coming  from  Fort  Orange  (Albany).  Some 
other  tribes  joined  them  in  plundering  farms  on 
Long  Island  and  a  settlement  in  New  Jersey, 
back  of  Newark  Bay.  It  was  in  this  war  that 
Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  her  family  perished.  (See 
Hutchinson,  Anne.)  This  war  continued,  at  in¬ 
tervals,  for  more  than  a  year.  During  the  lat¬ 
ter  years  of  Stuyvesant’s  administration,  war 
with  the  Indians  raged  in  (present)  Ulster  Coun¬ 
ty, at  Esopus(nowKingston), and  vicinity.  Stuy¬ 
vesant’s  better  policy  finally  pacified  them,  and 
peace  prevailed  while  the  Dutch  ruled. 

Indiana  was  first  explored  by  French  mis¬ 
sionaries  and  traders,  and  Vincennes  was  a  mis¬ 
sionary  station  so  early  as  1700.  Indiana  con¬ 
stituted  a  part  of  New  France  (which  see),  and 
afterwards  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  In  1702 

some  French  Cana¬ 
dians  discovered  the 
Wabash,  and  estab¬ 
lished  several  trad¬ 
ing-posts  on  its 
banks — among  oth¬ 
ers,  Vincennes.  Lit¬ 
tle  is  known  of  the 
early  settlers  until 
the  country  was 
ceded  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  in  1763.  The 
STATE  SEAL  OF  INDIANA.  treaty  of  1783  in¬ 

cluded  Indiana  in 
the  United  States.  A  distressing  Indian  war 
broke  out  in  1788,  but  by  victories  over  the  bar¬ 
barians,  by  General  Wilkinson  (1791)  and  Gen¬ 
eral  Wayne  (1794),  a  dangerous  confederacy  of 
the  tribes  was  broken  up.  Another  was  after¬ 
wards  attempted  by  Tecnintlia,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe  (which 
see).  On  July  4,  1800,  the  territorial  govern¬ 
ment  of  Indiana  was  organized,  with  William 
Henry  Harrison  as  governor.  It  then  included 
Michigan  and  Illinois.  The  former  was  set  off 
in  1805,  and  the  latter  in  1809,  when  Indiana 
was  reduced  to  its  present  dimensions.  At  that 
time  the  population  was  about  24,000  souls. 
When  war  with  Great  Britain  broke  out,  in  1812, 
a  fresh  impulse  was  given  to  Indian  depreda¬ 
tions,  which  had  never  fairly  ceased,  but  the  bar¬ 
barians  were  beaten,  and  were  quiet  after  the 
close  of  that  contest.  On  June  29, 1816,  a  con¬ 


vention  adopted  a  state  constitution  for  Indiana, 
and  on  Dec.  11  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  a  state.  Rapid  and  continued  emigration 
ensued.  This  was  greatly  increased  by  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  Erie  Canal  (which  see).  During  the 
Civil  War  Indiana  furnished  to  the  National  army 
195,147  soldiers.  Population  in  1880,  1,978,301. 

Indiana,  Attempt  to  introduce  Slavery 
in.  In  1803  a  movement  was  made  in  Congress 
for  suspending  for  a  limited  term,  in  the  case  of 
Indiana  Territory,  the  provision  of  the  Ordi¬ 
nance  of  1787  (which  see)  prohibiting  slavery 
northward  of  the  Ohio  River.  A  committee,  of 
which  John  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  was  chair¬ 
man,  reported  strongly  against  the  proposition, 
believing  that  “in  the  salutary  operation  of  this 
salutary  and  sagacious  restraint  the  inhabitants 
of  Indiana  would,  at  no  distant  day,  find  ample 
remuneration  for  a  temporary  privation  of  labor 
and  immigration.”  At  the  next  sessiou  (1804) 
the  subject  was  brought  up  and  referred  to  a 
new  committee,  of  which  Rodney,  the  new  Dem¬ 
ocratic  representative  from  Delaware,  was  chair¬ 
man.  This  committee  reported  in  favor  of  such 
suspension,  so  as  to  admit,  for  ten  years,  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  slaves  born  within  the  territory 
of  the  United  States,  their  descendants  to  be 
free,  masculine  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years, 
and  femiuine  at  twenty-one  years.  No  action 
was  had,  but  the  subject  was  afterwards  before 
Congress  several  times  on  the  urgent  applica¬ 
tion  of  inhabitants  of  Indiana  for  the  privilege 
of  introducing  slavery  into  the  territory. 

Indiana,  Position  of  (1861).  This  flourish¬ 
ing  state,  carved  out  of  the  Northwest  Territory 
(which  see),  and  containing  over  1,350,000  in¬ 
habitants,  was  intensely  loyal  to  the  Union. 
There  was  no  special  occasion  for  the  revelation 
of  this  loyalty  until  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter 
(which  see),  when  it  was  aroused  to  intense  ac¬ 
tion.  Its  governor  (Oliver  P.  Morton)  was  able, 
energetic,  and  steadfast  in  support  of  the  na¬ 
tional  authority  during  the  war,  and  the  sons 
of  Indiana  were  seen  on  almost  every  battle¬ 
field  of  that  contest.  One  of  the  earlier  battles 
of  that  war  was  fought  by  an  Indiana  regiment 
(see  Romney),  and  its  colonel  (Wallace)  took  a 
high  rank  in  the  Union  army  as  an  energetic 
leader. 

Indiana  Territory.  In  the  year  1800  the 
“Connecticut  Reserve,”  in  the  northeastern  por¬ 
tion  of  Ohio,  having  been  sold  to  a  company  of 
speculators,  measures  were  taken  to  extinguish 
certain  claims  on  the  part  of  the  United  States 
and  the  State  of  Connecticut.  The  speculators 
found  their  bargain  to  be  pecuniarily  unprofit¬ 
able,  and  likely  to  prove  a  serious  embarrass¬ 
ment.  Full  one  thousand  settlers  were  already 
on  the  “Reserve.”  Hitherto  a  confirmation  of 
the  Connecticut  title  to  these  lands  by  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  had  been  inferentially  acknowledged, 
and  Connecticut  had  given  no  quitclaim  deeds, 
therefore  it  was  to  the  interest  of  the  speculators 
to  obtain  from  the  United  States  a  direct  con¬ 
firmation.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  an  object 
for  the  United  States  to  extinguish  Connecti¬ 
cut’s  claim  of  jurisdiction.  Congress  passed  an 


INDIANS 


682 


INDIANS 


act  (April  28,  1800)  authorizing  the  issue  of  let- 
ters-patent  conveying  t  lie  title  of  these  lands  to 
the  governor  of  Connecticut,  for  the  benefit  of 
those  claiming  under  her,  and  similar  letters- 
patent  were  issued  by  Connecticut,  relinquish¬ 
ing  all  claim  to  jurisdiction.  So  the  “  Reserve” 
was  annexed  to  the  Northwest  Territory,  which 
was  presently  divided,  by  act  of  Congress  (May 
7),  into  two  separate  jurisdictions,  the  western 
one  being  called  the  Territory  of  Indiana,  after 
one  of  the  old  ante-Revolutionary  laud  compa¬ 
nies.  St.  Vincent,  or  Vincennes,  was  made  the 
capital,  and  William  Henry  Harrison  was  ap¬ 
pointed  governor  of  the  territory. 

Indians.  Believing  the  earth  to  be  a  globe, 
Columbus  expected  to  find  India  or  Eastern  Asia 
l>y  sailing  westward  from  Spain.  The  first  land 
discovered  by  him — one  of  the  Bahama  Islands 
— he  supposed  to  be  a  part,  of  India,  and  he 


called  the  inhabitants  Indians.  This  name  was 
afterwards  applied  to  all  the  nations  of  the  adja¬ 
cent  islands  and  the  continent.  Origin. — There 
is  no  positive  knowledge  concerning  the  origin 
of  the  aborigines  of  America ;  their  own  tradi¬ 
tions  widely  vary,  and  conjecture  is  unsatisfy¬ 
ing.  Recent  investigations  favor  a  theory  that, 
if  they  be  not  indigenous,  they  came  from  two 
great  Asiatic  families ;  the  more  northern  tribes 
of  our  continent  from  the  lighter  Mongolians, 
who  crossed  at  Behring’s  Strait,  and  the  more 
southerly  ones,  in  California,  Central  and  South 
America,  from  the  darker  Malays,  who  first  peo¬ 
pled  Polynesia,  in  the  southern  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
finally  made  their  way  to  our  continent,  gradu¬ 
ally  spreading  over  it  from  the  Pacific  to  the  At¬ 
lantic.  Language  fails  to  connect,  any  of  them 
with  the  Asiatic  families,  but  their  traditions, 
implements,  and  modes  of  life  point  to  such 
a  relationship.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 


A  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIAN. 


Mandans  and  Chinooks,  who  are  almost  white, 
are  descendants  of  a  Welsh  colony  said  to  have 
been  lost  in  the  wilds  of  North  America  seven 
hundred  years  ago.  Unity. — There  seems  to  be  a 
physical  identity  of  race  throughout  most  of  the 
continent.  Their  skin  is  generally  of  a  dark 
reddish-brown,  or  cinnamon,  color;  they  have 
long,  black,  and  straight  hair,  prominent,  cheek¬ 
bones,  and  broad  faces;  eyes  deep-set,  full  and 
rounded  lips,  broad  and  prominent  noses,  scanty 
beard ;  their  heads  are  generally  square,  and 
their  stature  about  the  same  as  that  of  other 
races  of  the  same  latitude.  Their  muscular  de- 
j  velopment  is  not  great,  and  their  hands  and 
feet  are  small ;  their  skin  is  thinner,  softer,  and 
smoother  than  that  of  Europeans ;  the  expres¬ 
sion  of  the  men  is  often  noble,  and  many  of  the 
women  are  handsome.  Haughty  in  deportment, 
taciturn,  stoical,  cunning,  persevering,  revenge¬ 
ful,  brave  and  ferocious  in  war ;  cruel  towards 
enemies  and  faithful  towards  friends;  grateful 
for  favors,  hospitable  and  kind,  the  Indians  of 
North  America  are  undoubtedly  capable  of  great 
and  rapid  development  under  the  genial  infln- 
1  ence  of  civilization.  Their  mental  temperament 
is  poetic  and  imaginative  in  a  high  degree,  and 
it  is  often  expressed  in  great  beauty  and  elo¬ 
quence  of  language  ;  but  in  their  present  social 
condition,  their  animal  propensities  greatly  pre¬ 
ponderate  over  the  intellectual.  The  tribes 
south  of  California  have  always  been  noted  for 
mental  development  much  superior  to  those  of 
more  northern  latitudes.  Pursuits. — War,  hunt¬ 
ing,  and  fishing  are  the  chief  pursuits  of  the 
men  of  the  more  barbarous  tribes ;  agriculture 
of  the  semi-civilized.  Among  the  savages  found 
in  North  America  by  Europeans,  the  women  per¬ 
formed  almost  all  the  manual  labor  and  burden¬ 
bearing.  They  carried  on  their  limited  agricult¬ 
ure,  which  consisted  in  the  production  of  maize 
or  Indian  corn,  beans,  squashes,  potatoes,  and 
tobacco.  They  manufactured  the  implement^ 
of  war,  and  for  hunting  and  fishing;  made  mats, 
and  skin  and  feather  clothing,  canoes,  ornaments 
of  the  teeth  and  claws  of  beasts,  and  of  shells 
and  porcupine  -  quills  ;  performed  all  domestic 
drudgery,  and  constructed  the  lodges  of  the 
bark  of  trees  or  the  hides  of  beasts.  Rude  fig¬ 
ures  of  animate  and  inanimate  objects  carved 
in  wood  or  stone,  or  moulded  in  clay,  and  pict¬ 
ure-writing  on  the  inner  bark  of  trees  or  the 
skins  of  beasts,  or  cut  upon  rocks,  with  rude  or¬ 
namented  pottery,  was  the  extent  of  their  ac¬ 
complishments  in  the  arts  of  design  and  of  lit¬ 
erature.  The  picture-writing  "was  sometimes 
used  in  musical  notation,  and  contained  the  bur¬ 
den  of  their  songs.  Beligion. — They  believed  in 
a  good  and  Supreme  Being,  and  in  an  Evil  Spir¬ 
it,  and  recognized  the  existence  of  inferior  good 
and  evil  spirits.  They  believed  in  a  future  state 
of  existence,  and  there  were  no  infidels  among 
them.  Superstition  swayed  them  powerfully, 
and  charlatans,  called  “  medicine  -  men,”  were 
their  physicians,  priests,  and  prophets,  who,  on  all 
occasions,  used  incantations.  Christian  mission¬ 
aries  have  labored  among  them  in  many  places, 
from  the  time  the  Spaniards  and  Frenchmen  set¬ 
tled  in  America  until  now,  and  have  done  much 


INDIANS 


683 


INDIANS 


to  enlighten  them.  Government. — There  was  not 
a  semblance  of  a  national  government  among 
the  aborigines  when  the  Europeans  came,  ex¬ 
cept  that  of  the  “  Iroquois  Confederacy  ”  (which 
see).  Their  language  was  varied  by  more  than 
a  hundred  dialects,  and  they  were  divided  into 
many  distinct  families  or  tribes,  under  a  kind 
of  patriarchal  rule.  Each  family  had  its  armo¬ 
rial  sign,  called  a  totem,  such  as  an  eagle,  a  bear, 
or  a  deer,  by  which  it  was  designated.  The  civil 
head  of  a  tribe  was  called  a  sachem,  and  the 
military  leader  a  chief.  These  official  honors 
were  gained  sometimes  by  inheritance,  but  more 
frequently  by  personal  merit.  Such  was  the 
simple  government,  seldom  disobeyed,  that  con¬ 
trolled  about  a  million  of  dusky  inhabitants  of 
the  present  domain  of  the  United  States,  which 
extends  over  nearly  twenty-five  degrees  of  lati¬ 
tude  and  about  sixty  degrees  of  longitude.  Geo¬ 
graphical  Distribution. — There  seem  to  have  been 
only  eight  radically  distinct  natious  known  to 
the  earlier  settlers — namely,  the  Algonquin,  Hu- 
ron-Iroquois,  Cherokee,  Catawba,  Uchee,  Natch¬ 
ez,  Mobilian  or  Floridian,  and  Dakota  or  Sioux. 
More  recently,  other  distinct  nations  have  been 
discovered — namely,  the  Atbabascas,  Sahaptius, 
Chinooks,  Shoshones,  and  Attakapas.  Others 
will  doubtless  be  found.  The  Algonquins  were 
a  large  family  occupying  all  Canada,  New  Eng¬ 
land,  a  part  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania ;  all 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  ; 
eastern  North  Carolina  above  Cape  Fear,  a  large 
part  of  Kentucky  and  Teunessee,  and  all  north 
and  west  of  those  states  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
(See  A  Igonquim.)  Within  the  folds  of  this  nation 
were  the  Huron  -  Iroquois,  occupying  a  greater 
portion  of  Canada  south  of  the  Ottawa  River, 
and  the  region  between  Lake  Ontario  and  lakes 
Erie  and  Huron,  nearly  all  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  and  a  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  along 
the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Erie.  Detached 
from  the  main  body  were  the  Tuscaroras  and  a 
few  smaller  families  dwelling  in  southern  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  the  upper  part  of  North  Carolina.  Five 
families  of  the  Huron-Iroquois,  dwelling  within 
the  limits  of  the  State  of  New  York,  formed  the 
famous  “Iroquois  Confederacy”  (which  see)  of 
Five  Nations.  The  Cherokees  inhabited  the  fer¬ 
tile  and  picturesque  region  where  the  mountain- 
ranges  that  form  the  water-shed  between  the  At¬ 
lantic  and  the  Mississippi  melt  into  the  lowlands 
that  border  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  (See  Cherokees.) 
The  Catawbas  were  their  neighbors  on  the  east, 
and  dwelt  upon  the  borders  of  the  Yadkin  and 
Catawba  rivers,  on  both  sides  of  the  boundary- 
line  between  North  and  South  Carolina,  (See  Ca¬ 
tawbas.)  The  Uchees  were  a  small  family  in  the 
pleasant  land  along  the  Oconee  and  the  head¬ 
waters  of  the  Ogeechee  and  Chattahoochee,  in 
Georgia,  and  touched  the  Cherokees.  They  were 
only  a  remnant  of  a  once  powerful  tribe,  when 
the  Europeans  came,  and  they  claimed  to  be 
more  ancient  than  the  surrounding  people.  (See 
Uchees.)  The  Natchez  occupied  a  territory  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Mississippi,  extending 
northeastward  from  the  site  of  the  city  of  Natch¬ 
ez  along  the  Pearl  River  to  the  head-waters  of 
the  Chickasaw.  They  claimed  to  be  older  than 


the  Uchees,  and,  like  others  of  the  Gulf  region, 
they  worshipped  the  sun  and  fire,  and  made  sac¬ 
rifices  to  the  source  of  terrestrial  light.  (See 
Natchez.)  The  Mobilians  or  Floridians  occupied 
a  domain  next  in  extent  to  that  of  the  Algon- 
quins.  It  stretched  along  the  Atlantic  coasts 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Cape  Fear  River  to  the 
extremity  of  the  Florida  peninsula,  and  west¬ 
ward  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  about  six  hun¬ 
dred  miles  to  the  Mississippi  River.  They  also 
held  jurisdiction  up  that  stream  as  far  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio.  The  domain  included  parts 
of  South  Carolina,  the  whole  of  Florida,  Ala¬ 
bama,  and  Mississippi,  all  of  Georgia  not  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  Cherokees  and  Uchees,  and  portions 
of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  The  nation  was 
divided  into  three  confederacies,  each  powerful 
and  independent,  like  our  separate  states.  They 
were  known  respectively  as  the  Muscogee  or 
Creek  (the  most  powerful),  the  Choitan,  and  the 
Chickasaw.  The  heart  of  the  Creek  family  was 
in  Alabama.  (See  Mobilians.)  Under  the  gen¬ 
eral  title  of  Dakotas  or  Sioux.have  been  grouped 
a  large  number  of  tribes  west  of  the  Great  Lakes 
and  Mississippi,  with  whom  the  earlier  French 
explorers  came  in  contact.  These,  speaking  di¬ 
alects  of  the  same  language,  apparently,  were 
regarded  as  parts  of  one  nation.  They  inhab¬ 
ited  the  domain  stretching  northward  from  the 
Arkansas  River  to  the  western  tributary  of  Lake 
Winnepeg,  and  westward  along  all  that  line  to 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They 
have  been  arranged  into  four  grand  classes  :  1. 
The  Winuebagoes,  situated  between  Lake  Michi¬ 
gan  and  the  Mississippi,  within  the  domain  of 
the  Algonquins ;  2.  The  Assinniboins,  or  Sioux 
proper,  who  formed  the  more  northerly  part  of 
the  nation  ;  3.  The  Minnetaree  group,  in  Minne¬ 
sota  ;  and  4.  The  Southern  Sioux,  who  were  seat¬ 
ed  in  the  country  between  the  Platte  and  Arkan¬ 
sas  rivers.  (See  Dakotas.)  The  Sahaptius  in¬ 
clude  the  Nez  Perces  and  Walla  Wallas,  extend¬ 
ing  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  in  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory. 

( See  Sahaptius. )  Beyond  these  are  the  more 
powerful  Chinooks,  now  rapidly  melting  away. 
They  embraced  numerous  tribes,  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  River  to  the  Grand  Dalles.  (See 
Chinooks.)  The  Shoshones  comprise  tribes  in¬ 
habiting  the  territory  around  the  head -waters 
of  the  Columbia  and  Missouri  rivers;  the  Co- 
manches,  extending  from  the  head- waters  of 
the  Brazos  to  those  of  the  Arkansas ;  families  in 
Utah  and  Texas,  and  several  tribes  in  Califor¬ 
nia.  (See  Shoshones.)  The  Attakapas  and  Chi- 
temachas,  in  Texas,  have  languages  that  enter 
into  no  known  group.  Present  Condition  (1883). — 
It  is  estimated  that  the  present  Indian  population 
in  the  Republic  is  about  300,000,  of  whom  a  little 
more  than  two  thirds  are  partially  or  absolutely 
under  the  control  of  the  national  government. 
To  the  more  docile  tribes  have  been  allotted  res¬ 
ervations  of  land  belonging  to  the  public  do¬ 
main,  guaranteed  to  their  use  by  treaties.  These 
reservations  are  almost  one  hundred  in  number, 
and  their  aggregate  area  is  about  170,000  square 
miles.  They  are  mostly  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  There  are  about  40,000  Indians  on  res- 


INDIANS  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  WAR  634 


INDIA-RUBBER  MANUFACTURE 


ervations  of  public  land  not  guaranteed  to  them 
by  treaty.  These  occupy  about  60,000  square 
miles.  The  remainder  are  wild  tribes  of  sav¬ 
ages.  The  Future. — The  expensive  and  compli¬ 
cated  machinery  for  the  management  of  our 
Indian  affairs  stands  much  in  the  way  of  the 
elevation  of  the  dusky  race  in  the  scale  of  civil¬ 
ization,  and  is  productive  of  much  evil  by  cre¬ 
ating  irritation,  jealousy,  and  universal  lack  of 
faith  in  the  white  race.  These  irritations  keep 
a  large  portion  of  the  Indians  in  a  state  of  chron¬ 
ic  hostility,  and  whole  tribes  utterly  refuse  all 
overtures  of  our  government  to  accept  its  pro¬ 
tection  and  fostering  care.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  number  of  the  people  of  potentially  hostile 
Indians  is  full  60,000.  Amoug  many  tribes,  the 
introduction  of  agriculture,  schools,  and  church¬ 
es  has  been  attended  with  the  happiest  results; 
and  it  is  estimated  that  one  sixth  of  our  re¬ 
strained  Indian  population  now  subsist  by  the 
labor  of  their  own  hands.  Recent  official  inves¬ 
tigations  show  that  the  popular  belief  that  the 
Indian  race  is  dying  out  is  undoubtedly  errone¬ 
ous.  They  seem  to  unite  kindly  with  other 
races,  and  the  half-breeds  show  a  healthy  and 
vigorous  offspring. 

Indians  employed  in  War  by  White  Peo¬ 
ple.  The  French  coalesced  Avitli  the  Indians  in 
warfare  from  the  beginning  of  the  planting  of 
colonies  in  America.  Large  numbers  of  the  bar¬ 
barians  became  converts  to  Christianity,  and  the 
Jesuit  priests  had  almost  unlimited  control  over 
them.  They  wrere  the  dreadful  scourge  in  the 
hands  of  French  leaders,  temporal  and  spiritual, 
that  smote  the  English  frontiers.  They  were 
warm  allies  of  the  French  in  the  Seven  Years’ 
War,  and  the  English  also  employed  many  of 
their  race  against  the  foe.  When  the  war  for 
independence  broke  out,  the  British  sought 
them  for  allies;  the  Americans  only  sought  to 
secure  their  neutrality.  Pitt  denounced  the 
employment  of  savages  in  a  speech  in  Parlia¬ 
ment  in  1777,  when  that  employment  was  de¬ 
fended  by  oue  of  the  Secretaries  of  State,  saying, 
“  It  is  perfectly  justifiable  to  use  all  the  means 
that  God  and  Nature  have  put  into  our  bauds.” 
Pitt  replied,  after  reiterating  the  words  with 
scorn,  “I  know  not  what  idea  that  lord  may  en¬ 
tertain  of  God  and  Nature,  but  I  know  that  such 
abominable  principles  are  equally  abhorrent  to 
religion  and  humanity.  ...  I  call  upon  that 
right  reverend  bench  [pointing  to  the  bishops], 
the  holy  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  and  pious  pas¬ 
tors  of  the  Church— I  conjure  them  to  join  in  the 
holy  work  [of  disavowing  these  principles],  and 
to  vindicate  the  religion  of  our  God.”  The  ap¬ 
peal  was  in  vain.  The  bishops  voted  with  the 
ministry ;  and  Lord  George  Germain,  the  Coloni¬ 
al  Secretary,  gave  special  instructions,  received 
from  the  kiug,  to  employ  Indians  in  fighting  re¬ 
publicans.  Brant,  the  great  Mohawk  chief,  a 
brother-in-law  of  Sir  William  Johnson,  who 
had  been  in  England  (1775-76),  been  there  ca¬ 
ressed  by  the  king,  the  ministry,  and  the  aris¬ 
tocracy,  and  espoused  the  royal  cause,  was  em¬ 
ployed  to  lead  those  of  the  Six  Nations  who 
wmuld  follow  him.  The  best  of  the  British  lead¬ 
ers  iu  America  were  opposed  to  a  coalition  with 


the  savages  in  war,  bi  t  it  was  a  pet  project  of 
Governor  Tryon,  the  king,  and  his  pliant  minis¬ 
ters.  La  Come  St.  Luc,  a  bitter  partisan,  had 
declared,  “We  must  let  loose  the  savages  upon 
the  frontier  of  these  scoundrels  to  inspire  terror, 
and  to  make  them  submit ;”  and  in  the  spring  of 
1777,  Tryou  wrote  to  Germain  that  he  and  La 
Corne  were  “perfectly  agreed  in  sentiment  re¬ 
specting  the  employment  of  Indians,”  and  com¬ 
mended  him  to  the  ministry  as  a  proper  leader 
of  them.  La  Corne  had  pledged  to  the  ministry 
his  “honor  and  his  life”  that  he  would  raise  a 
corps  of  Canadians  and  Indians  and  “be  in  the 
environs  of  Albany  in  sixty  days  after  he  landed 
at  Quebec.”  The  British  employed  the  Indians 
in  their  armies  all  through  the  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence.  So  in  the  wars  in  the  Northwest  and 
Southwest  that  succeeded  that  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tion,  and  in  the  War  of  1812-15.  (See  French- 
town,  Massacre  at.) 

Indians,  Failure  of  Negotiations  with 

(1793).  The  British  fur-traders  and  British  of¬ 
ficials  in  the  Northwest  continually  stimulated 
the  tribes  in  that  region  to  oppose  the  extension 
of  the  frontier  settlements  in  that  direction.  A 
commission  appointed  in  1793  to  negotiate  with 
the  hostile  northwestern  tribes  arrived  at  Fort 
Niagara  May  17,  accompanied  by  a  deputation 
of  Quakers  and  Heckewelder,  the  famous  Mora¬ 
vian  missionary.  They  were  kindly  received  by 
the  governor  of  Upper  Canada  (Simcoe).  They 
w  ent  up  Lake  Erie,  and  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Detroit  River  they  met  a  deputation  of  Indians 
who  came  from  a  council  then  in  session  at  the 
rapids  of  the  Maumee.  This  deputation  came 
to  inquire  whether  the  commissioners  were  em¬ 
powered  to  consent  to  the  Ohio  River  as  a  boun¬ 
dary.  They  replied  that  it  was  impossible,  as 
many  settlements  had  already  been  made  north 
of  the  Ohio,  on  lands  ceded  by  the  Indians.  The 
commissioners  offered  large  presents  of  money, 
in  addition  to  remuneration  already  made,  for 
the  peaceable  possession  of  the  ceded  territory. 
When  the  deputation  reported  to  the  council,  a 
loug  debate  ensued.  The  council,  under  the  in- 
llueuce  of  British  emissaries,  refused  to  negoti¬ 
ate  unless  the  Ohio  should  be  considered  the 
boundary  of  the  United  States.  War  followed. 
(See  Wayne's  Indian  Campaign.) 

Indians  sold  for  Slaves  in  South  Carolina. 

To  obtain  money  to  carry  on  a  war  against  the 
Indians,  Governor  West  and  his  council  offered 
(1680)  a  price  for  every  Indian  captive,  and  then 
sola  all  who  were  brought  in  to  West  Indian 
slave-dealers,  who  again  disposed  of  them  profit¬ 
ably  to  West  Iudian  plauters.  Wheu  this  nefa¬ 
rious  business  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
proprietors,  it  was  promptly  put  a  stop  to. 

India  -  rubber  (  caoutchouc  )  Manufacture. 
This  inspissated  juice  of  trees  and  plants  found 
iu  the  East  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  and 
South  America,  was  first  brought  into  notice 
in  commerce  at  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century.  It  came  from  India,  and  Dr.  Priestley, 
in  his  work  on  Perspective  Drawing,  published 
in  1770,  speaks  of  the  substance  as  good  for  eras¬ 
ing  peucil-marks.  It  was  hence  called  “India- 


685  INOCULATION  OF  CONTINENTAL  ARMY 


INDIGO  PLANT,  THE 


rubber.”  In  1813,  Jacob  Hummel,  of  Philadel¬ 
phia,  obtained  a  patent  for  “  gum  elastic  var¬ 
nish,”  and  in  1819  a  water-proof  cloth  called 
H  macintosh”  was  made  by  the  use  of  this  gum 
in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  by  a  man  named  McIn¬ 
tosh.  The  natives  of  Para,  Brazil,  where  the 
caoutchouc-tree  abounds, made  water-proof  shoes 
in  a  rude  manner  of  the  gum  more  than  sixty 
years  ago,  and  some  of  them  were  introduced 
into  our  country  by  T.  C.  Wales,  a  Boston  mer¬ 
chant,  in  1823.  He  afterwards  sent  casts  to  Bra¬ 
zil,  and  had  well- shaped  shoes  made;  and  so 
the  business  of  furnishing  “  gum-shoes”  was  be¬ 
gun  in  the  United  States.  That  substance,  in 
various  forms,  is  now  used  very  extensively  in 
the  United  States  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  un¬ 
der  the  uame  of  India-rubber,  gutta-percha,  etc. 
In  1874  there  were  14,746,000  pounds  of  caout¬ 
chouc  imported  into  the  Uuited  States.  Edwin 
Chaffee,  of  Roxbury,  Mass.,  made  an  important 
discovery  in  the  preparation  of  the  gum  for  use, 
and  he  and  others  formed  the  “  Roxbury  India- 
rubber  Company”  in  1833,  with  a  capital  of 
$400,000.  The  next  most  important  improve¬ 
ment  was  made  by  Charles  Goodyear  (which 
see)  in  “  vulcanizing”  caoutchouc,  for  which  he 
obtained  a  patent  in  1844.  In  1870  there  were 
fifty-six  establishments  in  the  United  States  for 
the  manufacture  of  caoutchouc.  Gutta-percha 
is  a  substance  similar  to  caoutchouc,  but  is  real¬ 
ly  not  identical  with  it.  It  was  first  brought 
to  notice  here  about  1845,  when  a  company  was 
formed  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  for  its  manufacture. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  useful  articles  used  in  our 
industrial  arts. 

Indigo  Plant,  The,  was  introduced  into  South 
Carolina  in  1743.  That  year  Miss  Lucas  brought 
to  Charleston,  from  the  West  Indies,  some  indigo 
seed.  The  cultivation  of  this  plant  being  consid¬ 
ered  important,  the  seed  was  used  as  an  experi¬ 
ment.  The  trial  proved  so  very  satisfactory  that 
seed  was  imported  from  the  West  Indies,  and  sev¬ 
eral  Carolina  planters  turned  their  attention  to 
the  cultivation  of  indigo,  and  studied  the  art  of 
extracting  the  dye.  In  1748,  the  British  Parlia¬ 
ment,  to  encourage  the  growth  of  indigo  in  the 
English-Americau  colonies,  oft’e red  a  bounty  of 
sixpence  a  pound  on  all  that  should  be  raised 
on  American  plantations,  and  imported  directly 
into  Great  Britain  from  the  place  of  its  growth. 
There  had  been  sent  to  England,  in  1747,  from 
Carolina,  200,000  pounds  of  indigo.  At  that  time 
Great  Britain  was  consuming  600,000  pounds  of 
French  indigo  a  year,  which,  at  five  shillings  a 
pound,  cost  the  nation  $750,000.  These  statis¬ 
tics  induced  Parliament  to  grant  the  bounty. 

Inferior  Courts.  The  old  scheme  of  county 
courts  for  the  adjudication  of  smaller  civil  cases, 
and  of  Courts  of  Sessions,  composed  of  the  jus¬ 
tices  of  the  peace  of  each  county,  for  the  trial 
of  petty  crimes,  was  retained  throughout  the 
states,  as  was  also  the  system  of  separate  tribu¬ 
nals  for  probate  of  wills,  administration  of  the 
estates  of  deceased  persons,  and  guardianships 
of  minors.  In  the  forms  of  legal  processes,  “  The 
State,”  “  The  Commonwealth,”  or  “  The  People” 
was  substituted  for  “  The  King and  the  forms 


and  practices  of  the  courts  were  made  to  con¬ 
form  to  English  technicalities. 

Ingalls,  Rufus,  was  born  at  Denmark,  Me., 
Aug.  23, 1820.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1843,  entering  the  Rifles,  but  was  transferred  to 
the  Dragoons  in  1845.  He  served  in  the  war 
with  Mexico,  and  was  on  the  staff  of  General 
Harney  on  the  Pacific  coast.  (See  Harney,  W. 
S.)  In  April,  1861,  he  went  with  Colonel  Brown 
to  reinforce  Fort  Pickens;  and  in  July  was  or¬ 
dered  to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  where  he 
was  upon  the  staff  of  General  McClellan,  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  chief- 
quartermaster  of  that  army  from  1862  to  1865, 
and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
May,  1863.  He  was  in  most  of  the  battles  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  from  that  of  South  Moun¬ 
tain  to  the  surrender  of  Lee  at  Appomattox. 

Ingersoll,  Charles  Jared,  author  and  states¬ 
man,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  3, 1782 ;  died 
there,  Jan.  14,  1862.  He  became  a  lawyer,  and 
was  attached  to  the  legation  of  Rufus  King 
when  he  was  minister  to  France.  After  trav¬ 
elling  in  Europe,  he  returned,  and  published  a 
poem  in  1800,  and  a  tragedy  in  1801.  In  1810 
he  published  a  political  satire,  called  Inchiquin 
the  Jesuit’s  Letters.  In  1813  he  was  in  Congress, 
and  from  1815  to  1829  he  was  United  States  Dis¬ 
trict  Attorney.  He  was  again  in  Congress  from 
1841  to  1847,  when  he  was  a  Democratic  lead¬ 
er.  President  Polk  nominated  him  minister  to 
France,  but  the  Senate  did  not  confirm  the  nom¬ 
ination.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  second  war 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

Inglis,  Charles,  D.D.,  was  born  in  1734  ;  died 
in  Nova  Scotia  early  in  1816.  From  1764  to  the 
Revolution  he  was  assistant  rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York,  and  was  rector  from  1777  to 
1783.  He  adhered  to  the  royal  cause,  and  de¬ 
parted  for  Nova  Scotia  with  the  loyalists  who 
fled  from  New  York  city  in  1783.  His  letters 
evinced  considerable  harsh  feeling  towards  the 
American  patriots  as  “fomenters  of  rebellion.” 
Dr.  Inglis  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Nova  Sco¬ 
tia  in  1788,  and  in  1809  became  a  member  of  the 
Governor’s  council.  He  published  an  answer  to 
Paine’s  Common,  Sense  (which  see),  which  made 
him  obnoxious  to  the  patriots,  and  they  confis¬ 
cated  his  estate.  His  son  John  was  made  bish¬ 
op  of  Nova  Scotia  in  1825 ;  and  his  grandson, 
General  Sir  John  Eardley  Wilmot  Inglis,  was 
the  brave  defender  of  Luckuow,  and  died  in 
Germany  in  1862. 

Inman,  Henry,  a  portrait-painter,  was  born 
at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  20,  1801 ;  died  in  New  York, 
Jan.  17, 1846.  He  was  a  pupil  of  John  Wesley 
Jarvis,  a  portrait-painter,  to  whom  lie  was  ap¬ 
prenticed  for  seven  years.  He  painted  land¬ 
scapes  and  historical  pictures,  but  portraits 
were  his  chief  subjects.  In  1844  he  went  to 
England,  where,  becoming  the  guest  of  Words¬ 
worth,  the  poet,  he  painted  his  portrait.  He 
also  painted  the  portraits  of  other  distinguished 
men  while  in  England.  He  had  begun  paint¬ 
ing  an  historical  picture  for  the  national  Capi¬ 
tol  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Inoculation  of  the  Continental  Army.  Dur- 


683  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS  PROPOSED 


INSANE,  THE 

ing  the  encampment  of  the  Continental  army  at 
Morristown,  in  the  winter  of  1776-77,  Washing¬ 
ton  caused  all  the  new  recruits  who  joined  the 
army  there  to  be  inoculated  for  the  small-pox. 
That  dreadful  disease  had  terribly  smitten  the 
American  army  in  Canada  in  the  spring  and 
early  summer  of  1776,  and  prostrated  in  death 
one  of  the  best  of  the  American  officers,  General 
Thomas.  In  the  Hudson  Highlands,  opposite 
West  Point,  the  whole  army  encamped  there 
were  inoculated,  together  with  the  women  and 
children,  excepting  those  who  had  had  the  dis¬ 
ease.  “Of  five  hundred  who  have  been  inocu¬ 
lated  here,”  wrote  Dr.  Thacher,  “  four  only  have 
died.”  He  mentioned  a  system  of  treatment 
adopted  there.  It  was  then  customary  to  pre¬ 
pare  the  system  for  inoculation  by  doses  of 
calomel  and  jalap.  An  extract  of  butternut, 
made  by  boiling  the  inner  bark  of  the  tree,  was 
substituted,  and  found  to  be  more  efficacious 
and  less  dangerous  than  the  mineral  drug.  Dr. 
Thacher  considered  it  “a  valuable  acquisition 
to  the  materia  medico, .”  Vaccination  for  the  kine- 
pox  had  not  then  been  introduced  into  our  coun¬ 
try.  (See  Small-pox.) 

Insane,  Tiie.  Places  of  refuge  for  the  com¬ 
fort  of  the  insane  are  well  supported  by  state 
aid  in  our  country.  In  all  our  institutions  for 
the  insane  a  most  humane  system  is  employed. 
The  first  asylum  for  this  unfortunate  class  es¬ 
tablished  in  this  couutry  was  founded  at  Will¬ 
iamsburg,  Va.,  in  1773,  and  was  the  only  one  in 
the  United  States  until  1818,  when  the  Somer¬ 
ville  (Mass.)  Institution  was  incorporated.  That 
was  followed  in  1821  by  the  Bloomingdale  Asy¬ 
lum,  New  York ;  and  in  1824  by  an  asylum  at 
Hartford.  In  1876  there  were  sixty-six  institu¬ 
tions  for  the  care  of  the  insane  in  our  country, 
in  which  about  sixteen  thousand  persons  were 
under  treatment.  The  total  number  of  insane 
persons  in  the  United  States  in  1870  was  about 
thirty-eight  thousand.  This  number  is  a  much 
less  percentage  than  in  auy  other  country. 

Insurrection  in  New  Hampshire  (1786).  On 
Sept.  20, 1786,  about  two  hundred  men,  armed  in 
different  modes,  surrounded  the  General  Assem¬ 
bly  at  Exeter  and  held  the  whole  body  prison¬ 
ers  several  hours ;  but  the  citizens,  appearing  in 
arms,  crushed  the  insurrection  there  in  its  in¬ 
fancy.  The  object  of  the  insurrection  was  to 
force  the  Assembly  to  adopt  a  paper  -  money 
system  for  which  a  convention  of  delegates  from 
about  thirty  towns  in  the  state  had  petitioned. 
The  insurgents  were  insolent  in  their  demands. 
Just  at  twilight  a  drum  was  heard  at  a  distance, 
and  the  cry  of  “  Huzza  for  government !  Bring  up 
the  artillery!”  when  the  mob,  terrified,  scattered 
in  all  directions.  They  rallied  the  next  day,  but 
the  governor  having  called  out  the  state  forces, 
the  mob  was  dispersed  without  bloodshed. 

Inter  -  colonial  and  Foreign  Emigr  ation. 

When  the  French  dominion  in  America  was 
ended,  and  the  causes  for  war  dismissed  there¬ 
by,  and  the  Indian  tribes  on  the  frontiers  were 
quieted,  emigration  began  to  spread  westward 
in  New  England,  and  also  from  the  middle  col¬ 
onies  over  the  mountains  westward.  Many 


went  from  the  other  colonies  into  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  where  immigration  was  encouraged,  be¬ 
cause  the  white  people  were  alarmed  by  the 
preponderance  of  the  slave  population.  Boun¬ 
ties  were  offered  to  immigrants,  and  many  Irish 
and  Germans  settled  in  the  upper  districts  of 
that  province.  Enriched  by  the  labor  of  nu¬ 
merous  slaves,  South  Carolina  was  regarded  as 
the  wealthiest  of  the  colonies.  Settlers  also 
passed  into  the  new  province  of  East  Florida. 
A  body  of  emigrants  from  the  Roanoke  settled 
iu  West  Florida,  about  Baton  Rouge;  and  some 
Canadians  went  into  Louisiana,  for  they  were 
unwilling  to  live  under  English  rule.  A  colony 
of  Greeks  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
settled  at  what  is  still  known  as  the  iulet  of 
New  Smyrna,  in  Florida.  And  while  these 
movements  were  going  on  there  were  evidences 
of  a  rapid  advance  in  wealth  and  civilization  in 
the  older  communities.  At  that  time  the  pop¬ 
ulation  and  production  of  Maryland,  Virginia, 
and  South  Carolina  had  unprecedented  increase, 
and  it  was  called  their  golden  age.  Commerce 
rapidly  became  more  diffused.  Boston,  which 
almost  engrossed  trade  in  navigation,  now  be¬ 
gan  to  find  rivals  in  New  York,  Baltimore,  Nor¬ 
folk,  Charleston,  and  little  seaports  on  the  New 
England  coasts;  and  its  progress,  which  had 
been  arrested  by  these  causes  twenty-five  years 
before,  stood  still  twenty-five  years  longer. 

Interior  Department,  The,  was  established 
in  the  spring  of  1849.  It  was  the  first  estab¬ 
lishment  of  a  new  branch  of  the  government 
since  1798,  when  the  Navy  Department  was 
created.  Its  chief  is  called  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  and  is  a  cabinet  officer.  The  first  in¬ 
cumbent  of  the  office  was  Thomas  Ewing,  of 
Ohio,  appointed  by  President  Taylor.  The  de¬ 
vice  of  the  seal  of  the  Interior  Department  is 
an  eagle,  just  ready  to  soar,  resting  on  a  sheaf 
of  grain,  with  arrows  and  an  olive-branch  in  its 
talons,  and  over  it  the  words  “  Department  of 
the  Interior.”  (See  Executive  Departments.) 

Internal  Improvements.  In  1806  the  sys¬ 
tem  of  internal  improvements  by  grants  from 
the  national  Treasury  was  first  begun.  The 
sum  of  $30,000  was  appropriated  towards  lay¬ 
ing  out  a  public  road  over  the  Alleghany  Moun¬ 
tains  from  Cumberland,  Md.,  to  the  Ohio  River. 
The  President  was  also  authorized  to  expend 
$6600  in  opening  a  road  from  Athens,  Ga.,  tow¬ 
ards  New  Orleans ;  also  the  snm  of  $6000  upon 
each  of  two  other  roads — one  the  old  road  from 
Nashville  to  Natchez,  the  other  through  the  ter¬ 
ritory  just  ceded  by  the  Indians,  from  Cincin¬ 
nati  to  the  Mississippi  opposite  St.  Louis.  (See 
Erie  Canal.) 

Internal  Improvements  Proposed.  Jeffer¬ 
son,  previous  to  the  commercial  troubles  during 
his  administration,  had  suggested  the  appropri¬ 
ation  of  the  surplus  revenue,  then  rapidly  accu¬ 
mulating,  to  internal  improvements.  A  like 
healthful  state  of  the  national  finances  was 
promised  at  the  beginning  of  Monroe’s  admin¬ 
istration.  The  experience  of  the  war  period  in 
the  immense  cost  of  transportation,  for  lack  of 
facilities,  now  suggested  the  expediency  of  mak- 


INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS 


INTERNATIONAL  ETIQUETTE  687 


ing  good  highways  or  other  means  for  the  tran¬ 
sit  of  merchandise.  Madison  had  called  atten¬ 
tion  to  the  subject,  and  recommended  the  con¬ 
struction  of  “  such  roads  and  canals  as  could 
best  be  executed  under  the  national  authority  ” 
as  objects  of  a  “  wise  and  enlarged  patriotism.” 
These  recommendations  were  reiterated  by  Mon¬ 
roe  in  his  first  animal  message  (Dec.  2,  1817) ; 
and  he  suggested  that  if  any  obstacle  should  be 
found  in  the  want  of  express  constitutional  au¬ 
thority,  that  might  be  easily  remedied.  A  bill 
was  introduced  into  Congress  appropriating 
$600,000  for  the  general  purpose  of  internal  im¬ 
provements;  but  this  bill,  aud  another  contin¬ 
uing  the  Cumberland  Road,  or  national  turnpike 


rions  charges  made  against  the  United  States 
government  to  that  of  the  French  by  Adet,  were 
that  the  Americans  had  made  a  treaty  with  Al¬ 
giers  without  waiting  for  French  intervention  ; 
that  the  government  had  hidden  away  the 
French  flag  which  had  been  sent  to  it  (see 
Flags,  Exchange  of),  instead  of  suspending  it  in 
the  hall  of  the  House  of  Representatives ;  and 
that  the  American  government  allowed  to  be  pub¬ 
lished  certain  almanacs,  or  registers,  in  which 
the  minister  from  Great  Britain  was  placed  be¬ 
fore  those  of  France  and  Spain,  which  latter 
country  had  recently  become  the  ally  of  France. 

International  Exhibitions.  The  following 
table  gives  statistics  of  the  seven  great  iuterna- 


tliat  led 
west,  fai 

taken,  nr . „ - -  ; - 

no  surplus  in  the  Treasury.  The  sum  of  $350,000 
was  appropriated  for  completing  the  part  of  the 
Cumberland  Road  already  begun.  While  Con¬ 
gress  thus  hesitated  the  State  Legislatures  had 
already  begun  to  act.  Virginia  had  just  estab¬ 
lished  an  “Internal  Improvement  Fund,”  the 
project  of  the  Erie  Canal  had  been  revived  in 
New  York,  and  similar  improvements  began  tube 
considered  in  Pennsylvania  and  North  Carolina. 

International  Etiquette.  Among  other  se- 


tional  exhibitions  which  have  taken  place  with¬ 
in  twenty-five  years  ending  in  1876: 


Date  of 
Exhibition. 

N  umber  of 
Exhibitors. 

Number  of 
Visitors. 

N  umber  of 
Days  open. 

London . 

1851 

13,917 

6,039,135 

141 

New  York _ 

1854 

4,250,160 

•  •  • 

Paris . 

1855 

23,754 

5,162,330 

200 

London . 

1802 

28,653 

6,211,103 

171 

Paris . 

1807 

50,226 

10,200,000 

210 

Vienna . 

1873  ' 

42,584 

7,254,687 

186 

Philadelphia . . 

1876 

9,857,626 

159 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW 


688 


INVASION  OF  CANADA 


International  Law,  First  Acceptance  of, 
by  China.  In  1868  Anson  Burlingame,  United 
States  Minister  to  Chiua,  arrived  home,  charged 
by  the  Chinese  government  with  a  roving  com¬ 
mission  to  make  treaties  with  the  United  States 
and  the  European  powers.  On  July  28,  1868, 
supplementary  articles  to  a  treaty  made  in  1858 
were  signed  at  Washington,  and  soon  afterwards 
were  ratified  by  the  Chinese  government.  This 
was  the  first  acceptance  by  that  government  of 
the  principles  of  international  law.  The  treaty 
provided  for  entire  liberty  of  conscience  and 
worship  for  Americans  in  Chiua,  and  for  the 
Chiuese  in  America;  for  joint  efforts  to  sup¬ 
press  the  coolie  trade;  for  the  mutual  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  the  rights  of  travel  in  the  two  coun¬ 
tries  ;  for  education  ;  for  the  establishment  of 
schools;  and  for  other  mutual  privileges  which 
were  allowed  to  the  most  favored  nations.  Mr. 
Burlingame  was  engaged  in  his  noble  mission 
in  Europe  when  he  suddenly  died.  (See  Bur¬ 
lingame,  Anson.) 

Inter-oceanic  Caned.  In  1825  the  Federal 
Republic  of  Central  America  made  a  contract 
with  a  company  formed  at  New  York  for  the 
purpose  of  effecting  a  navigable  water  commu¬ 
nication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 
The  proposed  route  was  through  Nicaragua,  one 
of  the  states,  by  the  River  St.  John,  into  Nica¬ 
ragua  Lake,  whence,  from  its  western  extrem¬ 
ity,  a  canal  was  to  be  cut  for  about  seventeen 
miles  to  the  Pacific.  (See  Darien  Shij)  Canal.) 

Intrepid,  Destruction  of  the.  The  ketch 
Intrepid,  used  in  the  destruction  of  the  Philadel¬ 
phia  ( which  see ),  had  been  converted  into  a 
floating  mine  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the 
piratical  cruisers  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli.  In 
a  room  below  deck  one  hundred  barrels  of  gun¬ 
powder  were  placed,  and  immediately  above 
them  a  large  quantity  of  shot,  shell,  and  irregu¬ 
lar  pieces  of  iron  were  deposited.  Combustibles 
were  placed  in  other  parts  of  the  vessel.  On 
the  night  of  Sept.  3, 1804,  the  Intrepid  was  towed 
into  the  harbor  by  two  boats,  the  whole  under 
the  command  of  Captain  Somers,  attended  by 
Lieutenant  Wadsworth,  of  the  Constitution,  and 
Mr.  Israel,  an  ardent  young  man  who  got  on 
board  the  Intrepid  by  stealth.  These,  with  a 
few  men  to  work  the  torpedo-vessel,  and  the 
crews  of  the  boats,  constituted  the  company  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  perilous  enterprise.  The  Intrepid 
entered  the  harbor  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  even¬ 
ing.  The  night  was  very  dark.  Many  eager 
eyes  were  turned  towards  the  spot  where  her 
shadowy  form  was  last  seen.  Suddenly  a  fierce 
and  lurid  light  streamed  up  from  the  dark  wa¬ 
ters  like  volcanic  fires  and  illuminated  the  sur¬ 
rounding  objects  with  its  lurid  glare  —  rocks, 
flotilla,  castle,  town,  and  the  broad  bosom  of  the 
harbor.  This  was  followed  by  an  instant  ex¬ 
plosion,  and  for  a  few  moments  flaming  masts 
and  sails  and  fiery  bomb-shells  rained  upon  the 
waters,  when  suddenly  all  was  again  dark. 
Anxiously  the  companions  of  the  intrepid  men 
who  went  into  the  harbor  awaited  their  re¬ 
turn.  They  never  came  back.  What  was  the 
cause  of  the  premature  explosion  that  destroy¬ 


ed  vessels  and  men  will  never  be  known.  The 
belief  was  that  the  ketch  was  captured  by  the 
Tripolitans  on  the  watch,  and  that  Somers,  pre¬ 
ferring  death  to  miserable  captivity,  had  him¬ 
self  applied  a  lighted  match  to  the  powder.  A 
fine  mouument  of  white  marble,  erected  to  the 
memory  of  the  slain  men  and  the  event — first 
placed  at  the  navy-yard  at  Washington  city — 
now  stands  at  the  western  front  of  the  national 
Capitol. 

Invasion  of  Canada,  Preparations  for,  at 
Buffalo  (1812).  After  the  battle  at  Queens¬ 
town  (whicli  see)  General  Van  Rensselaer,  dis¬ 
gusted  by  the  conduct  of  his  militia  there,  re¬ 
signed  his  command,  and  was  succeeded  by 
General  Alexander  Smyth,  of  Virginia,  who 
made  his  headquarters  at  Buffalo.  He  had  in¬ 
sisted  that  the  proper  place  for  invading  Can¬ 
ada  was  between  Fort  Erie  and  Chippewa ;  and 
for  that  service  he  gathered,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Black  Rock,  about  four  thousand  troops,  late 
in  the  fall  of  1812.  He  made  such  grandilo¬ 
quent  proclamations  of  his  intentions  that  the 
British  were  prepared  to  meet  the  invaders. 
He  issued  orders  (Nov.  25)  for  the  whole  army 
to  be  ready  to  march  at  a  moment’s  warning, 
and  gave  directions  for  forming  the  troops  in 
battle  order  on  the  Canada  shore.  Boats  and 
scows  sufficient  to  carry  three  thousand  men, 
with  artillery,  at  one  time,  were  made  ready  for 
service  by  Colonel  Winder  on  the  evening  of  the 
27th,  when  Smyth  issued  his  final  order  for  Colo¬ 
nel  Boerstler  to  cross  over  with  a  competent 
force,  at  three  o’clock  in  the  morning,  to  destroy 
a  bridge  five  miles  below  Fort  Erie,  capture  the 
guard  there,  kill  or  take  the  artillery  horses, 
and,  with  the  captives,  if  any,  return  to  the 
American  shore.  Captain  King,  of  the  artil¬ 
lery,  was  ordered  to  cross  higher  up  the  river 
and  storm  British  batteries  there.  Smyth’s 
proclamations  had  warned  the  British  of  the 
impending  invasion,  and  they  w  ere  prepared  for 
it  at  every  point  between  Fort  Erie  and  Cliip- 
pewra.  Owing  to  blunders,  the  early  morning 
expeditions  across  the  river  in  the  darkness 
were  failures,  with  only  partial  success.  Two 
British  batteries  w'ere  captured,  and  some  Brit¬ 
ish  field-pieces  were  destroyed,  but  many  of  the 
Americans  were  made  prisoners.  The  bridge 
had  been  only  partially  destroyed.  It  was  sun¬ 
rise  (Nov.  28)  when  the  troops  at  Black  Rock 
were  embarked,  and  in  that  position  the  impa¬ 
tient  soldiers,  shivering  in  the  cold  air,  waited 
from  morning  until  evening,  and  nothing  was 
seen  of  Smyth  during  the  day.  Meanwhile  the 
British  were  collected  in  force  on  the  opposite 
shore,  under  Lieutenant-colonel  Cecil  Bisshopp. 
When  all  was  in  readiness  an  order  came  from 
the  general  to  “  disembark  and  dine !”  The 
wearied  and  worried  troops  w'ere  greatly  exas¬ 
perated.  A  council  of  w  ar  was  called.  They 
could  not  agree.  During  the  next  three  days 
Smyth  issued  pompous  orders  about  crossing. 
On  Nov.  30  he  said  in  an  order,  “  While  embark¬ 
ing,  the  music  will  play  martial  airs.  Yankee 
Doodle  will  be  the  signal  to  get  under  way.  .  .  . 
The  landing  will  be  effected  in  despite  of  can¬ 
nons.  The  whole  army  has  seen  that  cannons 


INVASION  OF  CUBA 


689 


INVASION  OF  EASTERN  MAINE 


are  to  be  little  dreaded.  .  .  .  Hearts  of  War!  to¬ 
morrow  will  be  memorable  in  the  annals  of  the 
United  States.”  To-morrow  came,  but  not  the 
promised  achievement.  The  troops  had  em¬ 
barked,  and  were  crossing  the  stream,  when 
General  Peter  B.  Porter,  at  the  head  of  the  flo¬ 
tilla,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  shore,  re¬ 
ceived  orders  for  the  whole  army  to  disembark 
and  repair  to  their  quarters.  This  order  was 
accompanied  by  a  declaration  that  the  invasion 
of  Canada  was  indefinitely  abandoned.  The 
regulars  were  ordered  into  winter-quarters,  and 
the  militia  and  volunteers  were  ordered  to  their 
homes.  The  volunteers  begged  to  be  sent  into 
Canada  under  General  Porter,  promising  the 
speedy  capture  of  Fort  Erie,  but  Smyth  evaded 
their  request.  They  felt  themselves  betrayed 
by  a  mere  blusterer  without  courage,  and  a  de¬ 
ceiver  without  honor.  It  was  evident  to  all 
that  he  was  afraid  of  Lieutenant  -  colonel  Bis- 
shopp.  Their  anger  and  disgust  were  increased 
by  Smyth’s  ungenerous  charges  against  General 
Porter,  whom  the  volunteers  and  militia  all 
loved.  The  latter  attributed  the  abandonment 
of  the  invasion  of  Canada  to  Smyth’s  cowardice. 
Confidence  in  Smyth’s  military  ability  was  de¬ 
stroyed,  and  three  months  afterwards  he  was 
deposed  without  trial  and  expelled  from  the 
army. 

Invasion  of  Cuba  from  the  United  States. 

There  had  been  more  or  less  discontent  in  Cuba 
since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and 
after  the  French  republic  was  proclaimed  in 
1848  projects  for  its  annexation  to  the  United 
States  were  prevalent.  Fears  were  entertained 
that  it  might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  or  French,  and  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  slave-labor  states,  were 
much  concerned  in  the  matter.  The  latter  de¬ 
sired  its  annexation  to  the  United  States  be¬ 
cause  such  a  measure  would  extend  the  area  of 
slavery.  In  1848  President  Polk  authorized  the 
American  minister  at  Madrid  to  offer  the  Span¬ 
ish  government  $100,000,000  for  the  island.  The 
proposition  was  peremptorily  rejected.  In  1849 
Narcisso  Lopez,  a  native  of  Venezuela,  S.  A.,  who 
Iqid  lived  long  in  Cuba,  where  he  had  been  in 
the  Spanish  military  service,  came  to  the  United 
States  with  a  number  of  Cubans,  having  been 
implicated  in  a  revolutionary  movement.  He 
declared  that  the  Creole  population  were  ready 
for  revolt  and  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
Recruits  were  collected  in  the  United  States  for 
a  descent  upon  the  island  in  1849,  but  the  meas¬ 
ure  was  defeated  by  the  authorities  here.  A 
second  attempt  was  made  in  1850,  and  a  landing 
was  effected  at  Cardenas,  Cuba.  It  resulted  in 
failure,  and  the  party  was  driven  to  sea.  In 
August,  1851,  Lopez  sailed  from  New  Orleans  in 
a  steamer  with  five  hundred  men,  and  landed  at 
Morillo,  in  the  Vuelta  Abojo.  It  had  been  as¬ 
serted  that  on  the  appearance  of  this  expedi¬ 
tion  on  the  coast  there  would  bo  a  general  up¬ 
rising  of  the  Creole  population;  but  it  did  not 
take  place.  The  invaders  were  met  by  Span¬ 
ish  troops,  and  many  of  the  former  were  killed 
in  engagements.  Fifty  of  those  captured,  with 
Colonel  Crittenden,  of  Kentucky,  were  shot  in 
I. — 44 


Havana.  The  survivors  were  soon  afterwards 
paroled,  with  their  leaders,  and  Lopez  was  gar- 
roted  in  Havana  on  Sept.  1.  Some  of  his  com¬ 
panions  were  shot ;  others  were  transported, 
and  subsequently  pardoned.  There  was  con¬ 
siderable  irritation  of  feeling  on  the  part  of  the 
Cuban  authorities  for  some  time  afterwards. 
The  American  steamship  Black  Warrior  was  fired 
upon  by  a  Spanish  vessel  of  war,  and  she  was 
seized  in  the  harbor  of  Havana  (Feb.  28,  1854), 
and  the  ship  and  cargo  were  declared  confiscat¬ 
ed.  This  event  seriously  threatened  war  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  Spain,  but  the 
matter  was  finally  amicably  settled  between 
the  two  governments. 

Invasion  of  Eastern  Maine  (1814).  Com¬ 
modore  Hardy  sailed  secretly  from  Halifax  early 
in  July,  1814,  with  a  considerable  land  and  na¬ 
val  force,  and  captured  Eastport  without  much 
opposition.  (See  Eastport ,  Capture  of.)  This 
easy  conquest  encouraged  the  British  to  at¬ 
tempt  the  seizure  of  the  whole  region  between 
Passamaquoddy  Bay  and  the  Penobscot  River. 
A  strong  squadron,  under  Admiral  Griffith,  bear¬ 
ing  about  four  thousand  troops,  led  by  Governor 
Sir  John  Cope  Sherbrooke,  of  Nova  Scotia,  capt- 


SIK  JOHN  COPE  SHERBROOKE. 


ured  Castine,  on  Penobscot  Bay,  and  also  Ihd- 
fast,  and  went  up  the  Penobscot  River  to  Hamp¬ 
den,  a  few  miles  below  Bangor,  to  capture  or  de¬ 
stroy  the  American  corvette  John  Adams,  which, 
caught  in  that  stream,  had  gone  up  so  far  to  es¬ 
cape  from  the  British.  The  militia,  called  to 
defend  Hampden  and  the  Adams,  lied  when  the 
British  approached,  and  the  object  of  the  latter 
was  accomplished.  Captain  Morris,  commander 
of  the  Adams,  burned  her  to  prevent  her  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  British.  The  latter  press¬ 
ed  on  to  Bangor,  where  they  tarried  about  thirty 
hours,  destroyed  several  vessels  at  the  mouth  of 


INVASION  OF  KENTUCKY 


690 


INVASION  OF  MARYLAND 


the  Kendnskeag,  and  plundered  property  valued 
at  over  $20,000.  Then  they  returned  to  Hamp¬ 
den  and  there  repeated  their  destructive  work. 
Then  the  troops  and  fleet  descended  the  Penob¬ 
scot,  and,  after  capturing  Machias,  returned  to 
Halifax.  General  Gosselin  was  left  to  hold  the 
country,  which  he  did  with  dignity  and  humanity. 


Invasion  of  Kentucky  (1861).  On  Sept.  4, 
1861,  the  Confederates,  under  General  (Bishop) 
Polk,  entered  Kentucky  and  seized  and  fortified 
Columbus,  in  western  Kentucky.  On  the  next 
day  a  Confederate  force  under  Felix  K.  Zollicof- 
fer  ( formerly  a  member  of  Congress  )  entered 
Kentucky  from  East  Tennessee.  At  the  same 
time  Simon  B.  Buckner,  who  had  been  placed  in 
command  of  the  professed  “neutral”  Kentucky 
State  Guard  (which  see),  and  had  formed  a  Con¬ 
federate  camp  in  Tennessee,  just  below  the  Ken¬ 
tucky  line,  entered  the  latter  state,  and,  acting 
in  concert  with  Polk  and  Zollicoffer,  attempted 
to  seize  Louisville.  He  was  foiled  by  the  vigi¬ 
lance  of  General  Robert  Anderson  (late  of  Fort 
Sumter),  who  was  in  command  there,  with  Gen¬ 
eral  W.  T.  Sherman  as  his  lieutenant.  Buckner 
fell  back  to  Bowling  Green,  on  the  Nashville 
and  Louisville  Railroad,  and  there  established  a 
camp  as  a  nucleus  of  a  powerful  Confederate 
force  that  was  gathered  soon  afterwards.  These 
movements  ended  the  neutrality  of  Kentucky. 
Her  loyal  sons  flew  to  arms,  and  from  that  time 
she  ranked  among  the  loyal  states  of  the  Union. 

Invasion  of  Maryland  (1814).  While  stir¬ 
ring  events  were  occurring  on  the  New  England 
coast  and  the  Northern  frontier,  others  of  equal 
importance  occurred  in  the  vicinity  of  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay  and  the  national  capital.  There 
were  premonitions  of  impending  danger  in  that 
region  early  in  1814.  News  reached  the  gov¬ 
ernment  that  four  thousand  British  troops,  des¬ 
tined  for  the  United  States,  had  landed  at  Ber¬ 
muda.  This  news  was  followed  by  the  arrival,  in 
Lynn  Haven  Bay,  of  Admiral  Cockburn,  the  ma¬ 
rauder,  with  a  strong  naval  force,  to  begin  the 
work  indicated  in  Admiral  Cochrane’s  order  to 
“  destroy  the  seaport  towns  and  ravage  the 
country.”  In  April  news  came  of  the  downfall 
of  Napoleon  and  of  his  abdication,  which  would 
release  British  veterans  from  service  in  Europe. 
Notwithstanding  the  national  capital  was  then 
almost  defenceless,  the  passage  of  British  ships 
up  the  Potomac  might  be  disputed  only  by  the 


guns  of  Fort  Washington,  a  few  miles  below  the 
city,  and  there  was  little  force  to  obstruct  the 
passage  of  land -troops  across  Maryland  from 
the  Chesapeake,  the  apathy  of  the  government 
was  very  conspicuous.  On  the  1st  of  July  of¬ 
ficial  intelligence  reached  the  President  that 
“  a  fleet  of  transports,  with  a  large  force,  bound 

to  some  port  in  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States,  probably  on 
the  Potomac,”  was  about 
to  sail  from  Bermuda. 
In  the  military  district 
of  which  the  District  of 
Columbia  formed  a  part 
there  were  only  a  little 
more  than  two  thousand 
effective  men,  under 
General  Winder,  and 
these  were  scattered  at 
points  some  distance 
from  each  other.  There 
was  a  company  of  ma¬ 
rines  at  the  barracks  at 
Washington,  and  a  com¬ 
pany  of  artillery  at  Fort  Washington.  With 
all  this  knowledge  of  weakness  and  impending 
danger,  the  Secretary  of  War,  whose  opinions 
governed  the  President  and  cabinet,  could  not 
be  persuaded  that  the  capital  was  likely  to  re¬ 
ceive  any  harm.  The  government  organ  ( Nation¬ 
al  Intelligence)')  boasted  that  any  British  force 
that  might  come  could  be  easily  driven  away. 
The  folly  of  this  boast  was  soon  made  manifest  by 
sad  events.  General  Winder  continually  warned 
the  government  of  danger;  and  when  danger 
actually  appeared  he  was  placed,  by  official  or¬ 
ders,  at  the  head  of  fifteen  thousand  militia  for  the 
defence  of  the  capital.  This  army  was  on  paper 
only.  The  militia  lay  hidden  in  official  orders; 
and  when,  at  the  middle  of  August,  a  powerful 
British  land  and  naval  force  appeared  in  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay,  Winder  had  only  a  handful  of  men 
with  which  to  defend  the  capital.  The  call  for 
the  militia  was  tardily  answered,  for  they  feared 
the  loss  of  their  slaves  if  the  masters  should 
leave  the  plantations.  There  was  widespread 
alarm  over  Maryland  and  Virginia.  At  that 
juncture  Commodore  Barney,  with  an  armed 
schooner  and  fifteen  barges,  was  in  the  Patux¬ 
ent  River,  near  its  mouth.  He  fled  up  the 
stream  to  avoid  attack  by  British  vessels.  The 
latter  landed  a  strong  force,  under  General  Ross, 
and  pushed  on  towards  Washington.  Winder 
issued  stirring  appeals  for  the  military  to  turn 
out,  and  asked  General  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  to 
turn  out  his  brigade.  The  British  pursued  Bar¬ 
ney  and  caused  the  destruction  of  his  flotilla. 
Pressing  on  towards  the  capital,  they  were  met 
by  troops  under  Wiuder  at  Bladensburg,  when 
a  severe  engagement  ensued,  which  resulted  in 
victory  for  the  invaders.  Then  they  marched 
on  Washington,  set  fire  to  its  public  buildings, 
and  gave  the  town  up  to  plunder.  Only  the 
Patent  Office  building  was  saved.  The  vessels 
and  other  public  property  at  the  navy-yard  were 
destroyed  by  the  Americans  to  prevent  them 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  The  total 
value  of  the  property  annihilated  by  the  Amer- 


YXEW  AT  THE  MOUTH  OP  THE  KENDUSKEAG. 


INVASION  OF  MARYLAND 


691 


INVASION  OF  MEXICO 


icans  and  British  at  that  time  was  estimated  at 
about  $2,000,000.  “  Willingly,”  said  the  London 
Statesman,  “  would  we  throw  a  veil  of  oblivion 
over  our  transactions  at  Washington.  The  Cos¬ 
sacks  spared  Paris,  hut  we  spared  not  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  America.”  While  Ross  was  crossing  Mary¬ 
land  to  the  natioual  capital  a  British  fleet,  un¬ 
der  Commodore  Gordou,  went  up  the  Potomac 
and  plundered  Alexandria,  on  the  Virginia  shore. 
The  British  retreated  to  their  ships  after  deso¬ 
lating  the  capital,  and,  flushed  with  success,  they 
attempted  to  capture  Baltimore.  Ross  lauded 
with  nine  thousand  troops  at  North  Point,  twelve 
miles  from  Baltimore,  on  Sept.  12,  and  proceeded 
to  march  on  the  town,  when  he  was  confronted 
by  an  American  force  under  Geueral  Strieker 
and  driven  back.  Ross  was  killed,  and  his  troops 
fled  to  their  ships.  At  the  same  time  the  Brit¬ 
ish  fleet  sailed  up  Patapsco  Bay  and  bombarded 
Fort  McHenry,  that  guarded  Baltimore  harbor. 
They  were  repulsed,  and  ships  and  troops,  dis¬ 
comfited,  left  the  Chesapeake  to  operate  on  the 
more  southern  regions  of  the  American  coast. 

Invasion  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania 
(1863).  After  the  battle  at  Chaucellorsville 
(which  see)  Lee’s  army  was  strong  iu  material 
and  moral  force.  Recent  successes  had  greatly 
inspirited  it.  It  was  reorganized  into  three 
army  corps,  commanded  respectively  by  Gener¬ 
als  Longstreet,  A.  P.  Hill,  and  Ewell.  At  no 
time,  probably,  during  the  war  was  the  Confed¬ 
erate  army  more  complete  in  numbers,  equip¬ 
ment,  and  discipline,  or  furnished  with  more  am¬ 
ple  materials  for  carrying  on  the  conflict,  than 
it  was  at  the  middle  of  June,  1863,  when  Lee  in¬ 
vaded  Maryland.  According  to  Confederate  df- 
ficial  returns,  there  were  at  least  five  hundred 
thousand  men  on  the  army  rolls,  aud  more  than 
three  hundred  thousand  “  present  aud  fit  for 
duty.”  Richmond  seemed  secure  from  harm. 
Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson,  on  the  Mississippi, 
seemed  impregnable  against  any  National  forces 
that  might  he  employed  against  them.  (  See 
Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson.)  Their  European 
friends  gave  them  great  encouragement,  for 
there  were  strong  manifestations  of  desires  for 
the  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of 
the  “  Confederate  States  of  America.”  Feeling 
strong,  the  Confederate  authorities  ordered  Lee 
to  invade  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania.  His 
force  was  now  almost  equal  to  that  of  Hooker, 
and  in  better  spirits  than  was  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  So  early  as  May  20,  Hooker  suspected 
such  a  movement  would  be  undertaken,  and  so 
informed  the  Secretary  of  War.  Earlier  than 
this  Clement  C.  Barclay,  of  Philadelphia,  who 
had  rare  opportunities  for  information,  had 
warned  the  authorities  of  Washington,  Balti¬ 
more,  and  Harrisburg  of  impending  danger,  but 
they  were  slow  to  believe  Lee  would  repeat  the 
folly  of  the  previous  year.  Lee’s  first  move¬ 
ment  in  that  direction  was  to  get  Hooker  from 
the  Rappahannock  by  feints  and  a  real  flanking 
movement.  There  was  considerable  preliminary 
cavalry  skirmishing  early  in  June,  and  finally  a 
cavalry  reconnoissance  by  Pleasanton  revealed 
the  fact  of  Lee’s  grand  movement.  Hooker  sup¬ 
posed  he  would  follow  his  route  of  the  previous 


year,  and  was  watching  and  guarding  the  fords 
of  the  Rappahannock,  when  Lee  projected  his 
right  wing,  under  Ewell,  through  the  Blue  Ridge 
into  the  Sheuandoah  Valley  at  Strasburg.  He 
pushed  down  the  valley  to  Winchester,  where 
General  Milroy  was  in  command  of  nearly  ten 
thousand  meu,  on  the  evening  of  June  13,  hav¬ 
ing  marched  seventy  miles  in  three  days.  It 
was  a  bold  movement.  Milroy  called  in  his 
outposts  and  prepared  to  fight,  but  before  day¬ 
light  he  resolved  to  retreat.  He  spiked  his  can¬ 
nons,  drowned  his  powder,  and  was  about  to 
depart,  when  the  Confederates  fell  upon  him. 
Then  began  a  race  towards  the  Potomac,  but 
the  Nationals  were  stopped  by  a  force  some 
miles  from  Winchester,  and  many  of  them  made 
prisoners.  The  garrison  at  Harper’s  Ferry  fled 
across  the  river  to  Maryland  Heights.  Inform¬ 
ed  of  Lee’s  movement,  Hooker  moved  rapidly 
northward,  intent  upon  covering  Washington, 
while  his  cavalry  watched  the  passes  of  the 
Blue  Ridge.  The  National  authorities,  as  well 
as  those  of  Maryland  aud  Pennsylvania,  were 
thoroughly  aroused  by  a  sense  of  danger.  The 
President  called  (June  15)  upon  the  states  near¬ 
est  the  capital  for  an  aggregate  of  one  hundred 
thousand  militia;  and  the  governor  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  called  out  the  eutire  militia  of  the  state. 
Lee  had  about  a  week  the  start  of  Hooker  iu 
the  race  for  the  Potomac.  On  the  15th  fifteen 
hundred  Confederate  cavalry  dashed  across  the 
Potomac  at  Williamsport  in  pursuit  of  Milroy’s 
wagon-traiu  ;  swept  up  the  Cumberland  Valley 
to  Chaxnbersburg,  in  Pennsylvania ;  destroyed 
the  railroad  iu  that  vicinity ;  plundered  the  re¬ 
gion  of  horses,  cattle,  aud  other  supplies ;  and, 
with  fifty  kidnapped  negroes,  going  hack  to 
Hagerstown,  waited  for  Lee.  The  information 
procured  by  the  raiders  satisfied  Lee  that  he 
should  not  meet  with  much  opposition,  and  he 
pressed  forward.  Ewell’s  corps  crossed  the  Po¬ 
tomac  at  Williamsport,  near  Shepherdstown,  on 
June  21  and  22,  and  swept  on  to  Chambersburg, 
and  thence  to  the  Susquehanna,  opposite  Co¬ 
lumbia,  levying  contributions  on  the  people. 
The  greatest  alarm  everywhere  prevailed.  It 
was  believed  that  Harrisburg  and  Philadelphia 
would  soon  be  entered  by  the  Confederates,  and 
millions  of  valuable  things  were  sent  north 
from  the  latter  city  for  safety.  Even  New  York 
seemed  menaced.  The  remainder  of  Lee’s  army 
crossed  the  Potomac  on  the  24th  and  25th,  aud 
pressed  on  after  Ewell  towards  the  Susquehan¬ 
na.  Hooker’s  army,  now  full  one  hundred  thou¬ 
sand  strong,  crossed  the  river  at  Edwards’s  Fer¬ 
ry.  Regarding  Harper’s  Ferry,  at  that  moment, 
of  little  account,  he  asked  for  the  abandonment 
of  that  vicinity  by  eleven  thousand  National 
troops.  The  general-in-chief  (Halleck)  would 
not  consent,  and  Hooker,  at  his  own  request,  was 
at  once  relieved  of  his  command,  and  was  super¬ 
seded  by  General  George  G.  Meade  on  June  28. 

Invasion  of  Mexico  (1846).  After  the  bat¬ 
tle  at  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (which  see)  the  Mex¬ 
icans  trembled  for  the  safety  of  Matamoras. 
Arista  sent  a  deputation  to  General  Taylor  to 
ask  for  an  armistice  until  the  two  governments 
should  arrange  the  dispute.  Taylor  would  not 


INVASION  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA  692 


INVASION  OF  VIRGINIA 


trust  the  treacherous  Mexicau,  and  refused. 
During  the  conference  Arista  had  removed  a 
large  quantity  of  ammunition  and  stores  from 
Matamoras,  and  during  the  succeeding  night 
(May  17)  he  retreated,  with  all  the  troops  which 
he  had  rallied,  to  the  open  country  towards 
Monterey.  Informed  of  this,  Taylor  crossed  the 
Rio  Grande  (May  18)  with  his  army,  and  for  the 
first  time  the  American  flag  was  unfurled  over 
uudisputed  Mexican  soil.  (See  Mexico,  War  with.) 

Invasion  of  South  Carolina  (1779).  Gen¬ 
eral  Prevost,  after  the  subjugation  of  Georgia 
(February,  1779),  crossed  the  Savannah  River 
(April  27)  with  two  thousand  regulars  and  a  large 
body  of  Tories  and  Creek  Indians,  and  marched 
for  Charleston.  General  Lincoln  had  recruited 
his  broken  army  (see  Brier  Creek,  Battle  of),  and 
was  then  in  the  Held  with  about  live  thousand 
men,  preparing  to  recover  Georgia.  He  hast¬ 
ened  from  the  Savannah  River  to  the  relief  of 
Charleston.  Prevost  marched  so  slowly  that 
when  he  reached  Charleston  the  people  there 
were  prepared  for  its  defence.  They  had  cast 
up  intrenchments  across  Charleston  Neck.  On 
the  morning  of  the  11th  Prevost  demanded  the 
immediate  surrender  of  the  town.  It  was  prompt¬ 
ly  refused;  and  that  night,  hearing  of  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  Lincoln,  the  invaders  decamped,  and 
started  for  Savannah  by  way  of  the  sea-islands 
along  the  coast.  For  more  than  a  month  some 
British  detachments  lingered  upon  John’s  Isl¬ 
and,  near  Charleston,  and  after  a  severe  engage¬ 
ment  at  Stono  Ferry,  ten  miles  below  Charles¬ 
ton  (June  20),  Prevost  established  a  mili¬ 
tary  post  on  Lady’s  Island,  between  Port 
Royal  and  St.  Helen’s  Island,  and  then  re¬ 
treated  to  Savannah.  Prevost  plundered 
and  cruelly  treated  the  inhabitants  on  his 
way  to  Charleston. 

Invasion  of  Virginia  (1781).  The  ma¬ 
rauding  expedition  of  Arnold  up  the  James 
River,  early  in  1781  (see  Arnold  in  Vir¬ 
ginia),  was  followed  by  a  more  formidable 
invasion  in  the  latter  part  of  March.  Gen¬ 
eral  Phillips,  of  Burgoyne’s  army,  who  had 
been  exchanged  for  Lincoln,  joined  Arnold 
at  Portsmouth,  with  two  thousand  troops 
from  New  York,  and  took  the  chief  com¬ 
mand.  They  went  up  the  James  and  Ap¬ 
pomattox  rivers, took  Petersburg  (April 25, 

1781),  and  destroyed  four  thousand  hogs¬ 
heads  of  tobacco,  which  had  been  collected  there 
for  shipment  to  France  on  account  of  the  Con¬ 
gress.  There  were  virtually  no  troops  in  Virginia 
to  oppose  this  invasion,  for  all  that  were  really  fit 
for  service  had  been  sent  to  the  army  of  Greene, 
in  the  Caroliuas.  Steuben  had  about  five  hun¬ 
dred  half-starved  and  naked  troops,  whom  he 
was  training  for  recruits.  These  were  mostly 
without  arms,  and  retreated  before  Phillips  to 
Richmond.  Lafayette,  who  had  halted  at  An¬ 
napolis,  now  hurried  forward,  and,  by  a  forced 
march  of  two  hundred  miles,  reached  Richmond 
twelve  hours  before  Phillips  and  Arnold  ap¬ 
peared  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  Joined 
by  Steuben,  the  marquis  here  checked  the  in¬ 
vaders,  who  retired  to  City  Point,  at  the  junc¬ 


tion  of  the  James  and  Appomattox.  After  col¬ 
lecting  an  immense  plunder  in  tobacco  and 
slaves,  besides  destroying  ships,  mills,  and  ev¬ 
ery  species  of  property  that  fell  in  his  way, 
Phillips  embarked  his  army,  and  dropped  some 
distance  down  the  river.  When,  soon  after¬ 
wards,  Cornwallis  approached  Virginia  frpm  the 
South,  he  ordered  Phillips  to  meet  him  at  Pe¬ 
tersburg.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  earl  (May 
20),  General  Phillips  died  (May  13)  at  Peters¬ 
burg.  On  May  24  Cornwallis  crossed  the  James 
and  pushed  on  towards  Richmond.  He  seized 
all  the  tine  horses  he  could  find,  with  which  he 
mounted  about  six  hundred  cavalry,  whom  he 
sent  after  Lafayette,  then  not  far  distant  from 
Richmond,  with  three  thousand  men,  waiting 
for  the  arrival  of  Wayne,  who  was  approaching 
with  Pennsylvania  troops.  The  marquis  fell 
slowly  back,  and  at  a  ford  on  the  North  Anne 
he  met  Wayne  with  eight  hundred  men.  Corn¬ 
wallis  had  pursued  him  as  far  as  Hanover  Court¬ 
house,  from  which  place  the  earl  sent  Lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel  Simcoe,  with  his  loyalist  corps,  the 
“  Queen’s  Rangers,”  to  capture  or  destroy  stores 
in  charge  of  Steuben  at  the  junction  of  the  Ra¬ 
venna  and  Fluvanna  rivers.  In  this  he  failed. 
Tarleton  had  been  detached,  at  the  same  time,  to 
capture  Governor  Jefferson  and  the  members 
of  the  Virginia  Legislature  at  Charlottesville, 
whither  they  had  fled  from  Richmond.  Only 
seven  of  them  were  made  captives.  Jefferson 
narrowly  escaped  by  fleeing  from  his  house  (at 
Monticello)  on  horseback,  accompanied  by  a  sin¬ 


gle  servant,  and  hiding  in  the  mountains.  He 
had  left  his  dwelling  only  ten  minutes  before 
one  of  Tarleton’s  officers  entered  it.  At  Jeffer¬ 
son’s  plantation,  near  the  Point  of  Forks,  Corn¬ 
wallis  committed  the  most  wanton  destruction 
of  property,  cutting  the  throats  of  young  horses 
not  fit  for  sei'vice,  slaughtering  the  cattle,  and 
burning  the  barns  with  remains  of  previous 
crops,  laying  waste  growing  ones,  burning  all 
the  fences  on  the  plantation,  and  carrying  away 
about  thirty  slaves.  Lafayette  now  turned  upon 
the  earl,  when  the  latter,  supposing  the  forces 
of  the  marquis  to  be  much  greater  than  they 
were,  retreated  in  haste  down  the  Virginia  peu- 
insula  to  Williamsburg,  blackening  his  path¬ 
way  with  fire.  It  is  estimated  that  during  the 


MONTICELLO. 


INVESTIGATING  COMMITTEE 


693 


IRELAND 


invasion  —  from  Arnold’s  advent  in  January 
until  Cornwallis  reached  Williamsburg  late  in 
June  —  property  to  the  amount  of  $15,000,000 
was  destroyed,  and  thirty  thousand  slaves  were 
carried  awray.  The  British,  in  their  retreat,  had 
been  closely  followed  by  Lafayette,  Wayne,  and 
Steuben,  and  were  not  allowed  a  minute’s  rest 
until  they  reached  Williamsburg,  where  they 
were  protected  by  their  shipping. 

Investigating  Committee,  First,  in  Con¬ 
gress.  The  first  investigating  committee  ap¬ 
pointed  by  Congress  was  in  the  case  of  the  de¬ 
feat  of  St.  Clair  (which  see).  It  was  a  special 
committee,  empowered  to  send  for  persons  and 
papers.  Their  call  upon  the  War  Department 
for  all  papers  relating  to  the  affair  first  raised 
the  question  of  the  extent  of  the  authority  of  the 
House  in  such  matters.  The  Cabinet  unanimous¬ 
ly  agreed  that  the  House  had  no  power  to  call  on 
the  head  of  any  department  for  any  public  paper 
except  through  the  President,  in  whose  discretion 
it  rested  to  furnish  such  papers  as  the  public  good 
might  seem  to  require  and  admit,  and  that  all 
such  calls  must  be  made  by  a  special  resolution 
of  the  House,  the  power  to  make  them  being 
an  authority  which  could  not  be  delegated  to 
any  committee.  This  decision  of  the  cabinet 
established  the  method  ever  since  practised  of 
calling  upon  the  President  for  public  papers. 

Iowa  was  originally  a  part  of  the  vast  terri¬ 
tory  of  Louisiana,  ceded  to  the  United  States  in 
1803.  The  first  settlement  by  Europeans  was 
made  by  Julian  Du  Buque,  who,  in  1788,  ob¬ 
tained  a  grant  of  a  large  tract,  including  the  site 

of  the  city  of  Du- 

®and  manufactured 

lead  and  traded  with 

STATE  SEAL  OF  IOWA.  U 1  id 6 T  that  ot  WlS- 

consin.  It  w  as  erect¬ 
ed  into  a  separate  territory  June  12, 1838,  and  in¬ 
cluded  all  the  country  north  of  Missouri  between 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  and  the  British 
line.  This  comprised  a  greater  part  of  Minne¬ 
sota  and  the  whole  of  Dakota,  with  an  area  of 
ninety-four  thousand  square  miles.  The  gov¬ 
ernment  was  established,  at  IowTa  City,  in  1839. 
In  1844  a  state  constitution  was  formed,  but  an 
application  for  admission  into  the  Union  was 
denied.  The  admission  was  effected  Dec.  28, 
1846,  and  in  1857  the  capital  was  established  at 
Des  Moines.  The  present  constitution  of  Iowa 
was  framed  by  a  convention  at  Iowa  City  early 
in  1857,  and  was  ratified  Aug.  3.  The  clause 
confining  the  privilege  of  the  elective  franchise 
to  white  citizens  wTas  stricken  out  by  act  of  the 
Legislature,  and  was  ratified  by  the  people  in 
1868.  During  the  Civil  War  Iowa  contributed 
75,860  soldiers  to  the  army  of  the  Republic. 


Iowa,  Position  of  (1861).  This  state,  lying 
westward  of  the  Mississippi  River,  with  a  popu¬ 
lation  of  nearly  700,000  and  a  loyal  governor  (S. 
J.  Kirkwood),  was  quick  to  perceive  the  needs 
of  the  national  government  in  its  struggles  with 
its  enemies,  and  was  lavish  in  its  aid.  When  the 
President  called  for  troops  (April,  1861)  the  gov¬ 
ernor  said,  “In  this  emergency  Iowa  must  not, 
and  does  not,  occupy  a  doubtful  position.  For 
the  Union  as  our  fathers  formed  it,  and  for  the 
government  they  framed  so  wisely  and  so  well, 
the  people  of  Iowa  are  ready  to  pledge  every 
fighting-man  in  the  state  and  every  dollar  of 
her  money  and  credit.”  That  pledge  was  re¬ 
deemed  by  sending  over  75,000  men  to  the  front. 
Population  in  1880,  1,624,615. 

Ireland  and  the  United  States.  Ireland, 
which  had  been  more  oppressed  by  British  rule 
than  the  American  colonies,  had,  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  contest  between  the  latter  and  Great 
Britaiu,  shown  peculiar  subserviency  to  its  po¬ 
litical  master.  When  news  of  the  affairs  at  Lex¬ 
ington  and  Bunker’s  Hill  reached  that  country, 
the  Irish  Parliament  voted  that  they  “  heard  of 
the  rebellion  with  abhorrence,  and  were  ready 
to  show  to  the  world  their  attachment  to  the 
sacred  person  of  the  king.”  Taking  advantage 
of  this  expressed  loyalty,  Lord  North  obtained 
leave  to  send  four  thousand  able-bodied  men  to 
America  as  a  part  of  the  British  army.  The 
strongest  and  best  of  the  Irish  army  were  se¬ 
lected,  and  eight  regiments  were  shipped  for 
America.  This  left  Ireland  almost  defenceless. 
Its  Parliament  offered  to  organize  a  national 
militia,  which  Lord  North  refused  to  accept, 
and  instead  of  a  militia,  organized  and  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  British  government,  self-formed 
bands  of  volunteers  sprang  up  all  over  Ireland. 
North  saw  his  blunder,  and  had  a  militia  bill 
enacted;  but  it  was  too  late;  the  Irish  Parlia¬ 
ment  preferred  the  volunteers,  supported  by  the 
Irish  themselves.  Meanwhile  the  eloquent,  pa¬ 
triotic,  and  incorruptible  Henry  Grattan  had 
become  a  member  of  the  Irish  Parliament,  and 
he  was  principally  the  agent  that  kindled  the 
fire  of  patriotic  zeal  in  Ireland  that  was  burning 
so  brightly  in  America.  In  1779,  though  only 
thirty-three  years  of  age,  he  led  the  Irish  Par¬ 
liament  in  demanding  reforms.  He  moved  an 
amendment  to  the  address  to  the  king,  that  the 
nation  could  be  saved  only  by  free-trade,  and  it 
was  adopted  by  unanimous  vote.  New  taxes 
were  refused.  The  ordinary  supplies  usually 
granted  for  two  years  were  granted  for  six 
months.  Throughout  the  little  kingdom  an 
inextinguishable  sentiment  of  nationality  was 
aroused,  and  very  soon  Ireland  had  an  army 
of  fifty  thousand  volunteers.  Alarmed  by  the 
threatening  attitude  of  Ireland,  Parliament,  in 
1781,  conceded  to  the  dependent  kingdom  its 
claims  to  commercial  equality. 

Ireland,  Revolutionary  Movements  in. 
The  combined  armies  of  France  and  Spain,  in 
1780,  kept  the  British  government  on  the  alert, 
and  they  were  compelled  to  keep  afloat  an  im¬ 
mense  naval  force.  To  guard  against  an  expect¬ 
ed  invasion,  eighty  thousand  volunteers  were 


IRISH  COLONY  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA  694  IROQUOIS  CONFEDERACY,  THE 


enrolled  in  Ireland.  With  arras  in  their  hands, 
the  Irish  felt  disposed  to  assert  their  own  rights, 
and  began  to  put  in  operation  the  American  plan 
of  non-importation  agreements.  This  movement 
obtained  for  them  commercial  concessions  from 
the  British  government,  which  kept  them  quiet. 

Irish  Colony  in  South  Carolina.  Multi¬ 
tudes  of  laborers  and  husbandmen,  oppressed 
by  landlords  and  ecclesiastics  in  Ireland,  and 
unable  to  procure  a  comfortable  subsistence, 
embarked  for  South  Carolina  in  1736.  These 
were  Protestants,  and  known  as  Scotch -Irish 
(which  see).  They  received  a  grant  of  laud  on 
the  Santee  River,  where  they  formed  a  settle¬ 
ment,  and  called  it  Williamsburg. 

Iroquois  Confederacy,  The,  was  originally 
composed  of  live  related  families  or  nations  of  In¬ 
dians,  in  the  present  State  of  New  York.  These 
were  called,  respectively,  Mohawks,  Oneidas, 
Onondagas,  Cayugas,  and  Senecas.  Tradition 
says  the  confederacy  was  founded  by  Hiawat¬ 
ha,  the  incarnation  of  Wisdom,  at  about  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  came 
from  his  celestial  home  and  dwelt  with  the 
Onondagas,  where  he  taught 
the  related  tribes  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  good  living.  Fierce 
warriors  approached  from  the 
north,  slaying  everything  hu¬ 
man  in  their  path.  Hiawatha 
advised  a  council.  It  was  held 
on  the  hank  of  Onondaga  Lake. 

Representatives  of  each  nation 
were  there.  Under  his  direc¬ 
tion  a  league  was  formed,  and 
each  canton  was  assigned  its 
appropriate  place  in  it.  (See 
Hiaivatlia.')  They  gave  it  a 
name  signifying  “  they  form 
a  cabin,”  and  they  fancifully 
called  the  league  “  The  Long 
House.”  The  eastern  door  was 
kept  by  the  Mohawks,  and  the 
western  by  the  Senecas,  and  the 
great  council-fire  was  with  the 
Onondagas,  at  their  metropolis, 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  site  of 
the  city  of  Syracuse.  By  com¬ 
mon  consent,  a  chief  of  the  Ou- 
oudagas,  called  Atatarho,  was 
made  the  first  president  of  the 
league.  The  Mohawks,  ou  the 
east,  were  called  “  the  door.” 

The  confederacy  embraced 
within  its  territory  the  present 
State  of  New  York  north  and 
west  of  the  Kaatzbergs  and 
south  of  the  Adirondack  group 
of  mountains.  The  several 
nations  were  subdivided  into 
tribes,  each  having  a  heraldic 
insignia,  or  totem.  Through  the 
totemic  system  they  maintained  a  tribal  union, 
and  exhibited  a  remarkable  example  of  an  al¬ 
most  pure  democracy  in  government.  Each 
canton  or  nation  wras  a  distinct  republic,  in¬ 
dependent  of  all  others  in  relation  to  its  do¬ 
mestic  affairs,  but  each  was  bound  to  the  oth¬ 


ers  of  the  league  by  ties  of  honor  and  general 
interest.  Each  had  an  equal  voice  in  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Council  or  Congress,  and  possessed  a  sort 
of  veto  power,  which  was  a  guarantee  against 
despotism.  After  the  Europeans  came,  the  sa¬ 
chem,  or  civil  head  of  a  tribe,  affixed  his  totem — 
such  as  the  rude  outlines  of  a  wolf,  a  bear,  a  tor¬ 
toise,  or  an  eagle — to  every  public  paper  he  was 
required  to  sign.  It  was  like  a  monarch  affix- 
4^,  ing  his  seal.  Each  of  the 

original  Five  Nations  was 
/  J  divided  into  three  tribes, 

> - those  of  the  Mohawks  being 

^  '  designated  as  the  Tortoise 

No  L  or  Turtle,  the  Bear,  and  the 

Wolf.  These  totems  con¬ 
sisted  of  representations  of 
those  animals.  These  were 
sometimes  exceedingly  rude, 
but  were  sufficient  to  denote 
the  tribe  of  the  signer ;  as, 

No.  1,  appended  to  the  signa¬ 
ture  of  Little  Hendrick,  a  Mohawk  chief,  repre¬ 
sents  his  totem — a  turtle  ;  No.  2,  appended  to 


No.  2. 


*  Atatarho,  the  first  president  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy, 
is  represented  by  the  Indians  as  living,  at  the  time  he  was 
chosen,  in  grim  seclusion  in  a  swamp,  where  his  dishes  and 
drinking  vessels,  like  those  of  half  barbarian  Caucasians,  were 
made  of  the  skulls  of  his  enemies  slain  in  battle.  When  a 
delegation  went  to  him  to  offer  him  the  symbol  of  supreme 
power,  they  found  him  sitting  smoking  his  pipe,  but  unap- 


IROQUOIS  CONFEDERACY,  THE  695  IROQUOIS  CONFEDERACY,  THE 


the  signature  of  Kanadagea,  a  chief  of  the  Bear 
tribe,  represents  a  bear  lying  on  his  back ;  and 
No.  3  is  the  signature  of  Great  Hendrick  (which 
see),  of  the  Wolf  tribe,  the  rude  representation  of 
that  animal  appearing  at  the  end  of  his  signature. 


As  each  confederated  nation  was  divided  into 
tribes,  there  were  thirty  or  forty  sachems  in  the 
League.  These  had  inferior  officers  under  them, 
and  the  civil  power  was  widely  distributed. 
Office  was  the  reward  of  merit  alone;  malfeasance 
in  it  brought  dismissal  and  public  scorn.  All 
public  services  were  compensated  only  by  public 
esteem.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  President 
of  the  League  were  similar  to  those  conferred 
and  imposed  upon  the  chief  magistrate  of  our 
Republic.  He  had  authority  to  assemble  a  con¬ 
gress  of  representatives ;  had  a  cabinet  of  six 
advisers,  and  in  the  council  he  was  moderator. 
There  was  no  coercive  power,  excepting  public 
opinion,  lodged  anywhere.  The  military  dom¬ 
inated  the  civil  power  in  the  League.  The  chiefs 
derived  their  authority  from  the  people,  and  they 
sometimes,  like  the  Romans,  deposed  civil  offi¬ 
cers.  The  army  was  composed  wholly  of  volun¬ 
teers,  and  conscription  was  impossible.  Every 
able-bodied  man  was  bound  to  do  military  duty, 
and  he  who  shirked  it  incurred  everlasting  dis¬ 
grace.  The  ranks  were  always  full.  The  re¬ 
cruiting-stations  were  the  war-dances.  What¬ 
ever  was  done  in  civil  councils  was  subjected 
to  review  by  the  soldiery,  who  had  the  right  to 
call  councils  when  they  pleased,  and  approve 
or  disapprove  public  measures.  The  matrons 
formed  a  third  and  powerful  party  in  the  legis¬ 
lature  of  the  League.  They  had  a  right  to  sit 
in  the  councils,  and  there  exercise  the  veto  pow¬ 
er  on  the  subject  of  a  declaration  of  war,  and  to 
propose  and  demand  a  cessation  of  hostilities. 
They  were  pre-eminently  peace-makers.  It  was 
no  reflection  upon  the  courage  of  warriors  if,  at 
the  call  of  the  matrons,  they  withdrew  from  the 
war-path.  These  women  wielded  great  influ¬ 
ence  in  the  councils,  but  they  modestly  dele¬ 
gated  the  duties  of  speech-making  to  some  mas¬ 
culine  orator.  With  these  barbarians,  woman 
was  man’s  co-worker  in  legislation— a  thing  un¬ 
heard  of  among  civilized  people.  So  much  did 
the  Iroquois  reverence  the  “inalienable  rights 
of  man,”  that  they  never  made  slaves  of  their 
fellow-men,  not  even  of  captives  taken  in  war. 
By  unity  they  were  made  powerful ;  and  to  pre¬ 
vent  degeneracy,  members  of  a  tribe  were  not 
allowed  to  intermarry  with  each  other.  Like 
the  Romans,  they  caused  their  commonwealth 
to  expand  by  annexation  and  conquest.  Had 
they  remained  undiscovered  by  the  Europeans 
a  century  longer,  the  confederacy  might  have 

nroacbablo,  because  ho  was  entirely  clothed  with  hissing 
snakes.  Here  is  the  old  story  of  Medusa’s  snaky  tresses  un¬ 
veiled  in  the  forests  of  the  new-found  world.  I 


embraced  the  whole  continent,  for  the  Five  Na¬ 
tions  had  already  extended  their  conquests  from 
the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  were 
the  terror  of  the  other  tribes  east  and  west. 
For  a  long  time  the  French  in  Canada,  who 
taught  them  the  use  of  fire-arms,  maintained  a 
doubtful  struggle  against  them.  Champlain 
found  them  at  war  against  the  Canada  Indians 
from  Lake  Huron  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
He  fought  them  on  Lake  Champlain  in  1609; 
and  from  that  time  until  the  middle  of  that  cen¬ 
tury  their  wars  against  the  Canada  Indians  and 
their  French  allies  were  fierce  and  distressing. 
They  made  friends  of  the  Dutch,  from  whom 
they  obtained  fire-arms;  and  they  were  alter¬ 
nately  at  war  and  peace  with  the  French  for 
about  sixty  years.  The  latter  invaded  the  can¬ 
tons  of  the  League,  especially  after  the  Five  Na¬ 
tions  became  allied  with  the  English,  who,  as 
masters  of  New  York,  used  their  dusky  neigh¬ 
bors  to  carry  out  their  designs.  The  Iroquois, 
meanwhile,  carried  their  conquests  almost  to 
Nova  Scotia  on  the  east,  and  far  towards  the 
Mississippi  on  the  west,  and  subdued  the  Sus- 
queliannas  in  Pennsylvania.  In  1649  they  sub¬ 
dued  and  dispersed  the  Wyandots  in  the  Huron 
country.  (See  Wyandots.)  Some  of  the  fugi¬ 
tives  took  refuge  among  the  Chippewas;  oth¬ 
ers  fled  to  Quebec,  and  a  few  were  incorporated 
in  the  Iroquois  confederacy.  The  Wyandots 
were  not  positively  subdued,  and  claimed  and 
exercised  sovereignty  over  the  Ohio  country 
down  to  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Then 
the  Five  Nations  made  successful  wars  on  their 
eastern  and  western  neighbors,  and  in  1655 
they  penetrated  to  the  laud  of  the  Catawbas 
and  Cherokees.  They  conquered  the  Miamis 
and  Ottawas  in  1657,  and  in  1701  made  incur¬ 
sions  as  far  as  the  Roanoke  and  Cape  Fear  riv¬ 
ers,  to  the  land  of  their  kindred,  the  Tuscaroras. 
(See  Tuscaroras.)  So  determined  were  they  to 
subdue  the  Southern  tribes,  that  when,  in  1744, 
they  ceded  a  part  of  their  lands  to  Virginia, 
they  reserved  a  perpetual  privilege  of  a  war¬ 
path  through  the  territory.  A  French  invasion 
in  1693,  and  again  in  1696,  was  disastrous  to  the 
League,  which  lost  one -half  of  its  warriors. 
Then  they  swept  victoriously  southward  early  in 
the  18th  century,  and  took  in  their  kindred,  the 
Tuscaroras,  in  North  Carolina,  when  the  confed¬ 
eracy  became  known  as  the  Six  Nations.  In  1713 
the  French  gave  up  all  claim  to  the  Iroquois, 
and  after  that  the  confederacy  was  generally 
neutral  in  the  wars  between  France  and  Eng¬ 
land  that  extended  to  the  American  colonies. 
Under  the  influence  of  William  Johnson,  the 
English  Indian  agent,  they  went  against  the 
French  in  1755,  and  some  of  them  joined  Pon¬ 
tiac  in  his  conspiracy  in  1763.  (See  Pontiac.) 
When  the  Revolution  broke  out,  in  1775,  the 
Iroquois,  influenced  by  the  Johnson  family,  ad¬ 
hered  to  the  crown,  excepting  the  Oneidas.  Led 
by  Brant  and  savage  Tories,  they  desolated  the 
Mohawk,  Cherry,  and  Wyoming  valleys.  The 
country  of  the  Western  Iroquois,  in  turn,  was 
desolated  by  General  Sullivan  in  1779,  and  Brant 
retaliated  fearfully  on  the  frontier  settlements. 
At  the  close  of  the  war,  the  hostile  Iroquois, 


IRVINE 


696 


IRVING 


dreading  the  vengeance  of  the  exasperated 
Americans,  took  refuge  in  Canada,  excepting 
the  Oneidas  and  Tuscaroras.  By  treaties,  all 
the  lands  of  the  Six  Nations  in  New  York  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  white  people,  except¬ 
ing  some  reservations  on  which  the  dusky  in¬ 
habitants  yet  reside.  In  the  plenitude  of  their 
power,  the  confederacy  numbered  about  15,000  ; 
they  now  number  about  13,000,  distributed  at 
various  points  in  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
There  are  about  5000  in  the  State  of  New  York, 
their  ancient  domain.  (See  Huron-  Iroquois.  ) 
Like  the  other  barbarians  of  the  continent,  the 
Iroquois  were  superstitious  and  cruel.  They 
believed  in  witches  as  firmly  as  did  Cotton  Ma¬ 
ther  and  his  Puritan  brethren  in  New  England, 
and  they  punished  them  in  human  form  as  fierce¬ 
ly  as  did  Henry  the  Eighth,  or  the  rulers  and  the 
Gospel  ministers  at  Salem  in  later  times.  Their 
“  medicine  men  ”  and  “  prophets”  were  as  expert 
deceivers  as  the  priests,  oracles,  and  jugglers  of 
civilized  men.  They  tortured  their  enemies  in 
retaliation  for  kindred  slain  with  almost  as  re¬ 
fined  cruelty  as  did  the  ministers  of  the  Holy  In¬ 
quisition  the  enemies  of  their  opinions ;  and 
they  lighted  fires  around  their  more  eminent 
prisoners  of  war,  in  token  of  their  power,  as 
bright  and  hot  as  those  kindled  by  enlightened 
Englishmen  around  Joan  of  Arc  as  a  sorceress, 
or  Bishops  Latimer  and  Ridley  as  believers  in 
what  they  thought  to  be  an  absurdity. 

Irvine,  William,  was  born  at  Fermanagh,  Ire 
land,  Nov.  3,  1741;  died  in  Philadelphia,  July 
29,  1804.  He  was  a  surgeon  of  a  ship- of  war, 
came  to  the  United  States  after  the  Peace  of  1763, 
and  practised  medicine  at  Carlisle,  Penn.  He 
was  an  active  patriot,  and  raised  and  command¬ 
ed  a  Pennsylvania  regiment  in  1776;  was  made 
a  captive  at  Three  Rivers,  Canada;  exchanged 
in  May,  1778;  served  under  Wayne,  and  in  1781 
was  stationed  at  Fort  Pitt,  charged  with  the 
defence  of  the  northwestern  frontier.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1786  to  1788,  and  took 
a  civil  and  military  part  in  the  task  of  quelling 
the  Whiskey  Insurrection.  He  was  again  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  Congress  from  1793  to  1795. 

Irving,  Washington,  LL.D.,  wyas  born  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  April  3,  1783;  died  at  Tarry- 
town,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  28,  1859.  His  father  was  a 
Scotchman,  his  mother  an  Englishwoman.  He 
engaged  in  literature  while  yet  a  youth,  and 
was  in  Europe  for  his  health  from  1804  to  1806. 
In  1807  he  published,  in  connection  with  his 
brother  Peter  and  James  K.  Paulding,  Salma¬ 
gundi,  and  in  1808,  when  he  was  twenty- five 
years  of  age,  his  Knickerbocker’s  History  of  New 
York.  After  editing  a  magazine  during  the  War 
of  1812-15,  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  resided 
seventeen  years ;  when,  after  the  failure  of  a 
mercantile  house  in  New  York  with  which  he 
was  connected,  he  was  left  to  rely  on  his  liter¬ 
ary  labors  for  support.  He  spent  his  time  part¬ 
ly  in  England,  France,  Germany,  and  Spain,  and 
published  his  Life  of  Columbus  in  1828,  which 
was  followed  by  the  Conquest  of  Granada  and  the 
Alhambra.  From  1829  to  1831  he  was  secretary 
of  the  American  legation  in  Loudon,  and  re¬ 


ceived  from  George  IV.  the  fifty -guinea  gold 
medal  awarded  for  eminence  in  historical  com¬ 
position.  He  returned  to  New  York  in  1832, 
and  prepared  and  published  several  works;  and 


WASHINGTON  IRVING. 


from  1839  to  1841  contributed  to  the  Knicker¬ 
bocker  Magazine.  From  1842  to  1846  he  was  min¬ 
ister  to  Spain,  and  on  his  return  to  New  York  he 
published  a  revised  edition  of  all  his  works  in 
fifteen  volumes,  which  had  a  very  large  sale. 
His  last  work  was  a  Life  of  Washington,  in  five 
volumes,  completed  a  few  months  before  his 
death.  Mr.  Irving  never  married.  The  honor¬ 
ary  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
Harvard  University,  Oxford  University,  in  Eng¬ 
land,  and  Columbia  College,  in  New  York.  Mr. 
Irving’s  remains  rest  near  the  summit  of  a  gen¬ 
tle  slope  in  the  cemetery  attached  to  the  ancient 
Dutch  church  at  the  entrance  to  “  Sleepy  Hol- 


ANCIENT  DUTCH  CHURCH. 


low',”  near  Tarrytotvn,  N.  Y.  They  lie  by  the  side 
of  those  of  his  mother.  In  a  row  lie  the  remains 
of  his  father,  mother,  brothers,  and  sisters.  The 
old  church,  which  he  made  famous  by  the  story 
of  Ichabod  Crane  (a  leader  in  the  psalm-singing 
there  on  Sundays)  in  his  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow, 
remains  the  same  as  when  it  was  built  in  1669, 
and  is  the  -oldest  church  edifice  extant  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  Over  the  Sleepy  Hollow 
brook,  near  it,  is  the  bridge  where  Brom  Bones, 
the  supposed  “headless  horseman,”  hurled  the 
pumpkin  at  the  frightened  Ichabod,  and  drove 
liim  from  the  neighborhood  and  Katrina  van 
Tassell  forever. 


ISABELLA 


697 


ISABELLA 


Isabella,  Queen  of  Castile  and  Leon,  was 
bom  at  Madrigal,  in  Old  Castile,  April  23, 1451 ; 
died  Nov.  26, 1504.  Until  her  twelfth  year  Isa¬ 
bella  lived  in  retirement  with  her  mother,  a 
daughter  of  John  II.,  of  Portugal.  At  the  age 


ISABELLA  OF  CASTILE. 


of  eleven  years  she  was  betrothed  to  Carlos, 
brother  of  Ferdinand  (whom  she  afterwards 
married),  then  forty-six  years  old.  His  death 
prevented  the  union.  Other  candidates  for  her 
hand  were  proposed,  but,  being  a  young  woman 
of  spirit,  she  rejected  them.  Her  half-brother 
Henry,  on  the  throne,  contracted  a  marriage  for 
her,  for  state  purposes,  with  the  profligate  Don 
Pedro  Giron,  Grand-master  of  the  Order  of  Cala- 
trava.  “  I  will  plunge  a  dagger  in  Don  Pedro’s 
heart,”  said  the  maiden,  “  before  I  will  submit 
to  the  dishonor.”  The  grand- master  died  as 
suddenly  as  Carlos  while  on  his  way  to  the  nup¬ 
tials,  probably  from  the  effects  of  poison.  Hen¬ 
ry  now  made  an  arrangement  by  which  Isabella 
was  recognized  as  heir  to  Castile  and  Leon,  with 
the  right  to  choose  her  own  husband,  subject  to 
the  king’s  approval.  She  chose  Ferdinand, 
Prince  of  Aragon,  who  signed  the  marriage  con¬ 
tract  at  Cervera,  Jan.  7,  1469,  guaranteeing  to 
his  betrothed  all  the  essential  rights  of  sover¬ 
eignty  in  Castile  and  Leon.  King  Henry,  of¬ 
fended  because  his  sister  would  not  marry  the 
King  of  Portugal,  sent  a  force  to  seize  her  per¬ 
son.  She  escaped  to  Valladolid,  whither  Ferdi¬ 
nand  hastened  in  disguise,  and  they  were  mar¬ 
ried,  Oct.  19, 1469,  in  the  cathedral  there.  Civil 
war  ensued.  The  king  died  late  in  1474,  and  Isa¬ 
bella  was  declared  queen  of  Castile  and  Leon  ; 
but  her  authority  was  not  fully  recognized  until 
after  a  war  with  the  King  of  Portugal,  who  was 
affianced  to  Juana,  the  rival  of  Isabella  for  the 
throne.  After  that  her  career  was  brilliant.  She 
appeared  in  arms  at  the  head  of  her  troops  in  her 
wars  with  the  Moors.  From  a  conviction  that  it 
was  for  the  safety  of  the  Roman  Catholic  relig¬ 
ion,  she  reluctantly,  it  is  said,  gave  her  consent 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  ;  and  for 
this  act,  and  her  fiery  zeal  for  the  Church, 
amounting  at  times  to  fanatical  cruelty,  she  is 


known  in  history  as  Isabella  the  Catholic.  Fer¬ 
dinand  was  now  king  of  Aragon,  and  their  king¬ 
doms  were  united  and  formed  a  strong  empire, 
and  the  consolidated  Christian  power  of  the 
Spanish  peninsula  was  effected.  The  two  mon- 
archs  were  one  in  love,  respect,  and  interest. 
They  ruled  as  separate  sovereigns,  each  having 
an  independent  council,  and  sometimes  holding 
their  courts  at  points  distant  from  each  other  at 
the  same  time ;  but  they  were  a  unit  in  the  gener¬ 
al  administration  of  the  consolidated  kingdoms, 
all  acts  of  sovereignty  being  executed  in  the 
name  of  both,  all  documents  signed  by  both, 
and  their  profiles  stamped  together  on  the  na¬ 
tional  coins,  while  the  royal  seal  displayed  the 
united  arms  of  Castile  and  Aragon.  The  relig¬ 
ious  zeal  of  Isabella  was  inflamed  when  Colum¬ 
bus,  in  his  application  for  aid,  declared  that  one 
great  object  of  his  ambition  was  to  carry  the 
Gospel  to  the  heathen  of  undiscovered  lands. 
But  public  affairs  at  first  so  engrossed  the  at¬ 
tention  of  the  monarchs  that  the  suit  of  the 
navigator  did  not  prevail  for  a  long  time.  Fi¬ 
nally  he  was  summoned  before  the  monarchs, 
and  pleaded  his  cause  in  person.  The  queen’s 
zeal  was  so  inflamed  that  she  resolved  to  give 
him  aid.  “  Our  treasury,”  said  Ferdinand,  “has 
been  too  much  drained  by  the  war  to  war¬ 
rant  us  in  the  undertaking.”  The  queen  said, 
“I  will  undertake  the  enterprise  for  my  own 
crown  of  Castile ;  and,  if  necessary,  will  pledge 
my  jewels  for  the  money.”  Then  she  fitted  out 
the  expedition  that  sailed  from  Palos  in  the  au¬ 
tumn  of  1492.  (See  Columbus.')  Afterwards  she 
opposed  the  enslaving  the  natives  of  the  West¬ 
ern  Continent ;  and  when  Columbus  sent  a  cargo 
of  captives  to  Spain,  she  ordered  them  to  be  car¬ 
ried  back  to  their  own  country.  With  Cardinal 


VALLADOLID  CATHEDRAL. 

Ximenes  she  effected  a  radical  reform  in  the 
Church,  as  she  had  in  the  State;  and  criminals, 
high  or  low,  the  clergy  and  common  offenders, 
felt  the  sword  of  justice  fall  with  equal  severity. 
Masculine  in  intellect,  feminine  in  her  moral 
qualities,  pious  and  loving,  Isabella’s  virtues — 
as  virtues  were  estimated  then  and  there — made 


ISLAND  NUMBER  TEN 


C98 


ISLAND  NUMBER  TEN 


a  favorite  theme  for  the  praise  of  Spanish  writ¬ 
ers.  In  person  she  was  beautiful — well  formed, 
clear  complexion,  light  blue  eyes,  and  auburn 
hair.  She  had  oue  sou  and  four  daughters.  Her 
youngest  daughter,  Catharine,  became  the  wife 
of  Heury  VIII.  of  England. 

Island  Number  Ten.  This  island  lies  in  a 
sharp  bend  of  the  Mississippi  River,  about  forty  i 
miles  below  Columbus,  and  within  the  limits 
of  Kentucky.  It  was  considered  the  key  to  the  ] 
navigation  of  the  lower  Mississippi.  To  this 
island  some  of  the  troops  and  munitions  of  war  [ 


a  floating  battery  of  ten  guns,  formed  of  three 
gunboats  lashed  together,  side  by  side,  followed 
by  three  others  separately.  The  day’s  work  was 
barren  of  any  decisive  result.  The  island  shores 
were  lined  with  batteries.  So  the  siege  went 
on,  with  varying  fortunes,  until  the  first  week 
in  April,  when  Beauregard  telegraphed  to  Rich¬ 
mond  that  the  “Federal  guns”  had  “thrown 
three  thousand  shells  and  burned  fifty  tons  of 
gunpowder”  without  damaging  his  batteries  or 
killing  one  of  his  men.  The  public  began  to  be 
impatient,  but  victory  was  near.  General  Pope 


ISLAND  NUMBER  TEN. 


were  transferred  when  General  Polk  evacuated 
Columbus  (which  see),  and  all  the  troops  there 
were  in  charge  of  Beauregard.  On  the  Btli  of 
March  (1862)  he  sent  forth  a  proclamation  in 
which  he  called  for  bells  with  which  to  make 
cannons,  and  there  was  a  liberal  response.  “  In 
some  cities,”  wrote  a  Confederate  soldier,  “  ev¬ 
ery  church  gave  up  its  bells.  Court-houses, 
public  institutions,  and  plantations  seut  them. 
And  the  people  furnished  large  quantities  of  old 
brass — andirons,  candlesticks,  gas-fixtures,  and 
even  door-knobs.”  These  were  all  seut  to  New 
Orleans  to  be  used  in  cannon-founderies.  There 
they  were  found  by  General  Butler,  sent  to  Bos¬ 
ton,  and  sold  at  auction.  Beauregard  had  thor¬ 
oughly  fortified  the  island,  and,  after  the  capt¬ 
ure  of  New  Madrid,  it  became  an  object  of  great 
interest  to  both  parties,  for  it  was  besieged  by 
the  Nationals.  For  this  purpose  Commodore 
Foote  left  Cairo  (March  14, 1862)  with  a  power¬ 
ful  fleet  of  gun  and  mortar  boats.  There  were 
seven  of  the  former  iron-clad  and  oue  not  ar¬ 
mored,  and  ten  of  the  latter.  On  the  night  of 
the  15th  Foote  was  at  Island  Number  Ten,  and 
the  next  morning  (Sunday)  he  began  the  siege 
with  a  bombardment  by  the  rifled  cannons  of  his 
flag-ship,  the  Boston.  This  was  followed  by  the 
mortar  -  boats,  moored  at  proper  points  along 
the  river  shore,  from  which  tons  of  iron  were 
hurled  upon  the  island  aud  the  batteries  on  the 
Kentucky  banks  opposite.  All  day  long  the  ar¬ 
tillery  duel  was  kept  up  without  much  injury 
to  either  party.  Meanwhile  a  battery  of  Illinois 
artillery  had  been  landed  on  the  Missouri  shore, 
in  a  position  to  assail  the  Confederate  flotilla 
near  the  island.  The  next  day  a  tremendous 
attack  on  the  Confederate  works  was  made  by 


was  chafing  with  impatience  at  New  Madrid. 
He  wished  to  cross  the  river  to  the  peninsula 
and  attack  the  island  in  the  rear,  a  movement 
that  would  insure  its  capture.  The  opposite 
shore  was  lined  with  Confederate  batteries,  and 
it  would  be  madness  to  attempt  a  crossing  until 
these  were  silenced.  General  Schuyler  Hamil¬ 
ton  proposed  the  construction  of  a  canal  across 
the  neck  of  a  swampy  peninsula  of  sufficient  ca¬ 
pacity  to  allow  the  passage  of  gunboats  and 
transports,  so  as  to  effectually  flank  Island  Num- 


A  MORTAR-BOAT. 


ber  Ten  and  insure  its  capture.  It  was  under¬ 
taken  uuder  the  supervision  of  Colonel  Bissell, 
and  was  successfully  performed.  In  the  mean¬ 
time  daring  feats  against  the  shore  batteries  had 
been  performed  ;  and  during  a  terrible  thunder¬ 
storm  on  the  night  of  April  3  Captain  Walke 
ran  by  the  Confederate  batteries  with  the  guu- 


ISLAND  NUMBER  TEN 


699 


ISOLATION  OF  THE  CAPITAL 


boat  Carondelet,  assailed  by  all  of  them,  ber  po¬ 
sition  being  revealed  by  the  flashes  of  lightning. 
It  was  the  first  vessel  that  ran  by  Confederate 
batteries  on  the  Mississippi  Kiver.  She  had  not 
fired  a  gun  during  her  passage,  but  the  discharge 
of  three  assured  anxious  Commodore  Foote  of 
the  safety  of  the  Carondelet  after  the  dangerous 
voyage.  Perceiving  the  perilous  fate  that  await¬ 
ed  them  after  the  completion  of  the  canal  the 
Confederates  sunk  steamboats  in  the  channel  of 
the  river  to  prevent  the  gunboats  descending  it, 
and  they  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  escape 
from  the  island.  After  the  Carondelet  had  passed 


THE  CARONDELET. 

the  batteries,  Beauregard  was  satisfied  that  the 
siege  must  speedily  end  iu  disaster  to  his  com¬ 
mand  ;  so,  after  turning  over  the  command  on 
the  island  to  General  McCall,  and  leaving  the 
troops  on  the  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  shores  in 
charge  of  General  McCowu,  he,  with  a  consider¬ 
able  number  of  his  best  soldiers,  departed  for 
Corinth  to  check  a  formidable  movement  of  Na¬ 
tional  troops  through  middle  Tennessee  towards 
northern  Alabama.  (See  Mitchel’s  Expedition.) 
The  vigorous  operations  of  Pope  after  he  passed 
through  the  wonderful  canal  hastened  the  crisis. 
McCall  and  his  troops,  in  their  efforts  to  escape 
from  the  island,  were  intercepted  by  Pope’s 
forces  under  Generals  Stanley,  Hamilton,  and 
Paine ;  aud  on  April  8, 1862,  Island  Number  Ten, 
with  the  troops,  batteries,  and  supports  on  the 
main,  was  surrendered.  Over  7000  men  became 
prisoners  of  war ;  and  the  spoils  of  victory  were 
123  cannons  and  mortars,  7000  small-arms,  many 
hundred  horses  and  mules,  four  steamboats 
afloat,  and  a  very  large  amount  of  ammunition. 
The  fall  of  Island  Number  Ten  was  a  calamity 
to  the  Confederates  which  they  never  retrieved. 
It  caused  wide-spread  alarm  in  the  Mississippi 
valley,  for  it  appeared  probable  that  Memphis, 
one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  Confederates  on 
the  Mississippi,  where  they  had  immense  work¬ 
shops  and  armories,  would  soon  share  the  fate 
of  Columbus,  aud  that  National  gunboats  would 
speedily  patrol  the  great  river  from  Cairo  to 
New  Orleans.  Martial  law  was  proclaimed  at 
Memphis,  and  only  by  the  wisdom  and  firmness 
of  the  mayor  were  the  troops  and  panic-strickeu 
citizens  prevented  from  laying  the  town  in  ash¬ 
es.  Preparations  for  flight  were  made  at  Vicks¬ 
burg,  and  intense  alarm  prevailed  at  New  Or¬ 


leans  among  the  disloyal  population.  It  seemed 
as  if  the  plan  devised  by  Fremont  (see  Fremont's 
Plan),  and  now  partially  executed,  was  about  to 
be  successfully  carried  out.  Curtis  had  already 
broken  (he  military  power  of  the  Confederates 
west  of  the  Mississippi  (see  Pea  Eidge),  and  a 
heavy  National  force,  pressing  on  towards  Ala¬ 
bama  and  Mississippi,  had  just  achieved  a  tri¬ 
umph  on  the  banks  of  the  Tennessee,  a  score  of 
miles  from  Corinth.  (See  Shiloh.) 

Isle  of  Sable.  The  Marquis  de  la  Eoche 
(which  see)  sailed  from  France  with  a  commis¬ 
sion  to  conquer  Canada  in  1598.  He  took  with 
him  a  colony  of  convicts  from  the 
prisons,  and  landed  forty  of  them  on 
the  Isle  of  Sable,  and  then  he  sailed 
for  Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia.  He  finally 
returned  to  France,  without  making 
a  settlement  or  having  the  power  to 
carry  the  miserable  outcasts  whom 
he  had  left  on  the  desolate  island.  He 
did  not  return  to  America.  The  French 
king,  hearing  of  the  fate  of  these  con¬ 
victs,  sent  Chetodel,  who  had  been 
De  la  Eoche’s  pilot,  to  take  them 
away.  It  was  at  the  end  of  seven 
years  after  their  arrival  that  this 
succor  came,  when  only  twelve  sur¬ 
vived,  and  were  carried  home.  The 
king  saw  them  just  as  they  had  em¬ 
barked,  in  their  seal-skin  dresses  and 
long  beards.  He  gave  each  of  them  fifty  crowns, 
and  a  pardon  for  his  crimes. 

Isolation  of  the  Capital.  On  the  night  of 
the  fearful  riot  iu  Baltimore  (April  19, 1861)  (see 
Massachusetts  Troops  in  Baltimore ),  Marshal  Kane 
and  ex-Governor  Lowe  went  to  the  mayor  and 
Governor  Hicks  for  authority  to  commit  further 
outrages.  Kane  said  he  had  information  that 
other  Union  troops  were  on  the  way  by  railroad 
from  Harrisburg  and  Philadelphia,  and  he  want¬ 
ed  authority  to  destroy  the  bridges  on  those 
roads.  The  mayor  cheerfully  gave  them  power 
so  far  as  his  authority  extended,  but  the  gov¬ 
ernor  refused.  So,  without  his  sanction,  Kane 
and  the  mayor  went  to  the  office  of  Charles 
Howard,  President  of  the  Board  of  Police,  and 
received  orders  for  the  destruction  of  bridges 
on  roads  entering  Baltimore.  A  gang  of  men 
was  sent  out  who  destroyed  the  Canton  Bridge, 
a  short  distance  from  the  city.  When  a  train 
from  the  north  approached,  it  was  stopped,  the 
passengers  were  turned  out,  the  cars  were  filled 
by  the  mob,  and  the  engineer  was  compelled  to 
run  his  train  back  to  the  long  bridges  over  the 
Gunpowder  and  Bush  creeks,  arms  of  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay.  These  bridges  were  fired  and  a  large 
portion  of  them  consumed.  Another  party  went 
up  the  Northern  Central  Railway  from  Balti¬ 
more  to  Cockeysville,  fifteen  miles  north,  and  de¬ 
stroyed  two  wooden  bridges  there,  and  smaller 
structures  on  the  road.  The  telegraph-wires  on 
all  the  leading  lines  out  of  Baltimore,  excepting 
the  one  that  kept  up  a  communication  with  the 
insurgents  at  Harper’s  Ferry,  were  destroyed, 
and  thus  all  communication  by  telegraph  aud 
railway  between  Washington  and  the  loyal 
states  was  cut  off. 


ITALIANS  AND  AMERICA 


700  IUKA  SPRINGS,  BATTLE  NEAR 


Italians  and  America.  The  three  powers 
which  formerly  possessed  nearly  all  of  America 
owed  their  first  discoveries  to  Italians :  Spain  to 
Columbus,  a  Genoese;  England  to  the  Cabots, 
Venetians;  and  France  to  Verazzani,  a  Floren- 


repulsed  by  less  than  1000  men,  under  Colonel 
Leggett.  He  was  repulsed  at  Jackson  the  next 
day,  and  again,  on  Sept.  1,  at  Britton’s  Lane, 
after  a  battle  of  four  hours  with  Indiana  troops, 
under  Colonel  Dennis.  At  the  latter  place  Arm- 


DESTRCCTION  OP  THE  BRIDGE  OVER  GUNPOWDER  CREEK.  (See  p.699.) 


tine.  Yet  it  is  remarkable  that  the  Italians, 
unequalled  at  the  period  of  the  discovery  iu 
maritime  power,  knowledge,  and  experience  in 
navigation,  have  never  acquired  an  inch  of 
ground  for  themselves  in  America. 

Iturbide,  Augustin  de,  Emperor  of  Mexico, 
was  born  iu  Valladolid,  Mexico,  in  1784 ;  died  in 
July,  1824.  Leading  in  a  scheme  for  overthrow¬ 
ing  the  Spanish  power  in  Mexico  in  1821,  he  took 
possession  of  the  capital  with  troops  iu  Septem¬ 
ber  in  the  name  of  the  nation,  and  established  a 
regency.  He  was  declared  emperor,  May  18, 
1822,  but  rivals  and  public  distrust  caused  him 
to  abdicate,  and  he  weut  to  Europe  in  1823.  An 
insurrection  iu  his  favor  in  Mexico  induced  him 
to  return  iu  1824,  when  he  was  seized  and  shot. 
His  widow  was  granted  a  peusion  of  $8000  a 
year  on  condition  that  she  should  reside  in  the 
United  States.  She  lived  a  long  time  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  finally  went  to  Europe.  Iturbide’s 
youngest  son  died  iu  Paris  iu  1873,  where  he 
kept  a  public-house. 

Iuka  Springs,  Battle  near.  After  the  evac¬ 
uation  of  Corinth  (which  see)  General  Rosecrans 
wTas  placed  in  command  of  the  forces  under  Pope, 
who  had  gone  to  Virginia  (see  Army  of  Virginia), 
to  occupy  northern  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Corinth,  and  eastward  to  Tus- 
cumbia.  His  forces  wrere  known  as  the  Armj' 
of  the  Mississippi,  with  headquarters  at  Cor¬ 
inth.  There  were  no  more  stirring  events  in 
the  region  of  General  Grant’s  command  (under 
whom  was  Rosecrans)  than  guerilla  operations, 
from  June  until  September.  At  the  beginning 
of  September  the  Confederates  under  Price  and 
Van  Dorn  moved  towards  the  Tennessee  River, 
and,  when  Bragg  moved  into  Tennessee,  Price 
attempted  to  cut  off  communications  between 
Grant  and  Buell.  General  Armstrong  (Confed¬ 
erate),  with  over  5000  horsemen,  struck  the  Na¬ 
tionals  (Ang.  30,  1862)  at  Bolivar,  \vith  the  in¬ 
tention  of  severing  the  railway  there.  He  was 


strong  left  179  men,  dead  and  wounded,  on  the 
field.  Iuformed  of  this  raid;  at  Tuscumbia, 
Rosecrans  hastened  to  Iuka,  a  little  village 
celebrated  for  its  fine  mineral  springs,  about 
fifteen  miles  east  of  Coriuth,  where  a  large 
amount  of  stores  had  been  gathered.  There, 
with  Stanley’s  division,  he  encamped  at  Clear 
Creek,  seven  miles  east  of  Corinth,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  Price  moved  northward  from  Tupelo 
with  about  12,000  Confederate  troops.  Price 
struck  Iuka  (Sept.  10)  and  captured  the  Nation¬ 
al  property  there.  Grant  at  once  put  two  col¬ 
umns  in  motion  to  crush  Price — one,  under  Rose¬ 
crans,  to  attack  his  flank  and  rear,  and  another, 
under  General  Ord,  to  confront  him.  These 
movements  began  on  the  morning  of  Sept.  18. 
Ord,  with  5000  men,  advanced  to  Burnsville,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Geueral  Ross  with  more,  while  Rose¬ 
crans  moved  with  the  separated  divisions  of 
Stanley  and  C.  S.  Hamilton,  about  9000  strong, 
during  a  drenching  rain,  to  San  Jacinto,  twenty 
miles  southward  of  Iuka.  On  the  next  morn¬ 
ing  (Sept.  19)  they  pushed  on  towards  Iuka, 
Mizner’s  cavalry  driving  a  Confederate  guard. 
Early  in  the  afternoon  Hamilton,  listening  for 
the  sound  of  Ord’s  guns,  and  skirmishing  brisk¬ 
ly  by  the  way,  had  reached  a  poiut  withiu  two 
miles  of  Iuka  on  densely  wooded  heights.  There 
he  formed  a  line  of  battle.  He  sent  forward  his 
skirmishers,  who  were  driven  back,  and  a  se¬ 
vere  battle  immediately  followed.  The  Elev¬ 
enth  Ohio  battery  was,  after  a  severe  struggle, 
placed  in  position  on  the  crest  of  the  hill.  With 
this  battery,  a  few  regiments  of  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Minnesota,  and  Indiana  troops  fought  more  than 
three  times  their  number  of  Confederates,  led  by 
Price  in  person.  Finally,  when  Colonel  Eddy, 
of  an  Indiana  regiment,  was  mortally  wounded, 
the  remainder  of  his  regiment  was  hurled  back 
in  disorder,  leaving  the  almost  disabled  battery 
to  be  seized  by  the  Confederates.  For  the  pos¬ 
session  of  these  guns,  desperate  charges  and 
countercharges  were  made,  until,  at  length,  the 


IZARD 


701 


IZARD 


Confederate  soldiers  dragged  the  gmis  off  the 
field.  All  of  the  horses  and  seventy-two  of  the 
artillerymen  had  been  killed.  The  battle  raged 
warmly  elsewhere,  when  the  Confederates  were 
driven  to  the  shelter  of  the  hollows  near  the  vil¬ 
lage.  Darkness  ended  the  battle  of  Iuka.  The 
National  loss  was  nearly  800,  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing ;  that  of  the  Confederates  was  near¬ 


ly  1400.  Ord,  meanwhile,  whom  Grant  had  sent 
to  assist  Rosecrans,  had  been  watching  the  move¬ 
ments  of  Confederates,  who  were  making  feints 
on  Corinth.  Expecting  to  renew  the  battle  at 
Iuka  in  the  morning,  Stanley  pressed  forward 
for  the  purpose,  hut  found  that  Price  had  fled 
southward  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  leaving 
behind  the  captured  guns  of  the  Eleventh  Ohio 
battery.  Price  was  pursued  all  day,  but  escaped. 

Izard,  George,  was  born  in  South  Carolina 
in  1777  ;  died  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  Nov.  22, 1828. 


GEORGE  IZARD. 

lie  was  a  son  of  Ralph  Izard.  Having  finished 
his  education  and  made  a  tour  in  Europe,  he  en¬ 
tered  the  United  States  Army,  in  1794,  as  lieu¬ 


tenant  of  artillery.  He  was  appointed  aid  to 
General  Hamilton  in  1799,  and  resigned  in  180)1. 
He  was  appointed  colonel  of  artillery  in  the 
spring  of  1812,  and  brigadier-general  in  March, 
1813.  He  was  in  command  on  Lake  Champlain 
and  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  in  1814,  with  the 
rank  of  major-general.  From  1825  until  his 
death  he  was  governor  of  Arkansas  Territory. 

Izard  on  the  Niagara  Frontier. 

Early  in  September,  1814,  General 
Izard,  in  command  on  Lake  Cham¬ 
plain,  moved  towards  Sackett’s  Har¬ 
bor,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secre¬ 
tary  of  War,  with  about  4000  troops, 
where  he  received  a  despatch  from 
General  Brown  at  Fort  Erie  (Sept. 
10),  urging  him  to  move  on  to  his 
support,  as  he  had  not  more  than 
2000  effective  men.  The  first  division 
of  Izard’s  troops  arrived  at  Lewiston 
on  Oct.  5.  He  moved  up  to  Black 
Rock,  crossed  the  Niagara  River 
(Oct.  10-11),  and  encamped  two  miles 
north  of  Fort  Erie.  Ranking  Gen¬ 
eral  Brown,  he  took  the  chief  com¬ 
mand  of  the  combined  forces,  then 
numbering,  with  volunteers  and  mi¬ 
litia,  about  8000  men.  He  prepared 
to  march  against  Drummond,  who,  after  the  sor¬ 
tie  at  Fort  Erie  (which  see),  had  moved  down 
to  Queenston.  Izard  moved  towards  Chippewa, 
but  vainly  endeavored  to  draw  Drummond  out. 
He  had  some  skirmishing  in  an  attempt  to  de¬ 
stroy  a  quantity  of  grain  belonging  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish,  in  which  he  lost  twelve  men  killed  and  fif¬ 
ty-four  wounded  ;  the  British  lost  many  more. 
Drummond  fell  back  to  Fort  George  and  Bur¬ 
lington  Heights.  Perceiving  further  operations 
in  that  region  to  be  useless,  and,  perhaps,  peril¬ 
ous,  Izard  crossed  the  river  and  abandoned  Can¬ 
ada.  Knowing  Fort  Erie  to  be  of  little  service, 
he  caused  it  to  be  mined  and  blown  up  (Nov.  5). 
It  has  remained  a  ruin  until  now. 

Izard,  Ralph,  an  active  Revolutionary  pa¬ 
triot,  was  born  near  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1742; 
died  there,  May  30,  1804.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  England,  and  in  1767  married  a 
daughter  of  Peter  Delaney,  of  New  York.  They 
spent  some  time  in  Europe,  and  Mr.  Izard  was 
appointed  by  Congress  commissioner  to  the 
court  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  re¬ 
sided  in  Paris,  where  he  took  sides  with  Ar¬ 
thur  Lee  against  Silas  Deane  and  Franklin. 
(See  Deane,  Silas.)  He  returned  home  in  1780; 
procured  for  General  Greene  the  command  of 
the  Southern  Army,  and  pledged  his  large  es¬ 
tates  for  the  purchase  of  ships  of  war  in  Eu¬ 
rope.  He  was  in  Congress  from  1781  to  1783, 
and  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  from 
1789  to  1795.  Two  years  afterwards  he  was 
prostrated  by  paralysis.  His  intellect  was  mer¬ 
cifully  spared,  and  he  lived  in  comparative  com¬ 
fort  about  eight  years,  without  pain,  when  a  sec¬ 
ond  shock  ended  his  life,  at  the  age  of  sixty-two 
years.  A  tablet  was  placed  to  his  memory  in 
the  parish  church  of  St.  James,  Goose  Creek, 
near  his  paternal  seat,  “The  Elms.” 


GRAVES  OF  THE  ELEVENTH  OHIO  BATTERY-MEN. 


JACKSON 


702 


JACKSON,  BATTLE  AT 


J. 


Jackson,  Andrew,  LL.D.,  the  seventh  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Mecklen¬ 
burg  County,  N.  C.,  March  15, 1767  ;  died  at  “  The 
Hermitage,”  twelve  miles  from  Nashville,  Tenn., 
June  8,  1845.  His  father  died  live  days  after 
his  birth,  and  a  mouth  later  his  mother  moved 
across  the  line  between  North  and  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  into  the  Waxhaw  Settlements.  This  cir¬ 
cumstance  led  to  the  common  error  of  giving  to 
South  Carolina  the  credit  of  being  the  state  of 
his  nativity.  His  parents  had  come  from  the 


north  of  Ireland,  in  1765,  and  were  of  the  Scotch- 
Irish.  At  fourteen  years  of  age,  young  Andrew 
joined  the  revolutionary  forces  in  South  Caro¬ 
lina.  In  that  service  he  had  two  brothers  killed. 
He  was  with  Sumter  in  the  battle  at  Hanging 
Rock  (which  see),  and  in  1781  he  was  made  a 
prisoner.  He  was  admitted  to  the  practice  of 
the  law  in  western  North  Carolina  in  1786  ;  re¬ 
moved  to  Nashville  in  1788;  was  United  States 
attorney  for  that  district  in  1790;  member  of 


the  convention  that  framed  the  state  constitu¬ 
tion  of  Tennessee  in  1796;  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1797,  and  judge  of  the 
Tennessee  Supreme  Court  from  1798  to  1804. 
From  1798  until  1814  he  was  major-general  of 
the  Tennessee  militia,  and  conducted  the  prin¬ 
cipal  campaign  against  the  Creek  Indians,  which 
resulted  in  the  complete  subjugation  of  that  na¬ 
tion  in  the  spring  of  1814.  His  victory  at  New 
Orleans  (Jan.  8,  1815)  gave  him  great  renown ; 
and  in  1817  he  successfully  prosecuted  the  war 
against  the  Seminoles  (which  see).  In 
1819  he  resigned  his  military  commission, 
and  was  governor  of  newly  acquired  Flor¬ 
ida  in  1821-22.  He  was  again  United  States 
Senator  in  1823-24,  also  in  1828,  and  in 
1832  he  was  elected  President  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States.  His  warfare  on  the  United 
States  Bank  (which  see)  during  his  presi¬ 
dency  resulted  in  its  final  destruction. 
Jackson’s  remains  repose  under  a  temple- 
form  tomb,  in  the  garden  of  “The  Hermi¬ 
tage,”  his  residence,  about  twelve  miles 
from  Nashville,  Tenn.  Four  biographies 
of  him  have  been  written :  one  by  J.  H. 
Eaton,  in  1818 ;  a  second  by  William  Cob- 
bett,  in  1834  ;  a  third  by  Amos  Kendall,  in 
1844;  and  the  last  by  James  Parton,  in 
three  volumes,  in  1859.  President  Jackson 
possessed  great  firmness  and  decision  of 
character ;  was  honest  and  true ;  not  al¬ 
ways  correct  in  judgment;  often  rash  in 
expressions  and  actions  ;  misled  sometimes 
by  his  hot  anger  into  acts  injurious  to  his 
reputation  ;  of  unflinching  personal  cour¬ 
age;  possessed  of  a  tender,  sympathiz¬ 
ing  nature,  although  sometimes  appearing 
fiercely  leonine ;  and  a  patriot  of  purest 
stamp.  He  retired  from  public  life  for¬ 
ever  in  the  spring  of  1837.  His  adminis¬ 
tration  of  eight  years  was  marked  by  great 
energy,  and  never  were  the  affairs  of  the 
Republic  in  its  domestic  and  foreign  rela¬ 
tions  more  prosperous  than  at  the  close 
of  his  term  of  office.  In  1852,  an  equestrian 
statue  of  Jackson,  in  bronze,  by  Clark 
Mills,  was  erected  at  Washington,  at  the 
expense  of  the  nation,  and  a  copy  of  it  oc¬ 
cupies  a  place  in  a  public  square  in  New 
Orleans. 

Jackson  (Miss.),  Battle  at.  While  the 
troops  of  General  Grant,  were  skirmishingat 
Raymond  (which  see),  he  learned  that  Gen¬ 
eral  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  one  of  the  ablest 
of  the  Confederate  generals,  was  hourly  expected 
at  Jackson,  the  capital  of  Mississippi.  To  make 
sure  of  that  place,  and  to  leave  no  enemy  in  his 
rear,  Grant  pushed  on  towards  Jackson.  McPher¬ 
son  entered  Clinton  early  in  the  afternoon  of  May 
13  (1863),  without  opposition,  and  began  tearing 
up  the  railway  between  that  town  and  the  capital. 
Sherman  was  also  marching  on  Jackson,  while 
McClernand  was  at  a  point  near  Raymond.  The 
night  was  tempestuous.  In  the  morning,  Sherman 


ANDREW  JACKSON  IN  1814. 


JACKSON 


703 


JACKSON 


and  McPherson  pushed  forward,  and  five  miles 
from  Jackson  they  encountered  and  drove  in  the 
Confederate  pickets.  Two  and  a  half  miles  from 
the  city  they  were  confronted  by  a  heavy  Con¬ 
federate  force,  chiefly  Georgia  and  South  Caro¬ 
lina  troops  under  General  Walker.  General 
Crocker’s  division  led  the  van  of  the  Nationals, 
and  a  battle  began  at  eleven  o’clock,  while  a 
shower  of  rain  was  falling.  The  Confederate 
infantry  were  in  a  hollow,  with  their  artillery 
on  the  crest  of  a  hill  beyond  them.  Crocker 
pressed  the  Confederates  out  of  the  hollow  and 
up  the  slopes  to  their  artillery.  Still  onward 
the  Nationals  pressed  in  the  face  of  a  severe  fire, 
when  the  Confederates  broke  and  fled  towards 
the  city,  closely  pursued  for  a  mile  and  a  half 


to  their  earthworks.  Under  a  heavy  storm  of 
grape  and  canister  shot  poured  upon  their  works, 
the  Nationals  reformed  for  the  purpose  of  mak¬ 
ing  an  assault ;  but  there  was  no  occasion,  for 
the  garrison  had  evacuated  the  fort.  They  left 
behind  them  seventeen  cannons, and  tents  enough 
to  shelter  a  whole  division.  The  commissary  and 
quartermaster’s  stores  were  in  flames.  The  city 
was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Nationals,  and 
the  stars  and  stripes  were  unfurled  over  the  State 
House  by  the  Fifty-ninth  Indiana  regiment.  En¬ 
tering  Jackson  that  night,  Grant  learned  tln^t 
Johnston  had  arrived,  taken  charge  of  the  de¬ 
partment,  and  had  ordered  General  J.  C.  Pem¬ 
berton  to  march  immediately  out  of  Vicksburg 
and  attack  the  National  rear. 

Jackson,  Claiborne  F.,  born  in  Kentucky, 
April  4, 1807 ;  died  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  Dec.  fi, 
1862.  He  became  conspicuous  as  a  leader  of  the 


men  to  make  Kansas  a  slave -labor  state.  In 
1822,  young  Jackson  went  to  Missouri ;  was  a 
captain  iu  the  Black  Hawk  War  (which  see); 
served  several  years  iu  the  State  Legislature, 
and  was  elected  governor  of  Missouri  by  the 
Democrats  in  1860.  In  1855  he  led  a  band  of 
lawless  men  from  Missouri,  who,  fully  armed,  en¬ 
camped  around  Lawrence,  in  Kansas,  where  he 
took  measures  to  prevent  a  legal  polling  of  votes 
at  an  election  for  members  of  the  Territorial  Leg¬ 
islature,  late  in  March.  His  followers  threaten¬ 
ed  to  hang  a  judge  who  attempted  to  secure  an 
honest  vote,  and  by  threats  compelled  another 
to  receive  every  vote  otfered  by  a  Missourian. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  Jackson  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  place  Missouri  on  the  side 
of  secession  and  rebellion,  but 
was  foiled  chiefly  through  the 
efforts  of  General  Nathaniel 
Lyon.  He  was  deposed  by  the 
Missouri  State  Convention,  in 
July,  1861,  when  he  entered 
the  Confederate  military  ser¬ 
vice  as  a  brigadier-general. 
He  was  a  refugee  in  Arkansas 
at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Jackson,  Francis  James, 
Mission  of.  Erskiue  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  as  minister  to  theUnit- 
ed  States  by  Francis  James 
Jackson,  an  experienced  diplo¬ 
matist,  aud  who  had  lately 
figured  discreditably  in  the 
affair  of  the  seizure  of  the 
Danish  fleet  by  British  men- 
of-war  at  Copenhagen.  He 
had  become  known  as  “  Copen¬ 
hagen  Jackson,”  whose  con¬ 
duct  did  not  commend  him 
to  the  good-will  of  the  people 
of  the  United  States.  The  im¬ 
pression  was  that  he  had  come 
with  explanations  of  the  cause 
of  the  rejection  of  Erskine’s 
arrangement.  The  Secretary 
of  State,  finding  he  had  noth¬ 
ing  to  offer,  addressed  Jack- 
son  in  a  letter  in  which  a  tone  of  discontent  was 
conspicuous,  declaring  the  surprise  aud  regret 
of  the  President  that  he  had  no  explanations  to 
offer  as  to  the  non-ratification  of  the  Erskine 
arrangement,  or  authority  to  substitute  any  new 
arrangement  for  it.  The  object  of  the  letter, 
probably,  was  to  draw  out  from  Jackson  an  ex¬ 
plicit  admission,  as  a  basis  for  an  appeal  to  the 
nation,  that  he  had  no  authority  to  treat  except 
upon  the  ground  of  Canning’s  three  conditions — 
namely,  1.  The  repealing  as  to  Great  Britain, 
hut  the  keeping  in  force  as  to  France,  and  all 
countries  adopting  her  decrees,  so  long  as  those 
decrees  were  continued,  all  American  non-im¬ 
portation  and  non -intercourse  acts;  2.  The  re¬ 
nunciation  by  the  United  States,  during  the 
present  war,  of  any  pretensions  to  carry  on  any 
trade  with  the  colonies  of  belligerents  not  al¬ 
lowed  in  time  of  peace ;  and  3.  The  allowing  Brit¬ 
ish  ships  of  war  to  enforce, by  capture,  the  Amer- 


Secessionists  and  Confederates  during  the  late 
civil  war,  as  ho  was  iu  the  efforts  of  pro-slavery  |  ican  non- intercourse  acts  with  France  and  her 


jackson’s  tomb.  (See  p.  702.) 


JACKSON 


704 


JACKSON 


allies.  (See  Erskine,  Negotiations  with.)  Jackson 
declared  that  the  rejection  of  that  part  of  the  ar¬ 
rangement  of  Erskine  relating  to  the  affair  of 
the  Chesapeake  and  Leopard  (which  see),  was  ow¬ 
ing  partly  to  the  offensive  terms  employed  in 
the  American  note  to  Erskine  concerning  it. 
This  note  had  offended  the  old  monarch,  with 
whom  Admiral  Berkeley  wras  a  favorite.  In  it, 
Secretary  Smith  said  (April  17,  1809),  “  I  have  it 
in  express  charge  from  the  President  to  state 
that,  while  he  forbears  to  insist  on  a  farther 
punishment  of  the  offending  officer,  he  is  not  the 
less  sensible  of  the  justice  and  utility  of  such 
an  example,  nor  the  less 
persuaded  that  it  would 
best  comport  with  what 
is  due  from  his  Britan¬ 
nic  majesty  to  his  own 
honor.”  Jackson’s  man¬ 
ner  was  offensive.  He 
had  an  unhounded  ad¬ 
miration  for  the  govern¬ 
ment  he  represented,  and 
a  profound  contempt  for 
the  Americans  as  an  in¬ 
ferior  people.  He  treated 
the  officers  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  government 
with  the  same  haughty 
bearing  that  he  did  those 
of  weak  and  bleeding 
Denmark,  and  after  one 
or  two  personal  inter¬ 
views,  Secretary  Smith 
refused  to  have  any  fur¬ 
ther  intercourse  with 
him  except  in  writing. 

The  insolent  diplomat 
was  offended,  and  wrote 
an  impudeut  letter  to  the  Secretary.  He  was 
informed  that  no  more  communications  would 
be  received  from  him,  when  Jackson, disappoint¬ 
ed  and  angry,  left  Washington  with  every  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  diplomatic  family,  and  retired  to  New 
York.  The  United  States  government  request¬ 
ed  his  recall,  and  early  in  1810  he  was  summoned 
to  England.  No  other  minister  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  for 'about  a  year. 

Jackson,  General,  fined  for  Contempt  of 
Court.  Jackson,  like  a  true  soldier,  did  not  re¬ 
lax  his  vigilance  after  the  victory  that  saved 
Louisiana  from  British  conquest.  He  main¬ 
tained  martial  law  in  New  Orleans  rigorously, 
even  after  rumors  of  a  proclamation  of  peace 
reached  that  city.  When  an  official  announce¬ 
ment  of  peace  was  received  from  Washington, 
he  was  involved  in  a  contention  with  the  civil 
authorities,  who  had  opposed  martial  law  as 
unnecessary.  In  the  Legislature  of  Louisiana 
was  a  powerful  faction  opposed  to  him  person¬ 
ally,  and  when  the  officers  and  troops  were 
thanked  by  that  body  (Feb.  2,  1815),  the  name 
of  Jackson  was  omitted.  The  people  were  very 
indignant.  A  seditious  publicatiou  soon  ap¬ 
peared,  which  increased  their  indignation,  and 
as  this  was  a  public  matter,  calculated  to  pro¬ 
duce  disaffection  in  the  army,  Jackson  caused 
the  arrest  of  the  author  and  his  trial  by  martial 


law.  Judge  Dominic  A.  Hall,  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  issued  a  writ  of  ha¬ 
beas  corpus  in  favor  of  the  offender.  Jackson 
considered  this  a  violation  of  martial  law,  and 
ordered  the  arrest  of  the  judge  and  his  expul¬ 
sion  beyond  the  limits  of  the  city.  The  judge, 
in  turn,  when  the  military  law  was  revoked 
(March  13,  1815)  in  consequence  of  the  procla¬ 
mation  of  peace,  required  Jackson  to  appear  be¬ 
fore  him  and  show  cause  why  he  should  not  be 
punished  for  contempt  of  court.  He  cheerfully 
obeyed  the  summons,  and  entered  the  crowded 
court-room  in  the  old  Spanish-built  court-house 


in  citizen’s  dress.  He  had  almost  reached  the 
bar  before  he  was  recognized,  when  he  was  greet¬ 
ed  with  huzzas  by  a  thousand  voices.  The  judge 
was  alarmed,  and  hesitated.  Jackson  stepped 
upon  a  bench,  procured  silence,  and  then,  turning 
to  the  trembling  judge,  said,  “  There  is  no  dau- 
ger  here — there  shall  be  none.  The  same  hand 
that  protected  this  city  from  outrage  against 
the  invaders  of  the  country  will  shield  and  pro¬ 
tect  this  court,  or  perish  in  the  effort.  Proceed 
with  your  sentence.”  The  agitated  judge  pro¬ 
nounced  him  guilty  of  contempt  of  court,  and 
fined  him  $1000.  This  act  was  greeted  by  a 
storm  of  hisses.  The  general  immediately  drew 
a  check  for  the  amount,  handed  it  to  the  mar¬ 
shal,  and  then  made  his  way  for  the  court-house 
door.  The  people  were  intensely  excited.  They 
lifted  the  hero  upon  their  shoulders,  bore  him  to 
the  street,  and  there  an  immense  crowd  sent  up 
a  shout  that  blanched  the  cheek  of  Judge  Hall. 
He  was  placed  in  a  carriage,  from  which  the  peo¬ 
ple  took  the  horses  and  dragged  it  themselves  to 
liis  lodgings,  where  he  addressed  them,  urging 
them  to  show  their  appreciation  of  the  blessings 
of  liberty  and  a  free  government  by  a  willing 
submission  to  the  authorities  of  their  country. 
Meantime,  $1000  had  been  collected  by  volun¬ 
tary  subscriptions  and  placed  to  his  credit  in  a 
bank.  The  general  politely  refused  to  accept  ifc, 


JACKSON 


705 


JACKSON 


and  begged  bis  friends  to  distribute  it  among  the 
relatives  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  the  late  bat¬ 
tles.  Nearly  thirty  years  afterwards  (1843),  Con¬ 
gress  refunded  the  sum  with  interest,  amounting 
in  all  to  $2700. 

Jackson,  General,  Honors  to,  in  New  Or¬ 
leans.  Ou  Jan.  21, 1815,  Jackson,  with  the  main 
body  of  his  army,  entered  New  Orleans.  They 
were  met  in  the  suburbs  by  almost  the  entire 
population,  who  greeted  the  victors  as  their 
saviors.  Two  days  afterwards  there  was  an  im¬ 
posing  spectacle  in  the  city.  At  Jackson’s  re¬ 
quest,  the  apostolic  prefect  of  Louisiana  appoint¬ 
ed  Jan.  23  a  day  for  the  public  offering  of  thanks 
to  God  for  the  victory  just  won.  It  was  a  beau¬ 
tiful  winter  morning  on  the 
verge  of  the  tropics.  The  re¬ 
ligious  ceremonies  were  to  be 
held  in  the  old  Spanish  cathe¬ 
dral,  which  was  decorated 
with  evergreens  for  the  oc¬ 
casion.  In  the  centre  of  the 
public  square  in  front  of  the 
cathedral,  a  temporary  trium¬ 
phal  arch  was  erected,  sup¬ 
ported  by  six  Corinthian  col¬ 
umns,  and  festooned  by  flow¬ 
ers  and  evergreens.  Beneath 
this  arch  stood  two  beautiful 
little  girls,  each  upon  a  pedes¬ 
tal,  and  holding  in  her  hand 
a  civic  crown  of  laurel.  Near 
them  stood  two  damsels,  one 
personifying  Liberty, the  other 
Justice.  From  the  arch  to  the 
church,  arranged  in  two  rows, 
stood  beautiful  girls  dressed 
in  white,  each  covered  with  a 
blue  gauze  veil,  with  a  silver 
star  on  her  brow.  These  per¬ 
sonated  the  several  states  and 
territories  of  theUnion.  Each 
carried  a  basket  filled  with 
flowers,  and  behind  each  was 
a  lance  stuck  in  the  ground, 
and  bearing  a  shield  on  which 
was  inscribed  the  name  and  legend  of  the  state 
or  territory  which  she  represented.  These  w7ere 
linked  by  festoons  of  evergreens  that  extended 
from  the  arch  to  the  door  of  the  cathedral.  At 
the  appointed  time,  Jackson,  accompanied  by 
the  officers  of  his  staff,  passed  into  the  square, 
and,  amid  the  roar  of  artillery,  was  conducted 
to  the  raised  floor  of  the  arch.  As  he  stepped 
upou  it,  the  two  little  girls  leaned  gently  for¬ 
ward  and  placed  the  laurel  crown  upon  his  head. 
At  the  same  moment,  a  charming  Creole  maiden 
(Miss  Kerr),  as  the  representative  of  Louisiana, 
stepped  forward,  and,  with  modesty  in  voice  and 
manner,  addressed  a  few  congratulatory  words 
to  the  general,  eloquent  with  expressions  of  the 
most  profound  gratitude.  To  these  words  Jack- 
son  made  a  brief  reply,  and  then  passed  on  tow¬ 
ards  the  church,  the  pathway  strewn  with  flow¬ 
ers  by  the  gentle  representatives  of  the  states. 
At  the  cathedral  entrance  he  was  received  by 
the  apostolic  prefect  (Abb<5du  Bourg)  in  his  pon¬ 
tifical  robes,  supported  by  a  college  of  priests  in 
I.— 45 


their  sacerdotal  garments.  The  abb <5  addressed 
the  general  with  eloquent  and  patriotic  dis¬ 
course,  after  which  the  latter  was  seated  con¬ 
spicuously  near  the  great  altar,  while  the  Te 
Deum  Laudamus  was  chanted  by  the  choir  and 
the  people.  When  the  pageant  was  over,  the 
general  retired  to  his  quarters  to  resume  the 
stem  duties  of  a  soldier ;  and  that  night  the  city 
of  New  Orleans  blazed  with  a  general  illumina¬ 
tion.  On  the  spot  where  the  arch  was  erected, 
in  the  centre  of  the  public  square  in  front  of  the 
cathedral,  has  been  erected  a  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  Jackson,  by  Clark  Mills,  a  copy  of  one 
made  for  the  government  to  adorn  the  public 
grounds  in  Washington  city. 


Jackson,  James,  was  born  in  Devonshire, 
Eng.,  Sept.  21, 1757  ;  died  in  Washington,  March 
12,  1806.  He  came  to  Savannah,  Ga.,  in  1772, 
and  studied  law.  He  entered  the  military  ser¬ 
vice,  and  was  brigade-major  of  the  Georgia  mi¬ 
litia  in  1778.  He  took  part  in  the  defence  of 
Savannah  ;  and  when  the  British  seized  it  at  the 
close  of  1778,  he  fled  to  South  Carolina,  where 
he  joined  General  Moultrie.  His  appearance 
was  so  wretched  while  in  his  flight,  that  he  was 
arrested,  tried,  and  condemned  as  a  spy,  and  was 
about  to  be  executed,  when  a  reputable  citizen 
of  Georgia,  w  ho  knew7  him,  saved  him.  Jackson 
fought  a  duel  in  March,  1780,  killing  his  antag¬ 
onist  and  being  severely  wounded  himself.  He 
joined  Colonel  Elijah  Clarke,  and  became  aid  to 
Sumter.  With  Pickens,  he  shared  in  the  vic¬ 
tory  at  the  Cowpens.  He  afterwards  did  good 
service  as  commander  of  a  legionary  corps,  and 
was  presented  with  a  dwelling  in  Savannah  by 
the  Georgia  Legislature.  In  1786  he  was  made 
brigadier -general,  and  governor  of  Georgia  in 


STATUE  OF  JACKSON  IN  FRONT  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL,  NEW  ORLEANS. 


JACKSON.  SACK  OF 


706 


JACKSON 


1788,  but  the  latter  office  he  declined.  From  1789 
to  1791  General  Jackson  was  a  member  of  Con¬ 
gress,  and  United  States  Senator  from  1793  to 


JAMES  JACKSON. 


1795,  and  from  1801  to  1806.  From  1798  to  1801 
he  was  governor  of  the  state. 

Jackson,  Sack  of.  Jackson  is  the  capital  of 
the  State  of  Mississippi,  and  before  the  Civil 
War  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  towns  in  all 
that  region.  It  is  upon  the  Pearl  Kiver,  at  the 
intersection  of  two  railways.  After  Grant  left  it 
(see  Jackson,  Battle  at),  General  Joseph  E.  John¬ 
ston,  the  Confederate  leader,  made  his  headquar¬ 
ters  there.  After  the  fall  of  Vicksburg  (which 
see),  Johnston  hovered  menacingly  in  Grant’s 
rear.  Sherman  had  pushed  out  to  press  him 
back.  Grant  sent  Sherman  reinforcements,  giv¬ 
ing  that  leader  an  army  fifty  thousand  strong. 
With  these  he  crossed  the  Big  Black  River,  dur¬ 
ing  a  great  drought.  In  dust  and  great  heat 
the  thirsty  men  and  animals  went  on  to  Jack- 
son,  Johnston  retiring  before  them  and  taking 
position  behind  his  breastworks  there.  Sher¬ 
man  invested  Jackson  (July  10),  each  flank  rest¬ 
ing  on  the  Pearl  River.  He  planted  a  hundred 
cannons  on  a  hill,  and  opened  on  the  town  (July 
12) ;  but  his  trains  being  behind,  his  scanty  am¬ 
munition  was  soon  exhausted.  In  the  assault, 
General  Lauman  pushed  his  troops  too  near  the 
Confederate  works,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few 
minutes  five  hundred  of  his  men  were  killed  or 
wounded  by  sharpshooters  and  the  grape  and 
canister  from  twelve  cannons.  Two  hundred  of 
his  men  were  made  prisoners.  Under  cover  of 
a  fog,  Johnston  made  a  sortie  (July  13),  but  with 
no  beneficial  result,  and  on  the  night  of  July  16- 
17  he  withdrew  with  his  twenty-five  thousand 
men,  hurried  across  the  Pearl  River,  burned  the 
bridges  behind  him,  and  retreated  to  Morton. 
Sherman  did  not  pursue  far,  his  object  being  to 
drive  Johnston  away  and  make  Vicksburg  se¬ 
cure.  For  this  purpose  he  broke  up  the  railways 
for  many  miles,  and  destroyed  everything  in 
Jackson  that  might  be  useful  to  the  Confeder¬ 
ates;  and  the  soldiers  shamefully  sacked  and 
plundered  the  city.  They  ransacked  the  houses, 
taking  whatever  was  of  value  or  otherwise 
pleased  them,  and  destroyed  what  they  were 
unable  to  appreciate  or  remove.  Pianos  and 
articles  of  furniture  were  demolished;  books  in 


libraries  were  torn  up  or  trampled  under  foot; 
pictures  were  thrust  through  with  bayonets; 
windows  were  broken  and  doors  torn  from  their 
hinges.  Furniture  and  beds,  costly  and  other¬ 
wise,  were  dragged  into  the  street  and  burned, 
and  buildings  were  set  on  fire  and  destroyed. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  shameful  exhibitions  of 
barbarism  of  which  the  Union  soldiers  were  oc¬ 
casionally  guilty,  and  soiled  with  an  indelible 
stain  the  character  of  the  National  army.  When 
Sherman  fell  back  to  Vicksburg,  he  was  follow¬ 
ed  by  a  great  multitude  of  negroes  of  both  sexes 
and  of  all  ages.  These  events  occurred  in  1863. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan  (“  Stonewall  ”), 
was  born  at  Clarksburg,  Vn.,  Jan.  21, 1824;  died 
at  Guiney’s  Station,  Va.,  May  10, 1863.  He  grad¬ 
uated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  entering  the  Sec¬ 
ond  Artillery.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mex- 


THOMAS  J.  (“STONEWALL  ”)  JACKSON. 


ico,  was  breveted  captain  and#major,  and  re¬ 
signed  in  1852  with  health  impaired,  becoming 
professor  in  the  Military  Institute  at  Lexington, 
Va.  He  entered  the  Confederate  service  as  colo¬ 
nel  in  April,  1861,  and  commanded  the  “Army 
of  Observation”  at  Harper’s  Ferry.  His  first 
engagement  was  at  Falling  Waters  (which  see). 
Jackson  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  battle  of 
Bull’s  Run,  where  he  received  the  name  of 
“Stonewall”  (which  see).  As  brigadier  and 
major  general,  he  became  the  chief  assistant  of 
General  Lee  in  his  campaigns,  and  wras  acciden¬ 
tally  shot  by  his  own  men,  while  reconnoitring 
during  the  battle  of  Cliancellorsville  (  which 
see). 

Jackson,  William, born  in  Cumberland,  Eng., 
March  9,1759;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  17, 1828. 
He  was  brought  to  Charleston,  S.  C.,  an  orphan, 
at  an  early  age.  At  the  breaking-out  of  the  war 
for  independence  he  entered  the  military  ser¬ 
vice.  He  finally  became  aid  to  General  Lin¬ 
coln,  and  was  made  a  prisoner  at  Charleston  in 
1780.  He  was  secretary  to  Colonel  John  Lau¬ 
rens,  special  minister  to  France,  and  was  in 
Washington’s  military  family  as  aid,  with  the 
rank  of  major.  Jackson  was  Assistant  Secreta¬ 
ry  of  War  under  Washington,  and  was  secretary 
to  the  convention  that  framed  the  national  Con¬ 
stitution  in  1787.  From  1789  to  1792  he  was 
aid  and  private  secretary  to  President  Wash- 


JACKSON’S  CABINET 


707 


ington,  and  after  spending  some  time  in  Europe, 
lie  married  Elizabeth  Willing,  of  Philadelphia, 
in  1795.  Major  Jackson  was  surveyor  of  the 
port  of  Philadelphia  from  1796  to  1801,  and  was 


WILLIAM  JACKSON. 


secretary  to  the  General  Society  of  the  Cincin¬ 
nati. 

Jackson’s  Cabinet.  The  whole  of  Presi¬ 
dent  Adams’s  cabinet  having  resigned,  Presi¬ 
dent  Jackson  nominated  for  his  constitutional 
advisers  his  political  friends  —  namely:  Martin 
Van  Bureu,  of  New  York,  Secretary  of  State; 
Samuel  D.  Ingham,  of  Pennsylvania,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  ;  John  H.  Eaton,  of  Tenuessee, 
Secretary  of  War ;  John  Branch,  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  and  John  McPher¬ 
son  Berrian,  of  Georgia,  Attorney-general.  It 
having  been  determined  to  make  the  Postmas¬ 
ter-general  a  cabinet  officer,  William  T.  Barry, 
of  Kentucky,  was  called  to  the  cabinet  as  such. 
The  Senate  being  in  session,  these  nominations 
were  immediately  confirmed.  James  A.  Hamil¬ 
ton,  of  New  York,  performed  the  duties  of  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  until  Mr.  Van  Buren  could  close 
his  duties  as  Governor  of  New  York,  on  which 
he  had  just  entered. 

Jamaica,  Interposition  of.  The  island  of 
Jamaica  is  a  colony  of  Great  Britain,  and  was 
of  great  commercial  importance  when  the  out¬ 
break  between  the  Euglish-American  colonies 
and  the  mother  country  occurred.  In  Decem¬ 
ber  its  legislature  interposed.  They  affirmed 
the  rights  of  the  colonies,  enumerated  their 
grievances,  and,  enforcing  their  claims  to  re¬ 
dress,  implored  the  king  to  become  the  media¬ 
tor  for  peace,  and  to  recognize  the  title  of  the 
Americans  to  the  benefits  of  the  English  Consti¬ 
tution.  They  disclaimed  any  intention  of  join¬ 
ing  the  American  confederated  colonies,  for  they 
were  too  weak,  being  only  a  small  colony  of 
white  inhabitants,  with  more  than  two  hundred 
thousand  slaves.  Their  petition  was  received 


JAMES  I.,  KING  OF  ENGLAND 

by  the  king,  but  no  heed  to  it  was  given.  The 
name  of  Jamaica  is  an  Indian  or  native  word. 
Oviedo  mentions  a  river  so  called  by  the  na¬ 
tives  of  Santo  Domingo.  The  Spaniards  spelled 
it  Haymaca. 

James  I.,  King  of  England,  etc.,  was  born 
in  Edinburgh  Castle,  June  19,  1566;  died  in  the 
Palace  of  Theobald,  March  27,  1625.  He  was 
son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  Henry  Lord 
Darnley.  Of  him  Charles  Dickens  writes  :  “He 
was  ugly,  awkward,  and  shuffling,  both  in  mind 
and  person.  His  tongue  was  much  too  large  for 
his  mouth,  his  legs  were  much  too  weak  for 
his  body,  and  his  dull  goggle-eyes  stared  and 
rolled  like  an  idiot’s.  He  was  cunning,  covet¬ 
ous,  wasteful,  idle,  drunken,  greedy,  dirty,  cow¬ 
ardly,  a  great  swearer,  and  the  most  conceited 
man  on  earth.  His  figure — what  was  common¬ 
ly  called  rickety  from  his  birth — presented  the 
most  ridiculous  appearance  that  can  be  imag¬ 
ined,  dressed  in  thick-padded  clothes,  as  a  safe¬ 
guard  against  being  stabbed  (of  which  lie  lived 
in  constant  fear),  of  a  grass-green  color  from 
head  to  foot,  with  a  hunting-horn  dangling  at 
his  side  instead  of  a  sword,  and  his  hat  and 
feather  sticking  over  one  eye  or  hanging  on  the 
back  of  his  head,  as  he  happened  to  toss  it  on. 
He  used  to  loll  on  the  necks  of  his  favorite 
courtiers,  and  slobber  their  faces,  and  kiss  and 
pinch  their  cheeks;  and  the  greatest  favorite 
he  ever  had  used  to  sign  himself,  in  his  letters 
to  his  royal  master,  ‘  his  majesty’s  dog  and 
slave.’  He  was  the  worst  rider  ever  seen,  and 
thought  himself  the  best.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  impertinent  talkers  ( of  the  broadest 
Scotch)  ever  heard,  and  boasted  of  being  un¬ 
answerable  in  all  manner  of  argument.  He 
wrote  some  of  the  most  turgid  and  most  weari¬ 
some  treatises  ever  read — among  others,  a  book 
upon  witchcraft,  in  which  he  was  a  devout  be¬ 
liever — and  thought  himself  a  prodigy  of  author¬ 
ship.  He  thought,  and  said,  that  a  king  had  a 
right  to  make  and  unmake  what  laws  he  pleased, 
and  ought  to  be  accountable  to  nobody  on  earth. 
This  is  the  plain,  true  character  of  the  person¬ 
age  whom  the  greatest  men  about  the  court 
praised  and  flattered  to  that  degree  that  I  doubt 
if  there  be  anything  more  shameful  in  the  an¬ 
nals  of  human  nature!”  James  was  the  sixth 
king  of  Scotland  of  that  name,  and  came  to  the 
throne  of  England,  after  experiencing  many  vi¬ 
cissitudes,  March  24,  1603.  In  1589  he  married 
Anne,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  His 
gross,  ill  manners  and  bad  personal  appearance 
made  an  unfavorable  impression  on  the  English 
people.  He  had  trouble  with  Parliament  and 
with  the  religionists  of  his  realm  from  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  his  reign.  Glad  to  get  rid  of  troub¬ 
lesome  subjects,  he  readily  granted  charters  for 
settlements  in  America;  and  in  1612  two  “her¬ 
etics”  were  burned  in  England,  the  last  execu¬ 
tion  of  that  kind  that  occurred  in  that  country. 
His  son  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  died  the  same 
year,  and  his  daughter  Elizabeth  was  married 
to  the  Elector  Palatine  in  1613.  His  treatment 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  whom  he  caused  to  be  be¬ 
headed  (October,  1618),  was  disgraceful  to  hu¬ 
man  nature;  his  foreign  policy,  also,  was  dis- 


JAMES  II.,  KING  OF  ENGLAND 


708 


JAMESTOWN 


graceful  to  the  English  name.  Fickle,  treach¬ 
erous,  conceited,  and  arbitrary,  his  whole  life 
was  an  example  to  be  avoided  by  the  good. 
Dickens’s  portrayal  of  his  personal  character  is 
a  fair  picture  of  his  reign  so  far  as  the  king  was 
concerned.  It  was  during  that  reign  that  a 
new  translation  of  the  Bible  was  authorized 
(1604) — the  English  version  yet  in  use.  The 
vile  Duke  of  Buckingham  was  James’s  special 
favorite  for  a  long  time ;  and  he  and  the  queen 
were  suspected  of  causing  the  king’s  last  ill¬ 
ness,  by  poison. 

James  II.,  King  of  England,  was  the  seventh 
king  of  Scotland  of  that  name.  He  was  born  in 
the  Palace  of  St.  James,  London,  Oct.  15,  1633; 
died  at  St.  Germain,  France,  Sept.  16, 1701.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  civil  war,  in  which  his  father  lost  his 
head,  James  and  his  brother  Gloucester  and  sis¬ 
ter  Elizabeth  were  under  the  guardianship  of  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland,  and  lived  in  the  pal¬ 
ace.  When  the  overthrow  of  monarchy  ap¬ 
peared  inevitable,  in  1648,  he  fled  to  the  Neth¬ 
erlands,  with  his  mother  and  family,  and  he  was 
in  Paris  when  Charles  I.  was  beheaded.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  French  service  (1651),  and  then  the 
Spanish  (1655),  and  was  treated  with  much  con¬ 
sideration  by  the  Spaniards.  His  brother  as¬ 
cended  the  British  throne  in  1660  as  Charles  II., 
and  the  same  year  James  married  Aime  Hyde, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  She  died 
in  1671,  and,  two  years  afterwards,  James  mar¬ 
ried  Maria  Beatrice  Eleanor,  a  princess  of  the 
H<  >use  of  Este,  of  Modena,  twenty -five  years 
younger  than  himself.  While  in  exile  James 
had  become  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  did  not  ac¬ 
knowledge  it  until  1671.  He  had  become  a  com¬ 
mander  in  the  British  navy,  but  the  test-act  of 
1673  caused  him  to  leave  all  public  employ¬ 
ments.  Being  sent  to  Scotland  as  head  of  the 
administration  there,  he  treated  the  Covenant¬ 
ers  with  great  cruelty.  When  Charles  died, 
James  became  king  (Feb.  6, 1685).  The  prime 
object  of  his  administration  was  to  overthrow 
the  Constitution  of  England  and  give  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  nation  to  Roman  Catholics.  His  rule 
was  vigorous  —  oftentimes  tyrannous  — and  in 
less  than  three  years  almost  the  whole  of  his 
subjects  detested  him.  The  foreign  policy  of 
the  government  was  made  subservient  to  that 
of  France.  Finally,  the  announcement  that  the 
queen  had  given  birth  to  a  son  brought  on  a 
political  crisis.  The  people  had  been  restrained 
from  revolution  by  the  belief  that  the  govern¬ 
ment  would  soon  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  el¬ 
dest  daughter,  who  had  married  the  Protestant 
Prince  William  of  Orange.  Now  that  event 
seemed  remote,  and  William  was  invited  by 
leading  men  of  the  realm  to  invade  England. 
He  did  so  in  November,  1788,  when  the  king 
was  abandoned  by  every  one  but.  the  Roman 
Catholics — even  by  his  daughter  Anne,  who  was 
afterwards  Queen  of  England.  James  fled  to 
France,  where  he  was  received  by  Louis  XIV. 
with  open  arms.  He  made  efforts  to  regain  his 
kingdom,  but  failed. 

James  River.  (See  Amphibious  Engagement 
on  the  James.) 


James,  Thomas,  Arctic  Discoveries  of.  In 
1631  Thomas  James  was  sent  out  by  an  associa¬ 
tion  at  Bristol  to  search  for  a  northeast  passage 
to  India.  With  twenty-one  men,  in  the  ship 
Henrietta  Maria  (named  in  honor  of  the  queen), 
he  sailed  May  3.  On  the  29th  of  June  he  spoke 
the  ship  of  Captain  Fox,  who  had  been  sent  on 
the  same  errand  by  the  king,  and  furnished  with 
a  letter  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  if  he  should 
find  that  country.  Neither  James  nor  Fox  dis¬ 
covered  the  coveted  “  passage,”  but  the  former 
made  valuable  discoveries  in  Hudson’s  Bay. 
James  was  a  man  of  science,  and  in  his  Journal 
he  recorded  his  observations  on  rarities  he  had 
discovered,  “  both  philosophicall  and  matliemat- 
icall.”  James  and  his  crew  suffered  terribly,  for 
they  passed  a  winter  in  those  high  latitudes,  and 
returned  in  1632. 

Jamestown.  On  the  13th  of  May,  1607,  more 
than  one  hundred  Englishmen  landed  on  a 
slightly  elevated  peninsula  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  “River  of  Powhatan,”  Virginia,  forty  or 
fifty  miles  from  its  mouth,  chose  the  spot  for  the 
capital  of  a  new  colony,  cleared  the  trees  from 
the  ground,  and  began  the  building  of  a  village, 
which,  in  compliment  to  their  king  (James  I.), 
they  named  Jamestown.  They  also  gave  his 
name  to  the  river.  The  spot  is  more  of  an  isl¬ 
and  than  a  peninsula,  for  the  marshy  isthmus 
that  connects  it  with  the  mainland  is  often  cov¬ 
ered  with  water.  The  Rev.  Robert  Hunt,  the 
pastor  of  the  colony,  preached  a  sermon  and  in¬ 
voked  the  blessings  of  God  upon  their  undertak¬ 
ing.  Then,  in  the  warm  sunshine,  and  among 
the  shadowy  woods  and  the  delicious  perfume 
of  flowers,  the  sound  of  the  metal  axe  was  first 
heard  in  Virginia.  The  first  tree  was  felled  for 
a  dwelling  on  the  spot  first  settled,  permanent¬ 
ly,  by  Englishmen  in  America.  The  Indians 
were  at  first  hostile,  and  the  settlement  built  a 
stockade.  Their  first  church  edifice  there  was 
very  simple.  “  When  I  first  weut  to  Virginia,” 
says  Captain  Smith,  “I  well  remember  we  did 
hang  an  awning  (which  was  an  old  sail)  to 
three  or  four  trees  to  shadow  us  from  the  sun ; 
our  walls  were  rails  of  wood,  our  seats  unhewed 
trees,  till  we  cut  planks ;  our  pulpit  a  bar  of 
wood  nailed  to  two  neighboring  trees ;  in  foul 
weather  we  shifted  into  an  old,  rotten  tent,  for 
we  had  few  better.  .  .  .  This  was  our  church 
till  we  built  a  homely  thing,  like  a  barn,  set 
upon  crotchets,  covered  with  rafts,  sedge,  and 
earth  ;  so  were  also  the  walls.  The  best  of  our 
houses  were  of  the  like  curiosity,  but,  for  the 
most  part,  of  far  worse  workmanship,  that  could 
neither  well  defend  wind  nor  rain.  Yet  we  had 
daily  common  prayer  morning  and  evening, every 
Sunday  two  sermons,  and  every  three  months 
communion  till  our  minister  died.”  The  church 
— “the  homely  thing, like  a  barn” — was  burned 
while  Captain  Smith  was  a  prisoner  among  the 
Indians  (see  Pocahontas ),  and  he  found  the  set¬ 
tlers  building  a  house  for  the  President  of  the 
Council.  When,  not  long  after,  he  was  installed 
in  that  office,  he  ordered  the  “  building  of  the 
palace  to  be  stayed,  as  a  thing  needless,”  and 
the  church  to  be  rebuilt  at  once.  Commission¬ 
ers  under  the  new  charter  (see  London  Company) 


JAMESTOWN 


709 


JAMESTOWN 


arrived  at  Jamestown  in  tlie  spring  of  1610.  Of 
the  four  hundred  and  ninety  persons  left  there 
by  Smith  the  previous  autumn,  only  sixty  re¬ 
mained  alive.  They  had  refused  to  follow  the 
admonitions  of  Smith  to  provide  food  for  the 
winter,  but  relied  upon  the  neighboring  barbari¬ 
ans  to  supply  them.  When  Smith  departed,  the 
Indians  showed  hostility  and  withheld  corn  and 
game.  They  matured  a  plan  for  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  settlers  at  Jamestown,  when  Poca¬ 
hontas,  like  an  angel  of  mercy,  hastened  to  the 
settlement  under  cover  of  darkness,  warned  them 
of  their  danger,  put  them  on  their  guard,  and 
saved  them.  Terrible  had  been  the  sufferings 
of  the  colonists  through  the  winter.  More  than 
four  hundred  had  perished  by  famin©'  and  sick¬ 
ness  in  the  space  of  six  months.  It  was  long 
after  referred  to  by  the  survivors  as  “  the  starv- 


i  Pocahontas  was  baptized  and  married  a  few 
|  years  later.  (See  Pocahontas.)  The  tire  that 
consumed  the  first  church  also  destroyed  a  large 
portion  of  the  town  and  surrounding  palisades. 
There  seems  to  have  been  another  destructive 
fire  there  afterwards,  for  Smith,  speaking  of  the 
arrival  of  Governor  Argali,  in  1617,  says  :  “In 
Jamestown  he  found  but  five  or  six  houses,  the 
church  down,  the  palisades  broken,  the  bridge 
[across  the  marsh]  in  pieces,  the  well  of  fresh 
water  spoiled,  and  the  store -house  used  for  a 
church.”  When,  in  1619,  Governor  Yeardly  or¬ 
ganized  a  representative  government  in  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  soon  afterwards  families  were  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  colony  (see  Women  in  Virginia),  the 
settlement  at  Jamestown  grew  rapidly,  and 
remote  settlements  were  planted.  Suddenly  a 
great  calamity  overtook  the  colony.  Powhatan 


JAMESTOWN  IN  1S76. 


ing  time.”  The  settlers  were  in  the  depths  of 
despair  when  the  commissioners  arrived.  Sir 
Thomas  Gates,  who  was  acting- governor,  saw 
no  other  way  to  save  the  lives  of  the  starving 
men  than  to  abandon  the  settlement,  sail  to 
Newfoundland,  and  distribute  them  among  the 
fishermen  there.  They  were  embarked  in  four 
pinnaces,  but,  at  dawn,  they  met  Lord  Dela¬ 
ware,  with  ships,  supplies,  and  emigrants,  at  the 
month  of  the  river.  All  turned  back,  and,  land¬ 
ing  at  deserted  Jamestown,  they  stood  in  silent 
prayer  and  thanksgiving  on  the  shore,  and  then 
followed  Rev.  Mr.  Ruckle  (who  had  succeeded 
Mr.  Hunt)  to  the  church,  where  he  preached  a 
sermon  in  the  evening  twilight.  The  congre¬ 
gation  sang  anthems  of  praise,  and  were  lis¬ 
tened  to  by  crouching  savages  in  the  adjacent 
woods.  In  that  little  chapel  at  Jamestown 


was  dead,  and  his  successor,  Opechancanongh, 
always  hostile,  planned  a  blow  for  the  extermi¬ 
nation  of  the  white  people.  It  fell  with  terrible 
force  late  in  March,  1622,  and  eighty  plantations 
were  reduced  to  eight.  The  settlers  at  James¬ 
town  escaped  the  calamity, through  the  good 
offices  of  Chanco,  a  friendly  Indian,  who  gave 
them  timely  warning  of  the  plot,  and  they  were 
prepared  for  defence.  Jamestown  became  a 
refuge  from  the  storm  for  the  Western  settle¬ 
ments.  (See  Opechancanongh.)  Sickness  and 
famine  ensued,  and  the  colony  was  greatly  re¬ 
duced  in  number,  for  many  left  through  fear. 
It  soon  recovered,  and  increased  in  strength.  A 
new  and  substantial  church  was  built,  with  a 
heavy  brick  tower,  probably  between  the  years 
1620  and  1625.  During  Bacon’s  rebellion,  in 
1676,  Jamestown — “the  only  village  in  all  Vir- 


JAMESTOWN  COLONY  SAVED 


710  JAPAN  INTERNATIONAL  INTERCOURSE 


ginia” — was  entered  by  that  leader,  after  driv¬ 
ing  away  the  governor,  and,  in  a  council  of  war, 
it  was  determined  to  burn  the  town,  a  rumor 
having  reached  Bacon  that  the  royalist  troops 
were  coming  upon  him.  The  torch  was  applied 
just  at  twilight,  and  the  Virginia  capital  was 
laid  in  ashes.  Nothing  remained  the  next  morn¬ 
ing  but  the  brick  tower  of  the  church  and  a  few 
solitary  chimneys.  (See  Bacon's  Rebellion.')  The 
remains  of  that  tower  may  still  be  seen  there. 
They  are  about  thirty  feet  high,  the  walls  three 
feet  thick,  all  of  imported  brick.  Around  it  lie 
the  ruined  monuments  of  the  dead  buried  in  the 
church-yard.  Jamestown  was  never  rebuilt.  It 
has  remained  in  desolation  over  two  hundred 
years. 

Jamestown  Colony  Saved.  Pocahontas, 
then  about  thirteen  years  old,  having  discov¬ 
ered  a  plot  among  her  people  to  destroy  the 
English  colony  at  Jamestown,  went,  on  a  dark 
and  dreary  night,  to  the  president  (John  Smith) 
and  disclosed  the  desigu,  so  that  the  settlers 
there  were  on  their  guard.  Some  accident  gave 
the  barbarians  such  an  elevated  idea  of  the 
power  and  wisdom  of  the  white  people  that 
liatred  was  changed  to  respect.  An  Indian,  ap¬ 
parently  dead  from  the  effects  of  the  fumes  of 
charcoal,  was  restored  by  the  application  of  a 
little  vinegar  and  alcohol.  This  struck  the  In¬ 
dians  with  astonishment,  as  a  miracle.  The 
barbarians  had  not  yet  seen  gunpowder.  At 
about  that  time  a  small  quantity  accidentally 
exploded  and  killed  two  or  three  Indians.  Pow¬ 
hatan  and  some  of  his  people  came  to  Smith 
with  presents,  and  offered  the  colonists  unfeign¬ 
ed  friendship. 

Jamestown,  Siege  of  (1676).  Governor 
Berkeley,  who  had  been  driven  from  Jamestown 
by  Bacon  (see  Bacon’s  Rebellion),  collected  a  force 
of  nearly  one  thousand  Accomacians,  by  liberal 
promises  of  pay  and  plunder,  and  returned,  in 
two  ships  and  sixteen  sloops,  and  entered  his 
capital.  Bacon  collected  a  new  force  and  laid 
siege  to  Jamestown  (September,  1676).  His 
numbers  were  inferior  to  those  of  the  governor, 
and,  fearing  a  sortie  while  completing  fortifica¬ 
tions  across  the  neck  of  the  peninsula,  he  sent 
out  horsemen  to  bring  the  wives  of  several  of 
the  principal  men  of  the  colony,  who  were  in 
Jamestown  with  the  governor.  These  he  placed 
in  full  view  of  their  husbands,  in  the  morning, 
on  flie  top  of  a  small  work  he  had  cast  up  in 
the  night,  and  kept  them  there  until  he  had 
completed  his  works,  as  a  defence  against  the 
shots  of  the  enemy.  When  the  works  were  fin¬ 
ished  and  the  ladies  were  removed,  Berkeley’s 
men  made  a  sally,  but  were  repulsed.  The  gov¬ 
ernor  could  not  depend  upon  his  troops,  and 
made  a  hasty  retreat  by  night,  in  his  vessels. 
Bacon  entered  the  town  the  next  morning,  and, 
to  prevent  the  governor’s  return,  he  laid  James¬ 
town  in  ashes.  It  consisted,  besides  the  church 
and  state-house,  of  about  eighteen  houses,  most¬ 
ly  built  of  brick. 

Jamestown,  Skirmish  near  (1781).  Corn¬ 
wallis  prepared  to  cross  the  James  River  at 
Jamestown,  when  he  found  the  republican 


I  troops  pressing  him  hard  (see  Steuben  in  Vir- 
'  ginia),  for  Sir  Henry  Clinton  had  ordered  him 
!  to  send  three  thousand  of  his  troops  to  New 
York.  On  July  6  Wayne  sent  out  a  detachment 
to  capture  a  British  field-piece,  and  they  boldly 
resisted  the  attack  of  a  large  portion  of  Corn¬ 
wallis’s  army  as  the  former  fell  back  to  Lafay¬ 
ette’s  main  force  near  the  Green  Spring  Planta¬ 
tion.  There  a  sharp  skirmish  ensued,  in  which 
the  marquis  had  a  horse  shot  under  him,  and 
each  party  lost  about  one  hundred  men.  The 
blow  was  so  severe  that  Cornwallis  hastened 
across  the  river  (July  9),  and  marched,  without 
further  molestation,  to  Portsmouth. 

Japan,  International  Intercourse  with. 
Japan,  like  China,  had  always  been  a  sort  of 
sealed  kingdom  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 
The  foundation  of  the  states  of  California  and 
Oregon,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  suggested  the  great 
importance  of  commercial  intercourse  with  Ja¬ 
pan,  because  of  the  intimate  relations  which 
must  soon  exist  between  this  coast  and  the 
East  Indies.  This  consideration  caused  an  ex¬ 
pedition  to  be  fitted  out  by  the  United  States 
government  in  the  summer  of  1852  to  carry  a 
letter  from  the  President  (Mr.  Fillmore)  to  the 
sovereign  of  Japan  soliciting  the  negotiation  of 
a  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  between 
the  two  nations,  by  which  the  ports  of  the  lat¬ 
ter  should  be  thrown  open  to  American  vessels 
for  purposes  of  trade.  For  this  expedition,  sev¬ 
en  ships  of  war  were  employed.  They  were 
placed  under  the  command  of  Commodore  M.  C. 
Perry,  a  brother  of  the  victor  on  Lake  Erie. 
The  diplomatic  portion  of  the  mission  was  also 
intrusted  to  Commodore  Perry.  He  did  not 
sail  until  November  (1852).  The  letter  which 
he  bore  to  the  emperor  was  drafted  by  Mr.  Web¬ 
ster  before  his  decease,  but  countersigned  by 
Edward  Everett,  his  successor  in  office.  Perry 
carried  out  many  useful  implements  and  inven¬ 
tions  as  presents  to  the  Japanese  government, 
including  a  small  railway  and  equipments,  tele¬ 
graph,  etc.  He  was  instructed  to  approach  the 
Emperor  of  Japan  in  the  most  friendly  manner; 
to  use  no  violence  unless  attacked;  but  if  at¬ 
tacked,  to  let  the  Japanese  feel  the  full  weight 
of  his  power.  Perry  delivered  his  letter  of  cre¬ 
dence,  and  waited  some  months  for  an  answer, 
without  being  permitted  to  land  on  the  shores 
of  the  empire.  Meanwhile  he  visited  and  sur¬ 
veyed  the  Loo  Clioo  Islands.  In  February,  1854, 
he  returned  to  the  Bay  of  Jeddo,  and  finally  effect¬ 
ed  a  landing  and  commenced  negotiations,  which 
were  happily  successful.  The  treaty  then  made 
stipulated  that  ports  should  be  thrown  open  to 
American  commerce,  to  a  limited  extent,  in  dif¬ 
ferent  Japanese  islands ;  that  steamers  from 
California  to  China  should  be  furnished  with 
supplies  of  coal ;  and  that  American  sailors 
shipwrecked  on  the  Japanese  coasts  should  re¬ 
ceive  hospitable  treatment.  So  Japan  was  first 
opened  to  friendly  relations  with  the  Ameri¬ 
cans.  Before  this  treaty  the  Dutch  had  mo¬ 
nopolized  the  trade  of  Japan.  Subsequently  a 
peculiar  construction  of  the  treaty  on  the  part 
of  the  Japanese  authorities,  in  relation  to  the 
permanent  residence  of  Americans  there,  threat- 


JAPANESE  EMBASSY 


711 


JAY’S  MISSION  TO  ENGLAND 


ened  a  disturbance  of  the  amicable  relations 
which  had  been  established.  The  matter  was 
adjusted,  and  in  1860  the  first  embassy  from  Ja- 
pau  visited  the  United  States.  It  was  an  im¬ 
posing  array  of  Japanese  officials.  There  was 
great  opposition  in  the  empire  to  this  inter¬ 
course  with  “the  barbarians.”  Civil  war  en¬ 
sued.  A  rapid  change  now  marked  public  opin¬ 
ion  in  Japan  in  regard  to  foreigners;  and  from 
that  time  the  intimate  relations,  social  and  com¬ 
mercial,  between  the  United  States  and  Japan 
have  constantly  increased,  with  results  wonder¬ 
fully  beneficial  to  both  countries. 

Japanese  Embassy.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1872  the  government  of  Japan  sent  an 
embassy  to  the  United  States  to  inquire  about 
the  renewal  of  former  treaties.  It  consisted  of  I 
twenty-one  persons,  composed  of  the  heads  of 
the  several  departments  of  the  Japanese  gov¬ 
ernment  and  their  secretaries.  Among  them 
was  an  imperial  prince — Mr.  Mori — -who  came 
to  represent  Japan  at  Washington  as  cbarge- 
d’affaires.  Also  twelve  students.  The  mission 
arrived  at  Washington  at  the  beginning  of 
March.  Mr.  Mori  was  the  first  minister  ever 
sent  by  his  government  to  reside  in  a  foreign 
country. 

Jasper,  Sergeant.  During  the  hottest  of 
the  attack  of  the  British  fieet  on  Fort  Sullivan 
(see  Charleston,  Defence  of),  the  South  Carolina 
flag  that  waved  over  it  fell  to  the  ground  out¬ 
side  of  the  fort,  its  staff  having  been  cut  in  two 
by  a  cannon-ball.  Sergeant  William  Jasper,  of 
Moultrie’s  regiment,  a  native  of  South  Carolina, 
and  about  twenty-six  years  of  age,  seeing  the 
flag  fall,  leaped  down  from  one  of  the  embra¬ 
sures,  seized  the  ensign,  climbed  back,  fixed  the 
colors  to  a  sponge-staff,  mounted  the  parapet, 
stuck  the  improvised  flag-staff  in  the  sand  of  one 
of  the  bastions,  and  returned  to  his  place  in  the 
fort.  A  few  days  afterwards  Governor  Rut¬ 
ledge  took  his  own  sword  from  his  side  and  pre¬ 
sented  it  to  Jasper.  He  also  offered  him  a  lieu¬ 
tenant’s  commission,  which  the  young  man  mod¬ 
estly  declined  because  he  could  neither  read  nor 
write,  saying,  “  I  am  not  fit  to  keep  officers’  com¬ 
pany — I  am  but  a  sergeant.”  He  tvas  given  a 
sort  of  roving  commission  by  Colonel  Moultrie, 
and,  with  five  or  six  men,  he  often  brought  in 
prisoners  before  his  commander  was  aware  of 
his  absence.  An  earnest  Whig  lady  of  Charles¬ 
ton — Mrs.  Susannah  Elliot- — presented  Jasper’s 
regiment  with  a  stand  of  colors  wrought  with 
her  own  hands.  They  were  shot  down  at  the 
assault  on  Savannah  (1779),  and  in  trying  to  re¬ 
place  them  on  the  parapet  of  a  redoubt  Jasper 
was  mortally  wounded,  but  brought  them  off. 

A  county  in  Georgia  and  a  square  in  Savannah 
bear  his  name. 

Jay,  John,  was  born  in  New  York,  Dec.  12, 
1745;  died  at  Bedford,  N.  Y.,  May  17,1829.  He 
was  of  Huguenot  descent.  Graduated  at  King’s 
(Columbia)  College  in  1764,  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1768,  and  formed  a  partnership  with 
Robert  R.  Livingston.  In  1774  he  was  a  dele¬ 
gate  in  the  First  Continental  Congress,  and  t  he 
same  year  he  married  a  daughter  of  William 


Livingston,  of  New  Jersey.  In  that  Congress, 
though  the  youngest  member  but  one,  he  took 
a  conspicuous  part,  being  the  author  of  the 
“Address  to  the  People  of  Great  Britain.”  His 


facile  pen  was  often  employed  in  framing  docu¬ 
ments  in  the  Congress  of  1775.  Early  in  1776 
Mr.  Jay  left  Congress  and  engaged  in  the  public 
affairs  of  his  own  state,  being  a  leading  member 
of  the  Provincial  Congress  in  1776.  He  wrote 
the  able  address  of  the  convention  at  Fish  kill 
in  December,  1776;  reported  a  bill  of  rights  to 
the  New  York  Constitutional  Convention  in 
March,  1777 ;  and  was  the  chief  author  of  the 
first  constitution  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
After  assisting  in  putting  in  motion  the  ma¬ 
chinery  of  his  state  government,  and  being 
made  a  judge,  he  entered  Congress  again,  late 
in  1778,  and  became  president  of  that  body.  In 
Sepfember,  1779,  he  was  sent  to  Spain  to  nego¬ 
tiate  a  loan.  Mr.  Jay  was  one  of  the  commis¬ 
sioners  for  negotiating  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain  (which  see).  He  returned  to  New 
York  in  1784,  and  was  Secretary  for  Foreign  Af¬ 
fairs  from  that  year  until  the  organization  of 
the  government  under  the  national  Constitu¬ 
tion.  Mr.  Jay  was  associated  with  Hamilton 
and  Madison  in  writing  the  series  of  articles  in 
support  of  the  Constitution  known  collectively 
as  The  Federalist.  Washington  appointed  Jay 
the  first  chief-justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States.  In  1794  he  went  on  a  mis¬ 
sion  to  England  (see  Jafs  Treaty)',  and  from 
1795  to  1801  ho  was  Governor  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  under  whose  administration  slavery 
was  abolished.  This  was  the  last  public  office 
held  by  Mr.  Jay. 

Jay’s  Mission  to  England.  On  the  7th  of 
April,  1794,  a  motion  was  made  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  that  all  commercial  intercourse 
with  Great  Britain  and  her  subjects  be  suspend- 


JAY’S  TREATY 


712 


JAY’S  TREATY 


ed,  so  far  as  respected  all  articles  of  the  growth 
or  manufacture  of  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  un¬ 
til  the  surrender  of  the  Western  posts  and  due 
compensation  for  all  losses  and  damages  grow¬ 
ing  out  of  British  aggressions  on  our  neutral 
rights  should  be  made.  This  motion,  if  adopt¬ 
ed,  would  lead  directly  to  war.  Its  adoption 
seemed  probable,  and  Washington,  to  avert  the 
calamitous  consequences,  proposed  to  send  a 
special  minister  to  England  to  negotiate  an 
amicable  settlement  of  the  existing  disputes. 
There  were  grave  charges  of  violations  of  the 
treaty  of  1783  made  by  the  two  parties  against 
each  other.  Washington  desired  to  send  Ham¬ 
ilton  on  the  mission.  Violent  opposition  to  this 
was  made  by  his  political  enemies,  whose  hatred 
and  jealousy  were  intense.  Fearing  Hamilton 
might  not  have  the  confirmation  of  the  Sen¬ 
ate,  Washington  nominated  John  Jay  (April  1(5), 
which  nomination  was  confirmed  April  19.  The 
special  minister  arrived  in  England  in  June, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  courtesy  by 
the  British  government.  He  negotiated  a  treaty 
which  was  not  wholly  satisfactory  to  his  coun¬ 
trymen,  closing  his  labors  on  Nov.  19.  (See  Jay's 
Treaty.) 

Jay’s  Treaty.  In  April,  1794,  John  Jay  was 
sent  to  the  British  court,  as  envoy  extraordi¬ 
nary,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  that  should  settle 
all  existing  disputes  between  the  two  govern¬ 
ments.  He  arrived  in  London  in  June,  and 
was  received  graciously  by  the  ministry.  Lord 
Grenville,  then  at  the  head  of  foreign  affairs, 
expressed  great  anxiety  to  bring  the  negotia¬ 
tions  to  a  successful  issue.  There  was  a  wide 
difference  of  views  concerning  matters  in  dis¬ 
pute.  The  Americans  complained  that,  con¬ 
trary  to  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
(1783),  a  large  number  of  negroes  had  been  car¬ 
ried  oft’  by  the  evacuating  armies ;  and  for  this 
loss  compensation  was  demanded  for  the  own¬ 
ers.  They  complained,  also,  of  the  detention  of 
the  Western  posts,  which  was  the  main  cause  of 
the  hostility  of  the  Northwestern  tribes.  They 
also  alleged  numerous  violations  of  their  neu¬ 
tral  rights,  especially  on  the  high  seas,  such  as 
the  impressment  of  seamen  and  the  exclusion 
of  American  shipping  from  the  trade  of  the 
British  West  Indies.  There  were  other  com¬ 
plaints  on  the  part  of  the  Americans;  but  the 
matters  more  immediately  provocative  of  war 
were  the  disputed  questions  of  neutral  rights 
and  the  detention  of  the  Western  posts.  Deem¬ 
ing  it  wise  to  adjust  these  two  important  diffi¬ 
culties,  Jay  thought  it  best  to  yield,  tempora¬ 
rily,  other  considerations,  or  leave  them  for  fut¬ 
ure  adjustment,  and  he  was  induced  to  sign  a 
treaty  (Nov.  19,  1794)  defective  in  some  respects 
and  objectionable  in  others.  It  provided  for 
the  collection  of  British  debts  in  the  United 
States  contracted  before  the  Revolution,  but  it 
did  not  secure  indemnity  to  those  who  lost 
slaves.  It  secured  indemnity  for  unlawful  capt¬ 
ures  on  the  high  seas,  and  the  evacuation  of  the 
military  posts  on  the  frontiers  yet  held  by  the 
British.  These  were  to  be  surrendered  on  June 
1,  1796,  the  present  residents  to  have  the  option 
of  removing  or  of  becoming  American  citizeus. 


There  was  to  be  a  mutual  reciprocity  of  inland 
trade  and  intercourse  between  the  North  Amer¬ 
ican  territories  of  the  two  nations,  including 
the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi;  but  it  did 
not  extend  to  the  Hudson’s  Bay  Company,  nor  to 
the  admission  of  American  vessels  into  the  har¬ 
bors  of  the  British  North  American  colonies,  nor 
to  the  navigation  of  the  rivers  of  those  colonies 
below  the  highest  port  of  entry.  These  were 
the  principal  features  of  the  first  ten  articles  of 
the  treaty,  which  were  to  be  perpetual.  Eigh¬ 
teen  others,  of  the  nature  of  a  treaty  of  com¬ 
merce,  were  limited  to  two  years.  They  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  admission  of  American  vessels  into 
British  ports  in  Europe  and  the  East  Indies  on 
terms  of  equality  with  British  vessels;  but  no 
terms  were  made  concerning  the  East  India 
coasting  trade,  or  the  trade  between  Europe 
and  the  British  West  Indies.  There  were  re¬ 
strictions  upon  the  American  trade  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish  West  Indies;  and  British  vessels  were  to  be 
admitted  to  American  ports  on  terms  of  the 
most  favored  nations.  Privateers  were  to  give 
bonds  to  respond  to  any  damages  they  might 
commit  against  neutrals,  and  other  regulations 
of  that  service  were  made.  The  list  of  contra¬ 
band  articles  was  clearly  defined.  No  vessel 
attempting  to  enter  a  blockaded  port  was  to  be 
captured  unless  she  had  first  been  notified  and 
turned  away.  Neither  nation  was  to  allow  en¬ 
listments  within  its  territory  by  any  third  na¬ 
tion  at  Avar  with  the  other;  nor  were  the  citi¬ 
zeus  or  subjects  of  either  to  be  allowed  to  ac¬ 
cept  commissions  from  such  third  nation,  or  to 
enlist  iu  its  service,  on  penalty  of  being  treat¬ 
ed  as  pirates.  Ships  of  Avar  of  the  contract¬ 
ing  parties  were  to  be  mutually  admitted  in  a 
friendly  manner  into  the  ports  of  each  other, 
such  vessels  to  be  free  from  any  claim  of  search, 
but  Avere  to  depart  as  speedily  as  might  be. 
Other  and  stringent  regulations  were  made 
concerning  privateers.  In  case  of  rupture  or 
war,  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  either  nation 
resident  in  the  territories  of  the  other  were  to 
be  allowed  to  remain  and  to  continue  their 
trade  so  long  as  they  behaved  peaceably.  They 
might  be  ordered  off,  in  case  of  suspicion,  on 
twelve  months’  notice,  or  without  any  notice, 
if  detected  iu  violations  of  the  laws.  No  re¬ 
prisals  Avere  to  be  ordered  by  either  party  till 
satisfaction  had  first  been  demanded.  Fugi¬ 
tives  from  justice  charged  with  murder  or  forg¬ 
ery  Avere  to  be  mutually  given  up.  This  treaty 
was  laid  before  the  Senate  early  in  June,  1795, 
and  its  ratification  Avas  agreed  to  on  the  14th. 
The  ratification  was  completed  by  Washington’s 
signature  to  it  on  Aug.  18. 

Jay’s  Treaty  before  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives.  When  the  President  had  pro¬ 
claimed  the  treaty  as  the  law  of  the  land,  he, 
according  to  promise,  sent  a  copy  of  it  (March 
2, 1796)  to  the  House.  Its  appearance  Avas  the 
beginning  of  a  violent  debate  in  that  body, 
which  turned  upon  the  question  whether  the 
House  possessed  discretionary  power  to  carry 
the  treaty  into  execution  or  not  at  its  pleasure. 
The  debate  arose  on  a  motion  of  Edward  Liv¬ 
ingston,  of  New  York,  calling  upon  the  President 


JAY’S  TREATY,  OPPOSITION  TO  .  713  JAY’S  TREATY  OUT  OF  CONGRESS 


for  bis  instructions  to  Jay  and  other  papers  re¬ 
lating  to  the  treaty.  After  about  thirty  speech¬ 
es,  in  a  debate  of  three  weeks,  which  grew  warm¬ 
er  and  warmer  the  longer  it  lasted,  the  resolu¬ 
tion  was  adopted  (March  24)  by  a  vote  of  sixty- 
two  to  thirty-seven.  The  President  consulted 
his  cabinet,  and  they  unanimously  decided  that 
the  House  had  no  right  to  make  such  a  call,  as 
they  were  not  a  part  of  the  treaty-making  pow¬ 
er.  They  also  decided  that  it  was  not  expedi¬ 
ent  for  the  President  to  furnish  the  papers,  for 
the  call  should  be  considered  as  an  unfounded 
claim  of  power  on  the  part  of  the  House  to  in¬ 
terfere  with  the  privileges  of  the  President  and 
Senate.  The  President  therefore  declined  to 
comply  with  the  request  of  the  House,  giviug 
his  reasons  in  a  special  message.  Resolutions 
asserting  the  majesty  of  the  House  were  intro¬ 
duced  (April  6),  and  were  supported  by  Madison. 
These  resolutions  were  adopted  by  a  vote  of 
tifty-seven  to  thirty-five,  and  the  subject  of  the 
“  British  treaty  ”  was  a  staple  topic  of  debate 
for  some  time  afterwards.  Finally  (April  30) 
the  House  passed  a  resolution  —  fifty -one  to 
forty-eight — that  it  was  expedient  to  pass  laws 
for  carrying  the  treaty  into  effect. 

Jay’s  Treaty,  Opposition  to.  The  leaders 
of  the  Democratic  party  had  opposed  the  treaty 
from  its  inception,  and  the  Democratic  societies 
(which  see)  and  newspapers  had  resolved  to  op¬ 
pose  and  attack  it  whatever  might  be  its  pro¬ 
visions.  The  treaty  was  concluded  at  London 
on  Nov..  19,  1794.  It  reached  the  President  in 
March,  1795,  after  the  adjournment  of  Congress. 
The  Senate  was  convened,  in  special  session,  to 
consider  it,  early  in  June,  1795.  After  a  debate 
for  a  fortnight,  in  secret  session,  a  vote  of  twen¬ 
ty  to  ten — precisely  a  constitutional  majority — 
advised  (June  24)  the  ratification  of  the  treaty, 
excepting  the  article  which  related  to  the  re¬ 
nunciation  by  the  Americans  of  the  privilege 
of  transportation  of  sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  co¬ 
coa,  and  cotton  in  the  West  ludia  trade.  Cot¬ 
ton  was  then  just  promising  to  be  of  vast  im¬ 
portance  in  the  carrying-trade  (see  Cotton  in  the 
United  States),  and  such  an  article  was  wholly 
inadmissible.  The  President  had  determined, 
before  the  meeting  of  the  Senate,  to  ratify  the 
treaty ;  and  when  it  was  laid  before  the  cabinet 
all  agreed  with  him  excepting  the  Secretary  of 
State  (Edmund  Randolph,  of  Virginia),  who 
raised  the  point  that  by  the  ratification,  before 
an  obnoxious  British  Order  in  Council  (which 
see)  concerning  neutrals  should  be  repealed,  the 
British  claim  to  the  right  of  search  and  impress¬ 
ment  (  which  see  )  would  be  conceded  by  the 
Americans.  Hamilton,  who  had  been  consulted, 
advised  the  ratification,  but  to  withhold  the  ex¬ 
change  of  ratifications  until  that  order  should  be 
repealed.  The  Senate  had  removed  the  seal  of 
secrecy  from  their  proceedings,  but  had  forbid¬ 
den  any  publication  of  the  treaty  itself.  State¬ 
ments  concerning  the  provisions  of  the  treaty 
soon  appeared.  The  Democratic  societies  (which 
see)  and  newspapers  had  resolved  to  oppose 
and  attack  the  treaty  whatever  might  be  its 
provisions.  They  had  opposed  the  mission  to 
negotiate  it.  After  it.  was  received  Randolph 


revealed  enough  of  its  character  to  give  a  foun¬ 
dation  for  many  attacks  upon  it  in  the  news¬ 
papers.  It  was  denounced  as  a  pusillanimous 
surrender  of  American  rights.  Iu  order  to  pre¬ 
vent  misrepresentations,  and  to  elicit  the  ex¬ 
pressions  of  the  people,  Washington  caused  the 
whole  treaty  to  be  published.  He  had  been 
anticipated  by  an  unfaithful  Senator  from  Vir¬ 
ginia  (Stevens  Thomson  Mason),  who  caused  to 
be  published  a  full  abstract  of  it  iu  the  Aurora, 
a  violent  opponent  of  the  government.  A  day 
or  two  afterwards  a  perfect  copy  was  furnished 
by  Masou.  Concerning  this  transaction  a  writ¬ 
er  said : 

“Ah.  Thomson  Mason!  long  thy  fame  shall  rise 
With  Democratic  incense  to  the  skies. 

Long  shall  the  world  admire  thy  manly  soul, 

Which  scorned  the  haughty  Senate’s  base  control : 

Came  boldly  forward  with  thy  weighty  name, 

And  gave  the  treaty  up  for  public  game!” 

A  mad,  seditious  cry  went  over  the  land  from 
the  opposition.  In  several  cities  mobs  threat¬ 
ened  personal  violence  to  the  supporters  of  the 
treaty.  Hamilton  was  stoned  at  a  public  meet¬ 
ing  in  New  York,  while  speaking  in  the  open 
air.  “  These  are  hard  arguments,”  he  said,  as  a 
stone  grazed  his  forehead.  The  British  minister 
at  Philadelphia  was  insulted ;  and  iu  Charleston 
the  British  flag  was  trailed  in  the  dust  of  the 
streets.  Jay  was  denounced  as  a  traitor;  and 
iu  Virginia  disunion  was  recommended  as  a  cure 
for  political  evils.  The  Democratic  societies 
and  orators  put  forth  claims  for  sympathy  for 
France.  “She  has  a  government  congenial  to 
our  own.  Citizens,  your  security  depends  on 
France.  Let  us  nnite  with  her  and  stand  or  fall 
together!”  shouted  opposition  orators  through¬ 
out  the  country.  The  Democrats  adorned  their 
hats  with  the  French  cockade.  Jay  was  burned 
in  effigy  in  many  places,  and  longings  for  the 
guillotine  were  freely  expressed  iu  public  as¬ 
semblies.  For  many  years  afterwards  Jay’s 
treaty  was  made  an  efficient  war-club  in  the 
hands  of  the  Republican  or  Democratic  leaders. 

Jay’s  Treaty  out  of  Congress.  While  de¬ 
bates  concerning  the  treaty  were  rife  in  Con¬ 
gress,  an  apprehension  spread  among  the  peo¬ 
ple,  especially  the  mercantile  class,  that  war 
with  Great  Britain  would  be  the  consequence 
of  the  rejection  of  the  treaty.  This  thought  in¬ 
spired  serious  alarm,  and  petitions  began  to 
pour  into  Congress  from  all  portions  of  the  coun¬ 
try  in  favor  of  its  ratification.  Insurance  could 
no  longer  be  obtained  against  capture  on  the 
high  seas.  Very  speedily  counter- petitions 
flowed  in,  and  the  whole  country,  especially  the 
business  communities,  was  fearfully  agitated. 
Brand,  the  British  charg'd  d’affaires,  added  fuel 
to  the  flame  by  intimating  that  if  the  House 
should  refuse  to  pass  laws  for  the  execution  of 
the  treaty,  the  Western  posts  would  not  be  given 
up.  This  again  aroused  violent  debates  in  the 
House;  and  so  the  war  of  words  went  on  iu  ami 
out  ofCongress — the  chief  speaker  among  the  Re¬ 
publicans  against  the  treaty  being  Albert  Gal¬ 
latin,  and  in  favor  of  it,  Fisher  Ames  —  until 
the  close  of  April  (179(1),  when  the  resolution 
declaring  it  expedient  to  pass  the  laws  ueces- 


JEALOUSY  OF  CHARTERED  COLONIES  714 


JEALOUSY  OF  WASHINGTON 


sary  for  carrying  the  treaty  into  effect  was 
passed,  and  the  agitation  soon  ceased. 

Jealousy  of  Chartered  Colonies.  The  first 
ministry  of  George  I.,  annoyed  by  obstacles 
which  the  colonial  charters  opposed  to  absolute 
imperial  control,  attempted  (1715)  to  “regulate 
the  chartered  governments.”  The  excitement 
raised  by  the  bill  for  this  purpose  caused  fhe  min¬ 
istry  to  drop  it ;  but  they  sent  orders  to  the  colo¬ 
nial  governors  not  to  consent  to  any  laws  which 
would  affect  British  trade,  unless  with  clauses 
suspending  their  operations  till  they  received 
the  royal  assent.  In  Rhode  Islaud,  Connecti¬ 
cut,  and  the  Carolinas,  such  assent  was  not  nec¬ 
essary  to  the  enactment  of  laws;  and  hence  the 
disposition,  so  repeatedly  exhibited,  to  strip 
those  provinces  of  their  charters.  Five  years 
later  (1720)  an  agent  sent  to  England  by  the 
people  of  the  Carolinas  represented  the  “  con¬ 
fused,  negligent,  and  helpless  government  of  the 
proprietaries.”  Taking  advantage  of  this,  the 
old  act  for  regulating  the  “chartered  govern¬ 
ments”  was  revived.  It  was  again  abandoned, 
but  an  order  for  vacating  the  Carolina  charters 
was  issued.  Pending  the  process  the  admiuistra- 
tion  of  the  Carolinas  was  assumed  by  the  crown. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  Jeremiah  Duinmer, 
agent  of  the  Province  of  Massachusetts,  pub¬ 
lished  in  London  his  Defence  of  the  New  England 
Charters. 

Jealousy  of  old  Army  Officers.  When  the 
army  was  organized  for  war  in  1812,  military  of¬ 
ficers  of  the  Revolution  were  chosen  to  fill  the 
higher  places,  and  they  generally  failed,  not 
only  on  account  of  incapacity,  but  because  of 
their  jealousy  of  each  other,  and  of  younger  offi¬ 
cers.  Unfortunately  for  the  country,  President 
Madison  appointed  John  Armstrong  Secretary 
of  War  at  the  beginning  of  1813.  He  was  un¬ 
fitted  for  his  place  by  his  temperament  and  im¬ 
perious  manner,  and  was  always  offended  by  a 
suggestion,  as  if  it  were  an  impertinent  inter¬ 
ference.  He  snubbed  the  patriotic  Jackson  (see 
Tennessee),  and  drove  Harrison  from  the  army ; 
and  in  the  summer  of  1813  he  called  the  incom¬ 
petent  Wilkinson  from  the  Gulf  region  to  take 
the  place  of  Dearborn  in  command  of  the  forces 
on- the  northern  frontier.  The  change  was  of 
no  value  to  the  cause.  Dearborn  withdrew  from 
the  service  before  Wilkinson’s  arrival,  leaving 
the  command  at  Fort  George  with  General  Boyd, 
the  senior  officer  on  that  frontier.  Trouble  soon 
ensued.  Armstrong  was  as  much  infatuated 
with  the  idea  of  conquering  Canada  as  his  pred¬ 
ecessors  had  been  ;  and  he  conceived  a  plan 
for  an  invasion  by  the  united  forces  of  the  ar¬ 
mies  of  the  Centre  and  the  North.  He  ordered 
Wilkinson  to  Sackett’s  Harbor  to  make  arrange¬ 
ments  for  it.  Wilkinson  differed  with  Arm¬ 
strong  about  the  plan,  and  bitter  enmity  be¬ 
tween  them  was  soon  aroused.  The  fiery  spirit 
of  the  Secretary  of  War  could  not  brook  contra¬ 
diction.  There  was  another  imperious  and  hot 
spirit  then  in  the  field — General  Wade  Hamp¬ 
ton,  of  South  Carolina,  one  of  Marion’s  partisan 
officers  in  the  Revolution.  He  had  succeeded 
Bloomfield  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 


North,  on  Lake  Champlain  and  its  vicinity.  He 
was  a  thorough -going  aristocrat.  His  landed 
possessions  were  princely  in  extent,  and  he 
counted  his  slaves  by  thousands.  He  hated 
Wilkinson  intensely.  When  that  officer,  on  his 
arrival  at  Albany,  sent  his  first  order  to  Hamp¬ 
ton,  the  anger  of  the  fiery  Southerner  was  fierce¬ 
ly  kindled.  He  wrote  to  Armstrong  an  insolent 
letter,  insisting  that  his  was  a  separate  and  in¬ 
dependent  command,  and  tendering  his  resigna¬ 
tion  in  the  event  of  his  being  ordered  to  act  un¬ 
der  Wilkinson.  The  latter,  at  the  same  time, 
was  as  jealous  of  Armstrong,  who,  he  feared, 
might  trample  upon  his  prerogatives;  and  on 
the  24th  of  August  (1813)  lie  wrote  to  the  Secre- 
tery  of  War:  “I  trust  yon  will  not  interfere 
with  my  arrangements,  or  give  orders  within 
the  district  of  my  command,  but  to  myself,  be¬ 
cause  it  would  impair  my  authority  and  distract 
the  public  service.  Two  heads  on  the  same 
shoulders  make  a  monster.”  This  was  reasona¬ 
ble  ;  but  Armstrong  was  highly  offended,  and 
he  finally  went  to  Sackett’s  Harbor  to  regulate 
matters  himself,  and  actually  established  the 
War  Department  there  for  a  while.  The  jeal¬ 
ousies  and  bickerings  of  these  old  officers  of  the 
Continental  army  were  highly  detrimental  to 
the  public  service. 

Jealousy  of  Washington.  After  the  affair 
at  Trenton  the  whole  country  rang  with  the 
praises  of  Washington,  and  the  errors  of  Con¬ 
gress  in  not  heeding  his  advice  in  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  the  army  were  freely  commented  upon. 
That  body  was  now  inferior  in  its  material  to 
the  first  and  second  Congresses,  aim  was  cursed 
with  cliques  and  factions;  and  there  were  pro¬ 
tests  among  the  members,  who  shook  their  heads 
in  disapprobation  of  the  popularity  and  power 
with  which  Washington  was  invested.  To  a 
proposition  to  give  him  power  to  name  gener¬ 
als  John  Adams  vehemently  protested,  saying: 
“In  private  life  I  am  willing  to  respect  and 
look  up  to  him;  in  this  House  I  feel  myself  to 
be  the  superior  of  General  Washington.”  On 
Feb. 24, 1777,  when  mere  “ideal  reinforcements” 
were  voted  to  Washington,  after  an  earnest  de¬ 
bate,  in  which  “some  of  the  New  England  dele¬ 
gates  and  one  from  New  Jersey  showed  a  will¬ 
ingness  to  insult  him,”  they  expressed  an  “ear¬ 
nest  desire  that  he  would  not  only  curb  and 
confine  the  enemy  within  their  present  quar¬ 
ters,  but,  by  the  divine  blessing,  totally  subdue 
them  before  they  could  be  reinforced.”  To  this 
seeming  irony  Washington  calmly  responded: 
“  What  hope  can  there  be  of  my  effecting  so  de¬ 
sirable  a  work  at  this  time?  The  whole  of  our 
number  in  New  Jersey  fit  for  duty  is  under 
three  thousand.”  The  resolution  was  carried 
by  a  bare  majority  of  the  states  present — ‘Vir¬ 
ginia  and  four  New  England  states.  The  jeal¬ 
ous  men  were  few  ;  the  friends  and  admirers 
were  many.  William  Hooper,  of  North  Caroli¬ 
na,  wrote  to  Robert.  Morris:  “When  it  shall  be 
consistent  with  policy  to  give  the  history  of  that 
man  [Washington]  from  his  first  introduction 
into  our  service;  how  often  America  has  been 
rescued  from  ruin  by  the  mere  strength  of 
his  genius,  conduct,  and  courage ;  encountering 


JEFFERSON  AND  DICKINSON 


715  JEFFERSON  ELECTED  PRESIDENT 


every  obstacle  that  want  of  money,  men,  arms, 
ammunition,  could  throw  in  his  way;  an  impar¬ 
tial  world  will  say,  with  you,  he  is  the  greatest 
man  on  earth.  Misfortunes  are  the  elements  in 
which  he  shines;  they  are  the  groundwork  on 
which  his  picture  appears  to  the  greatest  ad¬ 
vantage.  He  rises  superior  to  them  all ;  they 
serve  as  forts  to  his  fortitude,  and  as  stimulants 
to  bring  into  view  those  great  qualities  which 
his  modesty  keeps  concealed.” 

Jefferson  and  Dickinson.  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  John  Dickinson  were  patriots  of  purest 
mould,  but  of  different  constituents  in  temper¬ 
ament.  The  first  was  bold,  impassioned,  and 
aggressive ;  the  second  was  cau¬ 
tious,  calm,  and  disposed  to  act  on 
the  defensive.  When  the  procla¬ 
mation  of  King  George  III.  (which 
see)  arrived  in  America,  Jefferson 
took  fire,  and  exclaimed,  “  There  is 
not  in  the  British  empire  a  man  who 
more  cordially  loves  a  union  with 
Great  Britain  than  I  do ;  but,  by 
the  God  that  made  me,  I  will  cease 
to  exist  before  I  will  yield  to  a  con¬ 
nection  on  such  terms  as  the  British 
Parliament  propose;  and  in  this  I 
speak  the  sentiments  of  America.” 

But  Dickinson  still  adhered  to  the 
belief  that  the  petition  he  had 
drafted  (see  Petition  to  the  King , 

1775)  had  not  been  rejected,  and 
that  proofs  of  a  conciliatory  dis¬ 
position  would  be  manifest  in  his 
speech  at  the  opening  of  the  session 
of  Parliament.  In  this  he  was  dis¬ 
appointed  ;  but  his  caution  made 
him  so  conservative  that  when  the 
question  of  independence  was  voted 
upon  he  was  opposed  to  the  meas¬ 
ure. 

Jefferson  Caricatured.  Carica¬ 
ture  was  very  little  known  m 
America  before  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  excepting  such 
as  came  over  from  England  and 
France.  It  was  sometimes  attempt¬ 
ed  here  with  good  effect.  One  of 
the  best  issued  in  the  United  States  in  the  last 
decade  of  that  century  was  one  aimed  at  Jeffer¬ 
son.  It  forms  a  frontispiece  to  a  pamphlet 
entitled  Observations  on  the  Dispute  between  the 
United  States  and  France ,  by  Robert  G.  Harper, 
without  date,  in  possession  of  the  writer.  It 
was  probably  issued  in  the  summer  of  1797,  at 
the  time  when  the  public  mind  was  much  ex¬ 
cited  by  the  publication  in  American  newspa¬ 
pers  of  Jefferson’s  letter  to  Mazzei  (which  see). 
It  alludes  to  Jefferson’s  alleged  “infidelity”  in 
theological  opinions,  and  his  attachment  to  the 
course  of  the  French  Revolutionists,  who  in  the 
“  Reign  of  Terror”  had  developed  into  a  terrible 
scourge.  Upon  an  “Altar  to  Gallic  Despotism,” 
entwined  by  a  serpent,  before  which  Jefferson 
is  kneeling  in  devotion,  are  laid  various  papers, 
so  marked  as  to  indicate  his  lack  of  orthodoxy 
in  theology — “Godwin,”  “ Age  of  Reason, “J.  J. 
Rousseau,”  “llelvetius,”  “Voltaire,”  and  the 


Aurora  and  Chronicle,  the  two  latter  Democratic 
newspapers.  Around  the  altar  are  seen  bags 
of  offerings,  marked  “Portugal  Oranges  Bribe,” 
“  American  Spoliations,”  “  Spain,”  “  Venice,” 
“Sardinia,”  “Dutch  Reserves,”  “Flanders.” 
Back  of  these  is  seen  the  black  demon  of  the 
French  Revolution,  about  to  seize  a  dagger. 
Over  all  is  the  American  eagle  soaring,  with  a 
scroll  marked  “Constitution — Independence — 
U.  S.  A.”  in  one  talon,  which  it  has  snatched 
from  the  altar  on  which  Jefferson  had  placed 
it,  while  the  other  talon  is  defending  the 
scroll  from  the  enraged  worshipper  who  is  try¬ 
ing  to  seize  it.  From  Jefferson's  hand  is  fall¬ 


CARICATURE  OP  JEFFERSON. 

ing  a  letter  upon  which  are  the  words  “  To 
Mazzei.” 

Jefferson  elected  President  (1800).  The 
leaders  of  the  t  wo  great,  parties  nominated  their 
respective  candidates  in  1800,  the  Federalists 
choosing  to  be  voted  for  John  Adams  and  Charles 
Cotesworth  Pinckney  ;  the  Democrats,  Thomas 
Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr.  There  was  a  breach 
in  the  Federal  party,  owing  to  extended  dislike 
of  Adams,  and  the  Democrats  used  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws  with  powerful  effect  against 
him.  The  Federalists  were  defeated.  Jefferson 
and  Burr  had  each  seventy-three  votes  in  the 
electoral  colleges;  and,  according  to  the  provi¬ 
sions  of  the  Constitution,  the  election  was  car¬ 
ried  into  the  House  of  Representatives.  (See 
Flection  for  President  and  Vice-President.)  There 
exciting  scenes  occurred.  Two  or  three  mem¬ 
bers,  too  sick  to  appear  otherwise,  were  brought 
to  the  house  ou  beds.  For  seveu  days  the  bal- 


JEFFERSON 


716 


JEFFERSON 


luting  went  on.  After  it  was  ascertained  that  a 
Democrat  was  elected,  the  Federalists  all  voted 
for  Burr,  as  being  less  objectionable  than  Jeffer¬ 
son  ;  but  the  friends  of  the  latter  were  stronger 
than  all  opposition,  and  he  was  elected.  The 
whole  Federal  party  were  mortified  and  humil¬ 
iated  by  the  triumph  of  Jefferson,  their  arch  en¬ 
emy.  He  was  inaugurated  March  4, 1801,  and 
appointed  James  Madison  Secretary  of  State; 
Henry  Dearborn,  Secretary  of  War;  Levi  Lin¬ 
coln,  Attorney-general ;  and  before  the  meeting 
of  Congress  in  December  he  appointed  Albert 
Gallatin  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  Robert 
Smith  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  the  third  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Shad  well, 
Va.,  April  2,  1743;  died  at  Mouticello,  July  4, 
1826.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Will¬ 
iam  and  Mary  ;  studied  law  under Geoige  Wythe, 


and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1767.  From 
1769  to  1775  Mr.  Jefferson  was  an  active  member 
of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses.  In  that 
body  he  introduced  a  bill  empowering  masters 
to  manumit  their  slaves.  On  the  1st  of  January, 
1771,  he  married  Martha  Skelton,  a  rich  and 
beautiful  young  widow  of  twenty -three.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Correspond¬ 
ence  of  Virginia,  which  he  assisted  in  forming, 
and  was  engaged  in  active  public  life  until  his 
retirement  from  the  presidency  of  the  United 
States  in  1809,  when  he  was  sixty-four  years  of 
age.  In  1774  he  wrote  his  famous  Summary  View 
of  the  Eights  of  British  America,  which,  it  is  be¬ 
lieved,  procured  for  him  a  place  in  the  list  of 
American  traitors  denounced  by  the  British  Par¬ 
liament.  He  had  taken  an  active  y>art  against 
the  Boston  Port  Bill  (which  see).  Mr.  Jefferson 
took  his  seat  in  the  Continental  Congress  in 
June,  1775,  when  he  was  thirty-two  years  of  age. 
In  that  body  he  served  on  the  most  important 
committees  and  in  drawing  up  state  papers.  On 
the  committee  to  draft  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 


pendence,  to  Mr.  Jefferson  was  assigned  the  duty 
of  writing  that  important  paper,  which  he  ad¬ 
vocated  and  signed.  True  to  the  proclivities 
of  his  nature  in  favor  of  human  liberty,  he  in¬ 
troduced  a  clause  censuring  slavery,  which  was 
stricken  out.  In  October,  1776,  he  retired  from 
Congress  to  take  part  in  his  own  state  affairs, 
and  for  two  years  and  a  half  he  was  employed 
in  revising  the  laws  of  Virginia  and  procuring 
some  wise  enactments,  such  as  abolishing  the 
laws  of  primogeniture,  giving  freedom  to  con¬ 
victs,  etc.  During  the  entire  war  for  indepen¬ 
dence  Jefferson  was  very  active  in  his  own  state, 
serving  as  its  governor  from  June,  1779,  to  1781. 
At  the  time  of  his  retirement  from  the  chair, 
Cornwallis,  invading  Virginia,  desolated  Jeffer¬ 
son's  estate  at  Elk  Hill,  and  he  and  his  family 
narrowly  escaped  capture.  Mr.  Jefferson  was 
again  in  Congress  in  1783,  and,  as  chairman  of 
a  committee,  reported  to  that  body  the  defini¬ 
tive  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain.  As¬ 
sisting  the  suggestions  of  Gouverneur  Morris, 
he  proposed  and  carried  a  bill  establishing  our 
(present)  decimal  system  of  currency.  In  1785 
he  succeeded  Dr.  Franklin  as  minister  at  the 
French  court,  where  he  remained  until  1789, 
when  he  returned  and  took  a  seat  in  Washing¬ 
ton’s  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  State.  In  France 
he  had  published  his  JS'otes  on  Virginia,  and  he 
had  there  become  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  the  French  Revolutionists  previous  to 
the  bloody  era  of  1793.  Not  finding  at  home  the 
same  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  French  peo¬ 
ple  in  their  struggle  against  “the  conspiracy  of 
the  kings,”  he  became  morbidly  suspicious  of  a 
monarchical  party  in  theUnited  States  that  might 
overthrow  the  government.  He  formed  and  led 
an  active  party  called  “  Republican  ”  or  “  Dem¬ 
ocratic,”  and  there  was  much  acrimonious  feel¬ 
ing  soon  engendered  between  that  and  the  Fed- 
eral  party,  of  which  Colonel  Alexander  Hamil¬ 
ton  was  the  active  leader.  Mr.  Jefferson  was 
an  able  leader  of  the  Democratic  party,  and 
secured  so  large  a  following,  that  in  1800  he 
was  elected  President,  and  served  eight  years, 
retiring  iu  March,  1809,  when  he  withdrew 
from  public  life  and  retired  to  his  seat  at  Mon- 
ticello,  near  Charlottesville,  Va.  Among  the 
important  events  of  his  administration  were 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  an  exploration  of  the 
continent  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  difficulties  with  France  and 
Great  Britain  ou  account  of  their  violation  of 
the  rights  of  neutrals.  Mr.  Jefferson  was  the 
founder  of  the  University  of  Virginia  ( 1819 ) 
at  Charlottesville,  Va.,  and  was  its  rector  until 
his  death,  which  occurred  on  the  same  day, 
and  almost  at  the  same  hour,  as  that  on  which 
John  Adams  died,  who  was  his  associate  in 
drafting  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
siguiug  it,  just  fifty  years  before.  Jefferson 
was  a  keen  politician,  though  no  speaker;  a 
man  of  great  learning  and  fine  scholarly  as  well 
as  scientific  attainments,  and  in  conversation 
extremely  attractive.  His  house  was  the  resort 
of  learned  men  of  his  own  country  and  of  Eu¬ 
rope.  In  person  he  was  tall  and  slender,  with 
sandy  hair,  florid  complexion  in  his  youth,  and 


JEFFERSON’S  ESCAPE  FROM  TARLETON  717 


JENKINSON 


brilliant  gray  eyes,  a  little  inclining  to  brown. 
He  was  buried  in  a  family  cemetery  near  his 
house  at  Monticello,  and  over  his  grave  is  a 
granite  monument,  bearing  the  inscription,  writ¬ 
ten  by  himself,  and  found  among  his  papers  af¬ 
ter  his  death,  “Here  lies  buried  Thomas  Jef¬ 
ferson,  author  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen¬ 
dence,  of  the  Stat¬ 
ute  of  Virginia  for 
Religious  Free¬ 
dom,  and  father  of 
the  University  of 
Virginia.”  Mr. 
Jefferson  regarded 
slavery  as  a  moral 
and  political  evil, 
and  did  much  to 
alleviate  its  hard¬ 
ships.  His  corre¬ 
spondence  with 
men  of  all  classes 
was  voluminous, 
for  he  was  a  fluent  writer  and  had  a  very  wide 
acquaintance.  Few  men  have  exerted  as  much 
influence  in  establishing  the  free  institutions 
of  the  United  States  as  Thomas  Jefferson.  He 
adopted  for  the  motto  of  his  private  seal  that 
of  Oliver  Cromwell — “Rebellion  to  tyrants  is 
obedience  to  God.” 

Jefferson’s  Escape  from  Tarleton.  When, 
in  the  early  summer  of  1781,  Cornwallis  was 
overrunning  a  portion  of  Virginia,  he  sent  Tarle¬ 
ton  with  his  cavalry  to  capture  the  Virginia 
Assembly  sitting  at  Charlottesville,  and  also 
Governor  Jefferson,  who  lived  two  miles  from 
that  place.  On  the  way  Tarleton  destroyed 
twelve  wagon -loads  of  clothing  intended  for 
Greene’s  army  in  North  Carolina.  Within  ten 
miles  of  Charlottesville  Tarleton  detached  Cap¬ 
tain  McLeod,  with  a  party  of  horsemen,  to  capt¬ 
ure  Governor  Jefferson  at  Monticello,  while  he 
pressed  forward.  On  his  way  he  captured  some 
members  of  the  Legislature,  but  when  he  ar¬ 
rived  at  Charlottesville  the  remainder,  fore¬ 
warned,  had  fled  aud  escaped.  McLeod’s  expe¬ 
dition  to  Monticello  was  quite  as  unsuccessful. 
Jefferson  was  entertaining  several  members  of 
the  Legislature,  including  the  presiding  officers 
of  both  houses,  when  the  British  cavalry  were 
seen  coming  up  the  winding  road  towards  the 
mansion.  Jefferson  immediately  sent  away  his 
family,  while  he  and  the  others  escaped  on  horse¬ 
back.  Jefferson  had  not  been  gone  ten  minutes 
when  McLeod  rode  up  and  found  the  house  de¬ 
serted. 

Jefferson's  Policy.  Soon  after  his  inaugu¬ 
ration,  Jefferson  indicated  his  policy  in  a  let¬ 
ter  to  Nathaniel  Macon,  in  Congress,  as  fol¬ 
lows:  “1.  Levees  are  done  away  with.  2.  The 
first  communication  to  the  next  Congress  will 
be,  like  all  subsequent  ones,  by  message,  to 
which  no  answer  will  be  expected.  3.  Diplo¬ 
matic  establishments  in  Europe  will  be  reduced 
to  three  ministers.  4.  The  compensation  of  col¬ 
lectors  depends  on  you  [Congress],  and  not  on 
me.  5.  The  army  is  undergoing  a  chaste  refor¬ 
mation.  6.  The  navy  will  he  reduced  to  the 


legal  establishment  by  the  last  of  this  month 
[May,  1801].  7.  Agencies  in  every  department 

will  be  revived.  8.  We  shall  push  you  to  the 
Uttermost  in  economizing.  9.  A  very  early  rec¬ 
ommendation  has  been  given  to  the  Postmaster- 
general  to  employ  no  traitor,  foreigner,  or  Rev¬ 
olutionary  Tory  in  any  of  his  offices.”  Three 
days  after  his  inauguration  he  wrote  to  Monroe  : 
“  I  have  firmly  refused  to  follow  the  counsels  of 
those  who  have  desired  the  giving  of  offices  to 
some  of  the  Federalist  leaders  in  order  to  recon¬ 
cile  them.  I  have  given,  aud  will  give,  only  to 
Republicans  under  existing  circumstances.”  The 
doctrine,  “To  the  victor  belong  the  spoils,” 
which  has  been  accepted  as  orthodox  in  the  pol¬ 
itics  of  our  Republic  ever  since,  was  then  first, 
promulgated. 

Jeffreys,  Sir  George,  Conduct  of.  Sir  George 
Jeffreys  was  Lord  Chief-justice  of  England  un¬ 
der  Charles  II.,  and  was  of  a  bloodthirsty  and 
cruel  disposition,  delighting  in  the  severe  pun¬ 
ishment.  of  the  enemies  of  the  king.  After  the 
rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  (1685)  was 
crushed  he  held  courts  in  the  insurgent  districts 
which  are  known  in  history  as  the  “  Bloody  As¬ 
sizes.”  The  partisans  of  Monmouth  in  arms 
were  full  six  thousand  in  number,  many  of  them 
persons  of  great  respectability.  They  were 
brought,  before  the  court  of  the  chief-justice  by 
scores.  He  seemed  to  delight  in  convicting  and 
punishing  them.  He  caused  three  hundred  and 
twenty  to  be  hanged  or  beheaded,  and  more 
than  eight  hundred  to  be  sold  as  slaves  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Virginia.  Many  of  the  latter 
were  given  to  court  favorites  that  they  might 
sell  them  on  speculation  or  extort  money  for  their 
pardon  from  those  who  had  any  to  give.  In 
this  nefarious  business  Lord  Effingham,  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Virginia,  engaged ;  and  many  men  of 
culture,  as  well  as  good  mechanics,  were  sent  to 
Virginia  to  be  sold  as  slaves,  and  so  added  ex¬ 
cellent  social  materials  for  society  in  that  colo¬ 
ny.  “Take  care,”  wrote  King  Charles  to  Ef¬ 
fingham,  “that  they  continue  to  serve  for  ten 
years  at  least,  aud  that  they  be  not  permitted 
in  any  manner  to  redeem  themselves  by  money 
or  otherwise  until  that  term  be  fully  expired.” 
The  Assembly  refused  to  make  laws  to  that  end  ; 
and  when,  in  1689,  the  Stuarts  were  driven  from 
the  throne  of  England,  these  people  were  par¬ 
doned,  and  the  Virginians  received  them  with 
open  arms  as  brethren.  (See  Slavery  of  White 
People  Decreed  in  Massachusetts.) 

Jenkinson,  Charles,  was  an  adroit,  untiring, 
and  most  active  politician.  He  was  private  sec¬ 
retary  to  Lord  Bute  when  he  was  the  English 
premier,  and,  when  he  resigned,  Jenkinson  be¬ 
came  the  principal  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
He  was  an  Oxford  scholar,  and  becoming  per¬ 
sonally  acquainted  with  George  III.,  when  he 
was  Prince  of  Wales,  became  devoted  to  his  ser¬ 
vice.  He  had  great  tact  in  dealing  with  deli¬ 
cate  personal  matters,  and  so  was  fitted  to  please 
all,  or,  rather,  not  to  offend  any.  He  was  chiefly 
instrumental  in  pushing  forward  the  English 
ministry  in  their  schemes  for  taxing  the  Eng- 
lish-American  colonists,  and  was  really  the  au- 


JEFFERSON’S  SEAL. 


JENKINSON’S  FERRY 


718 


tlior  of  Townshend’s  obnoxious  bills  and  Gren¬ 
ville’s  Stamp  Act.  He  held  a  place  with  Lord 
North  at  the  Treasury  Board  in  1768,  and  was 
the  chief  instigator  of  that  minister’s  bills  for 
asserting  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Parlia¬ 
ment  over  the  American  colonies. 

Jenkinson’s  Ferry,  Battle  at.  General 
Steele,  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  tried  to  co-operate 
with  the  Red  River  expedition,  but  was  unable 
to  do  so  effectually,  for  he  was  confronted  by  a 
heavy  body  of  Confederates.  He  started  south¬ 
ward  (March  23,  1864)  with  8000  troops,  horse 
and  foot.  He  was  to  be  joined  by  General  Thay¬ 
er  at  Arkadelphia  with  5000  men,  but  this  was 
1  not  then  accomplished.  Steele  pushed  on  for 
the  purpose  of  flanking  Camden  and  drawing 
out  Price  from  his  fortifications  there.  Early 
in  April,  Steele  was  joined  by  Thayer,  and  on 
the  evening  of  the  15th  they  entered  Camden  as 
victors.  Seriously  menaced  by  gathering  Con¬ 
federates,  Steele,  who,  by  the  retreat  of  Banks 
(see  Red  River  Expedition ),  had  been  released  from 
duty  elsewhere,  moved  towards  Little  Rock.  He 
crossed  the  Washita  on  the  night  of  April  26.  At 
Jeukiuson’s  Ferry,  on  the  Sabine  River,  he  wyas 
attacked  by  an  overwhelming  force  led  by  E. 
Kirby  Smith  in  persou.  Steele’s  troops,  though 
nearly  famished,  fought  desperately  during  a 
most  sanguinary  battle  that  ensued.  Three  times 
the  Confederates  charged  heavily,  and  were  re¬ 
pulsed.  The  battle  was  fought  by  infantry  alone, 
and  the  Nationals  finally  drove  their  adversaries 
and  gained  a  complete  victory.  Then  they  cross¬ 
ed  the  river  aud  moved  on  towards  Little  Rock. 
In  the  struggle  at  Jenkinson’s  Ferry  the  Confed¬ 
erates  lost  over  8000  men,  including  more  than 
300  officers.  The  Nationals  lost  700  killed  and 
wounded.  Steele’s  broken  army  reached  Little 
Rock  on  May  2. 

Jenks,  Joseph,  an  early  American  inventor, 
was  born  near  Loudon;  died  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  in 
1683.  He  came  to  America  in  1645,  and  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  been  the  first  brass -founder  on 
this  continent.  On  May  6,  1648,  he  secured  a 
patent  from  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  for  a 
water-mill  and  for  a  saw-mill.  In  1652  he  made 
the  dies,  it  is  said,  for  the  silver  coinage- — -the 
“pine-tree”  money  of  that  province.  In  1654 
he  made  a  fire-engine  for  Boston,  and  in  1655  he 
received  a  patent  for  an  improved  method  of 
manufacturing  scythes.  In  1667  he  had  an  ap¬ 
propriation  for  the  encouragement  of  wire-draw¬ 
ing. 

Jersey  Prison-ship.  (See  Prisons  and  Prison- 
ships.') 

Jesuit  Missionaries  among  the  Six  Na¬ 
tions.  There  were  twenty-four  different  Jesuit 
missionaries  among  the  Six  Nations  between 
1657  and  1769.  Their  names  and  places  of  ser¬ 
vice  are  as  follows :  Paul  Ragueneau,  at  Onon¬ 
daga,  from  July,  1657,  to  March,  1658.  Isaac 
Jogues,  prisoner  among  the  Mohawks  from  Au¬ 
gust,  1642,  to  August,  1643  ;  a  missionary  to  the 
same  nation  in  1646,  and  killed  in  October  of  the 
same  year.  Francis  Joseph  Le  Mereieiyat  On¬ 
ondaga,  from  May  17,  1656,  to  March  20,  1658. 
Francis  Duperon,  at  Onondaga,  from  1657  to  1658. 


JESUIT  MISSIONARY,  FIRST 

Simon  Le  Moyne,  at  Onondaga,  July,  1654;  with 
the  Mohawks  from  Sept.  16,  1655,  until  Nov.  9 
of  the  same  year;  then  again  in  1656,  until  Nov. 
5;  again  there  (third  time)  from  Aug.  26,  1657, 
until  May,  1658;  at  Onondaga,  from  July,  1661, 
until  September,  1662 ;  ordered  to  the  Senecas 
in  July,  1663,  but  remained  at  Montreal.  He  died 
in  Canada  in  1665.  Francis  Joseph  Bressani,  a 
prisoner  among  the  Mohawks  from  April  30  to 
Aug.  19,  1644.  Pierre  Joseph  Mary  Chaumont, 
at  Ououdaga  from  September,  1655,  until  March 
20, 1658.  Joseph  Anthony  Poncet,  was  a  prison¬ 
er  among  the  Iroquois  from  Aug.  20  to  Oct.  3, 
1652;  started  for  Ououdaga  Aug.  28,  1657,  but 
was  recalled  to  Montreal.  Ren6  M6uard  was 
with  Le  Mercier  at  Onondaga  from  1656  to  1658, 
and  afterwards  among  the  Cayugas.  Julien  Gar- 
nier,  sent  to  the  Mohawks  in  May,  1668,  passed  to 
Onondaga,  and  thence  to  the  Senecas,  and  was 
engaged  in  this  mission  until  1683.  Claude  Da- 
blon,  at  Onondaga  a  few  years  after  1655,  and 
was  afterwards  among  the  tribes  of  the  Upper 
Lakes.  Jacques  Fremin,  at  Onondaga  from  1656 
to  1658 ;  was  seut  to  the  Mohawks  in  July,  1667  ; 
left  there  for  the  Senecas  in  October,  1668,  where 
he  remained  a  few  years.  Pierre  Rafeix,  at  On¬ 
ondaga  from  1656  to  1658;  chaplain  in  Cour- 
celle’s  expedition  in  1665  ;  sent  to  the  Cayugas  in 
1671,  thence  to  Seneca,  where  he  was  in  1679. 
Jacques  Bruyas,  sent  to  the  Mohawks,  July,  1667, 
and  to  the  Oneidas  in  September,  where  he  spent 
four  years,  and  thence  returned  to  the  Mohawks 
in  1672;  was  at  Onondaga  in  1679, 1700,  and  1701. 
Etienne  de  Carkeil,  seut  to  Cayuga  in  1668,  and 
was  absent  in  1671-2;  returned,  and  remained  un¬ 
til  1684.  Pierre  Milet,  was  sent  with  De  Carheil 
to  the  Cayugas  in  1668,  and  left  in  1684  ;  was  at 
Niagara  in  1688,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Cata- 
raqua  in  1689.  Jean  Pierron,  was  sent  to  the 
Mohawks  in  July,  1667;  went  among  the  Cayn- 
gas  in  October,  1668,  and  was  with  the  Senecas 
after  1672,  where  he  was  in  1679.  Jean  de  Lam- 
berville  was  at  Onondaga  in  1671-72 ;  was  sent  to 
Niagara  in  1687.  Francis  Boniface  was  sent  to 
the  Mohawks  in  1668,  aud  was  there  after  1673. 
Francis  Vaillant  de  Gueslis  succeeded  Boniface 
among  the  Mohawks  about  1674 ;  accompanied 
the  expedition  against  the  Senecas  in  1687  ;  was 
sent  to  New'  York  in  December,  1687,  and  to  the 
Senecas  in  1703.  Pierre  de  Mareuil  was  at  Onon¬ 
daga  in  J une,  1709,  where  he  surrendered  himself 
to  the  English  in  consequence  of  war  breaking 
out  between  the  latter  and  the  French,  aud  was 
courteously  treated  at  Albany.  Jacques  d’Heu 
was  among  the  Ouondagas  in  1708,  and  the  Sene¬ 
cas  in  1709.  Anthony  Gordon,  founded  St.  Regis, 
in  1769,  with  a  colony  from  St.  Louis.  There 
were  two  “  Sulpicians  ”  as  missionaries  in  north¬ 
ern  New  York  at  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
— namely,  Francis  Piquet,  who  founded  Oswe- 
gatchie  (Ogdeusburg)  in  1748,  aud  abandoned  it 
in  1760;  he  was  succeeded  at  Oswegatohie  by 
Pierre  Paul  Francis  de  la  Garde. 

Jesuit  Missionaries  in  Arizona  and  Cali¬ 
fornia.  (See  Arizona  and  California.) 

Jesuit  Missionary,  First,  in  Ohio.  The 
northern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  were  visited 


JESUIT  MISSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA  719  JESUIT  MISSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 


by  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  some  time 
before  they  appeared  in  the  Ohio  country.  That 
•was  about  1747,  when  Father  Armaude  de  la  Ri- 
cliardie  began  a  mission  temporarily  at  Sandus¬ 
ky,  and  made  the  place  his  permanent  residence 
in  1751.  He  was  a  Jesuit  priest.  None  of  the 
Recollets  with  La  Salle  ever  visited  the  south¬ 
ern  shores  of  Lake  Erie.  It  is  possible  that  Fa¬ 
ther  Peter  Portier  may  have  made  excursions 
among  the  Huron  camps  before  him. 

Jesuit  Missions  in  North  America,  Early. 
Iu  1539,  the  Society  of  Jesus,  or  Jesuits,  was  es¬ 
tablished  by  Ignatius  Loyola.  Its  members  were, 
by  its  rules,  never  to  become  prelates.  Their 
vows  were  to  be  poor,  chaste,  and  obedient,  and 
iu  constant  readiness  to  go  on  missions  against 
heresy  and  heathenism.  Their  grand  maxim 
was,  the  widest  diffusion  of  influence,  aud  the 
closest  internal  unity.  Their  missions  soon 
spread  to  every  part  of  the  habitable  globe  then 
known.  They  planned  the  cross  in  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  and  on  the  islands  of  the  sea ; 
aud  when  Champlain  had  opened  the  way  for  the 
establishment  of  French  dominion  in  America, 
to  the  Jesuits  was  assigned  the  task  of  bearing 
the  Christian  religion  to  the  dusky  inhabitants 
in  North  America.  More  persevering  and  more 
effective  than  the  votaries  of  commerce  and 
trade,  the  Jesuits  became  the  pioneers  of  dis¬ 
covery  aud  settlements  iu  North  America.  Their 
paramount  object  was  the  conversion  of  the 
heathen  aud  an  extension  of  the  Church;  their 
secondary,  yet  powerful,  object  was  to  promote 
the  power  and  dominion  of  France  in  America. 
Within  three  years  after  the  restoration  of  Can¬ 
ada  to  the  French  ( see  Canada,  Conquest  of), 
there  were  fifteen  Jesuit  priests  in  the  province 
(1636).  The  first  most  noted  Jesuit  missionaries 
were  Brdbeuf  and  Daniel,  who  were  bold,  aggres¬ 
sive,  and  self-sacrificing  to  the  last  degree.  Then 
came  the  more  gentle  Lallemande,  who,  with 
others,  traversed  the  dark  wilderness  with  a 
party  of  Hurons  who  lived  far  to  the  westward, 
on  the  borders  of  one  of  the  Great  Lakes.  They 
suffered  incredible  hardships  and  privations — 
eating  the  coarsest  food,  sleeping  on  the  bare 
earth,  and  assisting  their  red  companions  in 
dragging  their  canoes  at  rough  portages.  On  a 
bay  of  Lake  Huron  they  erected  the  first  house 
of  the  Society  among  the  North  American  In¬ 
dians.  That  little  chapel,  which  they  called  the 
cradle  of  the  Church,  was  dedicated  to  St.  Jo¬ 
seph,  the  husband  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  They 
told  to  the  wild  children  of  the  forest  the  story 
of  the  love  of  Christ  and  his  crucifixion,  and 
awed  them  with  the  terrors  of  perdition.  For 
fifteen  years  Brdbeuf  carried  on  his  missionary 
labors  among  the  Hurons,  scourging  his  flesh 
twice  a  day  with  thongs;  wearing  an  iron  gir¬ 
dle  armed  at  all  points  with  sharp  projections, 
and  over  this  a  bristly  hair-shirt,  which  contin¬ 
ually  “mortified  the  flesh;”  fasted  frequently 
and  long;  kept  his  pious  vigils  late  into  the 
night,  and  by  penitential  acts  resisted  every 
temptation  of  the  flesh.  As  missionary  stations 
multiplied  in  the  western  wilderness,  the  cen¬ 
tral  spot  was  called  St.  Mary.  It  was  upon  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Superior  into  Lake  Huron.  There, 


in  one  year,  three  thousand  Indians  received  a 
welcome  at  the  hands  of  the  priest.  This  mis¬ 
sion  awakened  great  sympathy  in  France.  Ev¬ 
erywhere  prayers  were  uttered  for  its  protection 
aud  prosperity.  The  king  sent  magnificently 
embroidered  garments  for  the  Indian  cou verts. 
The  pope  expressed  his  approbation,  and  to  con¬ 
firm  and  strengthen  these  missions  a  college  in 
New  France  was  projected.  The  pious  young 
Marquis  de  Gaeuache,  with  the  assent  of  his  par¬ 
ents,  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  with  a 
portion  of  their  ample  fortune  he  endowed  a 
seminary  for  education  at  Quebec.  Its  founda¬ 
tion  was  laid  in  1635,  just  before  the  death  of 
Champlain.  That  college  was  founded  two  years 
before  the  first  high  seminary  of  learning  was  es¬ 
tablished  in  the  Protestant  colonies  in  America 
by  John  Harvard.  (See  Harvard  College.)  At 
the  same  time,  the  Duchess  d’Acquillon,  aided 
by  her  uucle,  Cardinal  Richelieu,  endowed  a 
public  hospital  at  Quebec,  open  to  the  afflicted, 
whether  white  or  red  men,  Christians  or  pagans. 
It  was  placed  in  charge  of  three  young  nuns,  the 
youngest  twenty -two,  and  the  oldest  twenty - 
nine  years  of  age,  who  came  from  Paris  for  the 
purpose.  (See  Ursuline  Convent.)  In  1640,  Ho- 
clielaga  (Montreal)  was  taken  possession  of  as  a 
missionary  station,  with  solemn  religious  cere¬ 
monies,  and  the  Queen  of  Angels  was  petitioned 
to  take  the  islaud  of  Montreal  under  her  pro¬ 
tection.  Within  thirteen  years  the  remote  wil¬ 
derness  was  visited  by  forty -two  Jesuit  mis¬ 
sionaries,  besides  eighteen  other  devoted  men. 
These  assembled  two  or  three  times  a  year  at 
St.  Mary’s ;  the  remainder  of  the  time  they  were 
scattered  through  the  forests  in  their  sacred 
work.  A  plan  was  conceived  in  1638  of  estab¬ 
lishing  missions  among  the  Algonquins,  not  only 
on  the  north,  but  on  the  south  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  at  Green  Bay.  The  field  of  labor  opened 
to  the  view  of  the  missionaries  a  vast  expanse 
of  wilderness,  peopled  by  many  tribes,  and  they 
prayed  earnestly  for  recruits.  Very  soon  In¬ 
dians  from  very  remote  points  appeared  at  the 
mission  stations.  The  hostilities  of  the  Five 
Nations  had  kept  the  French  from  navigating 
lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  ;  finally,  in  1640,  Brebeuf 
was  sent  to  the  Neutral  Nation  (which  see)  on 
the  Niagara  River.  The  further  penetration  of 
the  country  south  of  the  Lakes  was  then  denied, 
but  a  glimpse  of  the  marvellous  field  soon  to  be 
entered  upon  was  obtained.  In  bep  ember  and 
October,  1641,  Charles  Raymbault  and  Isaac 
Jogues  penetrated  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Mary,  in 
the  strait  that  forms  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superi¬ 
or,  where  they  heard  of  the  Sioux.  They  yearn¬ 
ed  to  penetrate  the  country  of  this  famous  peo¬ 
ple.  This  favor  was  denied  the  missionaries. 
Father  Raymbault  returned  to  Quebec  and  died, 
but  Father  Jogues  was  destined  to  endure  many 
trials  and  adventures  of  missionary  life.  On  his 
way  from  Quebec  to  the  Hurons  he  was  capt¬ 
ured  by  a  roving  band  of  Mohawks,  and  lie  who 
was  one  of  the  first  to  carry  the  cross  into  Mich¬ 
igan  was  now  the  first  to  bear  it  to  the  villages 
of  the  Five  Nations.  At  the  villages  on  the  way 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Mohawk  domain, 
Father  Jogues  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the 


JESUIT  MISSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA  720 


JOGUES 


horrors  of  running  the  gauntlet  (which  see)  ;  yet 
lie  never  repined,  but  rejoiced  in  his  tribulations, 
and  was  made  happy  by  the  couversion,  here 
and  there,  of  one  of  the  savages,  whom,  on  one 
occasion,  he  baptized  with  drops  of  dew.  As  lie 
roamed  through  the  forests  of  the  Mohawk  val¬ 
ley,  lie  carved  the  name  of  Jesus  and  the  figure 
of  a  cross  on  the  trees,  and  with  a  chant  took 
possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  Christ. 
He  was  ransomed  by  the  Dutch  at  Albany,  sailed 
for  France,  but  soon  returned  to  Canada.  An¬ 
other  missionary  (Bressari),  who  suffered  horri¬ 
bly,  was  also  ransomed  by  the  Dutch.  In  the 
summer  of  1G46  the  Jesuits  established  a  mis¬ 
sion  among  the  barbarians  of  Maine,  and  so 
French  outposts  were  established  on  the  Ken¬ 
nebec  and  the  upper  lakes  fourteen  years  after 
these  missionary  labors  were  begun.  There  was 
then  a  lull  in  hostilities  between  the  French  and 
the  Five  Nations,  and  Father  Jogues  went  to  the 
Mohawks  as  ambassador  from  Canada.  His  re¬ 
port  caused  an  effort  to  establish  a  mission 
among  them,  and  he  alone  understanding  their 
language,  was  sent,  but  lost  his  life  among  the 
Mohawks,  who  hung  his  head  upon  the  palisades 
of  a  village,  and  cast  his  body  into  the  Mohawk 
River.  In  1648,  warriors  from  the  Mohawk  val¬ 
ley  fell  upon  the  Hurons,  and  the  Jesuit  missions 
among  them  were  destroyed,  and  priests  and 
converts  were  murdered  after  horrible  tortures. 
Finally,  in  1654,  when  peace  between  the  French 
and  the  Five  Nations  had  been  restored,  Father 
Le  Moyne  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Onon- 
dagas,  when  he  was  cheered  by  the  sight  of 
many  Hurons  holding  on  to  their  faith.  Le 
Moyne  was  allowed  to  establish  a  mission  in  the 
Moh  awk  valley.  Very  soon  the  Ouondagas  re¬ 
ceived  Father  Dablon  and  his  companions  kind¬ 
ly,  and  chiefs  and  followers  gathered  around  the 
Jesuits  with  songs  of  welcome.  A  chapel  was 
built  in  a  day.  “  For  marbles  and  precious  met¬ 
als,”  Dablon  wrote,  “  we  employed  only  bark ; 
but  the  path  to  heaven  is  as  open  through  a 
roof  of  bark  as  through  arched  ceilings  of  silver 
and  gold.”  In  the  heart  of  barbarian  New  York 
the  solemn  services  of  the  Church  of  Rome  were 
held  as  securely  as  if  it  were  in  Paris.  Fifty 
French  people  settled  near  the  missionary  sta¬ 
tion,  and  very  soon  there  were  Christian  labor¬ 
ers  among  the  Cayngas  and  Oneidas.  A  change 
came.  War  was  again  kindled,  and  Jesuits  and 
settlers  were  obliged  to  flee  from  the  bosom  of 
the  Five  Nations.  After  that,  the  self-sacrificing 
Jesuits  penetrated  the  western  wilderness  to  the 
Mississippi  River,  carrying  the  cross  as  the  em¬ 
blem  of  their  religion,  and  the  lilies  of  France  as 
tokens  of  political  dominion.  In  these  labors 
they  were  assisted  by  the  votaries  of  commerce. 
Seeds  of  civilization  were  planted  here  and 
there,  until  harvests  were  beginning  to  blossom 
all  along  the  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  (See  Allonez,  Marquette,  Joliet , 
La  Salle,  Hennepin,  Tonti.)  The  discoveries  of 
these  priests  and  traders  gave  to  France  a  claim 
to  that  magnificent  domain  of  millions  of  square 
miles,  extending  from  Acadia  along  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  and  the  Lakes,  and  the  establishment  of 
French  dominion  in  Louisiana,  on  the  borders 


of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  has  been  truthfully 
said,  “  The  history  of  these  [  Jesuit  J  labors  is 
connected  with  the  origin  of  every  celebrated 
town  in  the  annals  of  French  America:  not  a 
cape  was  turned  or  a  river  entered  but  a  Jesuit 
led  the  way.” 

Jesuits  Banished  from  New  York.  The  As¬ 
sembly  of  New  York,  in  1700,  passed  an  act  re¬ 
quiring  every  “ecclesiastical  person  receiving 
his  ordination  from  the  Pope  or  See  of  Rome,” 
then  residing  in  the  province,  to  depart  from  it 
before  the  1st  of  November.  It  referred  to  them 
as  “Jesuits  and  popish  priests,”  and  charged 
them  with  inciting  the  Indians  to  make  war  on 
the  English,  and  of  seducing  them  from  their  al¬ 
legiance.  Massachusetts  passed  a  similar  law, 
and  gave  the  same  reasons  for  it. 

Jesup,  Thomas  Sidney,  was  born  in  Virginia 
in  1788;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  June  10, 1860. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1808,  and  was  Hull’s  ad¬ 
jutant-general  in  1813.  For  his  good  conduct 
at  the  battle  of  Chippewa  he  was  breveted  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel,  also  colonel  for  his  services  in 
the  battle  of  Lundy’s  Lane,  or  Niagara,  in  which 
he  was  severely  wounded.  After  the  war,  he 
was  adjutant-general  and  quartermaster-general 
of  the  United  States  Army  (1818)  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier,  and  was  breveted  major-general  in 
1828.  In  1836  he  was  in  command  of  the  army 
in  the  Creek  nation,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year 
he  commanded  the  army  in  Florida.  He  was 
\Vouuded  by  the  Seminoles  in  January,  1838. 

Jews  Disfranchised.  In  1738,  William  Smith, 
the  defender  of  Zenger  when  tried  for  libel  (see 
Zenger'n  Trial),  and  an  earnest  advocate  of  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  practically  denied  the  free¬ 
dom  of  conscience  by  obtaining  the  passage  of 
a  law  by  the  Legislature  of  New  York  disfran¬ 
chising  the  Jews.  A  few  had  settled  in  New 
Amsterdam,  under  the  liberal  rule  of  the  Dutch. 
In  1733,  among  emigrants  who  went  to  the  new 
colony  of  Georgia  were  forty  Jews.  Fearing  to 
alarm  the  bigotry  of  the  English  public,  on 
whose  bounty  the  trustees  depended  (see  G<w- 
gia,  Colony  of),  they  disclaimed  any  intention 
of  making  it  a  “Jews’  colony,”  and  gave  ex¬ 
press  orders  to  Oglethorpe  not  to  give  them  any 
encouragement.  The  Jews  remained  quietly, 
built  a  synagogue,  and  gave  many  good  citizens 
to  Georgia,  but  they  were  there  disfranchised 
during  the  colonial  period. 

Jogues,  Isaac,  a  French  missionary,  was  born 
at  Orleans,  Jan.  10,  1607  ;  killed  at  Canghna- 
waga,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  18, 1646.  He  became  a  Jesuit 
at  Rouen  in  1624  ;  was  ordained  in  1636 ;  and,  at 
his  own  request,  was  immediately  sent  to  Can¬ 
ada.  He  was  a  most  earnest  missionary  among 
the  Indians  on  both  sides  of  the  Lakes.  Caught, 
tortured,  and  made  a  slave  by  the  Mohawks,  he 
remained  with  them  until  1643,  when  he  escaped 
to  Albany,  and  was  taken  to  Manhattan.  Re¬ 
turning  to  Europe,  he  was  shipwrecked  on  the 
English  coast.  He  returned  to  Canada  in  1646, 
where  he  concluded  a  treaty  between  the  French 
and  the  Mohawks.  Visiting  Lake  George,  he 
named  it  St.  Sacrament,  and,  descending  the 
Hudson  River  to  Albany,  he  went  among  the 


721 


JOHN  BROWN’S  RAID 


JOHN  ADAMS,  CRUISE  OF  THE 

Mohawks  as  a  missionary,  who  seized  him  and 
put  him  to  death  as  a  sorcerer. 

John  Adams,  Cruise  of  the.  The  naval 
operations  on  the  sea  in  1814,  though  not  so  im¬ 
portant  as  in  the  two  preceding  years  in  some 
respects,  yet  fully  sustained  the  character  of 
the  American  war- marine.  The  John  Adams 
frigate  had  been  cut  down  to  a  corvette  of  28 
guns  in  1813,  and  was  the  first  that  figured  after 
the  opening  of  1814.  She  started  on  a  cruise 
from  Washington  in  January,  and  on  the  night 
of  the  18th  passed  the  British  blockading  squad¬ 
ron  in  Lynn  Haven  Bay,  put  to  sea,  and  ran  to 
the  northeast  to  cross  the  track  of  the  West  In¬ 
dia  merchantmen.  She  made  a  few  prizes,  and 
on  March  25  she  captured  the  Indiaman  Wood- 
bridge.  While  taking  possession  of  her,  the  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Adams  (Captain  Charles  Morris) 
observed  twenty-five  merchant-vessels,  with  two 
ships  of  war,  bearing  down  upon  her  with  a  fair 
wind.  Morris  abandoned  bis  prize,  and  gave  the 
Adams  wings  for  flight  from  danger.  In  April 
she  entered  the  harbor  of  Savannah  for  supplies, 
and  on  May  5  sailed  for  the  Manilla  Reef,  to 
watch  for  the  Jamaica  convoy,  but  the  fleet 
passed  her  in  the  night.  She  gave  chase  in  the 
morning,  but  was  kept  at  bay  by  two  vessels 
of  war.  She  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  on  July 
3  was  off  the  Irish  coast,  where  she  was  chased 
by  British  vessels,  but  always  escaped.  For 
nearly  two  months  the  weather  was  foggy,  cold, 
and  damp,  because  the  ocean  was  dotted  with 
icebergs.  Her  crew  sickened,  and  Captain  Mor¬ 
ris  determined  to  go  into  port.  He  entered  Pe¬ 
nobscot  Bay,  and  was  nearly  disabled  by  striking 
a  rock  (Aug,  17, 1814),  and  made  his  way  up  the 
Penobscot  River  to  Hampden.  British  vessels 
followed,  and  to  prevent  her  falling  into  the 
hands  of  his  enemy,  Morris  burned  her.  (See 
Hampden,  British  at.) 

John  Brown’s  Raid.  There  seemed  to  be  a 
peculiar  serenity  and  calmness  in  the  public 
mind  about  public  affairs  in  the  fall  of  1859. 
The  discussions  about  slavery  had  almost  ceased, 
the  Mormons  were  quiet,  difficulties  with  Para¬ 
guay,  S.  A.,  had  been  amicably  settled,  troubles 
with  the  Indians  on  the  Pacific  coast  were  draw¬ 
ing  to  a  close,  and  the  operations  of  Walker  in 
Nicaragua  were  losing  much  of  their  interest. 
It  was  only  the  calm  that  precedes  a  tempest. 
Suddenly  as  a  peal  of  thunder  in  the  genial  air 
of  October,  a  rumor  went  out  of  Baltimore  that 
the  Abolitionists  had  seized  the  government  ar¬ 
mory  and  arsenal  at  Harper’s  Ferry,  at  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  Shenandoah  and  Potomac  rivers,  and 
that  a  general  insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  was  imminent.  The  rumor  was  mostly  true. 
John  Brown,  an  enthusiast,  fanatical  and  brave, 
who  had  fought  pro-slavery  men  in  Kansas,  and 
was  known  as  “  Ossawattainie  Brown,”  then  in 
the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age,  had  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  Abolitionists  (those  who  advo¬ 
cated  the  abolition  of  slavery)  in  early  life,  and, 
filled  with  zeal  for  the  cause,  had  suddenly  ap¬ 
peared  at  Harper’s  Ferry  with  a  few  foiiowers, 
to  induce  the  slaves  of  Virginia  to  rise  in  in¬ 
surrection  and  assert  their  right  to  freedom. 

I.— 46 


He  had  come  to  believe  himself  to  be  the  des¬ 
tined  liberator  of  the  slaves  in  the  Republic. 
With  a  few  white  followers  and  twelve  slaves 
from  Missouri,  he  went  into  Canada  West,  and 
at  Chatham  a  convention  of  sympathizers  was 
held  in  May,  1859,  whereat  a  “  Provisional  Con¬ 
stitution  and  Ordinances  for  the  People  of  the 
United  States”  was  adopted  —  not,  as  the  in¬ 
strument  declared,  “for  the  overthrow  of  any 
government,  but  simply  to  amend  and  repeal.” 
It  was  a  part  of  the  scheme  for  promoting  the 
uprising  of  the  slaves.  Brown  spent  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1859  in  preparations  for  his  work.  He 
hired  a  farm  a  few  miles  from  Harper’s  Ferry, 
where  he  was  knowu  by  the  name  of  Smith. 
One  by  one  his  followers  joined  him  there,  and 
stealthily  gathered  pikes  and  other  weapons, 
with  ammunition,  for  the  purpose  of  first  arm¬ 
ing  the  insurgent  slaves  of  Virginia.  On  a  very 
dark  night,  Brown,  with  seventeen  white  men 
and  five  negroes,  stole  into  the  village  of  Har¬ 
per’s  Ferry,  put  out  the  street-lights,  seized  the 
government  armory  and  the  railway -bridge 
there,  and  quietly  arrested  and  imprisoned  in 
the  government  buildings  every  citizen  found 
in  the  street  at  the  earlier  hours  of  the  next 
morniug,  each  one  ignorant  of  what  else  had 
happened.  These  invaders  had  seized  Colonel 
Washington,  living  a  few  miles  from  the  Ferry, 
with  his  arms  and  horses,  and  liberated  his 
slaves ;  and  at  eight  o’clock  on  Monday  morn¬ 
ing,  Oct.  17,  Brown  and  his  followers  (among 
whom  were  two  of  his  sons)  had  full  possession 
of  the  village  and  the  government  works.  He 
had  felt  assured  that  when  the  first  blow  should 
be  struck  the  negroes  of  the  surrounding  coun¬ 
try  would  rise  and  flock  to  his  standard,  that 
a  general  uprising  of  the  slaves  throughout  the 
Union  would  follow,  and  that  he  would  win  the 
satisfaction  and  the  honors  of  a  great  liberator. 
When  asked  what  was  his  purpose,  and  by  what 
authority  he  acted,  he  replied,  “To  free  the 
slaves ;  and  by  the  authority  of  God  Almighty.” 
News  of  this  affair  went  swiftly  abroad,  and  be¬ 
fore  night  a  large  number  of  Virginia  militia 
had  gathered  at  Harper’s  Ferry.  Struggles  be¬ 
tween  these  and  Brown’s  followers  ensued,  in 
which  the  two  sons  of  the  former  perished.  The 
invaders  were  finally  driven  into  a  fire-engine 
house,  where  Brown  bravely  defended  himself. 
With  one  son  dead  by  his  side  and  the  other 
shot  through  the  body,  he  felt  the  pulse  of  his 
dying  child  with  one  hand,  held  his  rifle  with 
the  other,  and  issued  oral  commands  to  his  men 
with  all  the  composure  of  a  general  in  his  mar¬ 
quee,  telling  them  to  be  firm,  and  sell  their  lives 
as  dearly  as  possible.  They  held  their  citadel 
until  Monday  evening,  when  Colonel  Robert  E. 
Lee  arrived  with  ninety  United  States  marines 
and  two  pieces  of  artillery.  The  doors  of  the 
engine-house  were  forced  open,  and  Brown  and 
his  followers  were  captured.  The  bold  leader 
was  speedily  tried  for  murder  and  treason,  was 
found  guilty  (Oct.  29),  and  on  Dec.  3,  1859,  was 
hanged.  Meanwhile  the  wildest  tales  of  the 
raid  had  gone  over  the  land.  The  governor  of 
Virginia  (Henry  A.  Wise)  was  almost  crazy  with 
excitement,  and  declared  himself  ready  to  make 


JOHN  PAUL  JONES 


722 


JOHNSON 


war  on  all  the  free-labor  states ;  and  he  declared, 
in  a  letter  to  the  President  (Nov.  25),  that  he  had 
authority  for  the  belief  that  a  conspiracy  to  res¬ 
cue  Brown  existed  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  and  other  states.  Attempts  were  made 
to  implicate  leading  Republicans  in  a  scheme 
for  liberating  the  slaves.  A  committee  of  the 
United  States  Senate,  with  James  M.  Mason,  au¬ 
thor  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850,  as  its 
chairman,  was  appointed  to  investigate  the  sub¬ 
ject.  The  result  was  the  obtaining  of  positive 
proof  that  Brown  had  no  accomplices,  and  only 
about  twenty-five  followers.  Although  Brown’s 
mad  attempt  to  free  the  slaves  was  a  total  fail¬ 
ure,  it  proved  to  be  one  of  the  important  events 
which  speedily  brought  about  the  result  he  so 
much  desired. 

John  Paul  Jones  and  the  Earl  of  Selkirk. 

In  1779,  while  Jones  was  cruising  up  and  down 
the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  between  the  Solway 
and  the  Clyde,  he  tried  to  capture  the  Earl  of 
Selkirk,  in  order  to  secure  a  notable  prisoner 
for  exchange.  He  had  been  an  early  friend  of 
Jones’s  father.  His  seat  was  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Dee;  and  there,  in  his  boyhood,  our  hero 
had  gambolled  under  the  shadow  of  its  majestic 
oaks.  He  anchored  his  vessel  (the  Ranger )  in 
the  Solway  at  noon,  and  with  a  few  men,  in  a 
single  boat,  he  went  to  a  wooded  promontory  on 
which  the  earl’s  tine  estate  lay,  where  he  learned 
that  his  lordship  was  not  at  home.  Disappoint¬ 
ed,  he  ordered  his  men  back  to  the  boat,  when 
his  lieutenant,  a  large  and  fiery  man,  proposed 
to  go  to  the  mansion  and  plunder  it  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  plate.  Jones  would  not  listen  to  the  propo¬ 
sition,  for  the  memory  of  old  associations  made 
his  heart  tender  towards  Lady  Selkirk,  who  had 
been  very  kind  to  him.  Again  he  ordered  his 
men  back,  but  they  and  the  lieutenant,  eager 
for  prize-money,  in  defiance  of  his  expostulations, 
went  to  the  house  and  demanded  the  plate.  The 
frightened  Lady  Selkirk  surrendered  it  with  her 
own  hands.  When  the  prizes  of  the  Ranger  were 
sold,  Jones  bought  this  plate,  and  sent  it  back 
to  Lady  Selkirk  with  a  letter  in  which  he  ex¬ 
pressed  his  regret  because  of  the  annoyance  she 
had  suffered. 

John  the  Painter.  While  Silas  Deane,  com¬ 
missioner  of  the  Continental  Congress,  was  in 
Paris  (1777),  a  stranger,  advanced  in  years,  called 
upon  him  one  day,  and  requested  a  strictly  pri¬ 
vate  interview.  It  was  granted,  when  the  stran¬ 
ger  told  Deane  that  he  was  a  native  of  Scotland, 
but  was  an  American  citizen,  and  had  lived  at 
Amboy,  in  New  Jersey,  where  he  had  a  comfort¬ 
able  house.  The  British  troops  stationed  there, 
suspecting  him  of  being  a  Whig,  had  greatly 
abused  him,  and  finally  burned  his  house  to 
ashes.  He  told  Deane  he  had  resolved  on  re¬ 
venge;  that  he  had  determined  to  kill  King 
George,  and  had  come  to  Europe  for  the  pur¬ 
pose.  He  had  been  to  England,  had  laid  his 
plans,  and  was  ready  to  execute  them.  He 
thought  it  right  to  acquaint  Deane,  the  United 
States  minister,  with  his  scheme.  He  said  he 
passed  by  the  name  of  “John  the  Painter.”  Mr. 
Deane  opposed  the  assassination  of  the  king  as 


cowardly  and  unjust.  He  was  innocent  of  wrong 
in  the  matter.  If  he  must  have  revenge,  he 
should  take  it  in  a  manly,  generous  way ;  he 
should  go  into  the  American  army,  and  meet 
his  enemy  as  a  soldier,  and  not  as  a  vulgar  as¬ 
sassin  ;  and  if  he  could  so  meet  King  George,  at 
the  head  of  his  army,  he  could  kill  him  witli 
propriety.  It  would  be  lawful  to  so  kill  his 
geuerals.  The  man  was  finally  persuaded  by 
Deane  to  abandon  his  regicidal  plan,  and  left. 
He  soon  returned,  thanked  Deane  for  persuading 
him  not  to  lay  violent  hands  on  “  the  Lord’s 
Anointed,”  and  said  he  was  determined  to  seek 
revenge  by  burning  the  naval  stores  at  Ports¬ 
mouth,  England.  Deane  said  that  would  tend 
to  weaken  the  enemy  in  carrying  on  the  war, 
and  was  legitimate  business.  He  was  aston¬ 
ished  at  the  wisdom  of  the  man’s  plans.  He 
warned  him,  however,  that  if  he  should  be 
caught  his  life  would  pay  the  penalty  of  his 
crime.  “I  am  an  old  man,”  said  “John  the 
Painter,”  “  and  it  matters  little  whether  I  die 
now  or  five  years  hence.”  He  borrowed  a  guinea 
from  Deane,  and  crossed  the  channel.  At  Ports¬ 
mouth  he  took  lodgings  at  the  house  of  a  very 
poor  woman  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  While 
he  was  absent,  she  had  the  curiosity  to  examine 
a  bundle  which  he  had  brought  with  him.  It 
contained  some  clothing  and  a  tin  box,  with 
some  sort  of  a  machine  inside.  John  wanted  a 
top  to  it,  and  had  one  made  by  a  tinman.  The 
same  evening  the  naval  storehouses  were  fired 
by  this  “  infernal  machine,”  and  .$500,000  worth 
of  property  was  destroyed.  Strict  search  was 
made  for  the  incendiary  in  the  morning  at  ev¬ 
ery  house  in  the  town.  The  old  woman  told 
them  of  John  the  Painter  and  his  mysterious 
tin  box.  The  tinman  reported  making  a  top  for 
if.  John  was  fixed  upon  as  the  incendiary. 
Not  doubting  he  had  been  sent  by  the  enemy 
for  the  purpose,  and  that  relays  of  horses  had 
been  furnished  for  his  escape,  horsemen  were 
sent  out  on  every  road,  with  orders  to  pursue 
any  person  they  should  find  riding  very  fast. 
John,  meanwhile,  was  trudging  on  foot  towards 
London.  Men  came  up  to  him  and  asked  him 
if  he  had  seen  any  person  riding  post-haste. 
“Why  do  you  inquire?”  asked  John.  He  was 
properly  answered,  when  John  told  the  pursuers 
they  were  mistaken,  for  he — “  John  the  Paint¬ 
er” —  was  the  incendiary,  and  gave  them  his 
reasons  for  the  act.  They  took  him  back  to 
Portsmouth,  where  he  was  recognized  by  the 
old  woman  and  the  tinman.  He  candidly  told 
them  that  he  should  certainly  have  killed  the 
king  had  not  Mr.  Deane  dissuaded  him,  and  that 
he  was  revenged,  and  was  ready  to  die.  He  was 
tried,  condemned,  and  hung.  A  false  and  un¬ 
fair  account  of  his  trial  was  published,  and  no 
mention  was  made  of  Mr.  Deane’s  having  saved 
the  life  of  the  king.  The  Gentleman's  Magazine 
for  1777  contains  the  English  account  of  the 
affair,  with  a  portrait.  The  above  is  compiled 
from  manuscript  notes  made  from  the  lips  of 
Deane  by  Elias  Boudinot. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  LL.D.,  seventeenth  Pres¬ 
ident  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Raleigh, 
N.  C.,  Dec.  29, 1808.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a 


JOHNSON 


723 


JOHNSON 


tailor,  and  taught  himself  to  read.  After  work¬ 
ing  as  a  journeyman  in  South  Carolina,  he  went 
to  Greenville,  Tenn.,  taking  with  him  his  moth¬ 
er,  who  was  dependent  on  him.  There  he  worked 


ANDREW  JOHNSON. 


at  his  trade,  married,  and  was  taught  by  his 
wife  how  to  write  ;  became  alderman  aud  may¬ 
or,  a  member  of  the  Legislature  (1832-33  and 
1839),  presidential  elector  (1840),  state  senator 
in  1841,  and  member  of  Congress  from  1843  to 
1853.  From  1853  to  1857  he  was  governor  of 
Tennessee,  and  United  States  Senator  from  1857 
to  1863.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  military  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Tennessee,  and  in  1864  was  elected  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  succeeded 
Mr.  Lincoln  as  President  in  1865 ;  kept  up  a  con¬ 
tinual  warfare  with  Congress ;  was  impeached, 
but  acquitted,  in  1868,  and  retired  from  office  in 
1869.  He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the 
University  of  North  Carolina  in  1866,  and  died 
in  Carter  County,  Tenn.,  July  31, 1875. 

Johnson,  Fort,  Destruction  of.  On  the 
Cape  Fear  River,  not  far  from  Wilmington,  was 
a  fortification  called  Fort  Johnson.  To  it  the 
royal  governor  (Joseph  Martin)  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina  fled  (June  14,  1775)  when  the  indignant 
people  began  to  rise  in  rebellion  against  royal 
rule.  From  that  stronghold  he  sent  forth  a 
menacing  proclamation,  and  soon  afterwards 
preparations  for  a  servile  insurrection  were  dis¬ 
covered.  The  rumor  went  abroad  that  Martin 
had  incited  the  slaves.  The  exasperated  people 
determined  to  drive  him  from  the  fort  and  demol¬ 
ish  it.  A  body  of  five  hundred  men,  led  by  John 
Ashe  and  Cornelius  Harnett,  marched  to  the  fort. 
Martin  had  fled  on  board  a  British  vessel  of  war 
in  the  river.  The  munitions  of  war  had  all  been 
removed  on  board  of  a  transport,  and  the  gar¬ 
rison  also  had  fled.  The  people  burned  the  bar¬ 
racks  and  demolished  the  walls. 

Johnson,  Guy,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1740; 
died  in  London,  March  5,  1788.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Sir  William  Johnson,  and  in  1774 
succeeded  him  as  Indian  Agent.  He  served 
against  the  French  from  1757  to  1760.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  fled  to  Canada, 
and  theuce  went  with  the  British  troops  who 
took  possession  of  New  York  city  in  September, 


1776 ;  he  remained  there  some  time,  and  became 
manager  of  a  theatre.  He  joined  Brant,  aud 
participated  in  some  of  the  bloody  outrages 
in  the  Mohawk  valley.  In  1779  he  fought  with 
the  Indians  against  Sullivan.  (See  Sullivan’s 
Campaign.)  His  estates  were  confiscated. 

Johnson,  Reverdy,  a  distinguished  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  May  21,  1796  ;  died 
there,  Feb.  10,  1876.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1815.  After  serving  two  terms  in  his 
State  Senate,  he  was  United  States  Senator  from 
1845  to  1849,  when  he  became  United  States  At¬ 
torney-general  under  President  Taylor.  Mr. 
Johnson  was  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Conven¬ 
tion  (which  see) ;  United  States  Senator  from 
1863  to  1868 ;  and  minister  to  Great  Britain  in 
1868-69,  negotiating  a  treaty  which  was  rejected 
by  the  United  States  Senate. 

Johnson,  Richard  Mentor,  was  born  at  Bry¬ 
ant’s  Station,  Ky.,  Oct.  17,  1781 ;  died  at  Frank¬ 
fort,  Ky.,  Nov.  19, 1850.  He  graduated  at  Tran¬ 
sylvania  University,  became  a  lawyer  and  state 
legislator,  and  raised  a  regiment  of  cavalry  in 
1812.  With  them  he  served  under  Harrison,  and 
was  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames  in  1813,  where 
he  was  dangerously  wounded.  From  1807  to 
1819  and  1829  to  1837  he  was  a  member  of  Con¬ 
gress.  He  was  United  States  Senator  from  1819 
to  1829,  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States 
from  1837  to  1841. 

Johnson,  Richard  W.,  was  born  in  Living¬ 
ston  County,  Ky.,  Feb.  7,  1827,  and  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1849.  He  was  a  captain  of 
cavalry  in  the  Civil  War  until  August,  1861, 
when  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  Ken¬ 
tucky  cavalry  regiment.  In  October  he  was 
made  a  brigadier,  and  served  under  Buell.  In 
the  summer  of  1862  he  commanded  a  division 
of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  and  afterwards 
had  the  same  command  in  the  Army  of  the  Cum¬ 
berland.  In  the  battles  at  Stone  River  and  near 
Chickamauga,  and  in  the  Atlanta  campaign  he 
was  a  most  useful  officer.  He  was  severely 
wounded  at  New  Hope  Church,  aud  command¬ 
ed  a  division  of  cavalry  in  the  battle  of  Nash¬ 
ville,  in  December,  1864.  He  was  breveted  ma¬ 
jor-general  in  the  United  States  Army  for  “gal¬ 
lant  services  during  the  war,”  aud  retired  with 
full  rank  in  October,  1867. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Dun¬ 
dee,  Scotland,  Dec.  15,  1733;  died  near  Eden- 
ton,  N.  C.,  Aug.  18,  1816.  He  was  brought  to 
North  Carolina  by  his  father  when  he  was  three 
years  of  age,  and  was  in  civil  office  there  under 
the  crown  until  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
patriots.  In  1773  he  was  one  of  the  North  Car¬ 
olina  Committee  of  Correspondence  and  an  ac¬ 
tive  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  Provincial  Council  in  1775, 
and  during  1781-82  was  in  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress.  In  1788  he  was  governor  of  the  state, 
and  presided  over  the  convention  that  adopted 
the  national  Constitution.  From  1789  to  1793 
he  was  United  States  Senator,  and  from  1800  to 
1803  was  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

Johnson,  Sir  John,  sou  of  Sir  William,  was 


JOHNSON 


724  JOHNSONS,  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE 


born  in  1742;  died  in  Montreal,  Jan.  4,  1830. 
He  was  a  stanch  loyalist,  and  in  1776  the  Whigs 
tried  to  get  possession  of  his  person.  He  fled  to 
Canada  with  about  seven  hundred  followers, 
where  he  was  commissioned  a  colonel,  and  raised 
a  corps  chiefly  among  the  loyalists  of  New  York, 
known  as  the  Royal  Greens.  He  was  among 
the  most  active  and  bitter  foes  of  the  patriots. 
While  investing  Fort  Stanwix  (or  Schuyler),  in 
1777,  he  defeated  General  Herkimer  at  Oris- 
kany  (which  see),  but  was  defeated  himself  by 
General  Van  Rensselaer  in  1780.  After  the  war 
Sir  John  went  to  England,  but  returned  to  Can¬ 
ada,  where  he  resided  as  Superintendent  of  In¬ 
dian  Affairs  until  his  death.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  John  Watts,  a  New  York  loyalist. 

Johnson,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Calvert  Coun¬ 
ty,  Md.,  in  1732 ;  died  at  Rose  Hill,  near  Fred- 
erickton,  Oct.  26, 1819.  He  was  an  eminent  law¬ 
yer,  and  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Second 
Continental  Congress  in  1775.  He  had  the  hon¬ 
or  of  nominating  George  Washington  for  the 
position  of  commander-in-chief  of  the  Conti¬ 
nental  armies.  He  was  chosen  governor  of  the 
new  State  of  Maryland  in  1777,  and  was  Asso¬ 
ciate-justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  from  1791  to  1793,  when  he  resigned.  He 
was  offered  the  position  of  Chief-justice  of  the 
District  of  Columbia  in  1801,  but  declined  it. 

Johnson,  William,  born  in  Meath  County,  Ire¬ 
land,  in  1715;  died  near  Johnstown,  N.  Y.,  July 
11, 1774.  He  was  educated  for  a  merchant,  hut 
an  unfortunate  love  affair  changed  the  tenor  of 
his  life.  He  came  to  America  in  1738  to  take 


WILLIAM  JOHNSON. 


charge  of  landed  property  of  his  uncle,  Admiral 
Sir  Peter  Warren,  in  the  region  of  the  Mohawk 
valley,  and  seated  himself  there,  about  twenty- 
four  miles  west  of  Schenectady,  engaging  in  the 
Indian  trade.  Dealing  honestly  with  the  Indians 
and  learning  their  language,  he  became  a  great 
favorite  with  them.  He  conformed  to  their  man¬ 
ners,  and,  in  time,  took  Mary,  a  sister  of  Brant, 
the  famous  Mohawk  chief,  to  his  home  as  his 
wife.  When  the  French  and  Indian  War  broke 
out  Johnson  was  made  sole  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs,  and  his  great  influence  kept  the 
Six  Nations  steadily  from  any  favoring  of  the 


French.  He  kept  the  frontier  from  injury  un¬ 
til  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748).  In  1750 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Council.  He 
withdrew  from  his  position  of  Superintendent 
of  Indian  Affairs  in  1753,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  at  Albany  in  1754.  He  also  at¬ 
tended  grand  councils  of  the  Indians,  and  was 
adopted  into  the  Mohawk  tribe  and  made  a 
sachem.  At  the  council  of  governors,  convened 
by  Braddock  at  Alexandria  in  1755,  Johnson  was 
appointed  “  sole  superintendent  of  the  Six  Na¬ 
tions,”  created  a  major-general,  and  led  an  ex¬ 
pedition  intended  for  the  capture  of  Crown 
Point.  (See  Croivn  Point ,  Expedition  against.) 
The  following  year  he  was  knighted,  and  the 
king  gave  him  the  appointment  of  Superinten¬ 
dent  of  Indian  Affairs  in  the  North ;  he  was  also 
made  a  colonial  agent.  He  continued  in  the  mil¬ 
itary  service  during  the  remainder  of  the  war, 
and  was  rewarded  by  his  king  with  the  gift  of 
one  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land  north  of  the 
Mohawk  River,  which  was  known  as  “  Kings- 
land,”  or  the  “  Royal  Grant.”  Johnson  first  in¬ 
troduced  sheep  and  blooded  horses  into  the  Mo¬ 
hawk  valley.  Sir  William  Johnson  married  a 
German  girl,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  and  two 
daughters;  also  eight  children  by  Mary  (or 
Mollie)  Brant,  who  lived  with  him  until  his 
death.  Sir  William  lived  in  baronial  style  and 
exercised  great  hospitality. 

Johnson,  William  Samuel,  LL.D.,  D.C.L., 
F.R.S.,  was  born  in  Stratford  County,  Conn., 
Oct.  7,  1727  ;  died  Nov.  14,  1819.  He  grad¬ 
uated  at  Yale  College  in  1744;  became  a  law¬ 
yer,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  eloquence. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  “  Stamp  Act  Con¬ 
gress”  (which  see),  and  for  five  years  (from 
1766  to  1771)  he  was  agent  for  Connecticut  in 
England.  He  corresponded  with  the  eminent 
Dr.  Johnson  several  years.  He  was  a  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Connecticut  and  a  com¬ 
missioner  for  adjusting  the  controversy  be¬ 
tween  the  proprietors  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Susquehanna  Company.  Judge  Johnson  was  in 
Congress  (1784  to  1787),  and  was  also  a  member 
of  the  convention  that  framed  the  national 
Constitution,  in  which  he  was  the  first  to  pro¬ 
pose  the  organization  of  the  Senate  as  a  distinct 
branch  of  the  national  Legislature.  He  was 
United  States  Senator  from  1789  to  1791,  and, 
with  his  colleague,  Oliver  Ellsworth,  drew  up 
the  bill  for  establishing  the  judiciary  system  of 
the  United  States.  He  was  President  of  Colum¬ 
bia  College  from  1787  to  1800. 

Johnsons,  The  Influence  of  the,  in  the  Mo¬ 
hawk  region,  gave  the  Whigs  much  annoyance, 
and  finally  became  a  scourge.  Sir  William  died 
just  as  the  war  for  independence  was  kindling, 
and  his  mantle  of  partisanship  against  the  Re¬ 
publicans  was  worn  by  his  son  and  successor, 
Sir  John  Johnson.  Equally  strong  in  his  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  Whigs  was  a  son-in-law  of  Sir 
William,  Guy  Johnson,  who  succeeded  him  as 
Superintendent  of  Indian  Affairs,  having  been 
long  his  deputy.  Guy  had  such  influence  over 
the  Indians,  that,  in  July,  1775,  a  large  body  of 
the  Mohawks,  notwithstanding  their  solemn 


JOHNSTON 


725 


JOHNSTON 


promise  of  neutrality,  followed  him  to  Montre¬ 
al,  and,  in  the  presence  of  Governor  Carleton, 
pledged  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  crown,  and 
took  up  the  hatchet  against  the  Republicans.  Sir 
John  Johnson  had  many  retainers  on  his  domain, 
who  were  Scotch  Highlanders,  and  were  all 
Tories.  Suspected  of  disaffection  to  the  patriot 
cause,  General  Schuyler  had  watched  him  closely 
and  taken  his  word  of  honor  to  refrain  from  hos¬ 
tilities.  Satisfied  that  he  would  not  be  faithful, 
Schuyler  required  him  to  give  his  parole  (Jan¬ 
uary,  1776)  to  that  effect.  This  sat  so  lightly 
that,  in  May,  Schuyler  sent  a  force  under  Colo¬ 
nel  Elias  Dayton  to  arrest  him.  The  baronet 
retired  to  the  forests  between  the  Mohawk  and 
the  Sacaudaga,  with  his  Tory  retainers,  and 
soon  afterwards  they  made  their  way  to  Canada. 
In  wretched  plight,  after  great  suffering  in  the 
wilderness,  they  reached  the  St.  Lawrence,  some 
distance  above  Montreal,  when  Sir  John  was 
commissioned  a  colonel  in  the  British  service. 
He  raised  two  battalions,  including  one  thou¬ 
sand  men  composed  of  his  Highlanders  and 
other  Tories,  and  named  his  corps  “The  Royal 
Greens.”  With  these  and  Indian  followers,  Sir 
John  carried  ou  a  distressing  partisan  warfare, 
mostly  in  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sidney,  was  born  in  Ma¬ 
son  County,  Ky.,  in  1803 ;  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Shiloh  (which  see),  April  6, 1862.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1826;  served  in  the  Black 
Hawk  War,  and  resigned  in  1834.  He  entered 
the  Texan  army  as  a  private  in  1836  and  was 
soon  made  a  brigadier,  and  in  1838  became  corn- 
man  der-in-chief  of  the  army  and  Secretary  of 
War.  He  retired  to  private  life  in  Texas.  He 
served  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  became  pay¬ 
master  in  the  United  States  Army  in  1849.  In 
1860-61  he  commanded  the  Pacific  Department, 
and,  sympathizing  with  the  Secessionists,  he 
was  superseded  by  General  Sumner  and  entered 
the  Confederate  service,  in  command  of  the  Di¬ 
vision  of  the  West.  At  his  death,  in  the  battle 
of  Shiloh,  General  Beauregard  succeeded  him. 

Johnson,  Bushrod  R.,  was  born  in  Ohio,  Sept. 
6,  1817,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840. 
He  served  in  the  Florida  and  Mexican  wars,  and 
was  professor  of  mathematics  in  military  acad¬ 
emies  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  He  joined 
the  Confederate  army  in  1861,  and  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  early  in  1862;  was  captured 
at  Fort  Donelson  (which  see),  but  soon  after¬ 
wards  escaped ;  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of 
Shiloh,  and  was  made  major-general  in  1864. 
He  was  in  command  of  a  division  in  Lee’s  army 
that  surrendered  at  Appomattox  Court-house. 

Johnston,  General  J.  E.,  Surrender  of. 
With  the  surrender  of  Lee  (which  see),  the 
Civil  War  was  virtually  ended.  Although  he 
was  general-in-chief,  his  capitulation  included 
only  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia.  That  of 
Johnston,  in  North  Carolina,  and  smaller  bodies, 
were  yet  in  the  field.  When  Sherman,  who  con¬ 
fronted  Johnston,  heard  of  the  victory  at  the 
Five  Forks  (which  see)  and  the  evacuation  of 
Petersburg  and  Richmond,  he  moved  on  Johns¬ 
ton  (April  10, 1865)  with  his  whole  army.  The 


latter  was  at  Smithfield,  ou  the  Neuse  River, 
with  full  thirty  thousand  men.  Jefferson  Da¬ 
vis  and  the  Confederate  cabinet  were  then  at 
Danville,  on  the  southern  border  of  Virginia, 
playing  “Government,”  and  had  just  proposed 
to  Johnston  a  plan  whereby  they  might  secure 
their  own  personal  safety  and  the  treasures 
they  had  brought  with  them  from  Richmond. 
It  was  to  disperse  his  army,  excepting  two  or 
three  batteries  of  artillery,  the  cavalry,  and  as 
many  infantry  as  he  could  mount,  with  which  he 
should  form  a  guard  for  the  “  Government,”  and 
strike  for  the  Mississippi  and  beyond,  with  Mex¬ 
ico  as  their  final  objective.  Johnston  spurned 
the  proposition,  and,  deprecating  the  bad  exam¬ 
ple  of  Lee  in  continuing  what  he  knew  to  be  a 
hopeless  war,  had  the  moral  courage  to  do  his 
duty  according  to  the  dictates  of  his  conscience 
and  his  nice  sense  of  honor.  He  refused  to  fight 
any  more,  or  to  basely  desert  his  army  far  away 
from  their  homes,  as  the  “  Government  ”  pro¬ 
posed,  and  stated  frankly  to  the  people  of 
North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Flori¬ 
da,  included  within  his  military  department, 
that  “  war  could  not  be  longer  continued  by 
them  except  as  robbers,”  and  that  he  should  take 
measures  to  stop  it  and  save  the  army  and  peo¬ 
ple  from  further  evil,  and  “avoid  the  crime  of 
waging  a  hopeless  war.”  Sherman  was  push¬ 
ing  Johnston  with  great  vigor,  when  the  former 
received  a  note  from  the  latter  (April  14,  1865), 
asking  if  a  temporary  suspension  of  active  hos¬ 
tilities  might  be  arranged  to  allow  the  “  civil 
authorities  to  enter  into  the  needful  arrange¬ 
ments  to  terminate  the  existing  war.”  Sherman 
promptly  replied  that  he  would  do  so,  and  was 
willing  to  hold  a  conference.  He  said  that,  as 
a  basis  of  action,  he  would  undertake  to  abide 
by  the  terms  made  by  Grant  and  Lee  at  Appo¬ 
mattox  Court-house.  Sliermau  and  Johnston 
met  at  Durham’s  Station,  half-way  between  Ra¬ 
leigh  and  Hillsborough,  at  ten  o’clock,  April  17. 
Johnston  said  he  regarded  the  Confederate 
cause  as  lost,  and  admitted  that  Grant’s  terms 
were  magnanimous  (see  Appomattox) ;  but  he 
iusisted  upon  conditions  involving  political 
guarantees,  which  Sherman  had  no  authority  to 
graut.  At  a  second  conference  the  next  day 
Sherman  consented  to  a  memorandum  of  agree¬ 
ment  as  a  basis  for  the  consideration  of  the 
government,  which,  if  carried  out,  would  have 
instantly  restored  to  all  persons  engaged  in  the 
rebellion  every  right  and  privilege,  social  and 
political,  which  they  had  enjoyed  before  the 
war,  without  any  liability  of  punishment.  It 
was  adroitly  drawn  up  by  Breckinridge,  and 
was  signed  by  the  respective  commanding  gen¬ 
erals.  The  national  government  instantly  re¬ 
jected  it,  and  General  Grant  was  sent  to  Raleigh 
to  declare  that  rejection,  which  he  did  April  24, 
and  proclaimed  that  the  truce  would  end  in 
forty- eight  hours.  This  notification  was  ac¬ 
companied  by  a  demand  for  the  surrender  of 
Johnston’s  army,  on  the  terms  granted  to  Lee. 
The  capitulation  was  agreed  upon  at  the  house 
of  James  Bennett,  near  Durham’s  Station,  April 
26.  About  twenty-five  thousand  troops  were 
surrendered.  The  capitulation  included  all  the 


JOHNSTON 


726 


JOINT  HIGH  COMMISSION 


troops  in  Johnstou’s  military  department.  Gen¬ 
eral  Taylor  surrendered  at  Citronelle,  Ala.,  to 
General  Canby,  on  the  same  terms,  and  the 
Confederate  navy  on  the  Tombigbee  River  was 
surrendered  by  Commander  Farraud  to  Rear-ad¬ 
miral  Thatcher.  Wade  Hampton,  of  Johnston’s 
surrendered  forces,  refused  to  comply  with  the 


terms,  and  dashed  off  with  a  considerable  body 
of  cavalry  towards  Charlotte,  to  follow  the  fort¬ 
unes  of  Jefferson  Davis. 

Johnston,  Joseph  Ecclesjon,  was  born  in 
Prince  Edward  County,  Va.,  in  February,  1807; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  and  entered 
the  artillery.  He  served  in  the  war  with  the 
Florida  Indians,  and  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  in 
which  he  was  twice  wounded.  He  became  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel  of  cavalry  in  1855,  and  quarter¬ 
master-general,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier,  in 


JOSEPH  ECCLESTON  JOHNSTON. 


June,  1860.  He  joined  the  insurgents  in  the 
spring  of  1861,  and  became  a  general  in  the 
Confederate  army.  He  was  in  command  at  the 
battle  of  Bull’s  Run,  and  fought  gallantly  on 
the  Virginia  Peninsula,  until  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines  (1862),  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  Lee.  He  was  in  command 
in  the.  Mississippi  valley,  where  he  opposed 


Grant  and  Sherman.  He  was  also  in  command 
during  the  Atlanta  campaign  in  1864  until  July, 
when  he  was  superseded  by  General  Hood.  In 
1865  he  was  in  command  in  the  Carolinas,  and 
surrendered  his  army  to  Sherman  April  26, 1865. 

Johnstone’s  Attempt  at  Bribery  (1778).  One 
of  the  British  peace  commissioners,  in  1778,  was 
George  Johnstone,  an  advocate  of 
the  Americans  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  who  brought  letters 
of  introduction  to  Robert  Morris, 
Joseph  Reed,  and  other  leading  pa¬ 
triots.  Finding  the  commissioners 
could  do  nothing,  officially,  with 
Congress,  Johnstone  attempted  to 
gain  by  bribery  what  could  not  be 
acquired  by  diplomacy.  To  Morris 
and  others  he  wrote  letters,  urging 
the  expediency  of  making  arrange¬ 
ments  with  the  government,  and 
suggesting,  in  some  of  his  letters, 
that  those  persons  who  should  be 
instrumental  in  bringing  it  about 
would  not  fail  of  high  honors  and 
rewards  from  the  government.  An 
American  lady  in  Philadelphia, 
whose  husband  was  in  the  British 
service,  and  who  was  a  relative  of 
Ferguson,  the  secretary  of  the  com¬ 
mission,  was  induced  by  Johnstone  to  approach 
Joseph  Reed  with  a  proposition.  Mrs.  Fergu¬ 
son  was  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Granne,  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  a  bright  woman,  in  whose  prudence  and 
patriotism  the  Whigs  had  snoh  confidence  that 
the  interchange  of  visits  among  them  and  the 
Tories  never  led  to  a  suspicion  that  she  would 
betray  the  cause  of  her  country.  Johnstone 
made  her  believe  he  was  a  warm  friend  of  the 
Americans,  and  he  entreated  her  to  go  to  Gen¬ 
eral  Reed  and  say  to  him  that  if  he  could, 
conscientiously,  exert  his  influence  in  bringing 
about  a  reconciliation,  he  might  command  $50,- 
000  and  the  highest  post  in  the  government. 
“That,”  said  Mrs.  Ferguson,  “General  Reed 
would  consider  the  offer  of  a  bribe.”  John¬ 
stone  disclaimed  any  such  intention,  and  Mrs. 
Ferguson  carried  the  message  to  Reed  as  soon 
as  the  British  left  Philadelphia.  Reed  indig¬ 
nantly  replied,  “  I  am  not  worth  purchasing, 
but,  such  as  I  am,  the  King  of  England  is  not 
rich  enongh  to  do  it.”  These  facts  being  made 
known  to  Congress,  resolutions  were  passed 
(Aug.  11, 1778)  accusing  the  commissioner  of  an 
attempt  at  bribery  and  corruption,  and  declin¬ 
ing  to  hold  any  further  communication  with 
him.  (See  Ferguson,  Elizabeth  Grceme.) 

Joint  High  Commission.  The  government 
of  the  United  States,  in  behalf  of  its  citizens, 
claimed  from  Great  Britain  damages  inflicted 
on  the  American  shipping  interests  by  the  dep¬ 
redations  of  the  Alabama  (which  see)  and  other 
Anglo-Confederate  cruisers.  To  effect  a  peace¬ 
ful  solution  of  the  difficulty,  Reverdy  Johnson, 
of  Maryland,  was  sent  to  England  in  1868  to  ne¬ 
gotiate  a  treaty  for  that  purpose.  His  mission 
was  not  satisfactory.  The  treaty  which  he  ne¬ 
gotiated  was  almost  universally  condemned  by 
his  countrymen,  and  was  rejected  by  the  Sen- 


PLACE  OP  JOHNSTON’S  SURRENDER  TO  SHERMAN. 


JOLIET 


727 


JONES 


ate.  His  successor,  J.  Lotbrop  Motley,  appoint¬ 
ed  minister  at  tbe  British  court,  was  charged 
with  the  same  mission,  hut  failed  in  that  partic¬ 
ular,  and  was  recalled  in  1870.  The  matter  was 
finally  settled  by  arbitration.  Much  correspond¬ 
ence  succeeded  the  efforts  to  settle  by  treaty. 
Finally,  in  January,  1871,  the  British  minister  at 
Washington  (Sir  Edward  Thornton),  in  a  letter 
to  Secretary  Fish,  proposed,  under  instructions 
from  his  government,  a  Joint  High  Commission, 
to  be  appointed  by  the  two  governments,  re¬ 
spectively,  to  settle  disputes  of  every  kind  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  and 
so  establish  a  permanent  friendship  between 
the  two  nations.  Mr.  Fish  proposed  that  the 
commission  should  embrace  in  its  inquiries  the 
matter  of  the  “  Alabama  Claims,”  so  that  noth¬ 
ing  should  remain  to  disturb  amicable  relations. 
The  suggestion  was  approved,  and  each  govern¬ 
ment  appointed  commissioners.  The  President 
appointed  for  the  United  States  Hamilton  Fish, 
Secretary  of  State ;  Samuel  Nelson,  Associate- 
justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court ;  R. 
C.  Schenck,  Minister  to  England  ;  E.  Kockwood 
Hoar,  late  Uuited  States  Attorney-general,  and 
G.  H.  Williams,  United  States  Senator  from  Ore¬ 
gon.  Queen  Victoria  appointed  George  Fred¬ 
erick  Samuel,  Earl  de  Grey  and  Earl  of  Eipon  ; 
Sir  Stratford  Henry  Northcote;  Sir  Edward 
Thornton,  her  representative  at  Washington; 
Sir  Alexander  McDonald,  of  the  Privy  Council 
of  Canada  and  Attorney-general  of  that  prov¬ 
ince  ;  and  Montague  Bernard,  Professor  of  Inter¬ 
national  Law  in  Oxford  University.  The  com¬ 
missioners  first  met  in  Washington,  Feb.  27, 
1871.  Lord  Teuterden,  secretary  of  the  British 
commission,  and  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis,  Assistant 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  were 
chosen  clerks  of  the  Joint  High  Commission. 
The  commissioners  of  the  United  States  were 
instructed  to  consider :  1.  The  fisheries ;  2.  The 
navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver;  3.  Re¬ 
ciprocal  trade  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Dominion  of  Canada;  4.  The  North  west 
water  boundary  and  the  island  of  San  Juan ; 
5.  The  claims  of  the  United  States  aga  inst  Great 
Britain  for  compensation  for  injuries  committed 
by  Confederate  cruisers ;  6.  Claims  of  British 
subjects  against  the  United  States  for  losses  and 
injuries  arising  out  of  acts  committed  during 
the  Civil  War.  A  treaty  was  agreed  to,  and 
was  signed  May  8, 1871,  which  provided  for  the 
settlement,  by  arbitration,  by  a  mixed  commis¬ 
sion,  of  all  claims  on  both  sides  for  injuries  by 
either  government  to  the  citizens  of  the  other, 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  for  the  permanent 
settlement  of  all  questions  in  dispute  between 
the  two  nations.  Arbitrators  were  appointed, 
who,  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  formed  what  was 
known  as  the  “  Tribunal  of  Arbitration,”  and 
reached  a  decision  in  which  both  parties  acqui¬ 
esced.  (See  Tribunal  of  Arbitration.) 

Joliet,  Louis,  was  one  of  the  discoverers  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  He  was  born  in  Quebec 
in  1645,  where  his  father  was  a  smith  ;  and  died 
about  the  year  1700.  Ho  was  educated  at  the 
Jesuit  college,  in  Quebec,  and  afterwards  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  fur-trade  in  the  Western  wilder¬ 


ness.  In  1673  Intendaut  Talon,  at  Quebec,  with 
the  sanction  of  Governor  Fronteuac,  selected 
him  to  find  and  ascertain  the  direction  of  the 
course  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  mouth.  Start¬ 
ing  from  Mackinaw,  in  May,  1673,  with  Fa¬ 
ther  Marquette  and  five  other  Frenchmen,  they 
reached  the  Mississippi  June  17.  (See  Mar¬ 
quette.)  They  studied  the  country  on  their  route, 
made  maps,  and  gained  much  information.  Af¬ 
ter  intercourse  with  Iudiaus  on  the  Lower  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas,  who 
had  trafficked  with  Europeans,  they  were  satis¬ 
fied  that  the  Mississippi  emptied  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  made  their  way  back  to  Green 
Bay,  where  Joliet  started  alone  for  Quebec  to 
report  to  his  superiors.  His  canoe  was  upset 
in  Lachiue  Rapids,  above  Montreal,  and  his  jour¬ 
nals  and  charts  were  lost,  but  he  wrote  out  his 
narrative  from  memory,  which  agreed,  in  essen¬ 
tials,  with  that  of  Marquette.  Joliet  afterwards 
went  on  an  expedition  to  Hudson’s  Bay,  in  the 
service  of  his  king,  and  was  rewarded  by  his  sov¬ 
ereign  with  the  appointment  of  hydrographer 
to  his  majesty,  and  was  favored  with  the  seign¬ 
iory  of  the  island  of  Anticost  i  in  1680.  La  Salle’s 
pretentions  denied  him  the  privilege  of  making 
explorations  in  the  West. 

Joncaire,  or  Jonquiere  ( Marquis  de  la ), 
Jacques  Pierre  de  Taffanel,  Governor  of 
Canada  in  1749-52,  was  born  at  La  Jonquiere, 
France,  in  1686;  died  in  Quebec,  May  17,  1752. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1698,  and  in  1703  was 
adjutant  in  the  French  Army.  He  was  a  brave 
and  skilful  officer,  and  was  in  many  battles. 
He  became  captain  in  the  navy  in  1736,  and  ac¬ 
companied  D’Anville  in  his  expedition  against 
Louisburg  in  1745.  In  1747  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Canada,  but,  being  captured  by  the 
British,  he  did  not  arrive  until  1749. 

Jones,  Jacob,  was  born  near  Smyrna,  Del.,  in 
March,  1768;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  3,  1850. 


JACOB  JONKS. 


lie  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva¬ 
nia,  and  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in 
1799.  He  was  an  officer  of  the  Philadelphia 


JONES 


728 


JUAREZ 


•when  she  was  captured  at  Tripoli.  (See  Phila¬ 
delphia.)  In  1810  he  was  made  commander,  and 
when  the  War  of  1812-15  broke  out  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  sloop-of-war  Wasp,  in  which  he 
gained  a  victory.  (See  Wasp  and  Frolic.)  He 
commanded  the  Macedonian,  in  Decatur’s  squad¬ 
ron,  as  post-captain.  After  the  war  he  com¬ 
manded  the  Mediterranean  squadron ;  was  a 
commissioner  of  the  Navy  Board ;  and  Governor 
of  the  Naval  Asylum  at  Philadelphia. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  was  born  in  the  parish  of 
Kirkbean,  Scotland,  July  6, 1747  ;  died  in  Paris, 
July  18,  1799.  Before  he  was  eighteen  years 
old  he  commanded  a  vessel  that  traded  with 
the  West  Indies.  Jones  came  to  Virginia  in 


JOHN  PAUL  JONES. 


1773,  inheriting  the  estate  of  his  brother,  who 
died  there.  Offering  his  services  to  Congress, 
he  was  made  first-lieutenant  in  the  navy  in  De¬ 
cember,  1775,  when,  out  of  gratitude  to  General 
Jones,  of  North  Carolina,  he  assumed  his  name. 
Before  that  he  was  John  Paul.  He  was  a  bold 
and  skilful  sea-rover,  gathering  up  many  prizes. 
Made  captain  in  the  fall  of  1776,  he,  in  the  Al¬ 
fred,  destroyed  the  Port  Royal  (N.  S.)  fisheries, 
capturing  all  the  vessels  and  freight.  In  the 
summer  of  1777  he  sailed  in  the  Ranged'  to  Eu¬ 
rope,  and  in  February,  1778,  received  from  a 
French  commander  the  first  salute  ever  given 
to  the  American  flag  by  a  foreign  man-of-war. 
In  April  he  scaled  the  walls  of  Whitehaven,  in 
England,  on  the  borders  of  the  Irish  Sea,  and 
spiked  thirty-eight  cannons.  Cruising  to  in¬ 
tercept  the  Baltic  fleet,  he  fell  in  with  British 
men-of-war  and  had  a  desperate  fight,  winning 
a  victory  (September,  1779),  his  vessel  being  the 
Bonliomme  Richard.  (See  Bonhomme  Richard  arid 
Sera2)is.)  Congress  gave  him  a  gold  medal  and 
a  commission  as  commander  of  the  America, 
which  ship  was  soon  presented  to  France. 
Jones  entered  the  service  of  Russia  as  rear- 
admiral  in  1787,  and, in  consequence  of  a  vic¬ 
tory  over  the  Turks,  he  was  made  vice-ad¬ 
miral  and  knighted.  On  his  death  in  Paris 
the  National  Assembly  decreed  him  a  public 
funeral.  It  is  not  kuown  where  in  Paris  he 
was  buried. 

Jones,  Thomas  Ap  Catesby,  vras  boru  in 


Virginia  in  1789 ;  died  at  Georgetown,  D.  C., 
May  30,  1858.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1805. 
From  1808  to  1812  he  was  engaged  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  in  the  suppressiou  of  piracy,  smug¬ 
gling,  and  the  slave-trade.  He  fought  the  Brit¬ 
ish  flotilla  on  Lake  Borgue  (which  see)  late  in 
1814,  when  he  was  wounded  aud  made  captive. 
He  commauded  the  Pacific  squadron  in  1842. 

Jonesborough,  Battle  at.  Sherman  began 
his  flanking  when  he  raised  the  siege  of  Atlanta 
(which  see),  on  the  night  of  Aug.  25, 1864.  Gen¬ 
eral  Slocum,  wTith  the  Twentieth  Corps,  proceed¬ 
ed  to  the  protection  of  the  sick,  wounded,  and 
stores  near  the  Chattahoochee,  and  Howard  and 
the  rest  of  the  army  moved  for  the  West  Point 
Railway.  General  Stanley’s  corps  was  on  the 
extreme  left,  and  the  armies  of  Howard,  Thom¬ 
as,  and  Schofield  pressed  forward  so  secretly 
that  Hood  was  not  informed  of  the  movement 
until  the  Nationals  were  destroying  that  road. 
This  was  done  (Aug.  28)  for  twelve  miles,  and 
the  next  day  they  struck  the  Macon  road.  Scho¬ 
field  reached  the  road  at  Rough-and-Ready  Sta¬ 
tion,  ten  miles  from  Atlanta.  Thomas  struck  it 
at  Couch’s ;  and  Howard,  crossing  the  Flint  Riv¬ 
er  half  a  mile  from  Jonesborough,  approached  it 
at  that  point.  There  he  was  met  by  one  half  of 
Hood’s  army,  under  Hardee.  With  the  remain¬ 
der  Hood  was  holding  the  defences  of  Atlanta, 
but  he  was  too  weak  to  attempt  to  strike  Scho¬ 
field.  There  was  a  severe  fight  at  the  passage 
of  the  Flint  River,  on  the  morning  of  Ang.  31, 
between  the  forces  of  Howard  and  Hardee. 
Howard’s  army  was  disposed  with  Blair’s  corps 
in  the  centre, ‘and  rude  breastworks  were  cast 
up.  The  contest  was  renewed  very  soon,  when 
Hardee  attempted  to  crush  Howard  before  he 
could  receive  reinforcements.  He  failed.  The 
Nationals  thus  attacked  were  veterans.  For 
two  hours  there  was  a  desperate  strife  for  vic¬ 
tory,  which  was  won  by  Howard.  Hardee  re¬ 
coiled,  and  in  his  hasty  retreat  left  four  hundred 
of  his  dead  on  the  field  and  three  hundred  of  his 
badly  wmunded  at  Jonesborough.  His  loss  was 
estimated  at  twenty-five  huudred  men.  How¬ 
ard’s  loss  was  about  five  hundred.  Meanwhile 
Sherman  had  sent  relief  to  Howard.  Kilpat¬ 
rick  and  Garrard  were  very  active,  and  General 
Davis’s  corps  soon  touched  Howard’s  left.  At 
four  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  Davis  charged  and 
carried  the  Confederate  works  covering  Jones¬ 
borough  on  the  north,  and  captured  General  Go- 
van  and  a  greater  part  of  his  brigade.  In  the 
morning  Hardee  had  fled,  pursued  by  the  Na¬ 
tionals  to  Lovcjoy’s. 

Juarez,  Benito,  Presideut  of  Mexico,  was 
born  in  Villa  Ixtlan,  Oaxaca,  in  1807 ;  died  in 
the  city  of  Mexico,  July  18,  1872.  He  was  de¬ 
scended  from  the  ancient  Indian  race.  Well 
educated,  he  gained  distinction  as  a  lawyer. 
He  was  a  legislator,  and  was  governor  of  his 
native  state  from  1848  to  1852.  Banished  by 
Santa  Ana  in  1853,  he  lived  in  New  Orleans  uu- 
til  1855,  when  he  returned,  and  became  minister 
of  justice.  Experiencing  the  vicissitudes  of 
public  life  in  that  country,  he  was  elected  Pres¬ 
ideut  of  Mexico  in  June,  1861.  Then  came  the 


JUDGES,  APPOINTMENT  OF  729  JUDICIARY,  THE,  AUTHORITY  OF 


French  usurpation  aud  the  short-lived  empire 
of  Maximilian  (which  see).  He  defeated  the 
imperial  forces  in  1867,  and  caused  the  emperor 
to  be  shot.  In  October  Juarez  was  re-elected 
President,  and  for  five  years  Mexico  was  dis¬ 
tracted  by  revolutions.  Peace  was  restored  in 
1872,  but  Juarez,  then  President,  worn  down 
with  perplexities,  died  of  apoplexy. 

Judges,  Appointment  of.  Iu  the  states  of 
Connecticut  aud  Rhode  Island  the  judges  were 
appointed  annually  by  the  assemblies.  Iu  Geor¬ 
gia  the  chief-justice  was  appointed  in  the  same 
way,  the  county  judges  being  elected  annually 
by  the  people.  Iu  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  aud 
Penusylvauia  the  judges  were  appointed  by  the 
Assembly  for  a  term  of  seven  years.  In  the 
other  states  they  were  to  hold  their  office  dur¬ 
ing  good  behavior.  The  justices  of  the  peace, 
as  in  colonial  times,  were  invested  with  a  juris¬ 
diction  as  judges  in  the  first  instance  for  the 
smallest  class  of  civil  cases. 

Judge’s  Mission  at  Washington.  The  au¬ 
thorities  of  Alabama  sent  Thomas  J.  Judge  to 
“  negotiate  with  the  government  of  the  United 
States  in  reference  to  the  forts,  arsenals,  and 
custom-houses”  in  that  state,  aud  “the  debt  of 
the  United  States.”  Ho  was  introduced  by 
Clement  C.  Clay,  Jr.,  then  sitting  iu  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States,  who  expressed  a  wish  that 
when  Judge  should  have  an  audience  he  should 
present  his  credentials  and  enter  upon  the  pro¬ 
posed  negotiations.  The  President  refused  to 
receive  him  only  as  a  private  gentleman,  as  he 
had  done  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina  (see  Haijne's 
Mission),  and  the  State  of  Alabama  withdrew  in 
the  person  of  Mr.  J  udge. 

Judicial  Kidnapping.  In  the  reign  of  James 
II.  (1685-88)  officers  of  the  crown  in  England 
carried  on  a  traffic  with  the  American  colonies 
more  profitable  than  the  African  slave-trade. 
Young  persons,  as  well  as  felons,  were  exten¬ 
sively  arrested,  hurried  across  the  Atlantic,  and 
sold  in  the  colonies  for  money.  This  kidnap¬ 
ping  became  common  iu  Bristol,  where  the  may¬ 
or,  the  sheriff,  and  justices  of  the  peace  were  en¬ 
gaged  in  it.  They  would  threaten  small  rogues 
and  pilferers  with  hanging,  and,  inspired  by  the 
terror  of  such  a  fate,  would  petition  for  trans¬ 
portation  as  the  only  avenue  for  safety.  Then 
they  would  be  divided  among  the  members  of 
the  court,  who  sold  these  criminals  to  planters 
iu  America. 

Judiciary,  National,  First  Established. 
While  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  First 
Congress  was  employed  ( 1789 )  in  providing 
means  for  a  sufficient  revenue,  the  Senate  was 
busy  in  organizing  a  judiciary.  A  bill  draft¬ 
ed  by  Oliver  Ellsworth,  of  Connecticut,  which 
embodied  a  plan  of  a  judiciary,  was,  after  sev¬ 
eral  amendments,  adopted  by  both  Houses  and 
became  a  law.  It  provided  for  a  Supreme  Court, 
having  one  chief-justice  and  five  associate-jus¬ 
tices,  who  were  to  hold  two  sessions  annually  at 
the  seat  of  the  national  capital.  Circuit  and 
district  courts  were  also  established,  which  had 
jurisdiction  over  certain  specified  cases.  Each 
state  was  made  a  district,  as  were  also  the  ter¬ 


ritories  of  Kentucky  and  Maine.  The  districts, 
excepting  Kentucky  and  Maiue,  were  grouped 
together  into  three  circuits.  An  appeal  from 
these  lower  courts  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  was  allowed,  as  to  points  of  law, 
in  all  civil  cases  where  the  matter  iu  dispute 
amounted  to  two  thousaud  dollars.  A  marshal 
for  each  was  to  be  appointed  by  the  President, 
having  the  general  powers  of  a  sheriff;  and  a 
district  attorney,  to  act  for  the  United  States 
iu  all  cases  in  which  the  national  government 
might  be  interested,  was  also  appointed.  John 
Jay  was  made  Chief-justice  of  the  United  States. 

Judiciary,  Subversion  of  the,  in  America. 
The  judges  in  the  colonies  had  always  been  ap¬ 
pointed  to  hold  office  “during  good  behavior.” 
The  custom  was  abolished  in  1761.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  government  could  not  comprehend  the  jus¬ 
tice  of  equality  of  political  rights  between  Eng¬ 
land  and  the  colonies,  and  on  Nov.  18,  about  a 
month  after  Pitt’s  retirement  from  office,  the 
Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations  reported  to  the 
king  that  the  existiug  system  of  appointments 
was  subversive  of  all  true  policy  and  tended  to 
“lessen  the  just  dependence  of  the  colonies 
upon  the  government  of  the  mother  country.” 
It  pleased  the  king;  and  on  Dec.  9  instructions 
went  forth  to  all  the  colonial  governmeuts  to 
grant  no  judicial  commissions  but  “during 
pleasure.”  This  tenure  of  judicial  offices  made 
the  judges  creatures  of  the  king’s  will  and  in¬ 
struments  of  the  prerogative.  Tbe  New  York 
Assembly,  regarding  this  as  a  step  towards  ab¬ 
solute  despotism,  took  the  strong  ground  that 
these  later  instructions  should  be  changed  or 
they  would  grant  no  salary  to  judges  in  their 
province.  Coldeu,  iu  reporting  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  gave  the  sources  of  opposition  to  be  three 
“  popular  lawyers,  educated  in  Connecticut,  who 
had  strongly  imbibed  the  independent  princi¬ 
ples  of  that  colony,  aud  who  calumniated  the 
administration  in  every  exercise  of  the  prerog¬ 
ative,  and  gained  the  applause  of  the  mob  by 
propagating  the  doctrine  that  all  authority  is 
derived  from  the  people.”  These  three  lawyers 
were  William  Livingston,  afterwards  Governor 
of  New  Jersey;  John  Morin  Scott,  leader  among 
the  “  Sons  of  Liberty  ”  (which  see)  iu  New  York  ; 
aud  William  Smith,  the  historian,  who,  in  the 
revolution  that  followed,  took  sides  with  the 
crown.  In  1762  the  Board  of  Trade  recom¬ 
mended,  as  a  means  of  making  the  judges  still 
more  the  creatures  of  the  crown,  that  they 
should  receive  their  salaries  from  the  royal 
quit-rents.  The  suggestion  was  adopted.  The 
king,  in  the  royal  provinces,  instituted  courts, 
named  the  judges,  removed  them  at  pleasure, 
fixed  the  amount  of  their  salaries,  and  paid 
them  out  of  fuuds  indepeudent  of  legislative 
grants. 

Judiciary,  The,  Authority  of,  Questioned. 
The  three  co-ordinate  branches  of  the  national 
government  —  the  Legislative,  Executive,  and 
Judicial — were  subject  to  much  jealousy,  criti¬ 
cism,  and  opposition  at  the  beginning  of  the 
1  national  life  of  the  Republic.  The  Supreme 
Court  having  decided  that  states  were  liable  to 


JUDSON 


730 


KALB 


be  sued  by  individuals — citizens  of  other  states 
- — produced  much  discussion  and  opposition.  A 
process  of  that  sort  was  commenced  against  the 
State  of  Massachusetts.  When  the  writ  was 
served  on  the  governor,  he  called  the  Legislat¬ 
ure  together.  They  resolved  to  take  no  notice 
of  the  suit,  at  the  same  time  recommending,  by 
resolution,  an  amendment  to  the  national  Con¬ 
stitution  in  that  particular,  which  the  governor 
was  requested  to  transmit  to  the  legislatures  of 
other  states.  The  Legislature  of  Georgia  had 
a  similar  case  before  them.  They  dealt  more 
harshly  with  the  matter.  They  assumed  a  post¬ 
ure  of  defiance  to  the  Supreme  Court,  and  pass¬ 
ed  an  act  subjecting  to  death,  without  benefit 
of  clergy,  any  marshal  or  other  person  who 
should  presume  to  serve  any  process  issued 
against  that  state  at  the  suit  of  any  individ¬ 
ual.  The  proposition  of  Massachusetts  was  fa¬ 
vorably  responded  to,  and  ultimately  prevailed. 

Judson,  Adoniram,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Baptist 
missionary  at  Burmah,  was  born  at  Malden, 
Mass.,  Aug.  9,  1788 ;  died  at  sea,  April  12,  1850. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1807,  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1810.  He  was 
ordained  on  Feb.  6,  1812,  and,  with  his  wife, 
Anne  Hasseltine,  sailed  for  Calcutta  on  the 
19th.  In  Kangoon,  Burmah,  he  toiled  nearly 
forty  years,  gathering  around  him  thousands 
of  converts  and  many  assistants,  Americans  and 
Burmese.  He  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
Burmese  language,  and  had  nearly  completed  a 
dictionary  of  that  language  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  His  wife  dying  in  1826,  he  married 
(April,  1834)  the  widow  of  a  missionary  (Mrs. 
Sarah  H.  Boardman),  who  died  in  September, 

1845.  While  on  a  visit  to  the  United  States  in 

1846,  he  married  Miss  Emily  Chnbbuck  (“  Fanny 
Forester,”  the  poet),  who  accompanied  him  back 
to  Burmah.  His  first  wife,  Anne  Hasseltine. 


was  the  first  American  feminine  missionary  in 
the  East  Indies. 

Junius,  Letters  of.  During  the  vehement 
quarrel  between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies 
(1765-1775),  a  series  of  letters  addressed  to  King 
George  III.,  his  ministers,  and  other  distinguish¬ 
ed  public  men  in  England,  were  published  in 
the  Public  Advertiser ,  and  were  generally  signed 
“Junius”  or  “  Philo-Juuius.”  In  the  first  au¬ 
thorized  collection  of  these  letters  there  were 
forty-four  by  “Junius”  and  fifteen  by  “Philo- 
Junius.”  They  treated  of  public  men  and  pub¬ 
lic  measures  of  that  day  in  a  style  that  pro¬ 
duced  a  profound  impression  and  interest  in 
the  public  mind,  and  excited  the  hottest  indig¬ 
nation  of  those  who  felt  the  lash.  The  style 
was  condensed  but  lucid ;  full  of  studied  epi¬ 
grammatic  sarcasm,  brilliant  metaphor,  and 
fierce  personal  attack.  The  government  and 
those  interested  in  the  matter  tried  in  vain  to 
ascertain  the  name  of  the  author.  It  was  evi¬ 
dent  that  he  was  a  man  of  wealth  and  refine¬ 
ment,  and  possessing  access  to  minute  informa¬ 
tion  respecting  ministerial  measures  and  in¬ 
trigues.  The  most  eminent  legal  advisers  of 
the  crown  tried  in  vain  to  get  a  clue  to  the  se¬ 
cret  of  his  identity  ;  and  the  mystery  which  has 
ever  since  enveloped  the  name  of  the  author  of 
the  letters  of  “Junius”  has  kept  up  an  interest 
in  them,  which,  because  of  the  remoteness  of 
their  topics,  could  not  otherwise  have  been  kept 
alive.  Some  afterwards  claimed  their  author¬ 
ship,  but  without  a  particle  of  proof  in  favor  of 
the  claim.  The  names  of  more  than  fifty  per¬ 
sons  have  been  mentioned  as  the  suspected  au¬ 
thors.  An  array  of  facts,  circumstances,  and  fair 
inferences  has  satisfied  the  most  careful  in¬ 
quirers  that  Sir  Philip  Francis  was  “Junius.” 
The  letters  were  chiefly  written  between  1769 
and  1772. 


K. 


Kalb  (Baron  de),  John,  was  born  in  Alsace 
(then  a  French  province,  now  in  Germany),  June 
29, 1/21 ;  died  at  Camden,  S.  C.,  Aug.  19, 1780.  He 


BARON  DB  KALB. 


entered  the  French  military  service  in  1743,  and  in 
1747  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  under 


Marshal  Broglie,  aud  obtained  the  order  of  mili¬ 
tary  merit  in  1761.  The  next  year  he  visited  the 
English- American  colonies  as  a  secret  agent  of 
the  French  government,  to  ascertain  their  polit¬ 
ical  temper.  He  was  a  brigadier  in  the  French 
army  when  (November,  1776)  he  was  engaged 
by  Franklin  and  Deane  to  serve  in  the  Conti¬ 
nental  army.  He  accompanied  Lafayette  to 
America  in  1777,  and  was  appointed  major-gen¬ 
eral  (Sept.  15,  1777)  by  the  Continental  Congress. 
He  served  under  the  immediate  command  of 
Washington  until  after  the  evacuation  of  Phila¬ 
delphia  (June,  1778) ;  then  in  New  Jersey  aud 
Maryland  until  April,  1780,  when  he  was  sent  to 
assist  Lincoln,  besieged  in  Charleston.  He  ar¬ 
rived  too  late.  De  Kalb  became  chief  command¬ 
er  in  the  south  after  the  fall  of  Charleston,  but 
was  soon  succeeded  by  General  Gates,  when  he 
became  that  officer’s  second  in  command.  In 
the  disastrous  battle  at  Sanders’s  Creek,  near 
Camden,  S.  C.,  he  was  mortally  wounded,  and 
died  three  days  afterwards.  De  Kalb’s  body  was 
pierced  with  eleven  wounds.  It  was  buried  at 
Camden.  A  marble  monument  was  erected  to 


KANE 


731 


KANSAS 


his  memory  in  front  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
at  Camden,  the  corner-stone  of  which  was  laid 
by  Lafayette  in  1825. 


DE  KALB’S  MONUMENT. 


Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  M.D.,  was  born  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Feb.  3,  1820 ;  died  at  Havana,  Feb.  16, 
1857.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  taking  his  medical 
degree  in  1843.  Ill-health  led  to  his  entering 
the  navy,  and  he  sailed  as  physician  to  the  em¬ 
bassy  to  China  in  1843.  He  travelled  extensive¬ 
ly  in  Asia  and  Europe,  traversed  Greece  on  foot, 
explored  Western  Africa  to  some  extent,  was  in 
the  war  with  Mexico,  and  in  May,  1850,  sailed  as 
surgeon  and  naturalist  under  Lieutenant  De  Ha¬ 
wn,  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He  coin- 


ELISFJA  KENT  KANE. 


manded  a  similar  expedition  which  sailed  from 
New  York  in  May,  1853.  The  expedition  suf¬ 
fered  great  hardships,  and  the  survivors  return¬ 
ed  in  October,  1855.  They  had  abandoned  their 
vessel,  and  had  travelled  eighty  miles  on  the  ice 
and  in  boats  to  a  Danish  settlement.  During 
that  voyage,  the  open  Polar  Sea,  whose  exist¬ 
ence  was  suspected,  was  discovered.  Gold  med¬ 
als  were  awarded  him  by  Congress,  the  Legislat¬ 
ure  of  New  York,  and  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  of  London.  But  his  own  life  and  those 
of  most  of  his  companions  were  sacrificed.  His 
health  failed,  and  he  went  first  to  London  and 
then  to  Cuba,  where  he  died. 


Kane’s  Arctic  Expedition.  Sir  John  Frank¬ 
lin,  an  English  navigator,  sailed  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery  and  exploration  with  two  vessels,  in 
May,  1845.  Years  passed  by,  and  no  tidings  of 
him  or  his  companions  came.  Expeditions  were 
sent  from  England  in  search  of  him.  Public  in¬ 
terest  in  the  fate  of  Sir  John  was  excited  in  Eu¬ 
rope  and  America,  and  in  May,  1850,  Henry  Grin- 
nell,  an  opulent  merchant  of  New  York,  fitted 
out  two  ships  ( Advance  and  Fescue )  and  placed 
them  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  De  Haven,  to  as¬ 
sist  in  the  beuevoleut  effort.  These  vessels  re¬ 
turned,  after  remarkable  adventures  in  the  po¬ 
lar  seas,  iu  the  autumn  of  1851,  without  success. 
In  connection  with  the  United  States  govern¬ 
ment,  the  same  wealthy  merchant  fitted  out  an¬ 
other  expedition  for  the  same  purpose  in  1853. 
Two  vessels,  under  the  command  of  Dr.  Elisha 
Kent  Kane  (surgeon  of  the  first  expedition)  sailed 
from  New  York  in  May.  Kane  and  his  party 
made  valuable  discoveries,  among  others,  of  an 
“  open  polar  sea,”  so  long  suspected  and  sought 
for  by  scientific  men  and  navigators.  But  they 
failed  to  hud  Sir  John  Franklin.  The  compa¬ 
nies  of  these  two  vessels  suffered  much,  and  were 
finally  compelled  to  abandon  the  ships  and  make 
their  way  in  open  boats  to  a  Danish  settlement 
in  Greenland.  Their  long  absence  created  fears 
for  their  safety,  and  a  relief  expedition  was  sent 
in  search  of  them.  They  returned  home  iu  the 
vessels  of  the  latter  in  the  autumn  of  1855.  The 
fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  crew  is  yet 
one  of  the  mysteries  of  the  sea.  The  object  of 
his  search — the  discovery  of  a  northwest  pas¬ 
sage  from  Europe  to  India — yet  occupies  men’s 
minds  and  the  efforts  of  scientific  men  and  navi¬ 
gators.  The  search  has  been  going  on  for  more 
than  three  hundred  years.  The  question  wheth¬ 
er  there  is  a  water  connection  in  the  polar  re¬ 
gions  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans, 
or,  rather,  between  Baffin’s  Bay  and  Behring’s 
Strait,  was  solved  in  October,  1853,  by  Captain 
McClure,  of  the  British  ship  Investigator.  He 
passed  through  Behring’s  Strait  and  sailed  east¬ 
ward  to  a  point  whence,  with  sleds,  he  travelled 
on  the  ice  to  another  point  eastward,  to  which 
Captain  Parry  and  other  navigators  had  pene¬ 
trated.  Before  this  the  mute  whale  had  dem¬ 
onstrated  the  scientific  fact  to  the  satisfaction 
of  naturalists.  The  same  species  are  found  in 
Behring’s  Strait  and  Baffin’s  Bay  ;  and  as  the 
waters  of  the  tropical  regions  wonld  be  like  a 
sea  of  fire  to  them,  they  must  have  had  commu¬ 
nication  through  polar  channels.  De  Haven’s 
expedition  met  with  many  perils  amid  the  ice¬ 
packs  in  the  polar  seas,  and  the  vessels  were 
frozen  in  from  late  in  September,  1850,  until 
May,  1851,  during  the  long  six  months’  night  of 
the  Arctic  regions.  One  of  the  vessels  was 
placed  by  the  currents  and  the  ice-floes  in  a  ca¬ 
reening  position,  and  was  not  released  from  it 
until  May,  1851,  when  she  was  cut  out  of  the  ice. 

Kansas  was  apart  of  the  Louisiana  purchase 
in  1803.  (See  Loxdsiana.)  The  territories  of  Kan¬ 
sas  and  Nebraska  (which  see)  were  established 
in  1854  by  act  of  Congress,  which  really  repealed 
the  Missouri  Compromise  Act  (which  see).  This 
produced  great  agitation  throughout  the  coun- 


KANSAS  AND  NEBRASKA 


732 


try,  and  great  commotion  among  the  settlers  in 
Kansas.  (See  Kansas,  Civil  War  in.)  On  Jan.  29, 
1861,  Kansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a 
state.  During  the  war,  Kansas  furnished  to  the 
National  Army  more  than  20,000  soldiers.  It 


is  very  rapidly  increasing  in  population  and 
wealth.  Its  population  in  1880  was  996,096. 
Much  of  the  state  is  a  fine  grazing  country,  well 
supplied  with  rivers  and  watered  by  numerous 
creeks.  On  its  eastern  border  the  navigable 
Missouri  River  presents  a  water-front  of  almost 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  has  a  coal-hear¬ 
ing  region  which  occupies  the  whole  of  the  east¬ 
ern  part  of  the  state,  and  embraces  about  17,000 
square  miles.  Its  climate  is  beautiful,  and,  prob¬ 
ably,  no  other  Western  state  has  so  many  bright, 
sunny  days.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  a  promi- 


STATE  SEAL  OP  KANSAS. 


nent  industry.  Kansas  is  a  very  attractive  state 
for  enterprising  settlers,  and  promises  to  be  one 
of  the  finest  portions  of  the  Union. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska.  It  was  thought  that 
the  Compromise  measures  of  1850  (see  Omnibus 
Bill)  had  quieted  the  agitation  of  the  slavery 


KANSAS,  CIVIL  WAR  IN 

question  forever.  A  member  from  Georgia  in¬ 
troduced  the  following  resolution  in  Congress  in 
1852 :  “  That  the  series  of  acts  passed  during  the 
first  session  of  the  Thirty-first  Congress,  known 
as  compromises,  are  regarded  as  a  final  adjust¬ 
ment  and  a  permanent  settle¬ 
ment  of  the  questions  therein 
embraced,  and  should  be  main¬ 
tained  and  executed  as  such.” 
Suddenly  the  agitation  of  the 
slavery  question  was  vehe¬ 
mently  aroused.  In  January, 
1854,  Senator  Stephen  A.  Doug¬ 
las,  of  Illinois,  presented  a  hill 
in  the  Senate  for  the  erection 
of  two  vast  territories  in  mid¬ 
continent,  to  be  called,  respec¬ 
tively,  Kansas  and  Nebraska. 
It  provided  for  permitting  the 
inhabitants  of  these  territories 
to  decide  for  themselves  wheth¬ 
er  slavery  should  or  should  nof 
exist  within  their  domains. 
This  proposed  nullification  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise 
(which  see)  produced  rancor¬ 
ous  controversies  in  and  out  of 
Congress,  and  the  people  of  the 
free-lahor  states  became  great¬ 
ly  excited.  After  long  and  hit¬ 
ter  discussions  in  both  Houses 
of  Congress,  the  bill  was  passed,  and  became  a 
law  by  receiving  the  signature  of  the  President, 
May  31,  1854.  From  that  day  the  question  of 
slavery  was  a  subject  of  discussion  and  sectional 
irritation,  until  it  was  abolished  in  1863.  The 
people  of  the  North  thought  they  perceived  in 
this  measure  a  determination  to  make  slavery 
national,  and  the  boast  of  Robert  Toombs,  of 
Georgia,  that  he  would  yet  “  call  the  roll  of  his 
slaves  on  Bunker’s  Hill,”  seemed  likely  not  to 
he  an  illusion. 

Kansas,  Civil  War  in.  The  Kansas-Nebraska 
Act  (see  Kansas  and  Nebraska)  left  all  the  terri¬ 
tories  of  the  United  States  open  to  the  establish¬ 
ment  in  them  of  the  social  institutions  of  every 
state  in  the  Union,  that  of  slavery  among  others. 
It  was  a  virtual  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compro¬ 
mise  (which  see).  The  question  immediately 
arose,  Shall  the  domain  of  the  Republic  be  the 
theatre  of  all  free  or  all  slave  labor,  wi  th  the  corre¬ 
sponding  civilization  of  each  condition  as  a  con¬ 
sequence  ?  This  question  was  succeeded  by  posi¬ 
tive  action  by  the  friends  of  each  labor  system. 
Those  in  favor  of  the  slave  system,  viewing  tho 
willingness  of  those  of  the  free-labor  states  to 
accede  to  the  wishes  of  the  Southern  politicians 
so  as  to  secure  Southern  trade,  felt  confident  that 
their  supremacy  was  secure.  That  party  sound¬ 
ed  the  trumpet  for  battle,  and  the  Territory  of 
Kansas  was  the  chosen  battle-field.  The  Fugi¬ 
tive  Slave  Law  (which  see)  had  created  au  in¬ 
tense  and  wide-spread  feeling  of  hostility  to  sla* 
very  in  the  free-labor  states,  and  when  the  ad¬ 
vocates  of  slavery  began  to  assert  their  exclusive 
right  to  the  government  of  Kansas,  and  thus  cast 
down  the  gauntlet  before  their  opponents,  the 
latter  gladly  took  it  up.  They  resolved  to  carry 


cutting-0 ttt,  may,  1851.  (See  p.  731.) 


KANSAS,  CIVIL  WAR  IN  733  KANSAS,  CIVIL  WAR  IN 


on  tlie  contest  with  the  peaceful  weapons  of  the 
ballot-box.  Suddenly,  emigration  began  to  flow 
in  a  steady,  copious,  and  ever-increasing  stream 
from  the  free-labor  states,  especially  from  New 
England,  into  the  new  territory.  It  soon  became 
evident  that  the  settlers  from  those  states  in 
Kansas  would  soon  outnumber  and  outvote  those 
from  the  slave-labor  states.  The  dominant  pow¬ 
er  in  politics  was  pro-slavery  in  its  proclivities. 
Alarmed  by  this  emigration,  it  proceeded  to  or¬ 
ganize  physical  force  in  Missouri  to  counteract 
the  moral  force  of  its  opponents  if  necessary. 
Combinations  were  formed  under  various  names 
—  “Social  Band,”  “Friends’  Society,”  “Blue 
Lodge,”  “The  Sons  of  the  South,”  etc.  A  pow¬ 
erful  organization  under  the  title  of  the  “Emi¬ 
grant  Aid  Society  ”  had  been  formed  in  Boston 
under  the  sanction  of  the  Legislature  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts  immediately  after  the  passage  of  the 
Kansas  -  Nebraska  Bill  (  May,  1854  ) ;  and  the 
Southern  societies  just  mentioned  were  organ¬ 
ized  to  oppose  this  “Emigrant  Aid  Society.”  At 
a  meeting  at  Westport,  Mo.,  early  in  July,  1854, 
it  was  resolved  that  Missourians  who  formed 
the  associations  represented  there  should  be 
ready  at  all  times  to  assist,  when  called  upon  by 
pro-slavery  citizens  of  Kansas,  in  removing  from 
the  territory  by  force  every  person  who  should 
attempt  to  settle  under  the  auspices  of  the  Emi¬ 
grant  Aid  Society.  Both  parties  planted  the 
seeds  of  their  respective  systems  in  Kausas. 
They  founded  towns :  those  from  the  free-labor 
states  founded  Lawrence,  Topeka,  Boston,  Grass¬ 
hopper  Falls,  Pawnee,  and  oue  or  two  others. 
Those  from  the  slave-labor  states  fouuded  Kick- 
apoo,  Douiphan,  Atchison,  and  others  on  or  near 
the  Missouri  River.  Immediately  after  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  hundreds  of 
Missourians  went  to  Kansas  and  selected  a  tract 
of  land,  and  put  a  mark  upon  it  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  a  sort  of  pre-emption  title  to  it, 
and  at  a  public  meeting  resolved,  “  That  we  will 
afford  protection  to  no  Abolitionist  as  a  settler 
of  this  territory  ;  that  we  recognize  the  institu¬ 
tion  of  slavery  as  already  existing  in  this  terri¬ 
tory,  and  advise  slaveholders  to  introduce  their 
property  as  soon  as  possible.”  The  national  gov¬ 
ernment  appointed  A.  H.  Reeder  governor  of  the 
new  territory.  He  arrived  in  October,  1854, 
and  took  measures  for  the  election  of  a  territo¬ 
rial  legislature.  With  the  close  of  this  election 
(March,  1855),  the  struggle  fbr  supremacy  in 
Kansas  between  the  friends  and  opponents  of 
the  slave  system  began  in  dead  earnest.  The 
pro-slavery  men  had  an  overwhelming  majority 
in  the  Legislature, for  Missourians  had  gone  over 
the  border  by  hundreds  and  voted.  When,  in 
November,  1854,  a  delegate  to  Congress  for  Kan¬ 
sas  was  elected,  of  nearly  2900  votes  cast,  over 
1700  were  put  in  by  Missourians  who  had  no 
right  there.  At  the  election  of  the  Legislature, 
there  were  only  1410  legal  votes  in  the  Territo¬ 
ry  of  Kansas;  but  there  were  6218  votes  polled, 
mostly  illegal  ones  by  Missourians.  Fully  1000 
men  came  from  Missouri,  armed  with  deadly 
weapons,  two  cannons,  tents,  and  other  para¬ 
phernalia  of  war,  led  by  Claiborne  F.  Jackson 
(Governor  of  Missouri  in  1860),  and  encamped 


around  the  little  town  of  Lawrence,  and  in  like 
manner  such  intruders  controlled  every  poll  in 
the  territory.  Then  a  reign  of  terror  was  begun 
in  Kansas.  All  classes  of  men  carried  deadly 
weapons.  The  illegally  chosen  Legislature  met 
at  a  i>oint  on  the  border  of  Missouri,  and  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  enact  barbarous  laws  for  upholding 
slavery  in  the  territory.  These  Governor  Reed¬ 
er  vetoed,  and  they  were  instantly  passed  over 
his  veto.  He  was  so  obnoxious  to  the  pro-sla¬ 
very  party  that,  at  the  request  of  the  latter, 
President  Pierce  removed  him,  and  sent  Wilson 
Shannon,  of  Ohio,  to  fill  his  place.  The  actual 
settlers  in  Kausas,  who  were  chiefly  anti-slavery 
men,  held  a  convention  (Sept.  5,  1855),  when 
they  resolved  not  to  recognize  the  laws  of  the 
illegal  Legislature  as  binding  upon  them.  They 
refused  to  vote  for  a  delegate  to  Congress  at  an 
election  appointed  by  the  Legislature,  and  they 
called  a  delegate  convention  at  Topeka  on  Oct. 
19.  At  that  convention  Governor  Reeder  was 
elected  delegate  to  Congress  by  the  legal  votes 
of  the  territory.  On  the  23d  of  the  same  month, 
another  convention  of  legal  voters  assembled  at 
Topeka  and  framed  a  state  Constitution.  It 
was  approved  by  the  legal  vote  of  the  territory. 
It  made  Kansas  a  free -labor  state,  and  under 
this  Constitution  they  asked  for  admission  into 
the  Union,  as  such.  The  strife  between  freedom 
and  slavery  was  then  transferred  to  the  nation¬ 
al  capital.  Reeder  made  a  contest  for  a  seat  in 
Congress  with  the  delegate  chosen  by  the  illegal 
votes.  Meanwhile,  elections  had  been  held  (Jan. 
17,  1856)  in  Kansas  under  the  legally  adopted 
new  state  Constitution,  and  matters  seemed 
very  dark  for  the  pro-slavery  party  in  Kansas, 
when  President  Pierce,  in  a  message  to  Cougress 
(Jan.  24, 1856),  represented  the  action  of  the  le¬ 
gal  voters  in  the  territory  in  framing  a  state 
Constitution  as  rebellion.  All  through  the  en¬ 
suing  spring  violence  and  bloodshed  prevailed 
in  the  unhappy  territory.  Seeiug  the  determi¬ 
nation  of  the  actual  settlers  to  maintain  their 
rights,  armed  men  flocked  into  the  territory 
from  the  slave -labor  states  and  attempted  to 
coerce  the  inhabitants  into  submission  to  the 
laws  of  the  illegally  chosen  Legislature.  Final¬ 
ly,  Congress  sent  thither  a  committee  of  investi¬ 
gation.  The  majority  reported  (July  1,  1856) 
that  every  election  had  been  controlled  by  citi¬ 
zens  from  Missouri ;  that  the  action  of  the  legal 
voters  of  Kansas  was  valid,  and  that  the  state 
Constitution  was  the  choice  of  the  majority  of 
the  people.  The  canvass  for  a  new  President  was 
now  in  operation,  and  so  absorbed  public  atten¬ 
tion  that  Kansas  had  rest  for  a  while.  James 
Buchanan  was  elected  by  the  Democratic  party. 
At  the  beginning  of  his  administration  the  Died 
Scott  case  (which  see)  greatly  intensified  the 
strife  between  the  pro-slavery  and  anti-slavery 
men,  especially  in  Kansas.  Mr.  Buchanan  fa¬ 
vored  the  views  of  the  pro-slavery  men,  and  his 
strong  support  gave  them,  in  Kansas,  renewed 
courage.  Then  the  opposing  parties  were  work¬ 
ing  with  energy  for  the  admission  of  Kansas  as 
a  state,  with  opposing  ends  in  view.  The  pro¬ 
slavery  party,  in  convention  at  Lecompton  ear¬ 
ly  in  September,  1857,  framed  a  Constitution  in 


734 


KAUTZ’S  RAIDS 


KANSAS,  CIVIL  WAR  IN 

■which  was  a  clause  providing  that  the  “  rights 
of  property  in  slaves  now  in  the  territory  shall 
in  no  mauuer  be  interfered  with,”  and  forbade 
any  amendments  of  the  instrument  until  1864. 
It  was  submitted  to  the  votes  of  the  people  on 
Dec.  21,  but  by  the  terms  of  the  election  law 
passed  by  the  illegal  Legislature,  no  one  might 
vote  against  that  Constitution.  The  vote  was 
taken,  “For  the  Constitution  with  slavery,”  or 
“  For  the  Constitution  without  slavery ;  ”  so,  in 
either  case,  a  Constitution  that  protected  and 
perpetuated  slavery  would  be  voted  for.  Mean¬ 
while,  at  an  election  for  a  territorial  Legislature, 
the  friends  of  free -labor  were  successful,  and 
elected  a  delegate  to  Congress.  The  legally 
elected  Legislature  ordered  the  Lecompton  Con¬ 
stitution  to  be  submitted  to  the  people  for  adop¬ 
tion  or  rejection.  It  was  rejected  by  over  10,000 
majority.  Notwithstanding  this  strong  popular 
condemnation  of  the  Lecompton  Constitution, 
President  Buchanan  sent  it  in  to  Congress  (Feb. 
2, 1858),  wherein  was  a  large  Democratic  major¬ 
ity,  with  a  message  in  which  he  recommended  its 
acceptance  and  ratification.  In  that  message, 
referring  to  the  opinion  of  Chief-justice  Taney, 
the  President  said :  “  It  has  been  solemnly  ad¬ 
judged,  by  the  highest  judicial  tribunal  known 
to  our  laws,  that  slavery  exists  in  Kansas  by 
virtue  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  ; 
Kausas  is,  therefore,  at  this  moment,  as  much  a 
slave  state  as  Georgia  or  South  Carolina.”  The 
Constitution  was  accepted  by  the  Senate  by  a 
vote  of  thirty-two  against  twenty-five,  but  in 
the  House,  a  substitute  offered  by  Senator  John 
J.  Crittenden,  of  Kentucky,  was  adopted,  which 
provided  for  the  resubmission  of  the  Lecompton 
Constitution  to  the  citizens  of  Kansas.  It  was 
done,  and  that  instrument  was  again  rejected 
by  10,000  majority.  The  political  power  in  Kan¬ 
sas  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  opponents  of 
slavery ;  and,  finally,  at  the  close  of  January, 
1861,  that  territory  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  a  free-labor  state,  and  the  thirty-fourth  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  family.  During  the  political  excite¬ 
ment  in  Kansas  there  was  actual  civil  war,  and 
some  blood  was  shed.  Early  in  April,  1856,  arm¬ 
ed  men  from  Southern  States,  under  Colonel  Bu¬ 
ford,  arrived  in  Kansas.  The  United  States  mar¬ 
shal  there  took  Buford’s  men  into  the  pay  of  the 
government,  and  armed  them  with  government 
muskets.  Lawrence  was  again  besieged  (May  5), 
and  on  the  21st  the  inhabitants,  under  a  promise 
of  safety  to  persons  and  property,  wrere  induced 
to  give  up  their  arms  to  the  sheriff.  The  inva¬ 
ders  immediately  entered  the  town,  blew  up  and 
burned  the  hotel,  destroyed  two  printing-offices, 
and  plundered  stores  and  houses.  The  free- 
labor  party  were  furnished  with  arms  from  the 
free-labor  states.  Collisions  occurred,  and  on 
May  26  a  fight  took  place  at  Ossawatamie,  in 
which  the  anti-slavery  men  were  led  by  John 
Brown,  w'here  five  men  w'ere  killed.  There  was 
another  skirmish  at  Black  Jack  (June  2),  which 
resulted  iu  the  capture  of  Captain  Pots  and 
thirty  of  his  men.  Emigrants  from  the  free- 
labor  states,  on  their  way  through  Missouri,  were 
turned  back  by  armed  parties.  On  Aug.  14,  anti- 
slavery  men  captured  a  fort  near  Lecompton,  oc¬ 


cupied  by  Colonel  Titus  with  a  party  of  pro-sla¬ 
very  men,  and  made  prisoners  the  commander 
and  twenty  of  his  men.  On  Aug.  25  the  acting- 
governor  (Woodin)  declared  the  territory  in  a 
state  of  rebellion.  He  and  David  R.  Atchison, 
late  United  States  Senator  from  Missouri,  gath¬ 
ered  a  considerable  force,  and,  on  Aug.  29,  a  de¬ 
tachment  sent  by  the  latter  attacked  Ossawat¬ 
amie,  which  was  defended  by  a  small  band  un¬ 
der  John  Brown.  The  latter  was  defeated,  with 
the  loss  of  two  killed,  five  wounded,  and  seven 
made  prisoners.  The  assailants  lost  five  killed, 
and  thirty  buildings  were  burned.  At  the  an¬ 
nual  election  at  Leavenworth,  a  party  from  Mis¬ 
souri  killed  and  wounded  several  of  the  anti- 
slavery  men,  burned  their  houses,  and  forced 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  embark  for  St. 
Louis.  J.  W.  Geary,  who  had  been  appointed 
governor,  arrived  in  Kansas  early  in  September, 
and  ordered  all  armed  men  to  lay  down  their 
weapons;  but  Missouri  men,  in  number  about 
2000,  and  forming  three  regiments  of  artillery, 
marched  to  attack  Lawrence  under  the  com¬ 
mand  of  a  member  of  the  Missouri  Legislature. 
Geary,  with  United  States  troops,  prevailed  upon 
them  to  desist,  and  near  the  close  of  the  year 
(1856)  he  was  enabled  to  report  that  peace  and 
order  prevailed  in  Kansas. 

Kansas  Indians,  Treaty  with  the.  In 
June,  1825,  the  Kansas  Indians  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  treaty  all  their  lands,  both 
within  and  without  the  limits  of  Missouri,  ex¬ 
cepting  a  reservation  beyond  that  state,  on  the 
Missouri  River,  about  thirty  miles  square,  in¬ 
cluding  their  villages.  In  consideration  for  this 
cession,  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay  $3500  a 
year  for  twenty  years ;  to  furnish  them  imme¬ 
diately  with  300  head  of  cattle,  300  hogs,  500 
fowls,  three  yoke  of  oxen,  and  two  carts,  with 
such  farming  utensils  as  the  Indian  Superin¬ 
tendent  might  deem  necessary ;  also  a  black¬ 
smith,  and  persons  to  aid  and  instruct  them 
in  their  agricultural  pursuits.  This  was  signed 
by  General  William  Clarke  and  twelve  Kansas 
chiefs. 

Kautz,  Augustus  V.,  was  born  at  Baden,  Ger¬ 
many,  Jan.  5,  1828.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  iu  1852.  His  parents,  who  came  to  Amer¬ 
ica  in  the  year  of  his  birth,  settled  in  Ohio. 
He  was  a  private  in  the  Ohio  volunteers  iu  the 
war  with  Mexico.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  made 
a  captain  of  cavalry,  and  did  good  service  as 
colonel  of  cavalry  iu  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Virginia.  He  was  most  active  in  the  campaign 
against  Petersburg  and  Richmond  in  1864.  (See 
Kautz’ s  Raids.)  Mustered  out  of  the  service  iu 
1866,  he  became  judge-advocate  of  the  military 
division  of  the  Gulf.  In  March,  1865,  he  was 
breveted  major-general  for  “  meritorious  services 
during  the  Rebellion.” 

Kautz’s  Raids.  When,  early  in  May,  the 
Army  of  the  James  went  up  the  Appomattox, 
General  A.  V.  Kautz,  with  three  thousand  Na¬ 
tional  cavalry,  moved  from  Suffolk,  on  the  south 
of  the  James  River,  to  cut  the  Weldon  Railway 
south  of  Petersburg,  over  which  Beauregard 
was  sending  troops  from  Charleston  to  assist 


KEARNEY 


735  KENESAW  MOUNTAINS,  EVENTS  NEAR 


Lee  in  Virginia.  Kautz  struck  the  roacl  at  Sto¬ 
ny  Creek,  some  distance  south  of  Petersburg, 
•where  he  burned  the  railway  bridge.  Before  he 
reached  the  road  most  of  Beauregard’s  forces 
had  passed  over  it,  and  filled  the  city  of  Peters¬ 
burg  with  armed  men.  Kautz  made  a  circuit, 
and  joined  the  Nationals  at  Bermuda  Hundred. 
He  left  camp  on  May  12  on  another  similar  raid. 
Passing  up  near  Drewry’s  Bluff,  he  moved  on  an 
•arc  of  a  circle  by  Chesterfield  Court-house  and 
struck  the  Richmond  and  Danville  Railway 
eleven  miles  west  of  the  Confederate  capital. 
He  struck  it  again  at  Powhatan ;  menaced  the 
railway  bridge  over  the  Appomattox,  which  was 
strongly  guarded ;  swept  around  eastward  and 
struck  the  road  again  at  Chula  Station ;  and 
then,  with  a  part  of  his  command,  he  crossed  to 
the  Southside  Railway  at  White  and  Black  Sta¬ 
tion,  while  the  remainder  went  on  to  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  Danville  and  Southside  roads. 
Turning  eastward,  the  whole  troop  swept  down 
to  the  North  Carolina  line,  destroying  the  Wel¬ 
don  Road  at  Jarratt’s  Station,  and,  passing 
Prince  George’s  Court-house,  took  to  City  Point 
one  hundred  and  fifty  prisoners,  of  whom  thir¬ 
teen  were  officers.  These  raids  occurred  iu  1864. 

Kearny,  Lawrence,  United  States  Navy, 
was  born  at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Nov.  30,  1789 ; 
died  there,  Nov.  29, 1868.  He  eutered  the  navy 
in  1807,  performed  important  services  on  the 
coast  of  South  Carolina  and  adjoining  states 
during  the  War  of  1812-15,  and  after  the  war, 
in  command  of  the  schooner  Enterprise,  assisted 
with  efficiency  in  ridding  the  West  Indies  and 
Gulf  of  Mexico  of  pirates.  He  also,  in  the  War¬ 
ren,  drove  the  Greek  pirates  from  the  Levant  in 
1827,  and  broke  up  their  nests.  In  command 
of  the  East  India  squadron  in  1851,  he  secured 
from  the  Chinese  authorities  the  recognition  of 
the  right  of  Americans  to  trade  there,  and  the 
same  protection  and  facilities  to  our  merchants 
as  were  about  being  granted  by  treaty  to  Great 
Britain. 

Kearny,  Philip,  was  born  iu  New  York  City, 
June  2,  1815;  killed  iu  battle  near  Chantilly, 
Va.,  Sept.  1,  1862.  He  studied  law,  but,  prefer¬ 
ring  the  military  profession,  entered  the  army 
at  twenty -two  years  of  age  as  lieutenant  of 
dragoons.  Soon  afterwards  the  government 
sent  him  to  Europe  to  study  and  report  upon 
French  cavalry  tactics.  While  there  he  fought 
in  the  French  army  in  Africa  as  a  volunteer, 
and  returned  iu  1840  with  the  cross  of  the  Le¬ 
gion  of  Honor.  Aid  to  General  Scott  (1841-44), 
he  was  made  captain  in  the  United  States  Army, 
and  served  on  the  staff  of  Scott  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  receiving  great  applause.  Near  the  city 
of  Mexico  he  lost  his  left  arm  in  battle.  After 
serving  a  campaign  on  the  Pacific  coast  against 
the  Indians,  he  went  to  Europe,  and  served  on 
the  staff  of  the  French  general  Manlier  in  the 
Italian  War  (1859).  He  received  from  the  French 
government  a  second  decoration  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor.  He  hastened  home  when  the  Civil 
War  broke  out ;  was  made  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  just  after  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run, 
and  commanded  a  brigade  of  New  Jersey  troops 


in  Franklin’s  division,  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
He  commanded  a  division  in  Heintzelman’s 
corps,  and  behaved  gallantly  during  the  Penin¬ 
sular  campaign.  Kearny  was  made  major-gen- 


PHILIP  KEARNY. 


eral  of  volunteers  in  J uly,  1862.  He  was  the  first 
to  reinforce  Pope,  and  was  engaged  in  the  bat¬ 
tles  between  the  Rappahannock  and  Washing¬ 
ton,  from  Aug.  25  to  Sept.  1. 

Kearny,  Stephen  Watts,  brother  of  Philip, 
was  born  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Aug.  30,  1794 ;  died 
in  St.  Louis,  Oct.  31,  1848.  When  the  War  of 
1812-15  broke  out,  youug  Kearuy  left  his  stud¬ 
ies  at  Columbia  College,  entered  the  army  as 
lieutenant  of  infantry,  and  distinguished  him¬ 
self  in  the  battle  of  Queenston  Heights.  In  April, 
1813,  he  was  made  captain,  and  rose  to  briga¬ 
dier-general  in  June,  1846.  He  was  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  West  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war  with  Mexico,  and  with  that  army  marched 
to  California,  conquering  New  Mexico  on  the 
way.  He  established  a  provisional  government 
at  Santa  F6,  pressed  on  to  California,  and  was 
twice  wounded  in  battle.  For  a  few  mouths  in 
1847  he  was  Governor  of  California;  joined  the 
army  iu  Mexico  ;  in  March,  1848,  was  Governor, 
military  and  civil,  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  in  May  of 
the  same  year  was  made  Governor  of  the  city 
of  Mexico.  In  August,  1848,  he  was  breveted 
major-general. 

Keith,  George,  was  born  at  Aberdeen,  Scot¬ 
land  ;  died  rector  of  Edbnrton,  Sussex,  England, 
about  1710.  He  belonged  to  the  Society  of 
Friends,  or  Quakers ;  came  to  East  Jersey,  was 
surveyor -general  in  1682,  and  in  1689  taught 
school  in  Philadelphia.  He  wrote  and  spoke 
much  in  favor  of  the  Quakers,  and  visited  New 
England  in  their  interest;  but  about  1691  he 
established  a  sect  who  called  themselves  “Chris¬ 
tian  Quakers.”  Keith  was  irritable,  quarrel¬ 
some,  and  imperious.  He  finally  left  the  Qua¬ 
kers  altogether,  and  took  orders  iu  the  Church 
of  England. 

Kenesaw  Mountains  (Ga.),  Events  near. 
General  Johnston,  pursued  hy  General  Sherman, 
after  evacuating  Allatoona  Pass  (see  Allatoona 


736 


KENTON 


KENT  ISLAND,  COLONY  ON 

Pass  and  Marietta),  took  a  stand.  At  his  hack 
were  the  Big  and  Little  Kenesaw  mountains, 
within  three  miles  of  Marietta.  With  these,  ly¬ 
ing  close  together,  Lost  and  Pine  mountains 
formed  a  triangle.  Confederate  batteries  cov¬ 
ered  their  summits,  and  on  the  top  of  each  Con¬ 
federate  signal-stations  were  placed.  Thousands 
of  men  were  busy  in  the  forest  casting  up  in- 
trenchmeuts  from  base  to  base  of  these  rugged 
hills  in  preparation  for  a  great  struggle.  Sher¬ 
man  advanced  to  Big  Shanty,  and  there  made 
preparations  to  break  through  the  Confederate 
works  between  Kenesaw  and  Pine  mountains. 
Hooker  was  on  the  right  and  front  of  his  line, 
Howard  was  on  his  left  and  front,  and  Palmer 
between  it  and  the  railway.  Under  a  heavy 
cannonade,  the  advance  began,  June  14,  1864. 
The  Nationals  pushed  over  the  rough  country, 
fighting  at  almost  every  step.  That  night  the 
Confederates  abandoned  Pine  Mountain,  and 
took  position  in  the  intrenchments  between 
Kenesaw  and  Lost  mountains.  Upon  the  latter 
eminence  the  Nationals  advanced  in  a  heavy 
rain-storm,  and  on  the  17th  the  Confederates 
abandoned  Lost  Mountain  and  the  long  line  of 
intrenchments  connecting  it  with  Kenesaw. 
Sherman  continually  pressed  them  heavily,  skir¬ 
mishing  in  dense  forests,  furrowed  with  ravines 
aud  tangled  with  viues.  From  the  top  of  Ken¬ 
esaw  Johnston  could  see  the  movements  of  the 
Nationals,  aud  from  batteries  on  its  summit 
could  hurl  plunging  shot.  The  antagonists  strug¬ 
gled  on  ;  and  fiually  General  Hood  sallied  out  of 
the  Confederate  intrenchments  with  a  strong 
force  to  break  through  Sherman’s  line  between 
Thomas  and  Schofield.  He  was  received  with  a 
terrible  return  blow,  which  made  him  recoil  in 
great  confusion,  leaving,  in  his  retreat,  his  killed, 
wounded,  and  many  prisoners.  This  struggle 
is  known  in  history  as  the  battle  of  the  Kulp 
House.  This  repulse  inspirited  the  Nationals. 
On  the  27th  (June)  they  made  a  furious  assault 
on  the  Confederate  lines  at  two  points  south  of 
Kenesaw  to  break  them,  separate  their  forces, 
and  destroy  their  army.  The  Nationals  were 
repulsed,  with  an  aggregate  loss  of  about  three 
thousand  men.  Among  the  killed  were  Generals 
C.  G.  Harker  and  D  McCook,  and  many  valua¬ 
ble  officers  of  lower  grade  were  wounded.  The 
loss  of  the  Confederates,  behind  their  breast¬ 
works,  was  slight.  Sherman  now  disposed  his 
troops  so  as  to  seriously  threaten  Johnston’s 
rear.  Turner’s  Ferry  across  the  Chattahoochee 
was  menaced,  and  the  intended  effect  was  in¬ 
stantaneous.  On  the  night  of  July  2  Johnston 
abandoned  Kenesaw  and  all  his  intrenchments, 
and  when,  at  dawn  (July  3),  the  Nationals  stood 
on  the  crest  of  that  mountain,  they  saw  the  Con¬ 
federates  flying  through  and  beyond  Marietta 
towards  the  Chattahoochee,  in  the  direction  of 
Atlanta.  Sherman  pursued,  but  Johnston  es¬ 
caped  across  the  Chattahoochee,  after  confront¬ 
ing  his  pursuers  at  a  line  of  intrenchments  has¬ 
tily  thrown  up.  Before  the  Nationals  now  flowed 
a  deep  and  rapid  stream,  and  on  the  opposite 
side  thousands  of  men  were  piling  up  military 
works  to  oppose  their  passage.  (See  Atlanta.) 

Kent  Island  (Chesapeake  Bay),  Colony  on. 


In  May,  1631,  King  Charles  I.  granted  a  license 
to  William  Clayborne  “to  traffic  in  those  parts 
of  America  for  which  there  was  already  no  pat¬ 
ent  granted  for  sole  trade.”  With  the  intention 
of  monopolizing  the  Indian  trade  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  Clayborne  and  his  associates  planted  a 
small  colony  on  Kent  Island,  situated  iu  the  cen¬ 
tre  of  the  Province  of  Maryland,  soon  after¬ 
wards  granted  to  Lord  Baltimore.  This  grant 
aud  settlement  gave  much  trouble  to  the  pro¬ 
prietor  of  Maryland  and  the  settlers  there  under 
his  patent.  (See  Clayborne.) 

Kent,  James,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  jurist,  was 
born  at  Phillipstown,  Putnam  Co.,  N.  Y.,  July 
31,  1763;  died  iu  New  York  city,  Dec.  12,  1847. 
He  studied  law  with  Egbert  Benson,  and  be- 
gau  its  practice  in  1787  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 


JAMES  KENT. 


He  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Legislature 
from  1790  to  1793,  and  became  professor  of  law 
iu  Columbia  College  in  1793.  Deeply  versed  in 
the  doctrine  of  civil  law,  he  was  made  a  master 
in  chancery  in  1796,  city  recorder  in  1797,  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1798,  chief-justice  in 
1804,  and  was  chancellor  from  1814  to  1823.  Af¬ 
ter  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  State  Constitu¬ 
tional  Convention  in  1821,  he  again  became  law 
professor  in  Columbia  College,  and  the  lectures 
he  there  delivered  form  the  basis  of  his  able 
Commentaries  on  the  United  States  Constitution, 
published  in  four  volumes.  He  was  one  of  the 
clearest  legal  writers  of  his  day.  Iu  1828  he 
was  elected  President  of  the  New  York  Histori¬ 
cal  Society.  He  passed  his  later  years  in  revis¬ 
ing  and  enlarging  his  Commentaries  and  in  giv¬ 
ing  opinions  on  legal  subjects. 

Kenton,  Simon,  a  Western  pioneer,  was  born 
in  Fauquier  County,  Va.,  April  3, 1755;  died  iu 
Logan  County,  O.,  April  29, 1836.  Supposing  he 
had  killed  in  an  affray  a  rival  in  a  love  affair 
when  he  was  sixteen  years  old,  he  fled  to  the 
wilderness  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains, 
where  he  was  the  friend  and  companion  of  Dan¬ 
iel  Boone  in  many  daring  feats.  He  was  in  ex¬ 
peditions  against  the  Indians,  was  captured  by 
them,  and  taken  to  Detroit.  Escaping  from 
a  British  prison  there  in  1779,  he  distinguished 
himself  in  resisting  the  invasion  of  Kentucky  by 


KENTUCKY  NEUTRALITY 


737  KENTUCKY,  POSITION  OF 


the  British  and  Indians  in  that  year.  Finally, 
after  an  expedition  against  the  barbarians  on 
the  Miami,  he  settled  (1784)  near  Maysville. 


SIMON  KENTON. 


He  accompanied  Wayne  in  his  expedition  in 
1794.  In  1805  he  was  seated  near  the  Mud  Riv¬ 
er,  O.,  and  was  made  brigadier-general  of  mili¬ 
tia.  In  1813  he  served  under  Governor  Shelby 
at  the  battle  of  the  Thames  (which  see).  Beg¬ 
gared  by  lawsuits  because  of  defective  titles  to 
lauds,  he  lived  in  penury  many  years.  In  1824 
he  appeared  at  Frankfort, Ky., in  tattered  clothes, 
and  successfully  appealed  to  the  Legislature  to 
release  the  claim  of  the  state  to  lands  which 
were  his.  Congress  afterwards  allowed  him  a 
pension. 

Kentucky  Neutrality.  The  position  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Kentucky  at  the  breaking-out  of 
the  Civil  War  was  peculiar  and  painful.  The 
governor  had  responded  to  the  President’s  call 
for  troops  in  insulting  words,  and  was  followed 
by  tierce  denunciations  of  the  government  pol¬ 
icy  by  the  Louisville  Journal,  the  leading  paper 
in"  the  state.  These  were  followed  by  a  great 
Union  meeting  in  Louisville  on  the  evening  of 
April  18,  over  which  Janies  Guthrie  (see  Peace 
Convention )  and  other  leading  politicians  of  the 
state  held  controlling  influence.  At  that  meet¬ 
ing  it  was  resolved  that  Kentucky  reserved  to 
herself  “the  right  to  choose  her  own  position; 
and  that,  while  her  natural  sympathies  are  with 
those  who  have  a  common  interest  in  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  slavery,  she  still  acknowledges  her 
loyalty  and  fealty  to  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  which  she  will  cheerfully  render 
until  that  government  becomes  aggressive,  tyrannical, 
and  regardless  of  our  rights  in  slave  property” 
They  declared  that  the  states  were  the  peers  of 
the  national  government,  and  gave  the  world 
to  understand  that  the  latter  should  not  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  use  “sanguinary  or  coercive  measures 
to  bring  back  the  seceded  states.”  They  al¬ 
luded  to  the  “Kentucky  State  Guard”  (which 
see)  as  the  “bulwark  of  the  safety  of  the  com¬ 
monwealth,  .  .  .  pledged  equally  to  fidelity  to 
the  United  States  and  to  Kentucky.”  This 
avowal  of  peculiar  neutrality —  of  conditional 
I.— 47 


Unionism  —  delighted  the  enemies  of  the  Re¬ 
public. 

Kentucky  Neutrality  Violated.  Early  in 
the  summer  of  1861  the  Governor  of  Kentucky 
declared  that  arrangements  had  been  made  that 
neither  National  nor  Confederate  troops  should 
set  foot  on  the  soil  of  that  state.  The  neutral¬ 
ity  of  Kentucky  was  respected  many  months, 
and  so  the  purposes  of  the  governor  of  that 
state  and  of  Tennessee  were  promoted,  for  it 
gave  them  time  to  prepare  for  war.  Pillow  had 
urged  the  seizure  of  the  bluff  at  Columbus,  in 
western  Kentucky,  as  an  aid  to  him  in  his  at¬ 
tempt  to  capture  Cairo  and  Bird’s  Point,  but  the 
solemn  assurance  of  the  Confederate  govern¬ 
ment  that  Kentucky  neutrality  should  be  re¬ 
spected  restrained  him  ;  but  on  Sept.  4,  General 
(Bishop)  Polk,  with  a  considerable  force,  seized 
the  strong  position  at  Columbus,  under  the  pre¬ 
text  that  National  forces  were  preparing  to  oc¬ 
cupy  that  place.  The  Confederate  Secretary  of 
War  publicly  telegraphed  to  Polk  to  withdraw 
his  troops;  President  Davis  privately  tele¬ 
graphed  to  him  to  hold  on,  saying,  “The  end 
justifies  the  means.”  So  Columbus  was  held 
and  fortified  by  the  Confederates.  General 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  then  in  command  of  the  dis¬ 
trict  at  Cairo,  took  military  possession  of  Pa¬ 
ducah,  in  northern  Kentucky,  w'ith  National 
troops,  and  the  neutrality  of  Kentucky  was  no 
longer  respected.  The  seizure  of  Columbus 
opened  the  way  for  the  infliction  upon  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  that  state  of  the  horrors  of  war.  All  Ken¬ 
tucky,  for  one  hundred  miles  south  of  the  Ohio 
River,  wras  made  a  military  department,  with 
General  Robert  Anderson,  the  hero  of  Fort  Sum¬ 
ter,  for  its  commander. 

Kentucky  Ordinance  of  Secession.  Gen¬ 
eral  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  formerly  an  officer 
in  the  United  States  Army,  was  in  command  of 
the  Confederate  “  Western  Department,”  which 
included  southern  and  western  Kentucky,  then 
held  by  the  insurgents,  and  the  State  of  Ten¬ 
nessee,  with  his  headquarters  at  Nashville.  Un¬ 
der  the  shadow  of  his  power  the  Secessionists 
of  Kentucky  met  in  convention  at  Russellville, 
the  capital  of  Logan  County,  Oct.  29, 1861.  They 
drew  up  a  manifesto  in  which  the  grievances  of 
Kentucky  were  recited,  and  the  action  of  the 
loyal  Legislature  was  denounced.  They  passed 
an  ordinance  of  secession,  declared  the  state  in¬ 
dependent,  organized  a  provisional  government, 
chose  George  W.  Johnson  Provisional  Governor, 
appointed  delegates  to  the  Confederate  Congress 
at  Richmond,  and  called  Bowling  Green  the 
state  capital.  Fifty-one  counties  were  repre¬ 
sented  in  that  “Sovereignty  Convention”  by 
about  two  hundred  men,  without  the  sanction 
of  the  people. 

Kentucky,  Position  of  (1861).  This  was  a 
border  state  of  great  importance,  having  a  pop¬ 
ulation,  in  1860,  of  1,155,713,  of  whom  225,483 
were  slaves.  The  people  were  strongly  attach¬ 
ed  to  the  Union,  but  its  governor  (Beriah  Ma¬ 
goffin)  and  leading  politicians  of  his  party  in 
the  state  sympathized  with  the  Secessionists. 
The  action  of  Kentucky  was  awaited  with  great 


KENTUCKY,  SETTLEMENTS  IN  738  KENTUCKY,  STATE  OF 


anxiety  throughout  the  Union.  The  governor 
at  tirst  opposed  secession,  for  the  people  were 
decidedly  hostile  to  revolutionary  movements 
in  the  Gulf  region ;  yet  they  as  decidedly  op¬ 
posed  what  the  sophists  called  the  “  coercion 
of  a  sovereign  state.”  At  a  state  convention  of 
“  Union  and  Douglas  men,”  held  on  Jan.  8, 1861, 
it  was  resolved  that  the  rights  of  Kentucky 
should  be  maintained  in  the  Union.  They  were 
in  favor  of  a  convention  of  t lie  free-labor  and 
slave-labor  border  states  to  decide  upon  just 
compromises,  and  declared  their  willingness  to 
support  the  National  government,  unless  the  in¬ 
coming  President  should  attempt  to  “  coerce  a 
state  or  states.”  The  Legislature,  which  assem¬ 
bled  at  about  the  same  time,  was  asked  by  the 
governor  to  declare,  by  resolution,  the  “uncon¬ 
ditional  disapprobation  ”  of  the  people  of  the 
state  of  the  employment  of  force  against  “se¬ 
ceding  states  ”  On  Jan.  22  the  Legislature  ac¬ 
cordingly  resolved  that  the  Kentuckians,  united 
with  their  brethren  of  the  South,  would  resist 
any  invasion  of  the  soil  of  that  section  at  all  haz¬ 
ards  and  to  the  last  extremity.  This  action  was 
taken  because  the  legislatures  of  several  free- 
labor  states  had  ottered  troops  for  the  use  of  the 
National  government  in  enforcing  the  laws  in 
“  seceding  states.”  They  decided  against  call¬ 
ing  a  convention,  and  appointed  delegates  to 
the  Peace  Congress.  A  little  later  the  public 
authorities  and  other  leading  men  of  the  state 
endeavored  to  give  to  it  a  position  of  absolute 
neutrality.  (See  Kentucky  Neutrality.) 

Kentucky,  Settlements  in.  The  precari¬ 
ous  tenure  by  which  places  that  were  settled  in 
Kentucky  by  Boone  and  others  were  held,  while 
the  land  was  subjected  to  bloody  incursions  by 
barbarians,  was  changed  after  George  Rogers 
Clarke’s  incursions  into  Ohio  had  made  the 
tribes  there  no  longer  invaders  of  the  soil  south 
of  that  river.  The  number  of  “stations”  began 
to  multiply.  A  block-house  was  built  (April, 
1779)  on  the  site  of  the  city  of  Lexington.  By 
a  law  of  Virginia  (May,  1779),  all  persons  who 
had  settled  west  of  the  mountains  before  June, 
1778,  were  entitled  to  claim  four  hundred  acres 
of  land,  without  any  payment;  and  they  had  a 
right  of  pre-emption  to  an  adjoining  one  thou¬ 
sand  acres  for  a  very  small  sum  of  money,  while 
the  whole  region  between  the  Greene  and  Ten¬ 
nessee  rivers  was  reserved  for  military  bounties. 
Settlements  quite  rapidly  increased  under  this 
liberal  Virginia  land  system,  and  fourteen  years 
after  its  passage  Kentucky  had  a  population 
that  entitled  it  to  admission  into  the  Union  as 
a  state. 

Kentucky  State  Guard.  This  corps  was 
organized  by  Governor  Magoffin  for  the  osten¬ 
sible  purpose  of  defending  Kentucky — against 
what?  Simon  B.  Buckner,  a  captain  in  the 
United  States  Army,  and  then  evidently  in  the 
secret  service  of  the  Confederate  government, 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  “  guard,”  using  his 
position  effectively  in  seducing  large  numbers 
of  the  members  from  their  allegiance  to  the  old 
flag,  and  in  sending  recruits  to  the  Confederate 
army.  At  the  same  time  the  governor  tried  to 


induce  the  Legislature  to  appropriate  $3,000,000 
to  be  used  by  himself  and  Buckner  in  “arming 
the  state.”  This  was  refused;  but  the  Lower 
House  approved  of  the  governor’s  refusal  to  fur¬ 
nish  troops  to  the  National  government.  He 
issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality,  which  not 
only  forbade  the  United  States  and  the  Confeder¬ 
ate  States  “invading  the  soil  of  Kentucky,”  but 
also  forbade  the  citizens  of  Kentucky  making 
“any  hostile  demonstrations  against  any  of  the 
aforesaid  sovereignties.”  The  Legislature  re¬ 
quired  the  “State  Guard”  to  swear  allegiance 
to  the  United  States,  as  well  as  to  Kentucky. 
As  Buckner  could  not  allow7  his  “  guard  ”  to  take 
this  oath,  it  was  not  long  before  he  led  a  barge 
portion  of  them  into  the  Confederate  camp,  and 
became  a  major-general  in  the  Confederate 
army.  Then  the  Louisville  Journal,  which  had 
denounced  the  President’s  call  for  troops  in 
unmeasured  terms  of  severity,  cursed  the  com¬ 
mander  of  the  “Kentucky  State  Guard”  as  one 
of  the  worst  of  traitors.  “You  are  the  Bene¬ 
dict  Arnold  of  the  day!”  it  said.  “You  are  the 
Catiline  of  Kentucky  !  Go,  thou  miscreant !” 
And  when,  in  February,  1862,  Buckner  was  made 
a  prisouer  at  Fort  Donelson,  and  sent  to  Fort 
Warren,  in  Boston  harbor,  many  of  those  who 
had  regarded  his  “State  Guard”  as  “the  bul¬ 
wark  of  the  commonwealth”  were  clamorous 
for  his  delivery  to  the  civil  authorities  of  Ken¬ 
tucky  to  be  tried  for  treason  against  the  state. 

Kentucky,  State  of*  In  1776  Kentucky  was 
made  a  county  of  Virginia,  and  in  1777  the  first 
court  was  held  at  Harrodsburg.  Conventions 
held  at  Danville  in  1784-85  recommended  a 
peaceable  and  constitutional  separation  from 
Virginia.  In  1786  au  act  was  passed  by  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  Legislature  complying  with  the  desires  of 
Kentucky.  There  was  delay  in  consummating 
the  change.  Other  conventions  were  held  urging 
the  matter.  In  1790  Kentucky  became  a  sepa¬ 
rate  territory,  and 
on  June  1,  1792,  it 
was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  state. 
Its  population  at 
that  time  was  about 
seventy- five  thou¬ 
sand.  For  several 
years  much  uneasi¬ 
ness  was  felt  among 
the  people  of  Ken¬ 
tucky  on  account  of 
Indian  depredations 
and  the  cloudiness 
of  the  political  skies,  for  the  great  questions  of 
the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River  and 
the  ultimate  possession  of  Louisiana  were  un¬ 
settled.  These  were  settled  satisfactorily  by 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana  in  1803.  During  the 
War  of  1812  Kentucky  took  an  active  part, 
sending  full  seven  thousand  men  to  the  field; 
and  after  that  war  the  state  was  undisturbed 
by  any  stirring  events  until  the  breaking-out 
of  the  Civil  War  in  1861.  Its  progress  was  rap¬ 
id.  A  second  constitution  took  effect  in  1800, 
and  continued  in  force  until  the  adoption  of  the 
present  one  in  1850.  At  the  beginning  of  the 


STATE  SEAL  OF  KENTUCKY. 


739 


KICKAPOOS 


KERNSTOWN,  BATTLE  AT 


Civil  War  Kentucky  assumed  a  position  of  neu¬ 
trality,  but  it  was  really  one  of  hostility  to  the 
Union.  The  governor  refused  to  comply  with 
the  President’s  requisition  for  troops ;  but  Lieu¬ 
tenant  William  Nelson,  of  the  navy,  a  native  of 
the  state,  and  then  on  ordnance  duty  at  Wash¬ 
ington,  began  to  recruit  for  the  National  army; 
and  towards  the  close  of  July,  1861,  he  estab¬ 
lished  “  Camp  Dick  Robinson,”  in  Garrard  Coun¬ 
ty,  for  the  organization  of  Kentucky  volunteers. 
'These  flocked  to  this  camp  and  to  other  recruit¬ 
ing  stations.  A  great  majority  of  the  people 
were  loyal  to  the  Union,  but  the  governor  was 
not,  and  the  unfortunate  position  of  neutrality 
which  the  latter,  with  the  Secessionists,  caused 
Kentucky  to  assume  brought  upon  her  the  mis¬ 
eries  of  civil  war.  (See  Kentucky  Neutrality.) 
Steps  were  taken  for  the  secession  of  the  state, 
and  for  the  organization  of  a  Confederate  state 
government,  but  failed.  (See  Kentucky  Ordinance 
of  Secession,  and  Kentucky,  Position  of.)  The  state 
was  scarred  by  battles,  invasions,  and  raids,  and 
martial  law  was  proclaimed  by  President  Lin¬ 
coln,  July  5,  1864.  The  civil  authority  was  re¬ 
stored  Oct.  18, 1865.  The  Legislature  refused  to 
ratify  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  national 
Constitution.  Population  in  1880,  1,648,690. 

Kernstown,  Battle  at.  When  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  was  transferred  to  the  Virginia 
peninsula,  early  in  1862,  it  was  necessary  to  hold 
the  Confederates  in  check  in  the  Shenandoah 
valley  (where  they  were  led  by  “Stonewall” 
Jackson),  in  order  to  secure  Washington  city. 
General  Lander,  who  had  struck  Jackson  a 
sharp  blow  at  Blooming  Gap  (which  see),  had 
died,  and  was  succeeded  in  command  by  General 
Shields.  Banks  was  then  (February,  1862)  in 
command  of  the  Fifth  Corps.  He  sent  Colonel 
Geary  to  reoccupy  Harper’s  Ferry,  and  took 
command  there  in  person  late  in  that  month. 
He  pushed  Jackson  back  to  Winchester,  where 
he  was  posted  with  about  eight  thousand  men, 
when  Johnston  evacuated  Manassas,  early  in 
March.  Then  he  retired  up  the  valley,  pursued 
by  Shields,  who  produced  great  consternation 
among  the  Secessionists.  Shields  found  his  an¬ 
tagonist  too  strong  to  warrant  an  attack,  and 
fell  back  to  Winchester,  closely  pursued  by  cav¬ 
alry  under  Colonel  Ashby.  Banks  repaired  to 
Manassas  after  its  evacuation,  leaving  Shields 
to  guard  the  Shenandoah  valley.  Near  Win¬ 
chester  he  had  nearly  seven  thousand  men  (part 
of  them  cavalry)  and  twenty -four  guns  well 
posted  half  a  mile  north  of  the  village  of  Kerns¬ 
town  and  two  and  a  half  miles  south  of  Win¬ 
chester.  On  March  22  Ashby’s  cavalry  drove 
in  Shields’s  pickets.  Under  cover  of  night, 
Shields  pushed  on  some  troops,  under  Colonel 
Kimball,  to  Kernstown.  A  sharp  and  severe 
battle  ensued,  in  which  Shields  was  badly 
wounded.  The  Confederates  were  repulsed  at 
all  points,  and  fled  up  the  valley,  closely  pur¬ 
sued  by  Banks,  who  remained  in  that  region  to 
watch  the  insurgents,  while  McClellan  should 
move  on  Richmond. 

Kettle  Creek,  Battle  of.  Nearly  eight  hun¬ 
dred  North  and  South  Carolina  Tories,  led  by 


Colonel  Boyd,  started  to  join  the  British  at  Au¬ 
gusta  in  February,  1779,  desolating  the  upper 
country  of  the  latter  state  on  the  way.  When 
within  two  days’  march  of  Augusta  they  were 
attacked  (Feb.  14),  at  Kettle  Creek,  by  Colonel 
Andrew  Pickens,  with  the  militia  of  Ninety-six, 
and,  after  a  sharp  fight,  were  defeated.  Boyd 
and  seventy  of  his  men  were  killed,  and  seventy- 
five  were  made  prisoners.  Pickens  lost  thirty- 
eight  men. 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  author  of  The  Star-Span¬ 
gled  Banner,  was  born  in  Frederick  County,  Md., 
Aug.  1,  1779 ;  died  in  Baltimore,  Jan.  11,  1843. 
He  was  a  lawyer  and  poet,  and,  removing  to 
Washington,  D.  C.,  he  became  district  attorney. 
A  collection  of  his  poems  was  published  after 
his  death.  (See  Star-Spangled  Banner.) 

Keyes,  Erasmus  Darwin,  was  born  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Mass.,  May  29,  1811.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1832,  entered  the  artillery,  and 
was  made  assistant  adjutant,  with  rank  of  cap¬ 
tain,  in  1838.  Becoming  captain  in  1841,  he  was 
appointed  instructor  of  artillery  and  cavalry  at 
West  Point  in  1844.  He  did  service  against  the 
Indians  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  when  the  Civil 
War  broke  out  he  was  appointed  (May,  1861) 
colonel  of  infantry  and  brigadier-general  of  vol¬ 
unteers.  At  the  battle  of  Bull’s  Run,  in  July, 
he  commanded  the  First  Brigade  in  Tyler’s  di¬ 
vision.  Early  in  1862  he  was  appointed  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Fourth  Corps  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  won  the  rank  of  major-general  of 
volunteers  and  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general 
United  States  Army  by  his  conduct  in  the  pen¬ 
insular  campaign.  He  resigned  May  6, 1864. 

Key-  stone  State.  A  popular  title  for  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  supposed  to  have  been 
given  because  of  its  central  position  among  the 
original  thirteen  states  at  the  time  of  the  for¬ 
mation  of  the  national  Constitution.  In  an 
arch  formed  by  the  thirteen  states  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  would,  from  its  geographical  position,  form 
the  key-stone.  The  early  certificates  of  mem¬ 
bership  of  the  Tammany  Society  have  an  arch 
composed  of  the  states,  of  which  Pennsylvania 
is  the  key-stone. 

Kickapoos,  an  Algonquin  tribe  found  by  the 
French  missionaries,  towards  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  on  the  Wisconsin  River. 
They  were  great  rovers ;  were  closely  allied  to 
the  Miamis;  and  in  1712  joined  the  Foxes  in  an 
attack  upon  Detroit,  and  in  wars  long  after¬ 
wards.  They  were  reduced  in  1747  to  about 
eighty  warriors,  and  when  the  English  conquer¬ 
ed  Canada  in  1763  there  were  about  one  hun¬ 
dred  Kickapoos  on  the  Wabash.  They  joined 
Pontiac  in  his  conspiracy,  but  soon  made  peace  ; 
and  in  1779  they  joined  George  Rogers  Clarke 
in  his  expedition  against  the  British  in  the 
Northwest.  Showing  hostility  to  the  Ameri¬ 
cans,  their  settlement  on  the  Wabash  was  deso¬ 
lated  in  1791 ;  but  they  were  not  absolutely  sub¬ 
dued  until  the  treaty  at  Greenville  in  1795,  after 
Wayne’s  decisive  victory,  when  they  ceded  a 
part  of  their  land  for  a  small  annuity.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  present  century  the  Kickapoos 
made  other  cessions  of  territory ;  and  in  1811 


KIDD 


740 


KIEFT 


they  joined  Tecumtha  and  fought  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  at  Tippecanoe.  In  the  War  of  1812  they 
were  the  friends  of  the  English  ;  and  afterwards 
a  larger  portion  of  them  crossed  the  Mississippi 
and  seated  themselves  upon  a  tract  of  land  on 
the  Osage  River.  Some  cultivated  the  soil, 
while  others  went  southward  as  far  as  Texas, 
in  roving  bands,  plundering  on  all  sides.  For 
some  time  Texas  suffered  by  these  inroads;  but 
in  1854  some  of  them,  peaceably  inclined,  settled 
in  Kansas,  when,  becomiug  dissatisfied,  many  of 
them  went  off  to  Mexico,  where  they  opposed 
the  depredations  of  the  Apaches.  Most  of  the 
tribe  find  a  home  in  the  Indian  Territory  west 
of  Arkansas,  and  no  louger  count  themselves 
warriors. 

Kidd,  William,  executed  as  a  pirate  and 
murderer,  May  24,  1701,  was  a  native  of  Scot¬ 
land,  and  was  born  about  1G50.  He  entered  the 
merchant-marine  service  in  his  youth,  and  dis¬ 
tinguished  himself  as  a  privateersman  against 
the  French  in  the  West  Indies.  He  was  active 
against  the  pirates  that  infested  the  waters  near 
New  York,  out  of  which  port  he  sailed;  and  for 
his  services  the  Assembly  of  the  province  gave 
him  $750  in  1691.  In  1695  a  company  for  the 
suppression  of  piracy  by  privateering  was  or¬ 
ganized  in  England.  Among  the  shareholders 
in  the  enterprise  were  King  William  III.,  the 
Earl  of  Bellomont  (afterwards  Governor  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  and  New  York),  Robert  Livingston, 
of  New  York,  and  otjier  men  of  wealth  and  iu- 
lluence.  One  tenth  of  all  the  booty  gained  by 
privateering  was  to  be  set  aside  for  the  king, 
and  the  rest  was  to  be  divided  among  the  share¬ 
holders.  A  new  ship,  of  287  tons,  was  bought, 
and  named  the  Adventure  Galley;  and  at  the 
suggestion  of  Livingston,  who  was  then  in  Eng¬ 
land,  Captain  Kidd  was  appointed  her  com¬ 
mander  and  admitted  as  a  shareholder.  His 
commission  bore  the  royal  seal  and  signature. 
On  the  3d  of  April,  1696,  he  sailed  from  Plym¬ 
outh,  and  arrived  at  New  York  about  the  4th 
of  J uly.  With  his  ship  well  provisioned,  and 
with  a  crew  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  men 
and  boys,  he  sailed  for  Madagascar,  the  chief 
rendezvous  of  the  pirates  who  infested  the  In¬ 
dia  seas.  In  the  course  of  a  year  or  more  ru¬ 
mors  reached  England  that  Kidd  had  turned 
pirate.  At  length  the  clamor  became  so  loud 
that  the  royal  shareholder  in  the  enterprise  and 
his  associates  perceived  the  necessity  of  taking 
action,  and  an  order  was  issued  to  all  the  Eng¬ 
lish  colonial  governors  to  cause  the  arrest  of 
Kidd  wherever  he  might  be  found.  In  the 
spring  of  1699  he  appeared  in  the  West  Indies 
in  a  vessel  loaded  with  treasure.  Leaving  her 
in  a  bay  on  the  coast  of  Hayti  in  charge  of  his 
first  officer  and  a  part  of  the  ship’s  company,  he 
sailed  northward  with  forty  men  in  a  sloop,  en¬ 
tered  Long  Island  Sound,  and  at  Oyster  Bay 
took  on  board  James  Emott,  a  New  York  law¬ 
yer,  and,  landing  him  on  Rhode  Island,  sent  him 
to  the  Earl  of  Bellomont,  then  at  Boston  as  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Massachusetts,  to  inquire  how  he  (Kidd) 
would  be  received  by  his  partner  in  the  enter¬ 
prise.  During  Emott’s  absence  Kidd  had  bur¬ 
ied  some  of  his  treasure,  which  he  brought  with 


the  sloop,  on  Gardiner’s  Island.  Bellomont’s 
answer  was  such  that  Kidd  went  to  Boston 
(July  1,  1699),  where  he  was  arrested,  sent  to 
England,  tried  on  a  charge  of  piracy  and  mur¬ 
der,  found  guilty,  and  executed  (May  24, 1701), 
protesting  his  innocence.  It  is  admitted  that 
his  trial  was  grossly  unfair ;  and  it  is  believed 
that  Kidd  was  made  a  scapegoat  to  bear  away 
the  sins  of  men  in  high  places.  Earl  Bellomont 
sent  to  Hayti  for  Kidd’s  ship,  but  it  had  been 
stripped  by  the  men  in  charge;  but  he  recov¬ 
ered  the  treasure  buried  on  Gardiner’s  Island ; 
also  that  which  Kidd  had  with  him  on  the 
sloop,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  about 
$70,000.  He  and  Livingston  were  then  politi¬ 
cal  enemies,  and  it  is  not  known  whether  the 
latter  got  any  share  of  the  plunder. 

Kieft,  William.  Little  is  known  of  Kieft, 
the  fifth  Dutch  Governor  of  New  Netlierland, 
before  bis  appearance  at  Manhattan  on  the  28th 
of  March,  1638.  He  seems  to  have  been  an  un¬ 
popular  dweller  at  Rochelle,  France,  where  his 
effigy  had  been  hung  upon  a  gallows.  De  Vries, 
an  active  mariner,  who  knew  him  well,  ranked 
him  among  the  “great  rascals”  of  his  age.  He 
was  energetic,  spiteful,  and  rapacious — the  re¬ 
verse  of  Van  Twiller,  his  immediate  predeces¬ 
sor.  (See  Van  Twiller.)  Kieft  began  his  ad¬ 
ministration  by  concentrating  all  executive 
power  in  his  own  hands;  and  he  and  his  coun¬ 
cil  possessed  such  dignity,  in  their  own  estima¬ 
tion,  that  it  became  a  high  crime  to  appeal  from 
their  decision.  He  found  public  affairs  in  the 
capital  of  New  Netherland  in  a  wretched  con¬ 
dition,  and  put  forth  a  strong  hand  to  bring 
order  out  of  confusion.  Abuses  abounded,  and 
his  measures  of  reform  almost  stripped  the  citi¬ 
zens  of  their  privileges.  Dilapidated  Fort  Am¬ 
sterdam  was  repaired  and  new  warehouses  for 
the  company  were  erected.  He  caused  orchards 
to  be  planted,  gardens  to  be  cultivated,  police 
ordinances  to  be  framed  and  enforced,  religion 
and  morality  to  be  fostered,  and  regular  relig¬ 
ious  services  to  be  publicly  conducted.  A  spa¬ 
cious  stone  church  was  built  within  the  fort, 
and  the  Connecticut  architect  hung  in  its  wood¬ 
en  tower  Spanish  bells  which  had  been  captured 
at  Porto  Rico.  A  more  liberal  policy  in  respect 
to  the  ownership  of  land  (see  Patroons )  caused 
emigration  to  increase,  and  cavaliers  from  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  Puritans  from  New  England  were 
seen  listening  to  Dominie  Bogardus  in  his  fine 
pulpit  in  the  new  church.  (See  Bogardus.)  All 
that  Kieft  required  of  new  settlers  was  an  oath 
of  fidelity  and  allegiance  to  the  States-General 
of  Holland.  The  demands  for  new  homesteads 
caused  Kieft  to  purchase  lower  Westchester  and 
a  large  portion  of  Long  Island.  The  encroach¬ 
ing  Puritans  on  the  east  and  the  Swedes  on  the 
Delaware  gave  Kieft  much  concern,  especially 
the  latter,  for  Minuit,  a  former  Dutch  governor, 
was  at  their  head.  Kieft  protested  against  their 
“  intrusion.”  Minuit  laughed  at  him  and  dis¬ 
regarded  his  threats.  Very  soon  the  energetic 
character  of  the  governor,  manifested  in  well¬ 
doing,  was  as  conspicuous  in  ill-doing.  He  al¬ 
lowed  his  fellow -traders  with  the  Indians  to 
stupefy  them  with  rum  and  cheat  them;  and 


KILPATRICK 


741 


KILPATRICK’S  RAID 


he  demanded  tribute  of  furs,  corn,  and  wampum 
from  the  tribes  around  Manhattan.  They  paid 
the  tribute,  but  cursed  the  tyrant.  Kieft  saw 
their  power  and  was  afraid.  Some  swine  were 
stolen  from  colonists  on  Staten  Island,  when 
Kieft,  seeking  an  excuse  for  striking  terror  to 
the  hearts  of  those  he  had  wronged,  accused  the 
Raritans  of  the  crime,  and  sent  armed  men  to 
chastise  them.  The  River  Indians  grasped  their 
hatchets  and  refused  to  pay  tribute  any  longer. 
The  hatred  of  all  the  savages  was  aroused.  The 
people  of  New  Amsterdam  were  alarmed,  and 
quarrels  between  them  and  the  governor  were 
frequent  and  stormy.  He  wanted  to  make  war 
on  the  Indians.  The  people  refused  to  bear  a 
musket  or  favor  the  crime.  Unwilling  to  bear 
the  responsibility,  Kieft  called  an  assembly  of 
“masters  and  heads  of  families”  in  New  Am¬ 
sterdam  to  consult  upon  public  measures. 
Twelve  discreet  men  were  chosen  (1641)  to  act 
for  them ;  and  this  was  the  first  representative 
assembly  in  New  Netherland.  (See  Representa¬ 
tive  Government.)  War  was  deferred,  and  the 
twelve  devised  a  plan  for  a  municipal  govern¬ 
ment  for  New  Amsterdam.  Kieft  was  alarmed, 
for  he  did  not  wish  his  own  power  abridged, 
and  he  made  promises  (but  to  be  broken)  of  con¬ 
cessions  of  popular  freedom  on  their  giving  him 
consent  to  chastise  the  Indians  in  Westchester. 
It  was  reluctantly  given,  when  the  perfidious 
governor  dissolved  them,  and  forbade  any  pop¬ 
ular  assembly  thereafter.  Iu  1643  he  caused  a 
cruel  massacre  of  fugitive  Indians  at  Hoboken. 
(See  Hoboken ,  Massacre  at.)  A  fierce  war  was 
kindled.  The  friendly  Long  Island  tribes  join¬ 
ed  their  injured  brethren,  and  the  Dutch  colony 
was  threatened  with  destruction.  Help  came 
from  a  Puritan,  and  the  Indians  were  subdued. 
Kieft,  despised  by  the  colonists  ou  whom  he  had 
brought  ruin,  humbly  asked  them  to  form  a  rep¬ 
resentative  council  again.  The  people  gladly 
did  so,  for  they  had  lost  all  confidence  in  the 
governor.  This  concession  was  a  pitiful  trick 
of  Kieft  to  foil  the  wrath  of  the  colonists.  He 
neglected  the  advice  of  the  popular  assembly, 
and  sought  by  every  means  to  fill  his  own  cof¬ 
fers  with  gain  against  a  day  of  reckoning  which 
he  perceived  was  near.  The  representatives  of 
the  people,  finding  his  rule  unendurable,  asked 
for  the  recall  of  Kieft  before  the  colony  should 
be  ruined.  Their  prayer  was  heeded,  and  the 
people  celebrated  his  departure  by  the  fil  ing  of 
great  guns.  Some  pugnacious  burghers  threat¬ 
ened  the  governor  with  personal  chastisement 
when  he  should  “  take  off  the  coat  with  which 
he  was  bedecked  by  the  lords,  his  masters.” 
The  prophecy  of  De  Vries  (1643) — “The  mur¬ 
ders  in  which  you  [Kieft]  have  shed  so  much 
innocent  blood  will  yet  be  avenged  upon  your 
own  head” — was  fulfilled.  Kieft  sailed  for  Hol¬ 
land  (Aug.  16,  1647),  in  the  ship  Princess,  with 
more  than  $100,000  of  ill-gotten  wealth.  The 
vessel,  by  mistake,  entered  the  Bristol  channel, 
struck  a  rock,  and  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Wales.  Kieft  was  drowned. 

Kilpatrick,  Hugh  Judson,  commander  of  cav¬ 
alry,  was  born  near  Deckertown,  N.  J.,  Jan.  17, 
1836,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1861,  enter¬ 


ing  the  artillery.  He  was  wounded  in  the  battle 
at  Big  Bethel  (June,  1861),  and  in  September  was 
made  lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry.  His  effi¬ 
cient  services  on  all  occasions  won  for  him  the 
office  of  brigadier-general  and  brevet  major- 


general  of  volunteers,  and  the  command  of  a 
division  of  cavalry  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
He  wras  very  active  in  the  campaign  against  At¬ 
lanta  in  1864,  in  Shermau’s  march  to  the  sea, 
and  in  his  march  through  the  Carolinas  to  the 
surrender  of  Johnston.  For  the  latter  campaign 
he  was  breveted  major-general  iu  the  United 
States  Army.  Iu  .November,  1865,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  minister  to  Chili.  He  died  Dec.  6, 1881. 

Kilpatrick’s  Raid.  Ou  Sunday  morning, 
Feb.  28, 1864,  General  Kilpatrick,  with  five  thou¬ 
sand  cavalry,  picked  from  his  own  and  the  di¬ 
visions  of  Merritt  and  Gregg,  crossed  the  Rapid 
Anna,  swept  around  to  the  right  flank  of  Lee’s 
army  by  w  ay  of  Spottsylvauia  Court-house,  and, 
pushing  rapidly  towards  Richmond,  struck  the 
Virginia  Central  Railroad  at  Beaver  Dam  Sta¬ 
tion,  where  he  had  his  firstserious  encounter  with 
the  Confederates,  under  the  Maryland  leader, 
Bradley  T.  Johnson,  whom  he  defeated.  Then  he 
struck  across  the  South  Anna,  cut  the  Freder¬ 
icksburg  and  Richmond  Railway,  and  on  March 
1st  halted  within  three  miles  of  Richmond.  His 
grand  object  was  to  liberate  the  Union  captives 
from  Libby  Prison  (which  see).  He  was  now 
within  the  outer  line  of  its  defences,  at  which 
the  Confederates  had  thrown  down  their  arms 
and  fled  into  the  city.  At  Spottsylvauia  Court¬ 
house  about  five  hundred  of  Kilpatrick’s  best 
men,  led  by  Colonel  Ulric  Dahlgren,  a  dashing 
young  officer,  diverged  from  the  main  column 
for  the  purpose  of  striking  the  James  River  Ca¬ 
nal  above  Richmond,  destroying  as  much  of  it 
as  possible,  and,  crossing  the  James  River,  at¬ 
tack  the  Confederate  capital  on  the  south  simul¬ 
taneously  with  the  attack  of  Kilpatrick  on  the 
north.  The  object  wras  to  liberate  the  Union 
prisoners  at  Belle  Isle,  on  the  James  River,  in 
front  of  Richmond.  Kilpatrick,  disappointed  in 
not  hearing  Dahlgren’s  guns,  and  hard  pressed 
by  the  Confederates  as  he  attempted  to  pene¬ 
trate  the  secoud  line  of  defences,  withdrew  after 


KILPATRICK’S  RAID  NEAR  ATLANTA  742 


KING  GEORGE’S  HATRED 


a  sharp  fight,  ami  halted  six  miles  from  Rich¬ 
mond.  He  was  pursued  by  the  Confederates, 
with  whom  he  skirmished,  and  returned  to  his 
place  of  departure.  Meanwhile  Dalilgren,  mis¬ 
led  by  a  negro  guide,  failed  to  cross  the  James 
River,  but  struck  the  outer  line  of  fortifications 
on  the  northern  side  of  Richmond  at  dark,  March 
2.  In  a  conflict  that  ensued  the  Nationals  were 
repulsed,  and  they  retreated  towards  the  Chick- 
ahominy,  hotly  pursued.  Dalilgren  and  about 
one  hundred  of  his  men  became  separated  from 
the  rest.  On  the  evening  of  the  3d  the  young 
leader,  in  a  conflict  some  distance  from  Rich¬ 
mond,  was  shot  dead,  and  one  hundred  of  his 
men  were  made  prisoners. 

Kilpatrick’s  Raid  near  Atlanta.  General 
Sherman,  when  he  heard  of  Wheeler’s  raid 
(which  see),  sent  Kilpatrick,  with  five  thousand 
cavalry,  during  the  night  of  Aug.  18,  1864,  to 
strike  the  railway  at  West  Point,  and  break  it 
to  Fairborn,  and  then  to  tear  up  the  Macon  road 
thoroughly.  When  he  reached  the  Macon  road, 
near  Jonesborongh,  he  was  confronted  by  Ross’s 
Confederate  cavalry.  These  he  routed,  and  drove 
through  Jonesborongh,  and  just  as  he  began 
tearing  up  the  road  some  cavalry  came  up  from 
the  south,  and  compelled  him  to  desist  and  fly. 
He  swept  around,  and  again  struck  the  road  at 
Lovejoy’s,  where  he  was  attacked  by  a  larger 
force.  Through  these  he  dashed,  capturing  and 
destroying  a4-gun  battery, and,  sweeping  around, 
reached  headquarters  on  the  22d,  with  seventy 
prisoners. 

King  Cotton,  a  popular  personification  of  the 
cotton-plant,  a  staple  production  of  the  South¬ 
ern  States  of  the  American  Union.  Its  suprem¬ 
acy  in  commerce  and  politics  was  asserted  by 
the  politicians  of  the  cotton -growing  states. 
“  You  dare  not  make  war  upon  cotton  ;  no  pow¬ 
er  on  earth  dare  make  war  upon  it.  Cotton  is 
King!”  said  Senator  James  Hammond,  of  South 
Carolina.  “  Cotton  is  King  !  ”  shouted  back  the 
submissive  spindles  of  the  North.  A  Northern 
poet  sang : 

“Old  Cotton  will  pleasantly  reign 
When  other  kings  painfully  fall, 

And  ever  and  ever  remain 
The  mightiest  monarch  of  all.” 

A  senator  from  Texas  exclaimed  on  the  floor  of 
Congress,  just  as  the  Civil  War  was  kindling, 
“  I  say,  Cotton  is  King,  and  he  waves  his  sceptre 
not  only  over  these  thirty-three  states,  but  over 
the  island  of  Great  Britain  and  over  Continen¬ 
tal  Europe  ;  and  there  is  no  crowned  head  there 
that  does  not  bend  the  knee  in  fealty,  and  ac¬ 
knowledge  allegiance  to  that  monarch.”  This 
boasting  was  caused  by  the  erroneous  estimate 
by  the  politicians  of  the  money  value  of  the  cot¬ 
ton  crop  compared  with  the  other  agricultural 
products  of  the  United  States.  It  was  asserted 
that  it  was  greater  than  all  the  latter  combined. 
The  census  of  1860  showed  that  the  wheat  crop 
alone  exceeded  in  value  the  cotton  crop  by  $57,- 
000,000  ;  and  the  value  of  the  combined  crops  of 
hay  and  cereals  exceeded  that  of  cotton  over 
$900,000,000.  The  sovereignty  of  cotton  was 
tested  by  the  Civil  War  (1861-65).  At  its  close 
a  poet  wrote : 


“  C<>ttnn  and  Corn  were  mighty  kings, 

Who  differed,  at  times,  on  certain  things, 

To  the  country’s  dire  confusion; 

Com  was  peaceable,  mild,  and  just, 

But  Cotton  was  fond  of  saying,  ‘You  must!’ 

So  after  he’d  boasted,  bullied,  and  cussed, 

He  got  up  a  revolution. 

But  in  course  of  time  the  bubble  is  bursted, 

And  Corn  is  King  and  Colton — is  worsted.” 

King  George  Misled.  The  ministry,  either 
blind  or  wicked,  misled  George  III.  into  the  be¬ 
lief  that  a  few  regiments  could  subdue  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  and  that  New  York  could  easily  be  se¬ 
duced  to  the  support  of  the  crown  by  immuni¬ 
ties  and  benefactions.  The  deceived  monarch, 
therefore,  ordered  letters  to  be  written  to  Gage, 
at  the  middle  of  April,  1775,  to  take  possession 
of  every  colonial  fort ;  to  seize  and  secure  all 
military  stores  of  every  kind  collected  for  “  the 
rebels to  arrest  and  imprison  all  such  as  should 
be  thought  to  have  committed  treason  ;  to  re¬ 
press  rebellion  by  force;  to  make  the  public 
safety  the  first  object  of  consideration,  and  to 
substitute  more  coercive  measures  for  ordinary 
forms  of  procedure,  without  pausing  to  require 
the  aid  of  a  civil  magistrate.  Four  regiments, 
at  first  destined  for  Boston,  were  ordered  to  New 
York,  to  assist  in  the  progress  of  intrigue;  and 
a  vessel  carried  out  six  packages  of  pamphlets, 
containing  a  very  soothing  and  complimentary 
“  Address  of  the  People  of  Great  Britain  to  the  In¬ 
habitants  of  America,”  written  by  Sir  John  Dal- 
rymple,  at  the  request  of  Lord  North.  The 
Americans  were  not  coaxed  by  this  persuasive 
pamphlet,  nor  awed  by  the  attempts  to  exe¬ 
cute  the  sanguinary  orders  of  Lord  Dartmouth 
to  Gage.  (See  Lexington,  Concord,  and  Bunker’s 
Hill.) 

King  George’s  Hatred  of  Dr.  Franklin. 

Wright,  in  his  England  under  the  House  of  Hano¬ 
ver,  says  that.,  notwithstanding  the  king,  in  his 
speech  from  the  throne  (Dec.  5,  1783),  had  said, 
“I  have  sacrificed  every  consideration  of  my 
own  to  the  wishes  and  opinions  of  my  people. 
I  make  it  my  humble  and  earnest  prayer  to  Al¬ 
mighty  God  that.  Great  Britain  may  not  feel  the 
evils  which  might  result  from  so  great  a  dis¬ 
memberment  of  the  empire,  and  that  America 
may  be  far  from  those  calamities  which  have 
formerly  proved,  in  the  mother  country,  how  es¬ 
sential  monarchy  is  to  the  enjoyment  of  consti¬ 
tutional  liberty.  Religion,  language,  interests, 
affection  may — and  I  hope  will — yet  prove  a 
bond  of  permanent  union  betw  een  the  tw  o  coun¬ 
tries.  To  this  end  neither  attention  nor  dispo¬ 
sition  shall  be  wanting  on  my  part,”  he  never¬ 
theless  detested  everything  American.  The  ac¬ 
knowledgment  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  was  wrung  from  him  by  dire  necessity. 
Ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  troubles  he  had 
thoroughly  hated  Franklin  personally,  to  whom, 
on  account  of  his  coolness  and  adroitness,  he  had 
given  the  name  of  “  Arch  Rebel.”  The  king  car¬ 
ried  his  prejudices  so  far  that  Sir  John  Pringle 
was  driven  to  resign  his  place  as  President  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  this  wise  :  The  king  un¬ 
justly  requested  the  society  to  publish,  with  the 
authority  of  its  name,  a  contradiction  of  a  scien¬ 
tific  opinion  of  the  rebellious  Franklin.  Pringle 
replied  that  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  reverse 


KING  GEORGE’S  WAR 


743 


KING  PHILIP’S  WAR 


tlie  order  of  Nature,  and  resigned.  The  pliant 
Sir  Joseph  Banks,  with  the  practice  of  a  true 
courtier,  advocated  the  opinion  patronized  by 
his  majesty,  and  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Royal  Society. 

King  George’s  War.  There  had  been  peace 
between  France  and  England  for  about  thirty 
years  after  the  death  of  Queen  Auue,  during 
which  time  the  colonists  in  America  had  en¬ 
joyed  comparative  repose.  Then  the  selfish 
strifes  of  European  monarchs  kindled  war  again. 
In  March,  1744,  France  declared  war  against 
Great  Britain,  and  the  colonists  cheerfully  pre¬ 
pared  to  begin  the  contest  known  in  America  as 
King  George’s  War;  in  Europe,  the  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession.  A  contest  arose  between 
Maria  Theresa,  Empress  of  Hungary,  and  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  for  the  Austrian  throne. 
The  King  of  England  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
empress,  while  the  King  of  France  took  part 
with  her  opponent.  This  caused  France  to  de¬ 
clare  war  against  Great  Britain.  The  French 
had  built  the  strong  fort  of  Louisburg,  on  the 
Island  of  Cape  Breton,  after  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
and,  because  of  its  strength,  it  was  called  the 
Gibraltar  of  America.  When  war  was  pro¬ 
claimed,  Governor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts, 
perceiving  the  importance  of  that  place  in  the 
coming  contest,  plans  for  its  capture  were  speed¬ 
ily  laid  before  the  Massachusetts  Legislature. 
That  body  hesitated,  but  the  measure  was  final¬ 
ly  agreed  upon  by  a  majority  of  only  one  vote. 
Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  and  Connecticut 
furnished  their  proper  quota  of  troops.  New 
York  sent  artillery,  and  Pennsylvania  provi¬ 
sions.  Commodore  Warren  was  in  the  West 
Indies  with  a  fleet,  and  was  expected  to  join 
the  provincials  in  the  expedition.  After  wait¬ 
ing  some  time,  the  colonial  forces,  under  Sir 
William  Pepperell,  sailed  (April  4, 1745)  for  Lou¬ 
isburg.  Warren  joined  them  at  Canseau  early 
in  May,  aud  on  the  11th  the  combined  land- 
forces,  four  thousand  strong,  debarked  at  Gaba- 
rus  Bay,  a  short  distance  from  the  fortress.  The 
first  intimation  the  French  had  of  danger  near 
was  the  sudden  appearance  of  this  formidable 
armament.  Consternation  prevailed  in  the  fort 
and  the  town.  A  regular  siege  was  begun  on 
the  31st  of  May.  Other  English  vessels  of  war 
arrived,  and  the  combined  fleet  and  army  pre¬ 
pared  for  attack  on  the  29th  of  June.  Unable 
to  make  a  successful  resistance,  the  fortress,  the 
town  of  Louisburg,  and  the  Island  of  Cape  Bre¬ 
ton  were  surrendered  to  the  English  on  the 
28th.  This  event  mortified  the  pride  of  France, 
and  the  following  year  the  Duke  D’Anville  was 
sent  with  a  powerful  naval  armament  to  recov¬ 
er  the  lost  fortress,  and  to  destroy  English  set¬ 
tlements  along  the  seaboard.  Storms  wrecked 
many  of  his  vessels,  sickness  swept  away  hun¬ 
dreds  of  his  men,  and  D’Anville  abandoned  the 
enterprise  without  striking  a  blow.  Anchoring 
at  Chebucto  (now  Halifax),  D’Anville  died  there 
by  poison,  it  is  believed.  With  the  capture  of 
Louisburg  the  war  ended  in  the  colonies.  By  a 
treaty  made  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  all  prisoners  and 
property  seized  by  either  party  were  restored. 
The  struggle  had  been  costly,  and  fruitless  of 


good  excepting  in  making  a  revelation  of  the 
strength  of  the  colonists. 

King  James  and  the  Puritans.  When  King 
James  of  Scotland  ascended  the  English  throne 
as  the  successor  of  Elizabeth,  he  was  regarded 
as  a  “  Presbyterian  king,”  aud  the  Puritans  ex¬ 
pected  not  only  the  blessings  of  toleration  and 
protection  for  themselves,  but  even  hope  for  su¬ 
premacy  among  the  religionists  of  the  realm. 
Soon  after  his  accession,  Janies  called  a  confer¬ 
ence  of  divines  at  Hampton  Court.  He  was 
chief  actor  at  that  conference,  in  the  role  of 
“  brute  and  mountebank.”  Some  of  the  Puri- 
tau  divines  ranked  among  the  brightest  schol¬ 
ars  in  the  land.  They  were  greatly  annoyed  by 
the  coarse  browbeating  of  the  Bishop  of  Lon¬ 
don  and  the  coarser  jests  of  the  king.  The  ven¬ 
erable  Archbishop  Whitgift  was  present,  and 
bent  the  supple  knee  of  the  courtier  in  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  royalty.  When  the  vulgar  king  said  to 
the  Puritan  ministers,  “  You  want  to  strip  Christ 
again ;  away  with  your  snivelling,”  and  much 
more  to  that  effect,  Whitgift,  the  primate,  ex¬ 
claimed,  “Your  majesty  speaks  by  the  special 
assistance  of  God’s  Spirit.”  Aud  the  Bishop  of 
London  fell  upon  his  knees  and  said,  “  I  protest 
my  heart  melts  within  me  for  joy  that  Almigh¬ 
ty  God,  of  his  singular  mercy,  lias  given  us  such 
a  king  as,  since  Christ’s  time,  has  not  been.” 
This  was  the  beginning  of  those  royal  and  pre- 
latical  revilings  aud  persecutions  of  the  Puri¬ 
tans  by  the  Stuarts  and  the  hierarchy  which 
drove  the  Puritans,  in  large  numbers,  to  seek 
asylum  in  the  wilds  of  North  America. 

King,  Jonas,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Hawley,  Mass., 
July  29, 1792 ;  died  while  a  missionary  at  Athens, 
Greece,  May  22,  1869.  He  graduated  at  Will¬ 
iams  College  in  1816,  and  at  Andover  Semina¬ 
ry  in  1819.  For  some  months  he  was  engaged 
in  missionary  work  in  South  Carolina;  and  ho 
went  to  Palestine  in  the  same  work  in  1826, 
where  he  remained  about  three  years.  Reach¬ 
ing  Boston  in  the  fall  of  1827,  he  was  employed 
as  missionary  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States, 
and  in  July,  1828,  he  entered  upon  the  Greek 
mission.  A  year  later  he  married  a  Greek  maid¬ 
en,  and  remained  in  that  country  until  his  death. 
Before  1867  he  had  translated  and  printed,  in 
modern  Greek,  five  volumes  of  the  American 
Tract  Society’s  publications.  He  also  published 
four  volumes  of  his  own  works  in  that  language. 
Mr.  King  was  one  of  the  most  efficient  workers 
in  the  missionary  field,  and  was  a  remarkable 
man. 

King  Philip’s  War.  Massasoit  kept  his  trea¬ 
ty  of  friendship  with  the  Plymouth  Colony 
faithfully  until  his  death.  His  eldest  son,  Me¬ 
tacomet,  or  Philip,  resumed  the  covenants  with 
the  English  on  the  death  of  his  father  and  kept 
them  inviolate  a  dozen  years.  As  he  saw 
spreading  settlements  reducing  his  domains, 
acre  by  acre,  his  hunting-grounds  broken  up, 
his  fisheries  diminished,  and  his  nation  men¬ 
aced  with  servitude  or  annihilation,  his  pal  riot- 
ism  was  so  violently  aroused  that  he  listened 
to  his  hot  young  warriors,  who  counselled  war 
for  the  extermination  of  the  white  people.  His 


KING  PHILIP’S  WAR 


744 


KING  PHILIP'S  WAR 


capital  was  at  Mount  Hope,  a  conical  bill,  three 
hundred  feet  high,  not  far  from  the  eastern 
shore  of  Narraganset  Bay.  There  he  reigned 
supreme  over  the  Pokauokets  and  Wampanoags, 


/  JUs 


PORTRAIT  AND  SIGN-MANUAL  OF  KING  PHIUP. 

and  tliere  he  planned  a  confederacy  of  several 
New  England  tribes,  comprising  about  5000 
souls.  It  was  done  secretly  and  with  great 
skill.  John  Sassamon,  who  had  been  educated 
at  Harvard,  and  was  a  sort  of  secre¬ 
tary  for  Philip,  betrayed  him,  and  the 
Wampanoags  slew  their  secret  enemy. 

For  this  act  three  of  them  were  ar¬ 
rested  on  a  charge  of  murder  and 
were  hanged.  The  anger  of  the  na¬ 
tion  was  thereby  tiercely  kindled 
against  the  English,  and  they  could 
not  be  restrained  by  the  cautious 
Philip.  He  sent  his  women  and  chil¬ 
dren  to  the  Narragansets  for  protec¬ 
tion,  and  proclaimed  war.  He  struck 
the  first  blow  at  Swanzey  (July  4, 

1675,  N.  S.),  thirty-five  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Plymouth,  when  the  people 
were  just  returning  from  public  wor¬ 
ship,  on  a  fast-day.  Many  were  slain 
or  captured.  The  surrounding  settle¬ 
ments  were  aroused.  The  men  of 
Boston,  horse  and  foot,  under  Major 
Savage,  joined  the  Plymouth  forces, 
and  all  pressed  towards  Mount  Hope. 

Philip  and  his  warriors  had  fled  to  a 
swamp  at  Pocasset  (Ti verton ).  There 
he  was  besieged  many  days,  but  finally 
escaped  and  took  refuge  with  the 
Nipmncks,  an  interior  tribe  in  Massachusetts, 
who  espoused  his  cause ;  and,  with  1500  war¬ 
riors,  Philip  hastened  towards  the  white  settle¬ 
ments  in  the  distant  valley  of  the  Connecticut. 


Meanwhile,  the  little  colonial  army  had  reached 
the  Narraganset  country  and  extorted  a  treaty 
of  friendship  from  Canonchet,  the  chief  sachem 
of  that  powerful  tribe.  The  news  of  this  discour¬ 
aged  Philip,  and  he  saw  that  only  in  energetic 
action  was  there  hope  for  him.  He  aroused  oth¬ 
er  tribes,  and  attempted  a  war  of  extermination 
by  the  secret  and  efficient  methods  of  treachery, 
ambush,  and  surprise.  Men  in  fields,  families  in 
their  beds  at  midnight,  and  congregations  in 
houses  of  worship  were  attacked  and  massa¬ 
cred.  They  swept  along  the  borders  of  the 
English  settlements  like  a  scythe  of  death  for 
several  months,  and  it  seemed  at  one  time  as  if 
the  whole  European  population  would  be  anni¬ 
hilated.  From  Springfield  north  to  the  Ver¬ 
mont  line  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  was 
desolated.  Twenty  Englishmen  sent  to  treat 
with  the  Nipmuckswere  nearly  all  treacherous¬ 
ly  slain  (Aug.  12, 1675)  near  Brookfield.  They 
fired  that  village,  but  it  was  partially  saved 
by  a  shower  of  rain.  Early  in  September  (12) 
Deerfield  was  laid  in  ashes.  On  the  same  Sab¬ 
bath-day  Hadley,  farther  down  the  river,  was 
attacked  while  the  people  were  worshipping. 
A  venerable-looking  man,  with  white  hair  and 
beard,  suddenly  appealed,  with  a  glit¬ 
tering  sword,  and  led  the  people  to  a 
charge  that  dispersed  the  Indians,  and 
then  as  suddenly  disappeared.  (See 
Goffe,  William.)  Over  other  settlements 
the  scourge  swept  mercilessly.  Many 
valiant  young  men, under  Captain  Beers, 
were  slain  in  Northfield  (Sept.  23),  and 
others — “  the  flower  of  Essex  ” — under  Captain 
Lathrop,  were  butchered  by  1000  Indians  near 
Deerfield.  Encouraged  by  these  successes,  Philip 
now  determined  to  attack  Hatfield,  the  chief 


c\.,e  (rnisd 


MOUNT  HOPE. 


white  settlement  above  Springfield.  The  Spring- 
field  Indians  joined  him,  and  with  1000  warriors 
he  fell  upon  the  settlement  (Oct.  29);  but  the 
English  being  prepared,  he  was  repulsed  with 


KING 


745 


KING  WILLIAMS  WAR 


great  loss.  Alarmed,  lie  moved  towards  Rhode 
Island,  where  the  Narragansets,  in  violation  of 
their  treaty,  received  him  and  joined  him  on  the 
war-path.  Fifteen  hundred  men  from  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  Plymouth,  and  Connecticut  marched 
to  chastise  Canonchet  for  his  perfidy.  They 
found  the  treacherous  Indians  with  Philip,  3000 
in  number,  in  a  fort  within  a  swamp  (South 
Kingston,  R.  I.),  where  their  winter  provisions 
had  been  gathered.  Before  that  feeble  pali¬ 
sade  the  English  stood  on  a  stormy  day  (Dec. 
19).  They  began  a  siege,  and  in  a  few  hours 
500  wigwams,  with  the  provisions,  were  in 
flames.  Hundreds  of  men,  women,  and  chil¬ 
dren  perished  in  the  fire.  Full  1000  warriors 
were  slain  or  wounded,  and  several  hundred 
were  made  prisoners.  The  English  lost  86  kill¬ 
ed  and  150  wounded.  Canonchet  was  slain,  but 
Philip  escaped  and  took  refuge  again  with  the 
Nipmucks.  During  the  winter  (1675—76)  he 
vainly  asked  the  Mohawks  to  join  him,  but 
tribes  eastward  of  Massachusetts  became  his  al¬ 
lies.  In  the  spring  of  1676  the  work  of  destruc¬ 
tion  began.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  the  war 
extended  over  a  space  of  almost  300  miles.  Wey¬ 
mouth,  Groton,  Medfield,  Lancaster,  and  Marl¬ 
borough,  in  Massachusetts,  were  laid  in  ashes. 
Warwick  and  Providence,  in  Rhode  Island,  were 
burned,  and  isolated  dwellings  of  settlers  were 
everywhere  laid  waste.  About  600  inhabitants 
of  New  England  were  killed  in  battle  or  mur¬ 
dered  ;  twelve  or  thirteen  towns  were  destroyed 
entirely,  and  about  600  buildings,  chiefly  dwell¬ 
ing-houses,  were  burned.  The  colonists  had  con¬ 
tracted  an  enormous  debt  for  that  period.  Quar¬ 
rels  at  length  weakened  the  savages.  The  Nip- 
mucks  and  Narragansets  charged  their  misfort¬ 
unes  to  the  ambition  of  Philip,  and  they  de¬ 
serted  him.  Some  of  the  tribes  surrendered  to 
avoid  starvation  ;  others  went  to  Canada,  while 
Captain  Church,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
English  leaders,  went  out  to  hunt  and  destroy 
the  fugitives.  Philip  was  chased  from  one  hid¬ 
ing-place  to  another.  He  retired  to  Mount 
Hope  (August,  1676)  discouraged.  A  few  days 
afterwards  his  wife  and  little  son  were  made 
prisoners.  He  was  now  crushed.  “My  heart 
breaks,”  he  said,  “I  am  ready  to  die.”  A  faith¬ 
less  Indian  shot  him  a  few  days  afterwards,  and 
Captain  Church  cut  off  his  head,  and  it  was  car¬ 
ried  on  a  pole  into  Plymouth.  His  body  was 
quartered,  and  his  wife  and  little  son  were  sold 
into  slavery  in  Bermuda.  So  perished  the  last 
of  the  Wampanoag  princes,  and  so  was  broken 
forever  the  power  of  the  New  England  Indians. 
The  estimated  white  population  at  that  time 
was  not  more  than  50,000  souls ;  and  from  the 
end  of  that  war  began  the  uninterrupted  growth 
of  New  England. 

King,  Rufus,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Scarborough, 
Me.,  March  14,1755;  died  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  April 
29,1827.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1777; 
studied  law  with  Theophilus  Parsons,  at  New¬ 
bury  port,  and  in  1778  became  aide-de-camp  on 
General  Glover’s  staff,  in  the  expedition  against 
the  British  on  Rhode  Island.  In  1785  he  was 
an  earnest  advocate  of  the  absolute  freedom  of 
the  slaves,  to  be  secured  by  the  operation  of  an 


act  of  Congress,  making  such  freedom  a  funda¬ 
mental  principle  of  the  Constitution.  In  1786 
Mr.  King  married  a  daughter  of  John  Aisop, 
an  opulent  merchant  in  New  York,  and  made 
that  city  his  future  residence.  He  aud  General 


RUFUS  KING. 


Schuyler  were  chosen  the  first  representatives 
of  New  York  in  the  national  Senate  in  1789,  un¬ 
der  the  new  Constitution.  Mr.  King  was  a  lead¬ 
ing  Federalist.  From  1798  to  1804  he  was  Amer¬ 
ican  minister  to  Great  Britain ;  and  in  1818  he 
was  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate  for  the 
third  time.  He  was  an  able  leader  of  the  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  admission  of  Missouri  under  the 
terms  of  the  compromise  as  a  slave-labor  state. 
In  1825  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  minister 
to  England,  but  returned  in  feeble  health  the 
next  year. 

King,  William  Rufus,  was  born  in  Sampson 
County,  N.  C.,  April  7,  1796;  died  at  Cahawba, 
Ala.,  April  18,  1853.  He  graduated  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  North  Carolina  in  1803;  practised 
law,  and  served  in  the  Legislature  of  his  state. 
He  was  a  member  of  Congress  (1810-16),  and 
for  two  years  (1817-19)  was  secretary  of  lega¬ 
tion  to  Russia.  On  his  return  he  became  a 
cotton-planter  in  Alabama,  and  was  United 
States  Senator  from  1819  to  1846,  and  from  1847 
to  1852,  being  minister  to  France  during  the 
two  years  he  was  out  of  the  Senate.  Mr.  King 
was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States 
in  1852,  but  died  a  few  weeks  after  his  inaugu¬ 
ration.  Ho  was  a  member  of  Congress  forty 
years,  uniformly  acting  with  the  Democratic 
party. 

King  William’s  War.  The  first  inter-colo¬ 
nial  war  in  America  was  so  called  because  it  oc¬ 
curred  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  William 
and  Mary,  and  continued  seven  years.  The  ac¬ 
cession  of  these  Protestant  mouarchs  caused  dis- 


KING  WILLIAM’S  WAR 


746 


KING  WILLIAM’S  WAR 


aster  to  the  more  northerly  English-American 
colonists,  for,  the  French  king  having  espoused 
the  cause  of  James,  war  between  England  and 
France  soon  began,  and  extended  to  their  re¬ 
spective  colonies  in  America.  When  the  dec¬ 
laration  of  war  between  the  two  nations  reach- 
«>  # 

ed  America,  the  Eastern  Indians  were  easily  ex¬ 
cited  to  make  war  by  the  Baron  de  Castine, 
seated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot  (see  Cas¬ 
tine,  Baron  de),  and  the  Jesuit  missionaries  among 
the  barbarians.  The  recent  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  had  kindled  fiercely  the  fires 
of  persecution  in  Frauce  (see  Edict  of  Nantes), 
and  the  heat  was  felt  in  America.  Through 
these  Jesuits,  the  Indians  were  made  allies  of 
the  French,  and  the  two  races  were  frequently 
fonud  on  the  war-path  together,  accompanied 
by  a  father  confessor.  The  Indians,  remember¬ 
ing  the  treachery  of  Major  Waldron,  at  Dover 
(see  Puritans  and  Indians)  fearfully  slaked  their 
thirst  for  vengeance  there.  It  was  the  first 
town  attacked  (July  7,  1689),  when  the  vener¬ 
able  Major  Waldron  and  twenty  others  of  the 
garrison  were  killed  (see  Waldron)  and  twenty- 
nine  made  captives  and  sold  as  servants  to  the 
French  in  Canada.  Instigated  by  Father  Thury, 
a  Jesuit,  an  Indian  war-party  fell  (Aug.  12)  upon 
the  English  stockade  at  Pemmaquid,  built  by  An- 


Phipps,  who,  with  nine  vessels  and  eight  hun¬ 
dred  men,  seized  Port  Royal,  in  Acadia,  and  ob¬ 
tained  sufficient  plunder  there  to  pay  the  ex¬ 
penses  of  the  enterprise.  In  June,  Port  Royal 
was  again  plundered  by  English  privateers  from 
the  West  Indies.  Then  the  colonies  of  New 
England  and  New  York  joined  in  efforts  to  con¬ 
quer  Canada.  A  land  and  naval  expedition  was 
arranged,  the  former  commanded  by  a  son  of 
Governor  Winthrop,  of  Connecticut,  to  go  from 
New  York  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  to  attack 
Montreal;  and  the  latter,  fitted  out  by  Massa¬ 
chusetts  alone,  and  commanded  by  Sir  William 
Phipps,  to  attack  Quebec.  Phipps’s  armament 
consisted  of  thirty-four  vessels  and  two  thou¬ 
sand  men.  The  expenses  of  the  land  expedition 
were  borne  jointly  by  Connecticut  and  New 
York.  Both  were  unsuccessful.  SomeofWin- 
throp’s  troops,  with  Iroquois  warriors  under 
Colonel  Schuyler,  pushed  towards  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  and  were  repulsed  (August,  1690)  by  Fron- 
tenac.  The  remainder  did  not  go  farther  than 
the  head  of  Lake  Champlain.  Phipps  reached 
Quebec  at  about  the  middle  of  October,  landed 
some  of  his  troops  near,  but,  finding  the  city  too 
strongly  fortified  to  warrant  a  siege,  he  returned 
to  Boston  before  the  winter  set  in.  Having  no 
chart  to  guide  him,  Phipps  had  beeu  nine  weeks 


OLD  FORT  FREDERICK  AT  PEM3IAQCID 


dros,  and  captured  the  garrison.  A  few  months 
later  Frontenae,  Governor  of  Canada,  sent  a  par¬ 
ty  of  three  hundred  French  and  Indian  warriors 
from  Montreal  (see  Frontenae)  to  penetrate  the 
country  towards  Albany.  On  a  gloomy  night 
in  the  winter  (Feb.  18, 1690),  when  the  snow  lay 
twenty  inches  deep  in  the  Mohawk  valley,  they 
fell  upon  the  frontier  town  of  Schenectady,  mas¬ 
sacred  many  of  the  people,  and  burned  the  vil¬ 
lage.  (See  Schenectadij.)  Early  in  the  spring, 
Salmon  Falls,  near  Piscataqua,  was  surprised 
(March  28)  and  thirty  of  its  inhabitants  were 
killed ;  and  the  attacking  party,  on  its  way 
homeward,  met  a  third  party  that  had  come 
from  Quebec  and  joined  them  in  destroying  the 
fort  and  settlement  at  Casco,  where  a  similar 
attack  had  been  repulsed  by  the  famous  Cap¬ 
tain  Church.  Other  Eastern  villages  suffered. 
All  the  colonies  were  aroused  by  these  atroci¬ 
ties,  and  the  New  England  people  resolved  on 
speedy  retaliation.  In  May  (1690)  Massachu¬ 
setts  fitted  out  an  expedition  under  Sir  William 


cautiously  making  his  way  around  Acadia  and 
up  the  St.  Lawrence.  Massachusetts  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  issue  bills  of  credit,  or  paper-money, 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  expedition.  (See 
Bills  of  Credit.)  Fierce  forays  by  the  French 
and  Indians  continued  along  the  New  England 
frontiers.  The  English  were  held  up  to  the  In¬ 
dians  by  the  Jesuits  not  only  as  enemies,  but  as 
heretics,  upon  whom  it  was  a  Christian  duty  to 
make  war.  The  Indians  were  encouraged,  too, 
to  make  forays  for  the  capture  of  women  and 
children,  for  whom  they  found  a  ready  market, 
as  servants,  in  Canada.  About  one  hundred 
persons  were  killed  or  made  captive  (July  28, 
1694)  at  Durham,  ten  miles  from  Portsmouth. 
Two  years  later  Baron  de  Castine  and  a  large 
force  of  French  and  Indians  captured  the  gar¬ 
rison  at  Pemmaquid.  Haverhill,  thirty-three 
miles  from  Boston,  w'as  attacked  (March,  1697), 
and  forty  persons  were  killed  or  made  captive ; 
and  during  the  ensuing  summer  more  remote 
settlements  suffered  greatly.  This  distressing 


KINGCRAFT  AND  REPUBLICANISM  747 


warfare  was  closed  the  same  year  by  the  treaty 
of  Ryswick,  Sept.  20,  1697. 

Kingcraft  and  Republicanism.  Notwith¬ 
standing  Louis  XVI.  yielded  to  his  ministers 
in  the  matter  of  assisting  the  Americans,  he 
hated  republicans,  and  could  hardly  endure  the 
presence  of  Franklin,  while  Queen  Maria  An¬ 
toinette  admired  him.  Lord  Stormont,  the  Eng¬ 
lish  ambassador  at  Paris,  said  that  the  king 
would  sometimes  break  out  into  a  passion 
when  lie  heard  of  help  furnished  to  the  Amer¬ 
icans.  In  April  and  May,  1777,  Joseph  II.,  of 
Austria,  was  six  weeks  in  Paris.  He  was  silent 
in  conversation  ou  American  affairs,  or  took 
sides  against  them,  a  position  then  unpopular 
in  Paris.  One  day  he  excused  himself  to  a  lady 
who  was  a  friend  of  the  Americans  by  saying : 
“  You  know,  madam,  I  am  a  king  by  trade.”  He 
would  not  permit  a  visit  from  Franklin  and 
Deane,  nor  consent  to  meet  them  in  his  walks. 

King’s  (now  Columbia)  College,  one  of  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning  established  in 
the  English-American  colonies.  In  1746  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  Colonial  Assembly  of  New 
York  for  raising  £2250,  by  lottery,  “  for  the 
encouragement  of  learning  and  towards  the 
founding  of  a  college.”  The  sum  was  increased 
in  1751,  and  intrusted  to  ten  trustees,  one  of 
whom  was  a  Presbyterian,  two  were  of  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church,  and  seven  were  Epis¬ 
copalians.  Rev.  Samuel  Johnson,  of  Stratford, 
Conn.,  was  invited,  in  1753,  to  become  president 
of  the  proposed  institution,  and  a  royal  charter 
constituting  King’s  College  was  granted  Oct.  31, 

1754.  The  organization  was  effected  in  May, 

1755.  The  persons  named  in  the  charter  as  gov¬ 
ernors  of  the  college  were  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  the  principal  civil  officers  of  the 
colony,  the  principal  clergymen  of  the  five  de¬ 
nominations  of  Christians  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  twenty  private  gentlemen.  The  col¬ 
lege  opened  July  17,  1754,  with  a  class  of  eight, 
under  Dr.  Johnson,  sole  instructor,  in  the  ves¬ 
try-room  of  Trinity  Church.  The  corner-stone 
of  the  college  building  was  laid  Aug.  23,  1756, 
on  the  block  now  bounded  by  Murray,  Church, 
and  Barclay  streets  and  College  Place.  It  faced 
the  Hudson  River  and  “  was  the  most  beauti¬ 
fully  situated  of  any  college  in  the  world.”  The 
first  commencement  was  on  June  21, 1758,  when 
about  twenty  students  were  graduated.  In  1767 
a  grant  was  made  in  the  New  Hampshire  Grants 
of  twenty-four  thousand  acres  of  land,  but  it 
was  lost  by  the  separation  of  that  part  of 
Vermont  from  New  York.  (See  New  Hampshire 
Granin.)  In  1762  Rev.  Myles  Cooper  was  sent 
over  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  be¬ 
come  a  “  fellow  ”  of  the  college.  He  was  a 
strong  loyalist,  and  had  a  pamphlet  contro¬ 
versy  with  young  Alexander  Hamilton,  one  of 
his  pupils.  Cooper  became  president  of  the 
college,  and  so  obnoxious  were  his  politics  that 
the  college  was  attacked  by  the  “  Sons  of  Lib¬ 
erty”  and  a  mob  in  New  York  on  the  night  of 
May  10,  1775,  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee  for  his 
life.  Rev.  Benjamin  Moore  (afterwards  bishop 
of  the  diocese)  succeeded  him.  The  college  was 


KING’S  MOUNTAIN,  BATTLE  ON 

prepared  for  the  reception  of  troops  the  next 
year,  when  the  students  were  dispersed,  the  li¬ 
brary  and  apparatus  were  stored  in  the  City 
Hall,  and  mostly  lost,  and  the  building  became 
a  military  hospital.  About  six  hundred  of  the 
volumes  were  recovered  thirty  years  afterwards 
in  a  room  in  St.  Paul’s  Chapel,  whenfuone  but 
the  sexton  knew  of  their  existence.  In  1784  re¬ 
gents  of  a  state  university  were  appointed,  who 
took  charge  of  what  property  belonged  to  the 
institution  and  changed  its  name  to  Columbia 
College,  which  it  still  retains.  There  was  no 
president  for  several  years.  In  1787  the  origi¬ 
nal  charter  was  confirmed  by  the  State  Legis¬ 
lature,  and  the  college  was  placed  in  charge  of 
twenty-four  trustees.  Ou  May  21, 1787,  William 
Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.,  son  of  the  first  presi¬ 
dent,  was  chosen  to  fill  his  father’s  place,  and 
the  college  started  ou  a  prosperous  career.  A 
new  charter  was  obtained  in  1810.  A  medical 
and  law  school  was  established,  and  in  1828  the 
Hon.  James  Kent  delivered  a  course  of  law  lect¬ 
ures  in  the  college  that  formed  the  basis  of  his 
famous  Commentaries.  The  college  occupied  the 
original  site  until  1857,  when  it  was  removed 
to  its  present  location,  between  Madison  and 
Fourth  avenues  and  Forty-ninth  and  Fiftieth 
streets.  The  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur¬ 
geons  constitutes  the  medical  department  of 
Columbia  College.  Connected  with  it  is  also 
a  “  School  of  Mines.”  It  has  had  eleven  presi¬ 
dents  from  1754  to  1883. 

King’s  Ferry,  The.  Between  Stony  Point 
and  Verplanck’s  Point,  on  the  Hudson  River, 
just  below  the  lower  entrance  to  the  Highlands, 
was  an  important  crossing-place,  known  as  the 
Kpig’s  Ferry.  It  was  by  this  ferry  that  the 

great  route  from  the 
Eastern  to  the  Mid¬ 
dle  States  crossed 
the  Hudson.  It  was 
defended  by  two 
forts — Stony  Point 
on  the  west  side  and 
Fort  Lafayette,  at 
Verplanck’s  Point, 
ontheeast.  Sir  Hen¬ 
ry  Clinton  resolved 
to  seize  this  ferry  and  its  defences.  On  the  re¬ 
turn  of  the  expedition  of  Matthews  and  Collier 
from  Virginia,  Sir  Henry  ascended  the  Hudson 
with  the  same  squadron  and  six  thousand  sol¬ 
diers.  He  landed  his  troops  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  (May  31, 1779),  a  few  miles  below  the  forts. 
The  works  ou  Stony  Point  were  unfinished,  and, 
on  the  approach  of  the  British,  were  abandoned. 
Cannons  were  placed  on  its  outer  works  and 
brought  to  bear  on  the  fort  at  Verplanck’s 
Point,  which,  invested  on  the  land  side,  was 
compelled  to  surrender  (June  1),  after  a  spiriff 
ed  resistance.  So  the  direct  route  across  the 
river  from  the  Eastern  States  was  closed  for  a 
short  time. 

King’s  Mountain,  Battle  on  (1780).  Major 
Patrick  Ferguson  was  sent  by  Cornwallis  to  em¬ 
body  the  Tory  militia  among  the  mountains  west 
of  the  Broad  River.  Many  profligate  men  joined 


KING’S  MOUNTAIN,  BATTLE  ON  748  KINGSTON,  BURNING  OF 


his  standard,  and  he  crossed  the  Broad  River  at 
the  Cherokee  Ford  (Oct.  1,  1780)  and  encamped 
among  the  hills  of  King’s  Mountain,  near  the 
line  between  North  and  South  Carolina,  with 
about  fifteen  hundred  men.  Several  corps  of 
Whig  militia,  under  colonels  Shelby,  Sevier, 
Campbell, ‘and  others,  united  to  oppose  Fergu¬ 
son,  and  on  the  7tli  of  October  they  fell  upon 
his  camp  among  a  cluster  of  high,  wooded,  grav¬ 
elly  hills  of  King’s  Mountain.  A  very  severe  en- 


VIEW  AT  KING’S  MOUNTAIN  BATTLE-GROUND. 


gagement  ensued,  and  the  British  forces  were  to¬ 
tally  defeated.  Ferguson  was  slain,  and  three 
hundred  of  his  men  were  killed  or  wounded. 
The  spoils  of  victory  were  eight  hundred  prison¬ 
ers  and  fifteen  hundred  stand  of  arms.  The  loss 
of  the  Americans  was  twenty  men.  The  event 
was  to  Cornwallis  what  the  defeat  of  the  British 
near  Bennington  was  to  Burgoyne.  Among  the 
prisoners  were  some  of  the  most  cruel  Tories  of 
the  western  Carolines,  who  had  executed  the 

severe  orders  of 
Cornwallis.  Ten 
of  them,  after  a 
trial  by  “drum¬ 
head  court-mar¬ 
tial,”  were  hung 
on  the  limb  of  a 
great  tulip-tree. 
On  the  spot  where 
Ferguson  fell,  a 
small  monument 
w  as  erected  to  com¬ 
memorate  the  event 
and  to  the  memory 
of  some  of  the  pa¬ 
triots  killed  in  the 


MONUMENT  ON  KING’S  MOUNTAIN. 


battle.  The  annihilation  of 
crushed  the  spirits  of  the  loyalists. 


Ferguson’s 


corps 


King’s  Mountain,  Effects  of  the  Battle 
ON.  The  effect  of  the  defeat  of  the  British  was 
similar  upon  the  movements  of  Cornwallis  to 
that  of  the  battle  of  Bennington  on  the  fate  of 


Burgoyne.  It  changed  the  aspects  of  the  war 
in  the  South.  It  awed  the  Tories  and  encour¬ 
aged  the  Whigs.  The  mustering  of  forces  be¬ 
yond  the  mountains  to  oppose  his  movements 
took  Cornwallis  by  surprise.  It  quickened  the 
North  Carolina  Legislature  into  more  vigorous 
action,  and  it  caused  a  general  uprising  of  the 
patriots  of  the  South,  and  suddenly  convinced 
their  oppressor  that  his  march  through  North 
Caroliua  to  the  conquest  of  Virginia  was  not 

to  be  a  mere  recre¬ 
ation.  Met  by  North 
Carolinians  at  Char¬ 
lotte,  he  was  compelled 
to  fall  back  to  the  Ca¬ 
tawba,  and  his  experi¬ 
ence  in  that  winter 
campaign  was  marked 
by  great  perplexities 
and  disasters.  (See 
Bing's  Movvtain,  Battle 
on,  and  Guilford,  Battle 
at.) 

King’s  Province.  In 
1683  a  new  royal  com¬ 
mission  was  named  for 
the  settlement  of  boun¬ 
dary  disputes  between 
Connecticut,  Rhode  Isl¬ 
and,  and  Plymouth.  Its 
members  being  princi¬ 
pally  selected  from 
Massachusetts  and  Con¬ 
necticut,  Rhode  Island 
objected  to  them  as 
not  disinterested  ;  and  when  they  proceeded  to 
hold  a  session  within  the  disputed  territory,  the 
Rhode  Island  Assembly  met  near  by  and  forbade 
them  to  “hold  court”  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  province.  The  commission  adjourned  to  Bos¬ 
ton,  and  reported  to  the  king  (1686)  that  the  Nar- 
raganset  country  (the  southwestern  continental 
half  of  the  present  State  of  Rhode  Island)  be¬ 
longed  to  Connecticut;  this  domain  was  called 
the  King’s  Province  for  a  while,  but  wras  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  Joseph  Dudley,  the  temporary 
royal  governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  proceeded 
to  organize  there  an  independent  government, 
and  changed  the  names  of  the  towns.  (See  Con¬ 
solidation  of  Connecticut  and  New  Haven.) 

Kingston,  Burning  of  (1777).  Sir  Henry  Clin¬ 
ton’s  success  in  capturing  forts  Clinton  and  Mont¬ 
gomery  emboldened  him  to  send  a  marauding 
expedition  up  the  Hudson  to  make  a  diversion 
in  favor  of  Burgoyne,  hoping  thereby  to  draw 
many  troops  from  the  army  of  Gates  to  defend 
the  exposed  country  below.  Early  on  the  morn¬ 
ing  after  the  capture  of  the  forts  (Oct.  7, 1777),  the 
boom  and  chain  were  severed,  and  a  flying  squad¬ 
ron  of  light  armed  vessels  under  Sir  James  Wal¬ 
lace  (see  Gaspee,  Affair  of  the),  bearing  the  whole 
of  Sir  Henry’s  land-force,  went  up  the  river  to  de¬ 
vastate  its  shores.  Sir  Henry  wrote  a  despatch  to 
Burgoyne  on  a  piece  of  tissue-paper,  saying,  “  We 
are  here,  and  nothing  between  ns  and  Gates,”  and 
enclosing  it  in  a  small, hollow  bullet,  elliptical  in 
form,  gave  it  to  a  messenger  to  convey  to  the  de- 


KINNISON 


749 


spairing  general.  (See  Clinton’s  Despatch.)  The 
messenger  was  arrested  in  Orange  County  as  a 
spy.  He  swallowed  the  bullet,  which  an  emetic 
compelled  him  to  disgorge.  The  message  was 
found  and  the  spy  was  hanged.  The  marauding 
force,  meanwhile,  spread  havoc  and  consterna¬ 
tion  along  the  shores.  The  Legislature  of  the 
newly  organized  State  of  New  York  were  then 
in  session  at  Kingston,  Ulster  Co.  The  maraud¬ 
ers  went  thither  and  burned  the  village  (Oct.  7), 
the  Legislature  having  escaped  with  their  pa- 
pei’s.  Then  they  crossed  over  to  the  village  of 
Rhinebeck  Flats,  and  after  destroying  much 
property  there,  went  up  to  Livingston’s  Manor 
and  applied  the  torch.  There  they  heard  of 
Burgoyne’s  defeat,  when  the  marauders  hastened 
to  their  vessels  and  returned  to  New  York.  So 
ended  the  efforts  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  the 
British  ministry  (which  see). 

Kinnison,  David,  last  survivor  of  the  Boston 
Tea-party  (which  see),  was  born  at  Old  Kings¬ 
ton,  near  Portsmouth,  R.  I.,  Nov.  17, 1736 ;  died  in 
Chicago,  Feb.  24,  1851,  at  the  age  of  115  years. 
With  a  few  neighbors,  at  Lebanon,  Conn,  (where 
he  was  a  farmer),  he  went  to  Boston  to  assist  in 
destroying  the  tea  destined  for  that  port.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  war  for  independence  he  was  in  active 
service,  in  the  latter  part  of  which  he  was  a 
prisoner  among  the  Indians  more  than  a  year 


DAVID  KINNISON. 


and  a  half.  He  lived  in  different  places  until 
the  breaking-out  of  the  War  of  1812-15,  during 
which  he  was  engaged  in  the  military  service  of 
his  country.  He  went  to  Chicago  in  1845.  Mr. 
Kinnison  married  three  times,  and  wasthe  father 
of  twenty-eight,  children.  He  learned  to  read 
when  he  was  past  sixty  years  of  age,  and,  until 
within  four  years  of  his  death,  he  earned  his 
living  by  the  work  of  his  own  hands. 


KITTANNING,  DESTRUCTION  OF 

Kirkland,  Samuel,  missionary  to  the  Indians, 
was  born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Dec.  1, 1744  ;  died  at 
Clinton,  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  28,  1808.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1765.  At  the  school 


SAMUEL  KIRKLAND. 


of  Rev.  E.  Wheelock,  he  learned  the  Mohawk 
language,  and,  by  sojourns  among  the  Senecas, 
their  language  also.  After  the  affair  at  Lexing¬ 
ton,  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts 
requested  him  to  use  his  influence  to  secure  ei¬ 
ther  the  friendship  or  neutrality  of  the  Six  Na¬ 
tions  (which  see).  He  was  instrumental  in  at¬ 
taching  the  Oneidas  to  the  patriot  cause.  He 
labored  with  that  nation  as  a  missionary  of  re¬ 
ligion  and  patriotism  during  the  war,  when  the 
other  tribes  of  that  confederacy,  through  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  Brant  and  the  Johnsons,  had  taken 
the  opposite  side.  He  accompanied  Sullivan  in 
his  expedition  against  the  Senecas  in  1779.  Mr. 
Kirkland  was  the  founder  of  Hamilton  College. 
Having  been  granted  by  the  government  a  tract 
of  land  two  miles  square  in  the  present  town  of 
Kirkland,  Oneida  Co.,  he  removed  there  in  1789. 

Kitchen  Cabinet.  An  appellation  in  com¬ 
mon  use  during  the  administration  of  President 
Jackson,  of  which  Francis  P.  Blair  and  Amos 
Kendall  were  the  recipients.  Blair  was  the  ed¬ 
itor  of  The  Globe,  the  organ  of  the  administra¬ 
tion,  and  Kendall  was  one  of  its  principal  con¬ 
tributors.  These  two  men  were  frequently  con¬ 
sulted  by  the  President  as  confidential  advisers. 
To  avoid  observation  when  they  called  on  him, 
they  entered  the  President’s  dwelling  by  a  back 
door.  On  this  account  the  Opposition  party, 
who  believed  the  advice  of  these  two  men  caused 
Jackson  to  till  nearly  all  the  offices  with  Demo¬ 
crats,  after  turning  out  the  incumbents,  called 
them  in  derision  the  “Kitchen  Cabinet.” 

Kittanning,  Destruction  of.  In  consequence 
of  repeated  injuries  from  the  white  people  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  Delawares  had  become  bitter¬ 
ly  hostile  in  1756.  They  committed  many  dep¬ 
redations,  and  early  in  September  Colonel  John 
Armstrong  marched  against  the  Indian  town  of 
Kittanning, on  the  Alleghany  River,  about  forty- 
five  miles  northeast  from  Pittsburg.  He  ap¬ 
proached  the  village  stealthily,  and  fell  upon  the 
barbarians  furiously  with  about  three  hundred 
men  at  three  o’clock  in  the  morning  (Sept.  8, 


KNIGHTS  OF  THE  GOLDEN  CIRCLE  750  KNOXVILLE,  SIEGE  OF 


1756).  The  Indians  refusing  the  quarter  which 
was  offered  them,  Colonel  Armstrong  ordered 
their  wigwams  to  be  set  on  fire.  Their  leader, 
Captain  Jacobs,  and  his  wife  and  son  were  killed ; 
many  were  destroyed  in  their  burning  houses, 
and  those  who  were  slain  were  scalped.  Be¬ 
tween  thirty  and  forty  Indians  were  destroyed, 
and  eleven  English  prisoners  were  released. 

Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle.  These  were 
men  banded  for  the  overthrow  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  United  States.  They  were  a  secret 
society,  and  were  first  organized  for  action  in 
the  slave-labor  states.  They  were  pledged  to 
assist  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  designs  of 
those  who  were  intent  upon  the  establishment 
of  an  empire  within  the  limits  of  the  Golden  Cir¬ 
cle  (which  see).  It  was  the  sonl  of  the  filibus¬ 
tering  movements  in  Central  America  and  Cuba 
from  1850  to  1857  (see  Nicaragua) ;  and  when  these 
failed,  the  knights  concentrated  their  energies 
for  the  accomplishment  of  their  prime  object— 
the  destruction  of  the  Union  and  the  perpetua¬ 
tion  of  slavery.  The  subordinate  organizations 
were  called  “  castles.”  When  the  secession 
movement  began,  these  knights  became  special¬ 
ly  active  in  Texas.  When  the  disloyal  Peace 
faction  made  its  appearance  in  the  North,  an  al¬ 
liance  between  the  leading  members  of  it  and 
the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle  was  formed, 
and  the  “order”  became  very  numerous  and 
formidable  in  some  of  the  free-labor  states,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  West.  The  writer,  in  New  Or¬ 
leans,  in  April,  1861,  heard  a  New  York  journal¬ 
ist  tell  a  group  of  Secessionists  that  he  belonged 
to  a  secret  order  in  that  city,  50,000  strong,  who 
would  sooner  fight  for  the  South  than  for  the 
North.  An  army  chaplain  was  told  by  a  Con¬ 
federate  officer,  just  before  the  Draft  Riot  in  New 
York  (which  see),  “  You  will  be  surprised  at  the 
number  of  friends  we  have  in  your  very  midst; 
friends  who,  when  the  time  comes,  will  destroy 
your  railroads,  your  telegraph-wires,  your  gov¬ 
ernment  stores  and  property,  and  thus  facilitate 
the  glorious  invasion  [Lee’s]  now  breaking  yon 
in  pieces.”  At  about  that  time  the  knights  in 
the  West  held  a  meeting  at  Springfield,  Ill.  (June 
10, 1863),  when  it  was  resolved  to  make  the  draft 
a  pretext  for  revolution,  and  measures  were  ac¬ 
cordingly  adopted.  It  was  arranged  that  New 
York  should  take  the  initiative.  The  plan  was 
for  each  state  to  assume  its  “  independent  sov¬ 
ereignty.”  The  government  having  failed  to  sup¬ 
press  the  insurrection,  the  Union  was  dissolved 
into  its  original  elements,  each  of  which  was  left 
at  liberty  to  form  any  new  combination.  Mor¬ 
gan’s  Raid  in  Indiana  and  Ohio  (which  see)  was 
a  part  of  the  plan  of  that  revolution.  It  was 
supposed  that  the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle 
and  the  members  of  the  peace  faction  would  rise 
and  join  him  by  thousands.  In  this  he  was  mis¬ 
taken. 

Knowlton,  Thomas,  was  born  at  West  Box- 
ford,  Mass.,  Nov.  30, 1740  ;  died  Sept.  16, 1776.  He 
was  a  soldier  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and 
assisted  in  the  reduction  of  Havana  in  1762.  He 
was  in  the  Ashford  militia  at  Lexington,  April 
19,  1775,  and  was  selected  as  one  of  the  fatigue 


party  to  fortify  Bunker’s  Hill.  In  action  there 
lie  fought  bravely.  A  regiment  of  light  infan¬ 
try,  which  formed  the  van  of  the  American  army 
at  New  York,  was  commanded  by  him,  and  he 
was  commissioned  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  regi¬ 
ment  of  rangers  selected  from  the  Connecticut 
troops.  He  fell  in  the  battle  of  Harlem  Plains, 
and  his  character  was  eulogized  by  Washington 
in  general  orders. 

Knox,  Henry,  was  born  in  Boston,  July  25, 
1750 ;  died  at  Thomastou,  Me.,  Oct.  25,  1806.  He 
was  of  Scotch-Irish  stock.  Young  Knox  became 
a  thriving  bookseller  in  Boston,  and  married 
Lucy,  daughter  of  Secretary  Flucker.  He  be- 


HEXRY  KNOX. 


longed  to  an  artillery  company  when  the  Revo¬ 
lution  began,  and  his  skill  as  an  engineer  ar¬ 
tillerist  on  the  staff  of  General  Artemas  Ward 
attracted  the  attention  of  Washington.  In  No¬ 
vember  (1775)  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  artillery,  and  was  employed  successfully  in 
bringing  cannons  from  captured  forts  on  Lake 
Champlain  and  on  the  Canadian  frontier  to  Cam¬ 
bridge,  for  the  use  of  the  besieging  army.  Knox 
was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  December,  1776, 
and  was  the  chief  commander  of  the  artillery  of 
the  main  army  throughout  the  whole  war,  being 
conspicuous  in  all  the  principal  actions.  Knox 
was  one  of  the  court  of  inquiry  in  Major  Andre’s 
case ;  was  in  command  at  West  Point  after  hos¬ 
tilities  had  ceased,  and  arranged  for  the  surren¬ 
der  of  New  York.  At  Knox’s  suggestion,  the  So¬ 
ciety  of  the  Cincinnati  (which  see)  was  estab¬ 
lished.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  before  and 
after  Washington  became  President  of  the  Unit¬ 
ed  States  (1781-1795),  and  when  he  left  office  he 
settled  at  Thomastou,  where  he  administered 
the  most  generous  hospitality.  Swallowing  a 
chicken-bone  caused  his  death.  General  Knox 
Avas  frequently  called  into  civil  life. 

Knoxville,  Siege  of  ( 1863).  In  making  efforts 
to  purge  East  Tennessee  of  Confederates,  Burn¬ 
side  scattered  his  forces  considerably.  Perceiving 
this,  Bragg  sent  Longstreet  to  the  valley  of  East 
Tennessee  with  a  strong  force  to  seize  Knox¬ 
ville  and  drive  out  the  Nationals.  He  advanced 
swiftly  and  secretly;  and  on  Oct.  20  (1863)  he 
struck  a  startling  blow  at  Burnside’s  outposts 
at  Philadelphia,  on  the  railway  southwest  of 
Loudon.  Burnside,  perceiving  his  peril,  con¬ 
centrated  his  forces  at  Knoxville,  behind  his  in- 
trenchments  there.  The  chief  of  these  was  an 


KNYPHAUSEN 


751 


KOSCIUSZKO 


unfinished  work  on  a  kill  commanding  the  south¬ 
western  approaches  to  the  town.  Longstreet 
followed  rapidly.  Wheeler  and  Forrest,  with 
their  cavalry,  dashed  up  to  the  heights  on  which 
this  work  was  situated  to  seize  the  hill,  and 
on  Nov.  16  attacked  the  Nationals  there,  where 
General  W.  P.  Sanders,  of  Kentucky,  was  in 
command.  The  National  troops  on  the  right 
were  driven  from  a  ridge  they  occupied,  and 
Longstreet  made  his  headquarters  near  the  hank 
of  the  Holston  River,  less  than  a  mile  from  the 
works  to  be  assailed.  In  this  attack  General 
Sanders  was  killed,  and  the  National  loss  be¬ 
sides  was  about  one  hundred  men.  Then  Long- 
street’s  cavalry  were  sent  to  cut  off  Burnside’s 
supplies  and  line  of  retreat,  and  Knoxville  was 
closely  invested.  Longstreet  believed  starvation 
would  soon  compel  Burnside  to  surrender.  He 
was  mistaken.  The  latter  made  sorties  from 
his  strong  intrenchmeuts.  Finally  Longstreet 
threw  a  force  (Nov.  25)  across  the  Holston  to  seize 
the  heights  south  of  the  river  that  commanded 
Knoxville.  In  a  sharp  conflict  that  ensued  the 
Confederates  were  defeated,  but  they  seized  a 
knoll  lower  down,  and  planted  a  battery  on  it 
that  commanded  the  fort  at  Knoxville.  At  that 
moment  Longstreet  received  news  of  Bragg’s 
defeat  at  Missionaries’  Ridge  (which  see),  and 
he  well  knew  that  troops  from  Grant  would 
soon  be  upon  his  rear.  So  he  determined  to 
storm  Knoxville  at  once,  before  aid  could  reach 
Burnside.  At  the  same  time  he  received  some 
reinforcements.  At  eleven  o’clock  on  a  dark 
and  stormy  Saturday  night  (Nov.  28)  Long¬ 
street  proceeded  to  assail  the  principal  work, 
called  Fort  Sanders.  He  drove  in  the  National 
advance  and  seized  the  rifle-pits,  and  the  next 
morning  opened  a  furious  cannonade,  which  was 
soon  followed  by  a  rush  of  the  Confederates, 
with  tremendous  yells,  to  storm  the  fort.  They 
were  the  flower  of  Longstreet’s  army.  The 
Nationals  had  formed  a  net-work  of  wire  from 
stump  to  stump  in  front  of  the  fort,  and  in  this 
the  storming-party  became  fearfully  entangled 
and  bewildered,  while  the  guns  of  the  fort, 
double  shotted,  made  havoc  in  their  ranks.  The 
assailants  finally  gained  the  ditch  and  attempt¬ 
ed  to  scale  the  parapet,  and  one  officer  reached 
the  summit  and  planted  a  Mississippi  flag  there, 
but  instantly  his  dead  body  and  the  flag  fell 
into  the  ditch.  Very  soon  three  hundred  of  the 
assailants  in  the  ditch  surrendered,  and  the  as¬ 
sault  ceased.  Heavy  columns  of  National  troops 
were  now  approaching  Longstreet’s  rear,  under 
Sherman,  commanded  by  Granger,  Howard,  Da¬ 
vis,  and  Blair.  Longstreet,  perceiving  his  peril, 
raised  the  siege  (Dec.  3),  and  retreated  towards 
Virginia. 

Knyphausen  (Baron),  Dodo  Henry,  Hessian 
commander,  was  born  in  Alsace  in  1730;  died  in 
Berlin,  Prussia,  May  2, 1789.  He  began  his  mil¬ 
itary  career  in  the  service  of  the  father  of  Fred¬ 
erick  the  Great.  He  arrived  in  America  in  June, 
1776,  and  was  first  engaged  in  battle  here  in 
that  of  Long  Island  in  August  following.  (See 
German  Mercenaries.)  Knyphausen  was  in  the 
battle  of  White  Plains;  assisted  in  the  capture 
of  Fort  Washington,  which  was  named  by  its 


captors  Fort  Knyphausen  ;  was  conspicuous  in 
the  battle  of  Brandywine  in  1777,  and  in  Mon¬ 
mouth  in  1778;  and  commanded  an  expedition 
to  Springfield  (which  see)  in  June,  1780.  In  the 
absence  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton  he  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  city  of  New  York. 

Kosciuszko,  Thaddeus,  was  born  in  Lithua¬ 
nia,  Poland,  Feb.  12,  1756;  died  at  Solenre, 
Switzerland,  Oct.  16, 1817.  He  was  of  noble  de¬ 
scent,  and  was  educated  at  the  military  acade¬ 
my  at  Warsaw;  also  in  France  at  the  expense 


THADDEUS  KOSCIUSZKO. 


of  the  Polish  government.  He  entered  the  Po¬ 
lish  army  as  captain,  but  an  unhappy  passion 
for  the  daughter  of  the  Marshal  of  Lithuania 
caused  him  to  leave  his  country  and  offer  his 
services  to  the  Americans.  He  arrived  in  1776, 
with  a  note  of  introduction  and  recommenda¬ 
tion  to  Washington  by  Dr.  Franklin.  “What 
do  you  seek  here  ?”  inquired  the  chief.  “  I  come 
to  fight  as  a  volunteer  for  American  indepen¬ 
dence,”  answered  Kosciuszko.  “  What  can  you 
do?”  asked  Washington.  “Try  me,”  was  the 
quick  reply.  He  entered  Washington’s  military 
family  (Oct.  18,  1776)  as  colonel  of  engineers. 
He  planned  the  fortified  camp  of  General  Gates 
at  Bemis’s  Heights  in  1777,  and  was  the  prin¬ 
cipal  engineer  in  constructing  the  works  at 
West  Point,  on  the  Hudson.  Attached  to  Greene’s 
army  in  the  South,  he  was  the  engineer  in  the 
siege  of  Ninety-six  (which  see)  in  June,  1781. 
For  his  services  in  the  Continental  army  he  re¬ 
ceived  the  thanks  of  the  Congress,  the  Order  of 
the  Cincinnati,  and  the  brevet  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral.  Returning  to  Poland,  he  fought  against 
the  Russians  under  Poniatowski  in  1792;  hut 
the  Polish  patriots  were  defeated,  and  Ivoscinsz- 
ko  retired  to  Leipsic.  Another  rising  of  the  Poles 
occurred  in  1794,  when  Kosciuszko  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  insurgents  as  dictator,  and  with 
five  thousand  peasants,  armed  mostly  with 
scythes,  he  routed  nearly  twice  that  number  of 
Russians  at  Raclawice,  April  4.  Committing 
the  conduct  of  a  provisional  government  to  a 
national  council,  he  marched  against  his  ene¬ 
mies.  In  Warsaw  he  was  besieged  by  a  com¬ 
bined  army  of  Russians  and  Prussians.  These, 
after  several  bloody  conflicts,  were  compelled 


KOSSUTH  AT  NATIONAL  CAPITAL 


752  KOSSUTH’S  VISIT  TO  UNITED  STATES 


by  t-lie  Polish  chief  to  raise  the  siege.  Austria 
had  joined  the  assailants  of  the  Poles,  and  with 
an  army  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men 
fell  upon  and  crushed  them  (Oct.  10)  at  Macie- 
owice.  Kosciuszko  fought  gallantly,  and  fell 
covered  with  wounds,  uttering  the  sadly  pro¬ 
phetic  words,  afterwards  fulfilled,  Finis  Polonice! 
He  was  made  captive,  and  was  imprisoned  at 
St.  Petersburg  until  the  accession  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Paul,  who  set  him  at  liberty,  and  offered 
Kosciuszko  his  own  sword.  It  was  refused,  the 
Polish  patriot  saying,  “  I  have  no  need  of  a 
sword,  since  I  have  no  country  to  defend.”  In 
1797  he  visited  the  United  States,  where  he  was 
warmly  welcomed,  and  received,  in  addition  to 
a  pension,  a  grant  of  land  by  Congress.  He  re¬ 
sided  near  Fontainebleau, iu  France;  and  when 
Bonaparte  became  emperor  in  1806,  he  tried  to 
enlist  Kosciuszko  in  his  schemes  in  relation  to 
Poland.  Kosciuszko  refused  to  lend  his  services 
except  oil  condition  of  a  guarantee  of  Polish 
freedom.  He  went  to  live  at  Soleure  in  1816, 
where  he  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse 
over  a  precipice.  The  remains  of  this  true  no¬ 
bleman  of  Poland  lie  beside  those  of  Sobieski 
and  Pouiatowski  in  the  cathedral  church  at 
Cracow.  An  elegant  monument  of  white  mar¬ 
ble  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  West  Point  by 
the  cadet  corps  of  1828,  at  a  cost  of  $5000. 

Kossuth  at  the  National  Capital.  Louis 
Kossuth,  the  exiled  governor  of  Hungary,  ar¬ 
rived  at  Washington  at  the  close  of  December, 
1851.  He  was  received  by  two  United  States 
Senators  and  the  marshal  of  the  district.  The 
Secretary  of  State  (Daniel  Webster)  waited  upon 
him  ;  so  also  did  many  members  of  Congress. 
On  the  31st  he  was  presented  to  President  Fill¬ 
more  by  Mr.  Webster,  who  received  him  cor¬ 
dially.  On  Jan.  5,  1852,  he  was  introduced  to 
the  Senate.  He  entered  the  Senate  chamber  ac¬ 
companied  by  Senators  Cass  aud  Seward.  Gen¬ 
eral  Shields  introduced  him.  The  Senate  ad¬ 
journed,  and  the  members  all  paid  their  personal 
respects  to  the  distinguished  exile.  He  then 
visited  the  House  of  Representatives,  where  he 
was  warmly  received  by  the  speaker  and  most 
of  the  members.  Then  he  was  iutroduced  to 
each  member  personally,  and  presented  to  an 
immense  crowd  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  who 
had  assembled.  A  congressional  banquet  was 
given  him  at  the  National  Hotel,  at  which  W.  R. 
King,  President  of  the  Senate,  presided,  Kossuth 
and  Speaker  Boyd  being  on  his  right  hand,  and 
Secretary  Webster  on  his  left.  On  that  occasion 
Kossuth  delivered  one  of  his  most  effective 
speeches.  Mr.  Webster  concluded  his  remarks 
with  the  following  sentiment:  “Hungarian  in¬ 
dependence,  Hungarian  control  of  her  own  des¬ 
tinies,  and  Hungary  as  a  distinct  nationality 
among  the  nations  of  Europe.”  After  Kossuth’s 
departure  there  were  debates  in  Congress  on 
propositions  for  the  United  States  to  lend  ma¬ 
terial  aid  to  the  people  of  Hungary,  struggling 
for  national  independence ;  but  the  final  deter¬ 
mination  was  that  the  United  States  should  not 
change  its  uniform  policy  of  neutrality  in  favor 
of  Hungary.  The  cordial  reception  of  Kossuth 


everywhere,  and  the  magnetic  power  of  his  elo¬ 
quence  over  every  audience,  were  gratifying  and 
wonderful.  A  contemporary  wrote  :  “  The  cir¬ 
cumstances  attending  the  reception  of  Kossuth 
constituted  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  spec¬ 
tacles  the  New  World  had  ever  yet  beheld.” 

Kossuth’s  Visit  to  the  United  States.  In 
February,  1848,  the  French  people  drove  Louis 
Philippe  from  the  throne  of  France  and  formed 
a  temporary  republic.  A  revolutionary  spirit 
rapidly  spread  its  influence  over  Europe,  and  in 
a  few  months  almost  every  country  on  the  Con¬ 
tinent  was  in  a  state  of  political  agitation.  The 
monarchs  made  many  concessions  to  the  people. 
Hungary  attempted  to  cast  oft’  the  yoke  of  Aus¬ 
tria,  but  did  not  succeed  because  of  the  crushing 
weight  of  a  Russian  army  acting  for  the  op¬ 
pressor.  Louis  Kossuth,  Governor  of  Hungary, 
always  led  the  patriots  in  their  struggle  for  free¬ 
dom.  He  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
men  of  his  age.  On  the  failure  of  the  revolu¬ 
tionary  movements  in  1849,  he  took  refuge  in 
Turkey.  The  Austrian  government  demanded 
his  extradition.  The  United  States  aud  Eng¬ 
land  interfered,  and  he  was  allowed  to  depart 
into  exile,  with  his  family  and  friends.  The 
United  States  government  sent  the  war-steamer 
Mississippi  to  bring  him  hither,  and  early  in  the 
autumn  of  1851  he  embarked  for  this  country. 
While  in  exile  in  Turkey  and  in  prison,  he  em¬ 
ployed  his  time  in  studying  living  languages, 
and  he  was  enabled  to  address  the  people  of  the 
West  in  the  English,  German,  French, and  Italian 
languages.  He  went  to  Great  Britain,  and  made 
a  tour  through  the  most  populous  cities  of  the 
kingdom.  He  arrived  at  New  York  Dec.  5, 1851, 
accompanied  by  his  wife  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pulsz- 
ky.  Here  he  addressed  public  meetings  and 
deputations  iu  various  Northern  cities,  and  in 
all  his  speeches  he  showed  a  most  intimate 
knowledge  of  American  history  and  institutions. 
His  theme  was  a  plea  for  sympathy  and  sub¬ 
stantial  aid  for  his  country,  Hungary.  He 
wished  to  obtain  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
claims  of  Hungary  to  independence,  and  the  in¬ 
terference  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit¬ 
ain,  jointly,  in  behalf  of  the  principle  of  non¬ 
intervention,  which  would  allow  the  nations  of 
Europe  fair  play  in  their  renewed  struggle  for 
liberty.  He  constantly  asserted  that  grand  prin¬ 
ciple  that  one  nation  has  no  right  to  interfere 
with  the  domestic  concerns  of  another,  and  that 
all  nations  are  bound  to  use  their  efforts  to  pre¬ 
vent  such  interference.  The  government  of  the 
United  States,  to  which  he  appealed,  assuming 
its  traditional  attitude  of  neutrality  iu  all  quar¬ 
rels  iu  Europe,  declined  to  lend  aid,  excepting 
the  moral  power  of  expressed  sympathy.  Kos¬ 
suth  called  for  private  contributions  iu  aid  of 
the  struggle  of  his  people  for  independence,  and 
received  more  assurances  of  sympathy  thau  dol¬ 
lars,  for  there  seemed  to  be  a  reaction  in  Eu¬ 
rope,  and  the  chance  for  Hungarian  indepen¬ 
dence  appeared  more  remote  than  ever.  He 
was  received  with  great  distinction  at  Wash¬ 
ington  by  the  President  and  Congress,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  Europe  iu  July,  1852. 


LA  BORDE 


753 


LA  COLLE  MILL,  BATTLE  AT 


L. 


La  Borde,  Maximilian,  son  of  a  French  em¬ 
igrant  from  Bordeaux,  was  born  in  Edgefield 
District,  S.  C.,  in  1804.  In  1820  he  graduated 
at  the  South  Carolina  College  and  began  the 
study  of  law,  but  soon  abandoned  it  and  entered 
the  South  Carolina  Medical  College,  graduating 
in  1826.  For  thirteen  years  he  practised  the 
healing  art  in  Edgefield,  occasionally  represent¬ 
ing  his  district  in  the  Legislature.  In  1836  he 
was  editor  of  the  Edgefield  Advertiser,  and  two 
years  later  he  was  elected  Secretary  of  the  State 
of  South  Carolina.  His  fine  scholarship  attract¬ 
ed  public  attention,  and  in  1842  La  Borde  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  logic  and  belles-lettres  in 
his  alma  mater.  He  accepted  the  position,  and 
in  1845  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  ineta- 
ph  ysics.  His  method  of  imparting  knowledge 
was  chiefly  oral,  but,  to  assist  others  who  pre¬ 
ferred  the  use  of  text -books,  he  published  a 
manual  on  physiology  in  1855,  which  became 
very  popular  in  the  schools  of  the  South.  He 
published  an  elaborate  History  of  the  South  Caro¬ 
lina  College,  with  Sketches  of  its  Presidents  and  Pro¬ 
fessors. 

Lacey,  John,  born  in  Bucks  County,  Penn., 
Feb.  4,  1755 ;  died  at  New  Mills,  N.  J.,  Feb.  17, 
1814.  He  was  of  Quaker  descent,  but  patriot¬ 
ically  took  command  of  a  volunteer  company, 
and  became  a  captain  in  Wayne’s  regiment,  with 
which  he  served  in  Canada.  Becoming  a  lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel  of  militia,  he  joined  Potter’s  bri¬ 
gade  at  Whitemarsh,  with  about  four  hundred 


life  and  became  active  in  the  civil  service  ofhis 
state,  being  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  As¬ 
sembly  in  1778,  and  of  the  Council  in  1779.  He 
again  entered  the  military  service,  and  from  Au¬ 
gust,  1780,  to  October,  1781,  he  was  active  at  the 
head  of  a  brigade  of  militia.  Removing  to  New 
Jersey,  he  was  formally  years  a  county  judge 
and  a  member  of  the  Legislature. 

La  Colie  Mill,  Battle  at.  In  the  winter  of 
1813-14  an  American  force  under  General  Wil¬ 
kinson  was  encamped  at  French  Mills  (now  Fort 
Covington),  in  Franklin  County,  N.  Y.  (See  Ex¬ 
pedition  down  the  St.  Lawrence.)  Early  in  1814  a 
large  portion  of  this  force  was  withdrawn.  A 
part  were  marched  to  Plattsburg.  Soon  after¬ 
wards  (Feb.  28, 1814)  a  party  of  British  soldiers 
advanced  aud  destroyed  some  stores  which  the 
Americans  had  left  behind.  This  invasion  alarm¬ 
ed  the  whole  frontier.  Late  in  March,  General 
Wilkinson  attempted  another  invasion  of  Can¬ 
ada.  He  advanced  up  the  western  shore  of  Lake 
Champlain  to  the  Canada  frontier  (March  30, 
1814)  with  about  four  thousand  picked  men. 
They  soon  encountered  British  pickets,  and 
drove  them  back.  In  the  afternoon  the  Amer¬ 
icans  came  in  sight  of  La  Colle  Mill,  a  heavy 
stone  structure,  its  windows  barricaded  with 
timbers,  through  which  were  loop-holes  for 
musketry.  The  British  garrison  at  the  mill 
consisted  of  only  about  two  hundred  regulars, 
under  Major  Hancock.  The  advance  of  Wilkin¬ 
son’s  troops  was  commanded  by  Colonel  Isaac 


I.A  COLLE  MILL  AND  HLOCK-IIOU8K. 


men.  Before  he  was  twenty-three  years  old  lie 
was  made  a  brigadier-general,  and  was  engaged 
in  harassing  duty  while  the  British  had  com¬ 
mand  of  Philadelphia.  After  the  evacuation 
of  that  city  by  the  British,  ho  left  the  military 
I.— 48 


Clark  and  Major  Forsyth.  (See  Ogdensbvrg.) 
The  artillery  was  under  Captain  McPherson, 
and  the  reserves  wore  commanded  by  General 
Alexander  Macomb.  Following  Clark  and  For¬ 
syth  was  Colonel  Miller’s  regiment  of  six  huu- 


LACONIA 


754  LAFAYETTE  AT  WASHINGTON’S  TOMB 


dred  men.  Aware  that  reinforcements  for  the 
British  were  near,  Wilkinson  ordered  an  imme¬ 
diate  attack.  The  tire  upon  the  stone  citadel 
was  harmless,  while  the  whole  American  line 
was  exposed  to  a  galling  fire.  For  a  while  the 
fight  was  desperate,  when  Major  Hancock  made 
a  sortie  from  the  mill,  and  after  a  furious  con¬ 
test  they  were  driveu  back.  Reinforcements 
came  to  the  garrison,  and  after  a  conflict  of  two 
hours  Wilkinson  was  compelled  to  withdraw 
and  abandon  the  invasion  of  Canada.  The  af¬ 
fair  at  La  Colie  Mill  drew  upon  him  so  much 
obloquy  and  ridicule  that  he  soon  resigned  his 
command  aud  called  for  a  court-martial. 

Laconia,  the  name  given  by  Gorges  and  Ma¬ 
son  to  the  portion  of  New  England  granted  to 
t  hem, extending  from  the  Merrimack  to  the  Ken¬ 
nebec,  and  from  the  ocean  to  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  proprietors  induced  several  merchants  to 
join  them  in  their  adventure,  and  sent  out  a 
colony  of  fishermen,  a  part  of  whom  settled  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Piscataqua,  now  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.  Others  settled  on  the  site  of  Dover,  eight 
miles  farther  up  the  river.  The  Laconia  Com¬ 
pany  did  not  prosper,  and  the  towns  were  little 
more  than  fishing-stations.  (See  New  Hump - 
shire.) 

La  Come  (Chevalier),  Piekue,  was  an  active 
Canadian  officer  from  1720  to  1759,  and  had  great 
influence  over  the  Indians  in  connection  with 
the  Jesuit  missionaries.  His  intimate  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  Indian  language  gave  him  great 
power,  and  he  was  one  of  the  most  formidable 
enemies  of  the  English  in  Nova  Scot  ia. 

Ladd,  William,  was  born  at  Exeter,  N.  H., 
May  10,  1778;  died  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  April 
9,  1841.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1797  ;  be¬ 
came  an  active  champion  of  peace,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  organizing  the  “  American  Peace 
Society,”  of  which  he  was  for  many  years  pres¬ 
ident.  He  wrote  many  essays  in  favor  of  peace, 
and  edited  the  Friend  of  Peace  and  Harbinger  of 
Peace  newspapers,  devoted  to  the  cause.  He 
went  so  far  as  to  deny  the  right  to  maintain 
defensive  war. 

Lafayette  at  Barren  Hill.  To  restrain  Brit¬ 
ish  foragers  and  marauders,  who  were  plunder¬ 
ing  the  country  for  some  distance  around  Phil¬ 
adelphia  in  the  spring  of  1778,  Washington  sent 
out  from  Valley  Forge  General  Lafayette  with 
about  two  thousand  one  hundred  men  and  five 
pieces  of  artillery,  to  cut  off  all  communication 
between  Philadelphia  aud  the  country,  and  to 
obtain  information  concerning  a  rumored  inten¬ 
tion  of  the  British  to  evacuate  that  city.  La¬ 
fayette  crossed  the  Schuylkill,  and  took  post  at 
Barren  Hill,  about  half-way  between  Valley 
Forge  and  Philadelphia,  occupying  the  Lu¬ 
theran  church  there  as  headquarters.  Gener¬ 
al  Howe  sent  General  Grant  to  make  a  secret 
night  march  to  gain  the  rear  of  the  marquis 
(May  20),  and  the  next  morning  Howe  marched 
with  about  six  thousand  men,  commanded  by 
Clinton  and  Knyphausen,  to  capture  the  young 
Frenchman  and  send  him  to  England.  The  mar¬ 
quis  outgeneralled  the  British,  though  they  sur¬ 
prised  him,  and  escaped  across  the  Schuylkill. 


Howe  was  disappointed,  for  he  was  about  to  de¬ 
part  for  England  under  a  partial  cloud  of  minis¬ 
terial  displeasure,  and  he  hoped  to  close  his  ca¬ 
reer  in  America  by  some  brilliant  act. 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH,  BARREN  HILL. 


Lafayette  at  the  Tomb  of  Washington. 

Between  Washington  aud  Lafayette  there  had 
grown  up  a  strong  mutual  affection  during  their 
intercourse  in  the  scenes  of  the  old  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence.  When  at  the  seat  of  government  iu 
October,  1824,  while  on  a  visit  to  the  United 
States,  the  marquis  was  conducted  to  Mount 
Vernon  by  George  Washington  Parke  Custis, 
the  adopted  sou  of  Washington,  with  whom 
George  W.  Lafayette  had  lived  in  the  mansion 
of  the  great  patriot  while  Lafayette  was  an  ex¬ 
ile  from  France  aud  iu  a  prison.  He  was  con¬ 
veyed  from  the  capital  in  a  barge,  accompanied 
by  his  sou,  John  C.  Calhoun,  Secretary  of  War, 
and  Mr.  Custis,  aud  at  the  shore  at  Mount  Ver¬ 
non  he  was  received  by  Lawrence  Lewis,  Wash¬ 
ington’s  favorite  nephew,  and  the  family  of 
Judge  Bushrod  Washington,  who  was  then  ab¬ 
sent  on  official  business.  After  visiting  the 
mansion,  where,  forty  years  before,  he  took  his 
last  leave  of  the  beloved  patriot,  the  company 
proceeded  to  the  tomb  (the  old  one,  on  the  brow 
of  the  hill),  where  Custis  presented  the  marquis 
with  a  ring  containing  a  lock  of  Washington’s 
hair.  He  received  it  with  emotion.  The  door 
of  the  vault  was  opened,  and  there  were  dis¬ 
played  the  leaden  caskets  which  contained  the 
coffins  of  Washington  and  his  wife,  decorated 
with  flowers.  Lafayette  entered,  kissed  the 
casket,  and  reverently  retired. 


LAFAYETTE  AT  VERSAILLES 


755 


LAFAYETTE 


Lafayette  at  Versailles.  After  a  short  win¬ 
ter  passage  from  Boston  to  Brest,  in  February, 
1779,  Lafayette  joined  his  family  and  friends  in 
his  native  land.  His  otfence  in  sailing  for  Amer¬ 
ica  in  defiance  of  the  king’s  command  was  atoned 
for  by  a  week’s  exile  to  Paris,  and  confinement 
in  the  house  of  his  father-in-law.  He  was  then 
received  at  Versailles,  when  the  king  gently  rep¬ 
rimanded  him,  while  the  queen  eagerly  sought 
information  concerning  America  from  his  own 
lips.  His  fame  made  him  the  admired  of  court 
society  as  well  as  of  the  populace  of  the  French 
capital.  The  young  marquis  observed  with  alarm 
that  everybody  was  talking  of  peace,  while  Amer¬ 
ica  was  struggling  with  armed  champions  of  roy¬ 
alty,  and  he  felt  that  the  independence  of  the 
colonies  was  in  peril.  With  great  earnestness 
he  pleaded  for  aid  for  the  Americans,  and  was 
successful.  (See  French  Forces  and  French  Fleet.) 

Lafayette  in  Virginia.  Benedict  Arnold  led 
a  corps  of  British  and  Tories  into  Virginia  early 
in  1781,  to  plunder  and  distress  that  state.  To 
afford  the  Virginians  assistance,  Lafayette  was 
sent  with  a  considerable  body  of  troops,  princi¬ 
pally  drafts  from  the  New  England  States,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  Generals  Wayne  and  Steu¬ 
ben,  soon  drove  Cornwallis — who  succeeded  Ar¬ 
nold  and  Phillips  (which  see)  in  invading  Vir¬ 
ginia — first  across  the  James  River  to  Ports¬ 
mouth,  and  thence  to  Yorktowu. 

Lafayette,  Last  Visit  of,  to  the  United 
States.  On  the  26th  of  January,  1824,  the  Sen¬ 
ate  of  the  United  States  entertained  the  follow¬ 
ing  resolutions:  “The  Marqnis  de  Lafayette 
having  expressed  his  intention  to  revisit  this 
country,  Resolved,  That  the  President  be  request¬ 
ed  to  communicate  to  him  the  assurances  of 
grateful  and  affectionate  attachment  still  cher¬ 
ished  for  him  by  the  government  and  people  of 
the  United  States.  And  he  it  further  Resolved, 
That  whenever  the  President  shall  be  informed 
of  the  time  when  the  marquis  may  he  ready  to 
embark,  a  national  ship  (with  suitable  accom¬ 
modations)  be  employed  to  bring  him  to  the 
United  States.”  The  two  houses  passed  a  joiut 
resolution  of  similar  tenor,  and  he  was  invited 
to  come  as  the  nation’s  guest.  He  declined  the 
offer  of  a  ship-of-the-liue  for  his  conveyance  to 
this  country.  With  his  son,  George  Washing¬ 
ton  Lafayette,  and  his  secretary,  he  sailed  from 
Havre  for  New  York,  where  he  arrived  Aug.  15, 
1824.  In  the  space  of  about  eleven  months  he 
made  a  tour  of  about  five  thousand  miles  through 
the  United  States,  visiting  the  principal  por¬ 
tions,  and  was  everywhere  received  with  great 
enthusiasm.  His  journey  was  almost  like  a 
continued  triumphal  procession.  Congress, “in 
consideration  of  his  important  services  and  ex¬ 
penditures  during  the  American  Revolution,” 
voted  him  $200,000  in  cash  and  a  township  of 
land  ;  and  when  he  was  ready  to  depart  for 
France,  an  American  frigate,  named,  in  compli¬ 
ment  to  him,  Brandywine  (his  first  battle  in 
the  Revolution  having  occurred  on  Brandywine 
Creek,  Penn.),  was  sent  by  the  United  States 
government  to  convey  him  back.  On  his  arri¬ 
val  at  Havre,  the  greatness  of  the  American  Re¬ 


public,  which  he  had  just  left,  and  the  littleness 
of  the  restored  Bourbon  dynasty,  were  brought 
in  conspicuous  contrast.  A  great  concourse  of 
people  gathered  to  do  him  honor  on  his  return 
were  dispersed  by  the  police. 

Lafayette  (Marquis  de),  Marie  Jean  Paul 
Rocii  Yves  Gilbert  Motier,  was  born  at  Ca- 
vanac,  Auvergne,  France,  Sept.  6,  1757  ;  died  in 
Paris,  May  19,  1834.  Left  an  heir  to  an  im¬ 
mense  estate  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years,  he 


lafayette  in  1777.  (From  a  French  print.) 


received  the  best  education  that  could  be  ob¬ 
tained,  and  at  sixteen  married  a  granddaughter 
of  the  Duke  de  Noailles.  He  entered  the  army 
as  a  captain  of  dragoons,  and  in  the  summer  of 
1776  he  heard  of  the  struggles  of  the  English- 
American  colonies.  He  immediately  resolved 
to  aid  them,  and,  secretly  fitting  out  a  vessel  at 
his  own  expense,  he  sailed  for  America  in  com¬ 
pany  with  Baron  de  Kalb  and  ten  or  twelve 
other  foreign  military  officers  who  came  to  seek 
service  in  the  Continental  army,  and  landed 
near  Georgetown,  S.  C.,  April  19,  1777.  They 
travelled  by  land  to  Philadelphia,  where  La¬ 
fayette  immediately  addressed  a  letter  to  Con¬ 
gress,  asking  leave  to  serve  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  Continental  army  without  pay.  In  consid¬ 
eration  of  his  zeal  and  his  illustrious  family  and 
connections,  that  body  gave  him  the  commis¬ 
sion  of  major-general  (July  31, 1777),  and  Wash¬ 
ington  invited  him  to  become  a  member  of  his 
military  family.  He  joined  the  Continental 
army  near  a  house  on  Nesliaminy  Creek  in  Au¬ 
gust.  At  that  time  he  was  less  than  twenty 
years  of  age.  From  that  time  until  the  close 
of  the  Revolution  he  was  the  bosom  friend  of 
the  commander-in-chief  and  the  untiring  and 
effective  champion  of  the  patriot  cause  in  the 
field  and  at  the  court  of  his  native  country. 
He  was  ever  ready  to  defend  the  honor  of  the 
Americans.  In  1778  he  challenged  Lord  Car¬ 
lisle,  one  of  the  British  commissioners,  to  fight 
a  duel.  (See  Manifesto  of  British  Commissioners.) 


LAFAYETTE 


756  LAFAYETTE’S  VOYAGE  TO  AMERICA 


When  the  Americans  had  secured  peace  and  in¬ 
dependence  for  their  country,  he  returned  to 
France,  and  was  made  a  major-general  in  the 
French  army.  In  1784  he  again  visited  the 
United  States,  and  was  everywhere  received 
with  tokens  of  affection  and  respect.  He  be¬ 
came  a  member  of  the  Notables  at  Paris  in 
1787,  when  lie  boldly  demanded  the  convocation 
of  the  States-General,  consisting  of  three  orders 
— namely,  the  clergy,  nobility,  and  commons — 
representatives  of  the  whole  nation.  They  had 
not  met  since  1614,  a  period  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-three  years.  The  king  (Louis  XVI.) 
convened  them  on  May  6, 1789.  There  were  308 
ecclesiastics,  285  nobles,  and  621  deputies  of  the 
third  estate,  or  the  “common  people.”  In  July 
Lafayette  was  appointed  commander-iu-chief 
of  the  National  Guard.  When  the  abolition 
of  titles  was  decreed,  he  dropped  his,  and  was 
known  only  as  General  Lafayette.  He  resigned 
his  command  in  1790,  and  in  1792  commanded 
one  of  the  armies  sent  to  guard  the  fron¬ 
tiers  of  France  against  the  forces  of  uion- 
archs  alarmed  by  the  republican  demon¬ 
strations  in  France.  When  the  tierce 
Jacobins  seized  power  the  conservative 
Lafayette  was  denounced  and  his  arrest 
decreed.  He  crossed  the  frontier,  intend¬ 
ing  to  take  refuge  in  Holland.  The  Aus¬ 
trians  seized  him,  aud  confined  him  in  a 
duugeon  five  years.  For  a  long  time  no 
intelligence  of  him  reached  his  friends. 
Meanwhile  his  wife  had  been  imprisoned 
at  Paris  during  the  “  Reign  of  Terror,” 
but  had  beeniset  at  liberty  on  the  down¬ 
fall  of  Robespierre.  She  hastened  to 
Vienna,  obtained  a  personal  interview 
with  the  emperor,  and  gained  permission 
to  share  the  captivity  of  her  husband. 

Great  exertions  were  made  in  Europe  and 
America  to  obtain  his  release,  but  in  vain, 
until  Bonaparte,  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
demanded  his  release.  He  was  set  at 
liberty  Aug.  25, 1797.  Towards  the  end  of  1799 
he  returned  to  his  estate  of  La  Grange,  forty 
miles  from  Paris.  Bonaparte  tried  to  bribe 
him  with  offered  honors  to  enter  public  life 
again  as  senator.  He  refused  with  disdain  ; 
and  when  the  vote  for  making  Bonaparte  first 
consul  for  life  was  taken,  Lafayette  voted  vo, 
and  told  the  ambitious  general  so  in  a  letter, 
which  ended  their  intercourse.  When  Bona¬ 
parte  became  emperor,  Lafayette  took  a  seat 
in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies;  aud  this  stanch 
champion  of  constitutional  government  refused 
the  offered  bawble  of  a  peerage.  After  the  bat¬ 
tle  of  Waterloo,  touched  with  sympathy  for  the 
fallen  monarch,  he  offered  him  facilities  for  es¬ 
caping  to  America  ;  but  the  emperor,  who  could 
not  forgive  Lafayette’s  former  opposition,  re¬ 
fused  to  accept  the  offer,  and  became  a  prisoner 
on  St.  Helena.  In  the  French  legislature  La¬ 
fayette’s  voice  was  always  in  favor  of  liberal 
measures.  In  1824  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  requested  President  Monroe  to  invite 
Lafayette  to  America  as  a  guest  of  the  Repub¬ 
lic.  He  came,  but  declined  the  offer  of  a  ship. 
With  his  sou  aud  a  private  secretary,  he  landed 


in  New  York  (Aug.  15, 1824),  visited  in  succes¬ 
sion  the  whole  twenty -four  states,  aud  was 
everywhere  received  with  demonstrations  of 
love  and  respect.  He  would  have  been  received 
with  equal  respect  and  enthusiasm  by  his  own 
people  on  his  return  had  not  the  government 
interfered.  During  the  revolution  of  1830,  that 
drove  Charles  X.  from  the  throne,  Lafayette  was 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  National  Guard, 
in  which  capacity  he  did  great  public  service.  He 
sacrificed  his  ovvu  republican  preferences  for  the 
sake  of  peace  and  order,  and  placed  Louis  Phil¬ 
ippe  on  the  throne.  He  died  the  acknowledged 
chief  of  the  constitutional  party  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe.  He  received  a  maguificent  public  fu¬ 
neral,  when  his  remains  were  conveyed  to  their 
resting-place  in  the  cemetery  of  Pigpers,  a  pri¬ 
vate  burial-ground  of  several  families  of  the 
nobility  of  Paris,  back  of  the  gardens  of  what 
was  once  a  nunnery,  but  a  boarding-school  for 
young  ladies  in  1850.  The  monument  is  about 


Lafayette’s  tomb. 

eight  feet  square,  and  composed  of  dark  sand¬ 
stone,  with  appropriate  inscriptions  in  French. 
The  cross  seen  in  the  picture  stands  over  the 
grave  of  another. 

Lafayette’s  Voyage  to  America.  When 
Lafayette  aud  other  French  officers  were  ready 
to  embark  for  America  (1777),  he  was  informed 
that  the  credit  of  the  Continental  Congress  was 
so  low  that  it  could  not  furnish  them  a  trans¬ 
port.  The  young  enthusiast  replied,  “Then  I 
will  purchase  one  myself.”  He  bought  and  secret¬ 
ly  freighted  a  vessel,  called  the  Victory,  to  carry 
himself,  the  veteran  Baron  de  Kalb,  and  ten  or 
twelve  other  French  officers  across  the  Atlantic. 
While  the  vessel  was  in  preparation  for  sailing, 
he  made  a  visit  to  England,  where  he  was  in¬ 
vited  to  visit  the  navy-yards.  Too  honorable 
to  inspect  the  armaments  of  a  people  whose  ar¬ 
mies  he  was  about  to  fight  against,  he  declined, 
but  thought  it.  a  good  joke  to  be  introduced  to 
their  king.  He  was  then  only  nineteen  years 
of  age.  The  Victory  sailed  first  to  a  Spanish 
port,  where  Lafayette  received  orders  from  the 
king  to  give  up  his  expedition  ;  but  he  disobey¬ 
ed,  and  sailed  for  America.  The  women  of  Paris 


LAFITTE  AND  THE  BARATARIANS  757  LAKE  ERIE.  BATTLE  OF 


applauded  liis  heroism ;  the  queen  gave  him 
tokens  of  her  admiration  ;  the  people  extolled 
him  for  his  strong  enthusiasm  in  a  good  cause; 
and  to  his  young  wife,  who  was  about  to  be¬ 
come  a  mother  a  second  time,  he  wrote  from 
the  Victory  :  “  From  love  to  me,  become  a  good 
American  ;  the  welfare  of  America  is  closely 
bound  up  with  the  welfare  of  mankind.” 

Lafitte  and  the  Baratarians.  After  the 
English  had  captured  the  Island  of  Guadeloupe, 
French  privateersmen  lost  their  last  rendezvous 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  soon  found  refuge  in 
Barataria  Bay,  just  west  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  They  had  adopted  the  flag 
of  the  then  new  insurgent  Republic  of  Cartha- 
gena,  and  professed  to  cruise  under  that  dag 
against  the  Spaniards;  but,  like  the  old  Buc¬ 
caneers  (which  see),  they  made  very  little  dis¬ 
crimination  in  their  captures.  These  semi¬ 
pirates  found  a  market  at  New  Orleans  for  their 
plunder,  which  was  smuggled  in  and  sold  at 
very  low  prices.  The  leader  of  this  band  of 
outlaws  in  1814  was  Jean  Ladtte,  a  shrewd 
Frenchman,  who  had  been  called  the  “Pirate 
of  the  Gulf.”  He  and  his  band  had  been  out¬ 
lawed  by  legal  proceedings,  though  his  crimes 
were  not  against  humanity — only  violations  of 
the  revenue  and  neutrality  laws  of  the  United 
States.  To  these  marauders  a  message  was 
sent  by  the  unwise  commander  of  the  British 
Gulf  squadron  from  Pensacola,  with  a  procla¬ 
mation  of  his  intentions  to  conquer  Louisiana, 
and  offering  to  take  these  Baratarians  into  the 
British  service,  with  rank  and  pay  for  Latitte 
and  other  chief  leaders  if  they  would  join  in  an 
attack  on  New  Orleans.  When  this  invitation 
was  put  into  the  hands  of  Lafitte,  he  feigned 
compliance ;  but  as  soon  as  the  bearer  had  de¬ 
parted  he  called  his  followers  around  him,  on 
the  border  of  the  sea,  and  said,  in  substance, 
“Comrades,  I  am  an  adopted  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  will  never  violate  the  con¬ 
fidence  placed  in  me  by  serving  the  enemies  of 
this  country.  We  have  been  outlawed  ;  perhaps 
we  deserve  it  by  our  irregularities.  No  matter; 
I  am  ready  to  serve  my  adopted  country,  and 
ask  you  to  join  me.  What  say  you,  comrades?” 
His  brawny  followers  threw  up  their  hats  and 
exclaimed,  “  We  will !  we  will !”  And  they  were 
afterwards  accepted  as  volunteers  in  the  de¬ 
fence  of  New  Orleans.  Lafitte  immediately  sent 
the  despatches  received  from  the  British  com¬ 
mander  to  the  Governor  of  Louisiana;  and  so 
the  people  were  forewarned  of  danger. 

Lafitte,  Jean,  was  horn  in  France  about  1780 ; 
died,  some  suppose,  at  sea  in  1817;  others,  at 
Sisal,  Yucatan,  in  1826.  In  1813-14  he  was  at. 
the  head  of  a  hand  of  smugglers,  with  their 
headquarters  at  Barataria  Bay.  ( See  Lafitte 
and  the  Baratarians.)  After  the  War  of  1812-15 
liis  subsequent  career  is  verv  obscure;  but  it  is 
believed  that  he  obtained  a  privateer’s  commis¬ 
sion  from  either  New  Granada  or  Mexico,  and 
formed  a  settlement  on  the  site  of  Galveston, 
Texas  —  a  settlement  of  outlaws  —  which  was 
broken  up  by  a  naval  force  under  Lieutenant 
Kearny  in  1821. 


Lake  Erie,  Battle  of.  Commodore  Perry, 
anxiously  waiting  for  men  to  man  his  little  fleet 
at  Erie,  was  partially  gratified  by  the  arrival 
there  of  one  hundred  men  from  Black  Rock,  un¬ 
der  Captain  Elliott,  and  early  in  August,  1813, 
he  went  out  on  the  lake  before  he  was  fairly 
prepared  for  vigorous  combat.  On  the  17th  of 
August,  when  off  Sandusky  Bay,  he  fired  a 
signal-gun  for  General  Harrison,  according  to 
agreement.  Harrison  was  encamped  at  Seneca, 
and  late  in  the  evening  of  the  19th  he  and  his 
suite  arrived  in  boats  and  went  on  board  the  flag¬ 
ship  Laivrence,  where  arrangements  were  made 
for  the  fall  campaign  in  that  quarter.  Harrison 
had  about  eight  thousand  militia,  regulars  and 
Indians,  at  Camp  Seneca,  a  little  more  than 
twenty  miles  from  the  lake.  While  he  was 
waiting  for  Harrison  to  get  his  army  ready  to 
be  transported  to  Fort  Malden,  Perry  cruised 
about  the  lake.  On  a  bright  morning,  Sept.  10, 
the  sentinel  watching  in  the  main-top  of  the 
Lawrence  cried,  “Sail,  ho!”  It  announced  the 
appearance  of  the  British  fleet,  clearly  seen  in 
the  northwestern  horizon.  Very  soon  Perry’s 
nine  vessels  (see  American  Fleet  on  Lake  Erie) 
were  ready  for  the  enemy.  At  the  mast-head 
of  the  Lawrence  was  displayed  a  blue  banner, 
with  the  words  of  Lawrence,  the  dying  captain, 
in  large,  white  letters,  “  Don’t  give  up  the 
Ship.”  (See  Perry1  s  Battle -flag.)  The  two 
squadrons  slowly  approached  each  other.  The 
British  squadron  was  commanded  by  Commo¬ 
dore  Robert  H.  Barclay,  who  fought  with  Nel¬ 
son  at  Trafalgar.  His  vessels  were  the  ship  De¬ 
troit,  19  guns,  and  1  pivot  and  2  howitzers  ;  ship 
Queen  Charlotte,  17,  and  1  howitzer;  schooner 
Lady  Prevost,  13,  and  1  howitzer ;  brig  Hunter, 
10 ;  sloop  Little  Belt,  3 ;  and  schooner  Chippewa, 
1,  and  2  swivels.  The  battle  began  at  noon,  at 
long  range,  the  Scorpion,  commanded  by  young 
Sailing  -  master  Stephen  Champlin,  then  less 
than  twenty-four  years  of  age,  firing  the  first 
shot  on  the  American  side.  As  the  fleets  drew 
nearer  and  nearer,  hotter  and  hotter  waxed  the 
fight.  For  two  hours  the  Lawrence  bore  die 
brunt  of  battle,  until  she  lay  upon  the  waters 
almost  a  total  wreck  —  her  rigging  all  shot 
away,  her  sails  cut  into  shreds,  her  spars  bat¬ 
tered  into  splinters,  and  her  guns  dismounted. 
One  mast  remained,  and  from  it  streamed  the 
national  flag.  The  deck  was  a  scene  of  dread¬ 
ful  carnage,  and  most  men  would  have  struck 
their  flag.  But  Perry  was  hopeful  in  gloom. 
His  other  vessels  had  fought  gallantly,  except¬ 
ing  the  Niagara,  Captain  Elliott,  the  stanchest 
ship  in  the  fleet,  which  had  kept  outside,  and 
was  unhurt.  As  she  drew  near  the  Lawrence, 
Perry  resolved  to  fly  to  her,  and,  renewing  the 
fight,  win  the  victory.  Putting  on  the  uniform 
of  his  rank,  that  he  might  properly  receive  Bar¬ 
clay  as  his  prisoner,  he  took  down  his  broad 
pennant  and  the  banner  with  the  stirring 
words,  entered  his  boat  with  his  brother  (four¬ 
teen  years  of  age),  and,  with  four  stout  seamen 
at  the  oars,  he  started  on  his  perilous  voyage, 
anxiously  watched  by  those  he  had  left  on  the 
Lawrence.  Perry  stood  upright  in  his  boat,  with 
the  penurnt  and  haulier  partly  wrapped  about 


LAKE  ERIE,  BATTLE  OF  758  LAKE  ERIE,  BATTLE  OF 


him.  Barclay,  who  had  been  badly  wounded, 
informed  of  Perry’s  daring,  and  knowing  the 
peril  of  the  British  fleet  if  the  young  commo¬ 
dore  should  reach  the  decks  of  the  Niagara,  or¬ 
dered  big  and  little  guns  to  he  brought  to  bear 
on  the  little  boat  that  held  the  hero.  The  voy¬ 
age  lasted  fifteen  minutes.  Bullets  traversed 


tie  of  Lake  Erie.  Assured  of  victory,  Perry  sat 
down,  and  resting  his  naval  cap  on  his  knee, 
wrote  to  Harrison,  with  a  pencil,  on  the  back 
of  a  letter,  the  famous  despatch  :  “  We  have 
met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours — two  ships, 
two  brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop/’  The 
name  of  Perry  was  made  immortal.  His  gov- 


THE  PERRY  MEDAL. 


the  boat,  grape-shot  falling  in  the  water  near 
covered  the  seamen  with  spray,  and  oars  were 
shivered  by  cannon-balls,  but  not  a  man  was 
hurt.  Perry  reached  the  Niagara  in  safety. 
Hoisting  his  pennant  over  her,  he  dashed 
through  the  British  line,  and  eight  minutes 
afterwards  the  colors  of  the  enemy’s  flag-ship 


ernraeut  thanked  him,  and  gave  him  and  Elliott 
each  a  gold  medal.  The  Legislature  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  voted  him  thanks  and  a  gold  medal ; 
aud  they  gave  thanks  and  a  silver  medal  to 
each  man  who  was  engaged  in  the  battle.  The 
Americans  lost  twenty-seven  killed  and  ninety- 
six  wounded.  The  British  loss  was  about  two 


PUT-IN  RAY — BATTLE  SEEN  IN  THE  DISTANCE. 


were  struck,  all  but  two  of  the  fleet  surrender¬ 
ing.  These  attempted  to  escape,  but  were  pur¬ 
sued  and  brought  back,  late  in  the  evening,  by 
the  Scorpion,  whose  gallant  commander  (Cham- 
pliu)  had  tired  the  first  and  last  gun  in  the  bat- 


hundred  killed  and  six  hundred  made  prison¬ 
ers.  At  about  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening  of 
the  day  of  the  battle,  the  moon  shining  bright¬ 
ly,  the  two  squadrons  weighed  anchor  and  sailed 
into  Put-in  Bay,  not  far  from  Sandusky,  out  of 


LAKE  ONTARIO,  OPERATIONS  UPON  759  LAKE  ONTARIO,  OPERATIONS  UPON 


■which  the  American  fleet  had  sailed  that  morn- 
iug.  The  last  survivor  of  the  battle  of  Lake 
Erie  was  John  Norris,  who  died  at  Petersburg, 
Va.,  in  January,  1879. 

Lake  Ontario,  Operations  upon,  in  1812. 
Commodore  Isaac  Chauncey  was  in  command  of 
a  little  squadron  of  armed  schooners,  hastily  pre¬ 
pared,  ou  Lake  Ontario  late  in  1812.  The  vessels 
were  the  Oneida  (his  flag-ship),  Conquest ,  Growl¬ 
er,  Pert,  Scourge,  Governor  Tompkins,  and  Hamil¬ 
ton.  He  sailed  from  Sackett’s  Harbor  (Nov.  8) 
to  intercept  the  British  squadron,  under  Com¬ 
modore  Earl,  returning  to  Kingston  from  Fort 
George,  on  the  Niagara  River,  whither  they  had 
conveyed  troops  and  prisoners.  Chauncey  took 
his  station  near  the  False  Ducks,  a  group  of  isl¬ 
ands  nearly  due  west  from  Sackett’s  Harbor.  On 
the  afternoon  of  Nov.  9  he  fell  in  with  Earl’s  flag¬ 
ship,  the  Royal  George.  He  chased  her  into  the 
Bay  of  Quintd,  where  he  lost  sight  of  her  in  the 
darkness  of  night.  Ou  the  following  morning 
(Nov.  10)  he  captured  and  burned  a  small  armed 
schooner,  and  soon  afterwards  espied  the  Roy¬ 
al  George  making  her  way  towards  Kingston. 
Chauncey  gave  chase  with  most  of  his  squad¬ 
ron  (which  had  been  joined  by  the  Julia),  and  fol¬ 
lowed  her  into  Kingstou  harbor,  where  he  fought 
her  and  five  land-batteries  for  almost  an  hour. 
These  batteries  were  more  formidable  than  he 
supposed.  A  brisk  breeze  having  arisen,  and 
the  night  coming  on,  Chauncey  withdrew  aud 
anchored.  The  next  morning  the  breeze  had 
become  almost  a  gale,  aud  Chauncey  weighed 
anchor  and  stood  out  lakeward.  The  Tompkins 
(Lieutenant  Brown),  the  Hamilton  (Lieutenant 
McPherson),  and  Julia  (Sailing-master  Trant) 
chased  the  Simcoe  over  a  reef  of  rocks  (Nov.  11), 
and  riddled  her  so  that  she  sunk  before  she 
reached  Kingston.  Soon  afterwards  the  Ham¬ 
ilton  captured  a  large  schooner  from  Niagara. 
This  prize  was  sent  past  Kingston  with  the 
Growler  (Sailing-master  Mix),  with  a  hope  of 
drawing  out  the  Royal  George ;  but  Chauncey 
had  so  bruised  her  that  she  was  compelled  to 
haul  on  shore  to  keep  from  sinking.  A  number 
of  her  crew  had  been  killed.  The  wind  had  in¬ 
creased  to  a  gale  on  the  nights  of  the  lltli  and 
12th,  and  during  the  night  of  the  12th  there  was 
a  snow-storm.  Undismayed  by  the  fury  of  the 
elements,  Chauncey  continued  his  cruise,  for  his 
heart  was  set  on  gaining  the  supremacy  of  the 
Lakes.  Learning  that  the  Earl  of  Moira  was  off 
the  Real  Ducks  islands,  he  attempted  to  capture 
her.  She  was  on  the  alert  and  escaped,  but  a 
schooner  that  she  was  convoying  was  made 
captive.  On  the  same  day  Chauncey  saw  the 
Royal  George  and  two  other  armed  vessels,  but 
they  kept  out  of  his  way.  Iu  this  short  cruise 
he  captured  three  merchant -vessels,  destroyed 
one  armed  schooner,  disabled  the  British  flag¬ 
ship,  and  took  several  prisoners,  with  a  loss,  on 
his  part,  of  one  man  killed  and  four  wounded. 
Among  the  latter  was  Sailing-master  Arundel, 
commander  of  the  Pert,  who  was  badly  injured 
by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon.  He  would  not 
leave  the  deck,  and  was  knocked  overboard  and 
drowned. 

Lake  Ontario,  Operations  upon,  in  1819. 


After  the  capture  of  Fort  George  (which  see), 
Chauncey  crossed  the  lake,  looked  into  York, 
and  then  ran  for  Kingston  without  meeting  a 
foe.  He  retired  to  Sackett’s  Harbor,  where  he 
urged  forward  the  completion  of  a  new  corvette, 
the  General  Pike,  26  guns.  She  was  launched 
June  12,  1813,  and  placed  in  command  of  Cap¬ 
tain  Arthur  Sinclair.  It  was  late  in  the  sum¬ 
mer  before  she  was  ready  for  a  cruise.  Mean¬ 
while,  the  keel  of  a  fast-sailing  schooner  was  laid 
by  Eckford  at  Sackett’s  Harbor,  aud  named  the 
Sylph,  and  a  small  vessel  was  kept  constantly 
cruising,  as  a  scout,  off  Kingstou,  to  observe  the 
movements  of  the  British  squadron  there.  This 
little  vessel  ( Lady  of  the  Lake )  captured  the  Brit¬ 
ish  schooner  Lady  Murray  (June  16),  laden  with 
provisions,  shot,  and  fixed  ammunition,  aud  took 
her  into  the  Harbor.  Sir  James  L.  Yeo  was  iu 
command  of  the  British  squadron  on  the  lake. 
He  made  a  cruise  westward,  and  on  the  7th  of 
July  appeared  with  his  squadron  off  Niagara. 
Chauncey  and  Scott  had  just  returned  from  the 
expedition  to  York  (which  see).  Chauncey  im¬ 
mediately  went  out  and  tried  to  get  the  weatli- 
er-gauge  of  Sir  James.  He  had  thirteen  vessels, 
but  only  three  of  them  had  been  originally  built 
for  war  purposes.  His  squadron  consisted  of 
the  Pike,  Madison,  Oneida,  Hamilton,  Scourge,  On¬ 
tario,  Fair  American,  Governor  Tompkins,  Conquest, 
Growler ,  Julia,  Asp,  and  Pert.  The  British  squad¬ 
ron  now  consisted  of  two  ships,  two  brigs,  and 
two  large  schooners.  These  had  all  been  con¬ 
structed  for  war,  and  were  very  efficient  in  ar¬ 
mament  and  shields.  The  belligerents  manoeu¬ 
vred  all  day,  and  when  at  sunset  a  dead  calm 
fell,  they  took  to  sweeps.  When  darkness  came, 
the  American  squadron  was  collected  by  signal. 
The  wind  finally  freshened,  and  at  midnight 
was  blowing  a  fitful  gale.  Suddenly,  a  rushing 
sound  was  heard  astern  of  most  of  the  fleet,  and 
it  was  soon  ascertained  that  the  Hamilton  and 
Scourge  had  disappeared.  They  had  been  cap¬ 
sized  by  a  terrible  squall,  and  all  of  the  officers 
and  men,  excepting  sixteen  of  the  latter,  had  per¬ 
ished.  These  two  vessels  carried  nineteen  guns 
between  them.  All  the  next  day  the  squadrons 
manoeuvred  for  advantage,  and  towards  evening 
Chauncey  ran  into  the  Niagara  River.  All  that 
night  the  lake  was  swept  by  squalls.  On  the 
morning  of  the  9th,  Chauncey  wrent  out  to  at¬ 
tack  Sir  James,  and  the  flay  was  spent  in  fruit¬ 
less  manoeuvres.  At  six  o’clock  on  the  10th,  hav¬ 
ing  the  weather-gauge,  Chauncey  formed  his  fleet 
in  battle  order,  and  a  conflict  seemed  imminent; 
but  his  antagonist  being  unwilling  to  fight,  the 
day  was  spent  as  others  had  been.  Towards 
midnight  there  was  a  contest,  when  the  Growler 
and  Julia,  separating  from  the  rest  of  the  fleet, 
Were  captured.  Returning  to  Sackett’s  Harbor, 
Chauncey  prepared  for  another  cruise  with  eight 
vessels.  Making  but  a  short  cruise,  on  account 
of  sickness  prevailing  in  the  fleet,  he  remained 
iu  the  Harbor  until  Aug.  28,  when  he  went  out 
in  search  of  his  antagonist.  He  first  saw  him 
on  Sept.  7,  and  for  a  week  tried  to  get  him  into 
action,  but  Sir  James  strictly  obeyed  his  instruc¬ 
tions  to  “risk  nothing.”  On  the  11th,  Chauncey 
bore  down  upon  Sir  James  oil'  the  mouth  of  the 


LAMB 


LAKE  ONTARIO,  OPERATIONS  UPON  760 


Genesee  River,  and  they  had  a  running  fight  for 
three  hours.  The  Pike  was  somewhat  injured, 
but  the  British  vessels  suffered  most.  The  lat¬ 
ter  lied  to  Kingston,  and  Chauncey  went  into 
Saekett’s  Harbor.  On  the  18th  he  sailed  for  the 
Niagara  for  troops,  and  was  chased  by  Yeo.  Af¬ 
ter  a  few  days  Chauncey  crossed  over  to  York 
with  the  Pike,  Madison,  and  Sylph,  where  the  Brit¬ 
ish  fleet  lay,  when  the  latter  fled,  followed  by  the 
American  vessels  in  battle  order.  The  baronet 
was  now  compelled  to  fight  or  stop  boasting  of 
unsatisfied  desires  to  measure  strength  with  the 
Americans.  An  action  commenced  at  a  little 
past  noon,  and  the  J’ike  sustained  the  desperate 
assaults  of  the  heaviest  British  vessels  for  twen¬ 
ty  minutes,  at  the  same  time  delivering  destruc¬ 
tive  broadsides  upon  her  foes.  She  was  assisted 
by  the  Tompkins,  Lieutenant  Finch  ;  and  when 
the  smoke  of  battle  floated  away,  it  was  found 
that  the  Wolfe  (Sir  James’s  flag-ship)  was  too 
much  injured  to  continue  the  conflict  any  long¬ 
er.  She  pushed  away  dead  before  the  wind,  gal¬ 
lantly  protected  by  the  Royal  Georye.  A  general 
chase  towards  Burlington  Bay  immediately  en¬ 
sued.  Chauncey  could  doubtless  have  captured 
Jhe  whole  British  fleet,  but  a  gale  was  threaten¬ 
ing,  and  there  being  no  good  harbors  on  the 
coast,  if  he  should  be  driven  ashore  certain  capt¬ 
ure  by  land  troops  would  be  the  consequence. 
So  he  called  off  his  ships  and  returned  to  the 
Niagara,  where  he  lay  two  days  while  a  gale  was 
sknrrying  over  the  lake.  The  weather  remain¬ 
ing  thick,  after  the  gales  Sir  James  left  Burling¬ 
ton  Bay  for  Kingston.  Chauncey  was  returning 
to  Sackett’s  Harbor,  whither  all  his  transports 
bearing  troops  had  gone,  and  at  sunset,  Oct.  5, 
when  near  the  Ducks,  the  Pike  captured  three 
British  transports— the  Confiance,  Hamilton  (the 
Growler  and  Julia  with  new  names),  and  Mary. 
The  Sylph  captured  the  cutter  Drummond  and 
the  armed  transport  Lady  Gore.  The  number 
of  prisoners  captured  on  these  five  vessels  was 
two  hundred  and  sixty-four.  Among  the  prison¬ 
ers  were  ten  army  officers.  Sir  James  remained 
inactive  in  Kingston  harbor  during  the  remain¬ 
der  of  the  season,  and  Chauncey  was  busied  in 
watching  his  movements  and  assisting  the  army 
in  its  descent  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  (See  Expe¬ 
dition  down  the  St.  Lawrence .)  He  did  not,  howev¬ 
er,  sufficiently  blockade  Kingston  harbor  to  pre¬ 
vent  marine  scouts  from  slipping  out  and  hover¬ 
ing  near  Wilkinson’s  flotilla  on  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Lake  Ontario,  Operations  upon,  in  1814. 
Commodore  Chauncey  was  unable  to  accom¬ 
plish  much  with  his  squadron  during  1814.  Ear¬ 
ly  in  the  season  he  was  taken  sick,  and  in  July 
his  squadron  was  blockaded  at  Sackett’s  Harbor, 
and  it  was  the  last  of  that  month  before  it  was 
ready  for  sea.  On  the  31st,  Chauncey  was  car¬ 
ried,  in  a  convalescent  state,  on  board  the  Supe¬ 
rior  (his  flag-ship),  and  the  squadron  sailed  on  a 
cruise.  It  blockaded  the  harbor  of  Kingston, 
and  Chauncey  vainly  tried  to  draw  out  Sir  James 
Yeo  for  combat.  At  the  close  of  September, 
Chauncey  was  informed  that  the  St.  Lawrence, 
pierced  for  one  hundred  and  twelve  guns,  which 
had  been  built  at  Kingston,  was  ready  for  sea, 
when  the  commodore  prudently  raised  the  block¬ 


ade  and  returned  to  Sackett’s  Harbor.  The  St. 
Lawrence  sailed  in  October  with  more  than  a 
thousand  men,  accompanied  by  other  vessels  of 
war;  and  with  this  big  ship  Sir  James  was  real¬ 
ly  lord  of  the  lake.  The  Americans  determined 
to  match  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  at  Sackett’s  Har¬ 
bor  the  keels  of  two  first-class  frigates  were  laid. 
One  of  them  was  partly  finished  when  peace  was 
proclaimed,  early  in  1815.  She  may  yet  (1880)  be 
seen,  housed  over  on  the  stocks,  in  the  same  con¬ 
dition  as  when  the  builders  then  left  her,  nearly 
seventy  years  ago.  Chauncey  expected  that  Yeo 
would  attack  his  squadron  in  the  harbor,  but  he 
did  not ;  and  when  the  lake  was  closed  by  ice, 
the  war  had  ended  on  the  northern  frontier. 

Lake  State.  A  name  popularly  given  to 
Michigan,  which  borders  upon  the  four  lakes  Su¬ 
perior,  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Erie.  It  is  some¬ 
times  called  the  “  Wolverine  State,”  from  its 
formerly  abounding  with  wolverines. 

Lamar,  Mirabeau  B.,  was  born  at  Louisville, 
Ga.,  Aug.  10, 1798 ;  died  at  Richmond,  Texas,  Dec. 
19,  1859.  In  1835  he  went  to  Texas,  and  com¬ 
manded  the  cavalry  in  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto, 
which  secured  the  independence  of  the  province. 
He  was  attorney-general  and  secretary  of  the 
new  state,  and  was  elected  its  first  vice-president 
in  1836,  then  holding  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  president  from  1838  to  1841,  and  in  1846 
he  joined  General  Taylor  in  the  invasion  of  Mex¬ 
ico.  In  1858  he  published  the  Columbus  Inquirer, 
a  “state  rights ”  journal.  Just  previous  to  his 
death  he  was  United  States  minister  to  Nicara¬ 
gua  and  Costa  Rica. 

Lamar’s  Plan  of  a  Southern  League  of 
States.  Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  a  member  of  Con¬ 
gress  from  Mississippi,  proposed  as  early  as  No¬ 
vember,  1860,  a  plan  for  a  Southern  Confederacy. 
He  proposed  that  the  State  of  Mississippi  should, 
after  passing  an  ordinance  of  secession,  “  consent 
to  form  a  federal  union  with  all  the  slave-labor 
states,  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  In¬ 
dian  Territory  west  of  Arkansas,  under  the  name 
and  style  of  the  United  States  of  America.”  It 
proposed  to  continue  in  force  all  treaties  and 
laws  of  the  United  States  so  far  as  they  applied 
to  Mississippi  until  the  new  confederation  should 
be  organized.  It  provided  that  the  governor  of 
Mississippi  should  perform  the  functions  of  pres¬ 
ident  of  the  new  United  States  within  the  limits 
of  that  state,  and  that  all  public  officers  should 
remain  in  place  until  the  new  government  should 
be  established.  It  was  proposed  that  the  acces¬ 
sion  of  nine  states  should  give  effect  to  the  pro¬ 
posed  ordinance  of  confederation,  when  it  should 
be  the  duty  of  the  governor  of  Mississippi  to  or¬ 
der  an  election  of  congressmen  and  presidential 
electors.  This  scheme  was  proposed  many  weeks 
before  the  Mississippi  ordinance  of  secession  was 
passed,  and  Lamar  remained  iu  the  national  Con¬ 
gress  until  Jan.  12, 1861.  For  his  zeal  in  the  se¬ 
cession  cause,  he  was  rewarded  with  the  office 
of  diplomatic  agent  of  the  Confederates  at  the 
Russian  court. 

Lamb,  John,  an  artillery  officer  in  the  Revo¬ 
lution,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  1,  1735; 
died  there,  May  31,  1800.  Lamb  was  one  of  the 


761 


LAND  GRANTS 


LANCASTER,  TREATY  OF 

most  active  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty  (which  see), 
and  when  the  war  for  independence  began  be 
entered  the  military  service.  He  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  artillery  iu  Montgomery’s  expedi¬ 
tion  into  Canada,  and  during  the  siege  of  Que¬ 
bec  (Dec.  31,  1775)  he  was  wounded  and  made 
prisoner.  The  following  summer,  as  major  of  ar¬ 
tillery,  he  was  attached  to  the  regiment  of  Knox ; 


and  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  New 
York  Artillery  Jan.  1,  1777.  After  doing  good 
service  throughout  the  war,  he  ended  his  milita¬ 
ry  career  at  Yorktown.  At  about  the  close  of  the 
war  he  was  elected  to  the  New  York  Assembly; 
and  Washington  appointed  him  (1789)  collector 
of  the  customs  at  the  port  of  New  York,  which 
office  he  held  until  his  death. 

Lancaster,  Treaty  op.  At  Lancaster,  Penn., 
a  treaty  was  made  in  1744  between  the  commis¬ 
sioners  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  and  the  depu¬ 
ties  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy,  which,  since 
their  union  with  the  Tuscaroras  of  North  Caroli¬ 
na,  had  been  called  the  Six  Nations.  That  treaty 
provided  for  the  cession  of  all  lands  that  were 
and  should  be  claimed  by  the  Indians  within 
the  province  of  Virginia,  for  the  consideration  of 
about  $2000.  Their  claimed  lauds  in  Maryland 
were,  in  like  manner,  confirmed  to  Lord  Balti¬ 
more,  with  definite  limits.  Thus  did  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  at  once  acquire  and  confirm  its  claims  to  the 
basin  of  the  Ohio,  and,  at  the  same  time,  secure 
protection  to  its  northern  frontier. 

Land  Companies.  After  the  treaty  at  Fort 
Stanwix  (which  see),  the  banks  of  the  Kenawha, 
flowing  north  at  the  foot  of  the  great  Alleghany 
ridge  into  the  Ohio,  began  to  attract  settlers, 
and  application  was  soon  made  to  the  British 
government  by  a  company,  of  which  Dr.  Frank¬ 
lin,  Sir  William  Johnson,  Walpole  (a  wealthy 
London  banker),  and  others  were  members,  for 
that  part  of  the  newly  acquired  territory  north 
of  the  Kenawha,  and  thence  to  the  upper  Ohio. 
They  offered  to  refund  the  whole  amount  (about 
$50,000)  which  the  government  had  paid  the  In¬ 
dians  (see  Fort  Stanwix ,  Treat;/  at),  and  proposed 
the  establishment  of  a  new  and  separate  colony 
there.  This  project  was  approved  by  Lord  Hills¬ 
borough,  Secretary  of  State  for  the  colonies,  and 
the  ministry  finally  agreed  to  it,  but  the  troubles 
between  the  parent  government  and  her  children 


iu  America,  then  rapidly  tending  towards  open 
war,  prevented  a  completion  of  the  scheme.  Such 
was  the  origin  of  the  “  Walpole,”  or  “  Ohio  Com¬ 
pany,”  the  “  Vandalia  Company,”  and  the  “  Indi¬ 
ana  Company,”  founded  on  a  cession  said  to  have 
been  made  by  the  Indians  at  the  Treaty  of  Fort 
Stanwix.  These  schemes  of  land  speculators 
were  dissipated  by  the  same  cause  that  arrested 
the  completion  of  the  Walpole  scheme. 

Land  Grants  in  Aid  of  Internal  Improve¬ 
ments.  Millions  of  acres  of  the  public  lands 
of  the’United  States  have  been  granted  to  aid 
in  the  construction  of  roads,  canals,  and  rail¬ 
ways;  and  also  for  educational  and  other  pur¬ 
poses.  The  first  acts  of  Congress  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  internal  improvements  were  two  for  the 
new  State  of  Ohio,  which  became  laws  on  April 
30, 1802,  and  March  3,  1803,  respectively.  Pre¬ 
vious  to  that  there  had  been  donations  of  land 
in  favor  of  various  deserving  persons.  The 
grants  to  the  inhabitants  of  Ohio  were  for  the 
purpose  of  laying  out  public  roads  leading  to 
the  Ohio  River.  Oilier  grants  were  made  from 
time  to  time  for  improvements  in  the  North¬ 
west  until  1824,  when  (May  26)  Congress  author¬ 
ized  the  State  of  Indiana  to  construct  a  canal, 
giving  the  right  of  way,  with  ninety  feet  of  land 
on  each  side  thereof.  Nothing  was  done  under 
the  act;  but  iu  1827  (March  2)  two  acts  were 
passed,  giving  to  Indiana  and  Illinois  respec¬ 
tively  certain  lands  in  aid  of  the  construction  of 
canals,  the  first  to  connect  the  navigation  of  the 
Wabash  River  with  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie, 
and  the  second  to  connect  the  waters  of  the  Il¬ 
linois  River  with  those  of  Lake  Michigan.  A 
quantity  of  laud  equal  to  one  half  of  five  sec¬ 
tions  in  width  on  each  side  of  the  canals  was 
granted,  reserving  to  the  United  States  each  al¬ 
ternate  section.  It  was  not  an  absolute  grant 
of  land  in  fee',  for,  under  certain  restrictions,  the 
states  had  a  right  to  sell  the  awards,  and  from 
the  proceeds  they  were  to  repay  the  govern¬ 
ment.  On  the  same  day  (March,  1827)  there 
was  granted  to  Indiana  a  certain  strip  of  land 
formerly  held  by  the  Potawatomie  Indians,  the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  thereof  to  be  applied  to 
building  a  road  from  Lake  Michigan,  via  Indian¬ 
apolis,  to  some  convenient  point  on  the  Ohio 
River.  March  3,  1827,  a  grant  was  made  to 
Ohio  of  two  sections  of  land  along  the  entire 
line  of  a  road  to  be  constructed  from  Sandus¬ 
ky  to  "Columbus.  May  23,  1828,  a  grant  of 
400,000  acres  of  the  “relinquished  lands”  in 
certain  counties  in  Alabama  was  made  in  aid 
of  the  improvement  of  the  Tennessee  and  other 
rivers  in  that  state.  In  this  grant  we  find 
the  first  provision  for  indemnity  in  case  the 
grant  was  not  full  by  reason  of  prior  sales  or 
disposals  by  the  government.  Similar  grants 
were  made  from  time  to  time  for  like  purposes. 
March  2,  1833,  the  State  of  Illinois  was  author¬ 
ized  to  apply  the  lands  granted  by  the  act  of 
March  2,  1827,  for  canal  purposes  to  the  con¬ 
struction  of  a  railway  instead.  This  was  the 
first  act  looking  to  the  construction  of  a  rail¬ 
way  through  the  assistance  of  land  donations. 
The  railroad  system  was  then  in  its  infancy. 
The  state  did  not  avail  itself  of  the  privilege, 


LAND  GRANTS 


762 


LAND  SPECULATIONS 


but  subsequently  built  a  canal.  March  2,  1836, 
a  grant  was  made  to  aid  the  construction  of  a 
railway  in  Florida.  Sufficient  was  given  for 
the  way — thirty  feet  of  land  on  each  side — and 
the  right  to  take  and  use  the  timber  for  one 
hundred  yards  on  each  side  for  the  construction 
and  repairs  of  the  road.  This  was  the  first 
graut  of  the  right  of  way  for  a  railroad,  the  pre¬ 
vious  grant  having  been  for  a  canal.  July  2, 
1836,  an  act  granted  the  right  of  way  through 
such  portions  of  the  public  lands  as  remained 
unsold — not  to  exceed  eighty  feet  in  width — to 
the  New  Orleans  and  Nashville  Railroad  Com¬ 
pany.  This  road  was  never  completed.  Next 
came  a  grant  to  East  Florida  and  other  railroads 
which  were  never  constructed.  March  3, 1837,  a 
grant  was  made  to  the  Atchafalaya  Railroad 
and  Banking  Company  in  Louisiana  similar  to 
that  to  the  New  Orleans  and  Nashville  Railroad. 
Aug.  8,  1846,  an  act  granted  lands  in  aid  of  ini 
provernents  of  the  Des  Moines  River  in  Iowa, 
and  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers  in  Wisconsin. 
These  rivers,  when  improved,  were  to  remain 
highways  for  the  United  States  government  for¬ 
ever,  free  from  toll.  The  grant  to  the  then  Ter¬ 
ritory  of  Iowa  for  the  improvement  of  the  Des 
Moines  River  led  to  long  discussions  as  to  the 
extent  of  the  grant,  and  to  many  legal  decisions. 
Finally,  on  March  22,  1858,  the  consent  of  Con¬ 
gress  was  given  to  apply  a  portion  of  the  grant 
to  the  construction  of  a  railway.  The  rivers 
were  not  improved,  but  the  railway  was  con¬ 
structed —  the  Keokuk,  Fort  Des  Moines,  and 
Minnesota  Railroad.  Sept.  20, 1850,  a  grant  was 
made  to  the  State  of  Illinois  of  every  alternate 
section  of  land,  designated  by  even  numbers,  for 
six  sections  in  width,  on  each  side  of  a  railroad 
and  branches  thereof.  This  road,  which  was 
built,  is  known  as  the  Illinois  Central.  Al¬ 
though  this  was  not  the  first  concession  of  land 
to  a  railway  corporation,  it  granted  specific  sec¬ 
tions  instead  of  one  half  of  a  certain  number  of 
sections,  and  may  be  considered  the  initiatory 
measure  of  the  system  since  adopted  in  making 
grants  in  favor  of  railways.  On  June  10,  1852, 
a  donation  was  made  to  the  State  of  Missouri 
for  the  construction  of  certain  railroads  therein, 
now  known  as  the  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph,  and 
the  Missouri  Pacific,  south  branch.  This  grant 
was  similar  in  character  and  extent  to  that  of 
the  Illinois  Central.  In  this,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Illinois  Central,  there  was  a  provision  for 
the  reimbursement  of  the  United  States  for  all 
the  land  sold.  Feb.  9, 1853,  an  act  made  a  sim¬ 
ilar  grant  to  Arkansas.  June  29,  1854,  an  act 
granted  aid  to  Minnesota  for  constructing  a 
railroad  from  the  southern  line  of  that  then  ter¬ 
ritory,  via  St.  Paul,  to  its  eastern  line,  in  the 
direction  of  Lake  Superior.  For  this  purpose 
there  were  given  each  alternate  section  of  land, 
designated  by  odd  numbers,  for  six  sections  in 
width  on  each  side  of  said  road.  This  act  was 
repealed  in  August  following.  At  various  times 
in  1856  grants  of  land  for  similar  purposes  were 
made  to  the  states  of  Iowa,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Louisiana,  Michigan, Wisconsin,  and  Mississippi. 
On  March  3, 1856,  a  grant  was  made  to  Minne¬ 
sota.  All  of  these  grants  made  in  1856  and  1857 


were  similar  to  that  given  to  Missouri  in  1852. 
July  1,  1862,  the  “  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Com¬ 
pany”  was  created  for  the  purpose  of  construct¬ 
ing  and  maintaining  a  railroad  and  telegraph 
line  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
They  were  granted  the  right  of  way  through 
the  public  lands  to  the  extent  of  two  hundred 
feet  in  width  on  each  side  of  the  line  of  the  road, 
together  with  the  necessary  ground  for  stations, 
buildings,  etc.  They  were  also  granted  in  aid 
of  the  construction  of  the  road  every  alternate 
section  of  public  land  to  the  amount  of  five  al¬ 
ternate  sections  a  mile  on  each  side  of  the  road, 
excepting  mineral  lands  and  all  lands  already 
disposed  of  or  reserved.  Several  other  roads 
were  provided  for  on  the  same  conditions,  which 
are  now  known  as  the  Central  Pacific,  Central 
Branch  of  the  Union  Pacific,  Kansas  Pacific,  and 
Sioux  City  and  Pacific.  It  was  a  grant  of  ten 
miles  of  laud  on  each  side  of  the  road.  By  an 
act  approved  July  2,  1864,  instead  of  five,  ten 
sections  were  granted,  making  the  area  twenty 
miles  on  each  side  of  these  roads.  The  term 
mineral  land  was  coustrued  not  to  mean  coal  or 
iron.  By  the  same  act  a  grant  of  twenty  miles 
of  land  was  made  to  the  Burlington  and  Mis¬ 
souri  River  Railroad  Company  for  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  a  road  from  the  Missouri  River  to  some 
point  not  farther  west  than  the  one  hundredth 
meridian  west  longitude,  to  connect  with  the 
Union  Pacific  Road.  March  3,  1864,  a  graut  of 
land  was  made  to  the  State  of  Kausas  to  assist 
in  constructing  railroads  within  its  borders,  af¬ 
terwards  known  as  the  Atcheson,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  F6  ;  Leavenworth,  Lawrence,  and  Galves¬ 
ton  ;  and  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  railroads. 
In  May,  1864,  similar  grauts  were  made  to  the 
states  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  and 
others  soon  followed  to  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Ala¬ 
bama,  Iowa,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Kansas. 
The  North  Pacific  Railroad  Company  was  cre¬ 
ated  July  1, 1864,  with  grants  similar  to  those  of 
the  Union  Pacific,  excepting  double  the  extent 
of  land,  through  the  territories.  July  27, 1866, 
grants  were  made  to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific, 
and  the  Southern  Pacific,  on  terms  similar  to 
those  of  the  Union  Pacific.  March  3, 1869,  land 
grauts  were  made  to  the  Denver  Pacific  Rail¬ 
way  ;  and  by  act  of  March  3, 1871,  similar  grauts 
were  made  to  the  Southern  Pacific  (branch  line), 
and  Texas  and  Pacific.  Many  of  the  grants 
made  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  system  were 
enlarged,  but  only  four  grants  have  been  de¬ 
clared  forfeited.  About  twenty  grants  have 
“lapsed”  by  reason  of  non-compliance  with  the 
terms  of  the  granting  acts.  The  aggregate 
amount  of  land  granted  is  more  than  215,000,000 
acres,  but  the  amount  made  available  is  not 
more  than  187,000.000  acres.  By  the  aid  of  these 
grants  about  15,000  miles  of  railroad  have  been 
built.  Their  benefits  have  extended  to  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  cannot  be  estimated  by  val¬ 
ues;  and  they  have  dispelled  all  ideas  looking 
to  a  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  from 
Washington.  (See  Seat  of  the  National  Govern¬ 
ment.) 

Land  Speculations.  There  was  a  vast  pub¬ 
lic  domain,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  Revo- 


LAND  SPECULATIONS 


763 


LANDING  OF  THE  PILGRIMS 


lution,  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  particular 
states,  much  of  which  had  been  ceded  to  the 
United  States  at  the  time  oi  the  organization 
of  the  government  under  the  national  Constitu¬ 
tion.  The  adoption  of  that  instrument,  and  the 
consequent  revival  of  prosperity,  created  vast 
land  speculations.  At  that  time  much  of  the 
public  lands  of  the  states  had  been  disposed  of. 
Massachusetts  retained  much  of  her  possessions 
of  wild  lands  in  Maiue,  while  her  more  valuable 
tracts  in  western  New  York,  obtained  by  com¬ 
promise,  had  all  passed  into  the  hands  of  indi¬ 
viduals.  Of  the  7,000,000  acres  owned  by  New 
York,  exclusive  of  lauds  yielded  to  Massachu¬ 
setts,  5,500,000  acres  had  been  disposed  of  at  a 
single  sale  in  1791  for  about  $1,000,000.  One 
individual  had  purchased  3,500,000  acres  at  the 
rate  of  eight  cents  an  acre,  payable  in  five  an¬ 
nual  instalments,  without  interest.  A  large  por¬ 
tion  of  this  land  was  covered  by  the  sterile  rocks 
of  the  Adirondack  Mountains.  Almost  all  of  the 
large  tracts  of  land  which  the  confiscation  of 
the  proprietary  estates  had  cast  into  the  hands 
of  Pennsylvania  had  been  bought  up  by  laud 
speculator's.  The  unlocated  land  warrants  of 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina  were  sufficient  to 
cover  the  public  lands  within  their  limits,  to¬ 
gether  with  all  the  ceded  portions  of  Kentucky 
and  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio.  The  vora¬ 
cious  speculators  turned  to  the  lauds  claimed 
by  Georgia  west  of  the  Chattahoochee  River, 
and  between  that  stream  and  the  Mississippi. 
This  great  domain  was  occupied  by  Indians, 
whose  original  title  to  the  land  was  never  con¬ 
veyed  away;  but  the  Legislature  of  Georgia, 
assuming  the  validity  of  the  claim  of  their  state, 
sold  the  pre-emption  right  to  a  vast  portion  of 
that  tract  to  speculators,  who  proceeded  to  sell 
out,  at  a  great  advance,  to  individuals  and  com¬ 
panies  in  the  Middle  States  and  New  England. 
The  profits  thus  obtained  stimulated  others  to 
undertake  like  enterprises,  while  influences  al¬ 
leged  to  have  beeu  exercised  on  the  legislators 
of  Georgia  perhaps  suggested  operations  upon 
Congress  by  similar  means.  In  1795  Messrs. 
Randall  and  Whitney,  the  first  a  citizen  of  Ma¬ 
ryland  and  the  second  of  Vermont,  in  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  some  Indian  traders  at  Detroit,  formed 
a  scheme  for  obtaining  from  Congress,  for  the 
sum  of  $500,000,  the  right  to  purchase  of  the 
Indians  20,000,000  acres  on  the  peninsula  of 
Michigan,  to  be  divided  into  forty  shares.  Some 
members  of  Congress  had  beeu  offered  shares  in 
the  speculation  on  coudition  that  they  should 
aid  the  speculators  in  their  scheme,  to  be  ulti¬ 
mately  purchased  if  they  did  not  choose  to  re¬ 
tain  them.  Overtures  were  made  to  Giles,  of 
Virginia,  and  others.  Randall  boasted  that  he 
had  already  secured  thirty  members.  Giles,  be¬ 
lieving  a  large  majority  of  them  were  Federal¬ 
ists,  resolved  to  keep  silence  and  detect  them 
by  their  votes;  but  another  member,  unwilling 
innocent  persons  should  so  suffer,  revealed  the 
scheme  publicly  to  the  House.  Randall  was  ar¬ 
rested,  and  was  put  upon  his  trial  for  attempt¬ 
ing  to  corrupt  the  members  of  the  House.  His 
defence  was  that  he  had  been  misunderstood. 
He  was  found  guilty  of  a  high  contempt,  and 


was  sentenced  to  be  reprimanded  by  the  speak¬ 
er.  He  was  held  in  custody  a  few  days,  when 
he  was  released  on  payment  of  fees.  A  little 
later  in  the  session  a  difficulty  growing  out  of 
the  Georgia  land  speculations  occurred  in  the 
House.  A  memorial  to  Congress  to  do  nothing 
recognizing  the  validity  of  the  sale  of  the  Indian 
lands  until  an  investigation  could  be  effected 
had  been  sent  to  Baldwin,  a  representative  of 
Georgia.  Senator  Gunn,  from  that  state,  deep¬ 
ly  interested  in  the  speculation,  claimed  the 
right  to  see  the  memorial  before  its  presenta¬ 
tion,  and  to  have  the  names  of  the  signers. 
Baldwin  refused.  Gunn  sent  him  a  challenge 
through  Freliughuysen,  of  New  Jersey,  who  was 
also  concerned  in  the  speculation.  Baldwin  laid 
the  challenge  before  the  House,  and  Gunn  and 
Frelinghuysen,  adjudged  guilty  of  a  breach  of 
privilege,  were  compelled  to  address  letters  of 
apology  to  the  House. 

Landed  Property  in  Virginia.  In  1615  Gov¬ 
ernor  Dale  procured  the  important  privilege  for 
the  people  of  Virginia  of  holding  landed  prop¬ 
erty  by  a  stable  tenure.  The  farmers  then  did 
not  possess  the  land  they  cultivated  by  a  tenure 
of  common  socage,  but  enjoyed  it  as  tenants  at 
will  of  the  crown.  Now  to  every  adventurer 
into  the  colony,  and  to  his  heirs,  were  granted 
fifty  acres  of  laud,  and  the  same  quantity  for 
every  person  imported  by  others. 

Lander,  Frederick  West,  was  born  at  Sa¬ 
lem,  Mass.,  Dec.  17, 1822;  died  at  Paw  Paw,Va., 
March  2,  1862.  He  studied  civil  engineering, 
and  was  employed  by  the  government  in  con¬ 
ducting  explorations  across  the  continent.  He 
made  two  surveys  to  determine  the  practicabil¬ 
ity  of  a  railroad  route  to  the  Pacific.  In  the 
last,  he  alone  of  all  the  party  returned  alive. 
He  surveyed  and  constructed  a  great  overland 
wagon-road,  which  had  been  receutly  completed 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  when  he  was 
employed  on  secret  missions  to  the  South.  On 
the  staff  of  General  McClellan  he  was  very  ac¬ 
tive  in  the  vicinity  ot  the  Upper  Potomac.  In 
a  skirmish  at  Edwards’s  Ferry,  after  the  disas¬ 
ter  at  Ball’s  Bluff  (which  see),  he  was  wounded 
in  the  leg.  In  January,  1862,  he  was  on  active 
duty,  and  repulsed  a  large  Confederate  force  at 
Hancock,  Va.  Before  his  wound  was  healed  he 
made  a  brilliant  dash  (Feb.  14, 1862)  on  Bloom¬ 
ing  Gap  (which  see),  for  which  the  Secretary  of 
War  gave  him  special  thanks.  His  health  was 
evidently  giving  way,  and  he  applied  for  tem¬ 
porary  relief  from  military  duty;  but,  impa¬ 
tient,  he  prepared  to  make  another  attack  on 
the  Confederates,  when  he  suddenly  died  from 
congestion  of  the  brain. 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  Time  of  the.  The 
spot  chosen  by  a  party  of  explorers  for  the  per¬ 
manent  landing-place  of  the  passengers  on  the 
!  Mayflower  was  selected  about  the  20th  of  De¬ 
cember,  1620,  where  New  Plymouth  was  built. 
From  about  the  middle  of  December  until  the 
25th  the  weather  was  stormy,  and  the  bulk  of 
the  passengers  remained  on  the  ship,  while  some 
of  the  men  built  a  rude  shelter  to  receive  them. 
On  the  25th  a  greater  portion  of  the  passengers 


LANE 


764 


went  on  shore  to  visit  the  spot  chosen  for  their 
residence,  when,  tradition  says,  Mary  Chilton 
and  John  Alden,both  young  persons,  first  sprang 
upon  Plymouth  Rock  from  the  boat  that  con¬ 
veyed  them. 

Lane,  Henry  S.,  was  born  in  Montgomery 
County,  Ky.,  Feb.  24,  1811.  Removing  to  In¬ 
diana,  he  was  there  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Legislature  in  1837.  He  served 
one  term  in  Congress  (1841-43),  and  was  lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel  of  volunteers  in  the  war  with  Mexi¬ 
co.  In  1860  he  was  elected  governor  of  Indiana, 
but,  being  chosen  United  States  Senator,  he  soon 
afterwards  resigned  the  governorship.  Mr. 
Lane  served  in  the  Senate  a  full  term  of  six 
years.  He  died  in  August,  1881. 

Lane,  James  H.,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Lawrenceburg,  Iml.,  June  22, 1814;  died 
at  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  July  11,  1866.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840;  served  as  a  volun¬ 
teer  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  commanding  a 
brigade  at  Buena  Vista  (which  see);  and,  in  1848, 
was  elected  lieutenant-governor  of  Indiana.  He 
served  one  term  in  Congress ;  settled  in  Kansas, 
and  was  chosen  its  first  United  States  Senator. 
He  served  well  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
again  elected  United  States  Senator  in  1865. 

Lane,  Joseph,  was  born  in  Buncombe  Coun¬ 
ty,  N.  C.,  Dec.  14, 1801.  Going  early  to  Indiana, 
he  engaged  in  business  there,  and  was  frequent¬ 
ly  a  member  of  the  Legislature  between  1822 
and  1846.  He  served  in  the  war  against  Mexico, 
in  which  he  gained  distinction,  rose  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general,  and  was  breveted  major- 
general.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
Oregon  Territory, organized  its  government,  was 
its  delegate  in  Congress  from  1851  to  1859,  and 
United  States  Senator  from  1859  to  1861.  He 
was  again  governor  in  1863.  Mr.  Lane  was 
nominated  for  Vice-President  in  1860  on  the 
Democratic  ticket,  with  John  C.  Breckinridge. 

Lane,  Sir  Ralph,  was  sent  from  England  with 
Sir  Richard  Grenville,  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  to 
be  governor  of  Virginia,  in  1585.  Born  in  North¬ 
amptonshire,  England,  about  1530 ;  died  in  Ire¬ 
land  in  1604.  He  was  son  of  Sir  Ralph  Lane, 
and  Maud,  daughter  of  Lord  Parr,  uncle  of  Cat  h¬ 
arine  Parr,  one  of  the  queens  of  Henry  VIII. 
He  was  equerry  in  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  commanded  troops  in  Ireland,  first  in  1569, 
and  again  in  1583-84.  After  his  return  from 
Virginia  he  was  colonel  in  the  expedition  of 
Norris  and  Drake  against  Portugal  in  1589,  and 
in  1591  was  mustermaster-general  in  Ireland. 
He  was  knighted  by  the  lord-deputy  in  1593. 
Lane’s  administration  as  governor  of  Virginia 
was  fruitless  of  any  good.  By  following  the 
example  of  Grenville  he  exasperated  the  Indians. 
Had  lie  been  kind  and  wise  the  colony  might 
have  prospered;  but  he  and  his  followers  were 
greedy  for  gold,  and  only  Harriott  the  historian 
acted  like  a  sensible  Christian.  (See  Harriott, 
Thomas.)  Lane  had  the  gold  fever  severely,  and 
all  trusted  more  to  fire-arms  than  to  friendship  to 
secure  the  good-will  of  the  Indians.  Sometimes 
the  latter  were  treated  with  cruelty,  and  a  flame 


LANG HORNE  LETTER,  THE 

of  vengeance  was  kindled  and  kept  alive.  The 
Indians  deceived  the  English  with  tales  of  gold- 
bearing  regions  near,  and  that  the  source  of  the 
Roanoke  River  was  among  rocks  near  the  Pa¬ 
cific  Ocean,  where  the  houses  were  lined  with 
pearls.  Lane  explored,  found  himself  deceived, 
and  returned.  The  Indians,  who  wanted  to  have 
the  English  dispersed  in  the  forest,  so  as  to  ex¬ 
terminate  them  in  detail,  were  discomfited.  They 
looked  with  awe  upon  the  English  with  fire¬ 
arms,  and,  believing  more  were  coming  to  take 
their  lauds  away  from  them,  they  determined 
to  slay  them.  Lane,  satisfied  that  there  was  a 
wide  -  spread  conspiracy  against  the  colony, 
struck  the  first  bl6w.  He  invited  King  Wingi- 
na  aud  his  principal  chiefs  to  a  friendly  confer¬ 
ence.  They  came,  confidingly,  without  weap¬ 
ons.  At  a  preconcerted  signal  Lane  and  his  fol¬ 
lowers  fell  upon  and  murdered  the  king  and  his 
companions.  Thenceforth  both  parties  stood  on 
the  defensive.  The  condition  of  the  English  be¬ 
came  desperate.  Their  supplies  became  exhaust¬ 
ed,  and  none  could  be  got  from  the  natives ; 
only  from  the  woods  and  waters  could  food  be 
obtained.  The  colony  was  on  the  verge  of  star¬ 
vation  and  despair,  when  Sir  Francis  Drake,  re¬ 
turning  from  a  raid  upon  Spanish  towns,  came 
to  Roanoke  Island.  In  his  ship  the  colonists 
gladly  embarked  for  England.  (See  Grenville, 
Sir  Richard,  and  Drake,  Sir  Francis.) 

Langdon,  John,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Ports¬ 
mouth,  N.  H.,  iu  1739  ;  died  Sept.  18,  1819.  He 
was  a  successful  merchant,  and  took  an  early 
and  active  part  in  the  events  preceding  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  war  for  independence.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  (1775-76), 
but  in  June,  in  the  latter  year,  he  resigned  his 
seat  and  became  navy  agent.  He  was  speaker 
of  the  Assembly,  and  was  ready  to  make  any  rea¬ 
sonable  sacrifice  to  promote  the  cause.  When 
means  were  needed  to  support  a  New  Hamp¬ 
shire  regiment,  he  gave  all  his  “  hard  money,” 
pledged  his  plate,  and  applied  to  the  same  pur¬ 
pose  the  proceeds  of  seventy  hogsheads  of  to¬ 
bacco.  He  furnished  means  for  raising  a  bri¬ 
gade  of  the  troops  with  which  Stark  gained  the 
victory  at  Bennington.  He  was  active  iu  civil 
affairs,  also,  all  through  the  war,  serving  in  the 
Continental  Congress  and  his  State  Legislature. 
In  1785  he  was  President  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  in  1787  was  one  of  the  framers  of  the  na¬ 
tional  Constitution.  He  was  governor  of  his 
state  in  1788,  and  again  from  1805  to  1811.  He 
was  United  States  Senator  from  1789  to  1801. 
Mr.  Langdon  declined  the  office  of  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  (1811)  and  of  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  (1812). 

Langhorne  Letter,  The.  A  renegade  Scotch¬ 
man  named  Callender  had  appeared  in  Philadel¬ 
phia  as  a  writer  in  opposition  to  Washington’s 
administration.  Just  after  Monroe’s  return  from 
France,  he  published  a  volume  called  A  History 
of  the  United  States  for  1796,  in  which  he  grossly 
libelled  Hamilton  and  abused  Washington  aud 
his  administration.  For  the  apparent  purpose 
of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  this 
abuse  upon  Washington’s  mind,  and  of  drawing 


LANMAN 


765 


LA  SALLE 


from  him  something  of  which  advantage  might 
he  taken,  a  letter  was  addressed  to  him  (Sept. 
23, 1796),  dated  Warren,  Albemarle  Co.,  Va.,  and 
signed  “John  Langhorne,”  condoling  with  him 
on  the  aspersions  on  his  character,  but  suggest¬ 
ing  that  he  ought  not  to  allow  them  to  disturb 
his  peace.  The  name  of  the  writer  was  ficti- 
tions.  Without  suspecting  this,  Washington, 
with  his  usual  courtesy,  replied  to  the  letter, 
saying  that  he  deplored  the  attacks  ou  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  but  that  as  to  himself,  personally,  he 
had  a  consolation  within  which  protected  him 
against  the  venom,  and,  in  spite  of  the  malig¬ 
nity  of  his  enemies,  his  mind  remained  tranquil. 
Washington’s  reply  to  Langhorne  was  taken 
out  of  the  post-office  by  a  messenger  from  Mou- 
ticello,  Jefferson’s  residence,  and  investigations 
made  by  John  Nicholas,  a  member  of  the  oppo¬ 
sition  party,  but  a  warm  personal  friend  of  the 
ex-President,  cast  suspicion  on  Mr.  Jefferson  as 
the  writer  (“John  Langhorne”).  The  corre-* 
spondence  ended  with  Washington’s  answer,  for 
the  penetration  of  the  writer  perceived  that 
nothing  was  to  he  drawn  from  that  mode  of 
attack.  Nicholas  afforded  such  evidence  that 
Washington  believed  his  first  Secretary  of  State 
had  written  it,  “  with  a  view  to  effect  some  ne¬ 
farious  purpose.” 

Lanman,  Joseph,  United  States  Navy,  was 
horn  in  Connecticut,  July  18,  1810,  and  entered 
the  navy  in  1825.  He  was  made  captain  in  1861, 
and  commodore  in  August,  1862.  He  command¬ 
ed  the  frigate  Minnesota  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Squadron,  in  1864-65,  and  had  the  command 
of  the  second  division  of  Porter’s  squadron  in 
both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  (which  see).  He 
commanded  a  squadron  on  the  coast  of  Brazil 
from  1869  to  1871.  In  December,  1867,  he  was 
made  rear-admiral. 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavelier  de,  a  French  ex¬ 
plorer,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  November,  1643; 
died  in  Texas,  March  19,  1687.  In  early  life  ho 
became  a  Jesuit,  and  thereby  forfeited  his  patri¬ 
mony.  He  afterwards  left  the  order,  and  went 
to  Canada  as  an  adventurer  in  1666.  From  the 
Sulpicians,  seigneurs  of  Montreal,  he  obtained  a 
grant  of  land  and  founded  Lacliine.  Tales  of 
the  wonders  and  riches  of  the  wilderness  in¬ 
spired  him  with  a  desire  to  explore.  With  two 
Sulpicians,  he  went  into  the  wilds  of  western 
New  York,  and  afterwards  went  down  the  Ohio 
River  as  far  as  the  site  of  Louisville.  Gov¬ 
ernor  Frontenac  became  his  friend,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1674  ho  went  to  France  bearing  a 
letter  from  the  governor-general,  strongly  rec¬ 
ommending  him  to  Colbert,  the  French  premier. 
Honors  and  privileges  were  bestowed  upon  him 
at  the  French  court,  and  ho  was  made  Govern¬ 
or  of  Fort  Frontenac,  erected  on  the  site  of 
Kingston,  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Ontario,  which  he 
greatly  strengthened,  and  gathered  Indian  set¬ 
tlers  around  it.  He  had  very  soon  a  squadron 
of  four  vessels  on  the  lake,  engaged  in  the  fur- 
trade,  and  Fort  Frontenac  was  made  the  centre 
of  that  traffic,  in  which  he  now  largely  engaged 
and  sought  the  monopoly.  Conceiving  a  grand 
scheme  of  explorations  and  trade  westward,  per- 1 


haps  to  China,  he  went  to  France  in  1678  and  ob¬ 
tained  permission  to  execute  it.  He  was  allow¬ 
ed  to  engage  in  explorations,  build  forts,  and 
have  the  monopoly  of  the  trade  in  buffalo-skins, 
during  five  years,  hut  was  forbidden  to  trade 
with  tribes  accustomed  to  take  furs  to  Montreal. 
Henri  de  Tonti,  a  veteran  Italian,  joined  him, 
and,  with  thirty  mechanics  and  mariners,  they 
sailed  from  Rochelle  in  the  summer  of  1678,  and 
reached  Fort  Frontenac  early  in  the  autumn. 
De  Tonti  was  sent  farther  west  to  establish  a 
trading-post  at  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  Riv¬ 
er.  He  proceeded,  also,  to  build  a  vessel  above 
the  great  falls  for  traffic  on  Lake  Erie,  and 
named  it  the  Griffin.  (See  Griffin,  The.)  It  was 
launched  in  the  summer  of  1679,  and  in  August 
La  Salle  sailed  with  De  Tonti  through  the  chain 
of  lakes  to  Green  Bay,  in  the  northwestern  por¬ 
tion  of  Lake  Michigan.  Creditors  were  press¬ 
ing  him  with  claims,  and  he  unlawfully  gather¬ 
ed  furs  and  sent  them  back  in  the  Griffin  to  meet 
those  claims.  Then  he  proceeded,  with  his  par¬ 
ty,  in  canoes,  to  the  month  of  the  St.  Joseph 
River,  in  southwestern  Michigan,  where  he  es¬ 
tablished  a  trading-house  and  called  it  Fort  Mi¬ 
ami.  Ascending  the  St.  Joseph,  he  crossed  to 
the  Kankakee,  and  paddled  down  it  until  he 
reached  an  Illinois  village,  and,  in  January,  1680, 
he  began  the  establishment  of  a  trading-post  on 
the  site  of  the  present  Peoria,  Ill.,  which  he  call¬ 
ed  Fort  Crevecceur.  Disappointed  in  the  fail¬ 
ure  of  the  Griffin  to  make  a  return  voyage  with 
supplies,  he  put  De  Tonti  in  coiumand  of  the  fort 
and  despatched  Hennepin  and  Acau  to  explore 
the  Illinois  to  its  mouth  and  the  Mississippi 
northward.  (See  Hennepin,  Louis.)  With  five 
companions,  La  Salle  started  back  for  Canada, 
and  from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Joseph  he  crossed 
Michigan  to  a  river  flowing  into  the  Detroit, 
and  thence  overland  to  Lake  Erie.  From  its 
w'estern  end  he  navigated  it  in  a  canoe  to  Ni¬ 
agara,  where  he  was  satisfied  that  the  Griffin 
had  perished  somewhere  on  the  lakes.  He  also 
heard  of  the  loss  of  a  ship  arriving  from  France 
with  supplies.  Settling  as  well  as  he  could  with 
his  creditors,  La  Salle,  with  a  fresh  party  of 
twenty -three  Frenchmen  and  eighteen  New 
England  Indians,  with  ten  women  and  children, 
began  a  return  journey  to  Fort  Crbvecceur,  with 
supplies.  De  Tonti  had  been  driven  away  by 
an  attack  on  the  Illinois  settlement  of  the  Iro¬ 
quois.  The  desertion  of  his  men  had  compelled 
him  to  abandon  the  fort  and  return  to  Green 
Bay.  La  Salle  and  his  party  wrent  down  the  Il¬ 
linois  to  its  mouth,  when  he  returned  to  gather 
his  followers  and  procure  means  for  continuing 
his  explorations.  Late  in  December,  1681,  he 
started  from  Fort  Miami  with  his  expedition, 
coasted  along  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Mich¬ 
igan,  ascended  the  Chicago  River,  crossed  to  the 
Illinois,  descended  to  the  Mississippi,  and  went 
dowrn  that  stream  until  it  separated  into  three 
channels,  which  he  explored  to  the  Gulf  of  Mex¬ 
ico.  La  Salle  named  the  great  stream  River 
Colbert,  in  compliment  to  his  patron  at  the 
court  of  France.  (See  Mississippi  Hirer.)  De 
Tonti  explored  the  great  middle  channel.  (See 
Tonti,  Henri  de.)  Then  the  whole  company  assem- 


LA  SALLE 


766  LAST  BLOODSHED  IN  THE  REVOLUTION 


bled  at  a  dry  spot  uear  the  Gulf,  and  there  pre¬ 
pared  a  cross  and  a  column,  affixing  to  the  lat¬ 
ter  the  arms  of  France  and  this  inscription  : 
“  Louis  the  Great,  King  of  France  and  Na¬ 
varre,  April  9,  1682.”  He  also  buried  there 
a  leaden  plate,  with  a  Latin  inscription.  (See 
Proce 8  Verbal.)  The  whole  company  then  signed 
a  proves  verbal,  in  the  following  order :  La  Mdtarie 
(notary),  De  la  Salle,  P.  Zenobe  (Rdcollet  mis¬ 
sionary),  Henri  de  Tonti,  Franyois  de  Bousvou- 
det,  Jean  Bourdon,  Sieur  d’Autray,  Jacques  Cau- 
clois,  Pierre  You,  Giles  Mencret,  Jean  Michel 
(surgeon),  Jean  Mas,  Jean  Duglignou,  Nicholas 
de  la  Salle.  La  Salle  formally  proclaimed  the 
Avhole  valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  region  of 
its  tributaries  a  part  of  the  French  dominions, 
and  named  the  country  Louisiana,  in  compli¬ 
ment  to  the  king.  So  was  first  planted  the 
germ  of  the  empire  of  the  French  in  that  re¬ 
gion,  which  flourished  in  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  La  Salle  ascended  the  Mississippi  the 
next  year,  and  returned  to  Quebec  in  November, 
leaving  Tonti  in  command  in  the  West,  with  di¬ 
rections  to  meet  him  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  the  following  year.  Then  he  proceeded 
to  France  and  proposed  to  the  government  a 
settlement  in  Louisiana  and  the  conquest  of  the 
rich  mining  country  in  northern  Mexico.  A 
patent  was  granted  him,  and  he  was  made  com¬ 
mandant  of  the  vast  territory  from  the  present 
State  of  Illinois  to  Mexico,  and  westward  indefi¬ 
nitely.  With  two  hundred  and  eighty  indiffer¬ 
ent  persons,  he  sailed  from  France,  Aug.  1,  1684, 
with  four  ships;  but  disputes  between  Beau- 
jeu,  the  navigator  of  the  squadron,  and  La  Salle 
proved  disastrous  to  the  expedition.  Touching 
at  Sauto  Domingo,  they  entered  the  Gulf  of  Mex¬ 
ico,  and,  by  miscalculations,  passed  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  without  knowing  it.  La  Salle 
became  satisfied  of  this  fact,  but  Beaujeu  sailed 
obstinately  on,  and  finally  anchored  off  the  en¬ 
trance  to  Matagorda  Bay.  The  colonists  de¬ 
barked,  but  the  store-ship  containing  most  of 
the  supplies  was  wrecked.  Beaujeu,  pleading  a 
lack  of  provisions,  deserted  La  Salle,  leaving 
him  only  a  small  vessel.  He  cast  up  a  fort, 
which  he  called  St.  Louis,  and  attempted  to  till 
the  soil;  but  the  Indians  were  hostile.  Some 
of  the  settlers  were  killed,  others  perished  from 
disease  and  hardship,  and,  after  making  some 
explorations  of  the  country,  the  party,  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  was  reduced  to  less  than  forty 
souls.  Leaving  half  of  them,  including  women 
and  children,  La  Salle  set  out,  at  the  beginning 
of  1688,  to  make  his  way  to  the  Illinois.  His 
party  consisted  of  his  brother,  two  nephews, 
and  thirteen  others,  some  of  whom  were  sullen 
and  ripe  for  revolt.  Penetrating  the  present 
domain  of  Texas  to  the  Trinity  River,  revolt 
broke  out,  and  the  two  ringleaders  killed  La 
Salle’s  nephew,  in  a  stealthy  manner;  and  when 
the  great  explorer  turned  back  to  look  for  him, 
they  shot  him  dead.  Nearly  all  of  those  who 
were  left  at  Fort  St.  Louis  were  massacred  by 
tiie  Indians,  and  the  remainder  fell  into  the 
bands  of  the  Spaniards,  sent  to  drive  out  the 
French.  La  Salle,  lured  by  tales  of  an  abun¬ 
dance  of  precious  metals  in  New  Mexico,  had 


penetrated  that  country,  with  a  few  followers, 
before  leaving  Fort  St.  Louis,  but  he  was  disap¬ 
pointed. 

Las  Casas,  Bartolome  de,  was  the  first  apos¬ 
tle  to  the  American  Indians.  (See  Pilot,  John.) 
Born  at  Seville,  Spain,  in  1474  ;  died  in  Madrid, 
in  July,  1566.  His  father  was  a  companion  of 
Columbus  in  his  two  earlier  voyages,  and  in  the 
second  one  he  took  this  son,  then  a  student  at 
Salamanca,  with  him.  Bartolomd — or  Barthol¬ 
omew — accompanied  Columbus  on  his  third  and 
fourth  voyages,  and,  on  his  return,  entered  the 
Order  of  the  Dominicans,  that  he  might  become 
a  missionary  among  the  natives  of  the  new¬ 
found  islands  of  the  West.  He  went  to  Santo 
Domingo,  and  was  there  ordained  a  priest  in 
1510,  and  gave  the  name  to  the  island  in  com¬ 
pliment  to  his  order.  Las  Casas  was  chaplain 
to  Velasquez  when  the  latter  conquered  Cuba, 
and  did  much  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the 
conquered  natives.  (See  Cuba.)  In  1515  he 
went  to  Spain  to  seek  redress  for  them,  and 
found  a  sympathizer  in  Cardinal  Xintenes,  who 
became  Regent  of  Spain  the  following  year,  and 
sent  out  three  monks  to  correct  abuses.  Their 
services  were  not  satisfactory,  and,  returning  to 
Spain, Las  Casas  was  appointed  “  Universal  Pro¬ 
tector  of  the  Indies.”  Seeing  the  few  negroes 
who  were  in  Santo  Domingo  and  Cuba  growing 
robust  while  laboring  under  the  hot  sun,  he  pro¬ 
posed  the  introduction  of  negro  slaves  to  re¬ 
lieve  the  more  effeminate  natives.  This  benev¬ 
olent  proposition  gave  rise  to  a  lucrative  traffic 
(see  Slave-trade)  and  a  perversion  of  the  purpose 
of  Las  Casas,  and  he  obtained  from  Charles  V. 
a  grant  of  a  large  domain  on  the  coast  of  Vene¬ 
zuela,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  a  colony  un¬ 
der  his  own  guidance.  This  project  failed,  and 
in  1527  he  proceeded  to  labor  as  a  missionary 
among  the  Indians  in  Nicaragua,  Guatemala, 
Mexico,  and  Peru.  To  reward  him  for  his  be¬ 
nevolent  labors,  his  king  appointed  him  Bishop 
of  Cuzco  —  a  rich  see;  he  declined  it,  but  ac¬ 
cepted  that  of  Chiapa,  in  Mexico.  The  Span¬ 
iards  were  offended  by  his  zeal  in  behalf  of  the 
Indians,  and  an  officer  of  the  Spanish  court  un¬ 
dertook  to  justify  the  conduct  of  the  Spaniards 
towards  the  natives.  Las  Casas,  in  self-defence, 
wrote  a  work  upon  the  natives,  which  contain¬ 
ed  many  particulars  of  the  cruelties  of  the  Span¬ 
ish  colonists.  It  was  translated  into  several  Eu¬ 
ropean  languages,  and  increased  the  hostilities 
of  the  colonists  and  offended  the  Church.  He 
returned  to  Spain  in  1551,  after  about  fifty  years 
of  benevolent  missionary  labor,  and  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  a  convent  at  Vallado¬ 
lid.  There  he  completed  his  General  History  of 
the  Indies,  which  lias  never  been  published,  and 
several  other  works,  in  Latin  and  Spanish. 

Last  Bloodshed  in  the  Revolution.  Some 
Americans,  led  by  Captain  Wilmot,  a  brave  and 
daring  young  officer,  were  engaged  in  the  duty 
of  covering  John’s  Island,  near  Charleston,  in 
September,  1782.  He  was  always  impatient  of 
inaction,  and  often  crossed  the  narrow  strait  or 
river  to  harass  British  foraging  parties  on  the 
island.  While  on  one  of  these  excursions,  in 


LAST  BATTLE  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR  767  LAST  ROYAL  GOVERNOR  IN  MARYLAND 


company  with  Kosciuszko  (which  see),  he  fell 
into  an  ambuscade  and  was  killed.  This,  it  is 
believed,  was  the  last  life  sacrificed  in  battle  in 
the  old  war  for  independence. 

Last  Conflict  of  the  Civil  War.  On  May 

11,  1865,  Colonel  T.  H.  Barrett,  of  the  Sixty- 
second  United  States  Colored  Infantry,  was  in 
command  of  the  National  forces  at  Brazos  San¬ 
tiago,  Texas.  He  sent  three  hundred  men  to 
the  mainland,  under  Lieutenant-colonel  Bron¬ 
son,  to  attack  some  Confederates  on  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  principal  object  of  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  was  to  procure  horses  for  mouutiug  the  cav¬ 
alry.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  13th  they  at¬ 
tacked  and  drove  the  Confederates  and  seized 
their  camp  and  some  horses.  Bronson  fell  back, 
when  he  was  reinforced,  and  the  Nationals,  un¬ 
der  the  lead  of  Colonel  Barrett,  made  another  at¬ 
tack,  drove  off  their  adversaries,  and  destroyed 
their  post.  The  Nationals  pursued  the  Confeder¬ 
ates.  Resting,  they  were  attacked  by  a  heavy 
body  of  Confederates,  cavalry  and  artillery,  un¬ 
der  the  command  of  General  Slaughter.  The  Rio 
Grande  was  on  Barrett’s  left.  He  had  no  artil¬ 
lery,  and  was  compelled  to  fall  back,  fighting.  He 
lost  forty-eight  men,  made  prisoners.  The  Unit¬ 
ed  States  colored  troops  formed  a  line  a  mile  in 
length,  protecting  both  flanks  of  the  Nationals, 
and  resisted  every  attempt  of  the  Confederate 
cavalry  to  penetrate  it.  So  ended  the  battle 
of  Palmetto  Ranche,  the  last  conflict  of  the  Civil 
War  in  the  field.  It  was  about  sunset,  May  13, 
1865,  when  the  Sixty -second  Colored  Infantry 
fired  the  last  volley  in  the  Civil  War.  In  that 
war,  which  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  negro 
slavery  in  our  Republic,  the  first  blood  shed  was 
that  of  a  negro  (see  Pennsylvanians  in  Baltimore) ; 
they  were  negro  troops  who  first  entered  the 
Confederate  capital  as  victors  (see  Richmond, 
Evacuation  of),  and  they  were  negro  troops  who 
fired  the  last  shot  in  the  war  which  emancipat¬ 
ed  them  from  bondage. 

Last  Conflict  of  the  Revolution.  The  25th 
of  November  was  appointed  for  the  evacuation 
of  the  city  of  New  York  by  the  British.  The 
latter  claimed  the  right  of  occupation  until 
noon.  Early  in  the  morning  Mrs.  Day,  who 
kept  a  boarding-house  in  Murray  Street,  near 
the  Hudson  River,  ran  up  the  American  flag 
upon  a  pole  at  the  gable  end  of  her  house. 
Cunningham,  the  notorious  British  provost- 
marshal,  hearing  of  it,  sent  an  order  for  her 
to  pull  down  the  flag.  She  refused,  and  at 
about  nine  o’clock  he  went  in  person  to  compel 
her  to  take  it  down.  He  was  in  full  dress,  in 
scarlet  uniform  and  powdered  wig.  She  was 
sweepiug  at  the  door.  He  ordered  her  to  take 
down  the  flag.  She  refused.  Ho  seized  the 
halyards  to  haul  it  down  himself,  whereupon 
the  spunky  Whig  lady  fell  upon  him  with  her 
broom.  She  made  the  powder  fly  out  of  his 
wig  and  finally  beat  him  off.  This  was  the  last 
conflict  of  the  war. 

Last  Executions  of  Quakers  in  Boston.  In 
1660  and  1661  the  last  executions  of  Quakers 
occurred  in  Boston.  Mary  Dyer  (which  see),  the 
wife  of  a  citizen  of  Providence,  who  was  not  a 


Quaker,  visited  those  who  were  in  prison  in 
Boston  for  conscience’  sake,  after  she  had  once 
been  banished.  Her  return  incurred  the  penal¬ 
ty  of  death,  and  she  was  led  out  to  execution 
by  hanging,  on  Boston  Common,  with  two  men 
(Robertson  and  Stevenson).  On  the  scaffold  she 
was  reprieved  for  the  day,  on  the  earnest  peti¬ 
tion  of  her  sou,  who  promised  to  persuade  her 
to  leave  the  colony.  She  went  home  with  him 
to  Rhode  Island,  under  a  sentence  of  banish- 
meut,  but  soon  returned  to  visit  Friends  in  pris¬ 
on.  She  was  arrested,  and,  the  next  day,  under 
a  strong  guard  of  soldiers,  and  with  the  beating 
of  drums  to  drown  her  voice,  she  was  taken  to 
the  Common  and  hanged.  Her  husband  had 
pleaded  most  piteously  for  her  life,  as  oue  “  most 
dearly  beloved.”  But  the  magistrates  and  min¬ 
isters  were  deaf  to  every  appeal  for  mercy.  The 
next  year  William  Leddra,  who  had  been  ban¬ 
ished,  returned,  and  was  hanged.  These  perse¬ 
cutions  caused  an  amazing  addition  to  the  num¬ 
ber  of  converts  to  Quakerism.  The  same  year 
monthly  meetings  were  established  in  several 
places  in  New  England,  and  not  long  after¬ 
wards  quarterly  meetings  were  organized.  On 
hearing  of  the  death  of  Leddra,  Charles  II.  sent 
au  order  to  Endicott  to  stop  the  persecutions 
and  to  send  all  accused  persons  to  England  for 
trial.  This  order  was  sent  by  the  hand  of  Sam¬ 
uel  Shattuclc,  a  banished  Quaker,  who  appeared 
before  Governor  Endicott  with  his  hat  on.  The 
incensed  governor  was  about  to  take  the  usual 
brutal  steps  to  send  him  to  prison,  after  order¬ 
ing  an  officer  to  remove  Shattuck’s  hat,  when 
the  latter  handed  the  magistrate  the  order  from 
the  throne.  Endicott  was  thunderstruck.  He 
handed  back  Shattuck’s  hat  and  removed  his 
owu  in  deference  to  the  presence  of  the  king’s 
messenger.  He  read  the  papers,  and,  directing 
Shattuck  to  withdraw,  simply  remarked:  “We 
shall  obey  his  majesty’s  commands.”  A  hurried 
conference  ,was  held  with  the  other  magistrates 
and  ministers.  They  dared  not  send  the  ac¬ 
cused  persons  to  England,  for  they  would  be 
swift  witnesses  against  the  authorities  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts;  so  they  ordered  William  Sutton, 
keeper  of  the  Boston  Jail,  to  set  all  the  Quakers 
free.  So  ended  their  severe  persecution  in  New 
England ;  but  the  magistrates  continued  for 
some  time  to  whip  Quaker  men  and  women, 
half  naked,  through  the  streets  of  Boston  and 
Salem,  until  peremptorily  forbidden  to  do  so  by 
the  king. 

Last  Royal  Governor  in  Maryland.  Mary¬ 
land  was  disposed  to  be  very  conservative  on 
the  question  of  independence.  Its  Convention 
voted  (May  20,  1776)  that  it  was  not  necessary 
to  suppress  every  exercise  of  royal  authority. 
But  several  intercepted  letters,  written  by  Gov¬ 
ernor  Eden,  which  had  just  come  to  light,  caused 
Congress  to  recommend  his  arrest.  The  Balti¬ 
more  Committee  volunteered  in  the  matter,  but 
became  involved,  in  consequence,  in  a  collision 
with  the  Provincial  Convention.  A  committee 
of  that  body  reported,  on  investigation,  that  the 
governor,  in  his  correspondence  with  the  British 
ministry,  had  not  acted  in  a  hostile  character; 
but,  at  the  same  time,  it  was  voted  to  signify  to 


LATITUDINARIAN  CHURCH 


763 


LA  TOUR  IN  ACADIA 


Governor  Eden  that  the  public  safety  and  quiet 
required  him  to  leave  the  province,  which  he  did. 

Latitudinarian  Church.  Some  Independents 
attempted  to  establish  a  “Latitudinarian” 
Church  at  Weymouth  in  1639,  on  the  principle 
of  admitting  to  membership  all  baptized  per¬ 
sons,  without  either  requiring  a  profession  of 
faith  or  relation  of  experience.  The  theocratic 
government  of  Boston,  zealous  for  the  preserva¬ 
tion  of  the  purity  of  the  faith,  promptly  sup¬ 
pressed  this  movement.  The  intended  pastor 
(Leuthall)  was  forced  to  make  a  humble  apolo¬ 
gy,  and  soon  found  it  expedient  to  take  refuge 
in  Rhode  Island.  Several  laymen  who  had  been 
active  in  the  matter  were  heavily  fined ;  one 
was  whipped,  and  one  was  disfranchised. 

Latitudiiiarians  in  New  England.  A  new 

school  of  divines  sprang  up  among  Protestants 
towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  who  at¬ 
tempted  the  delicate  task  of  reconciling  reason 
with  revelation.  They  rejected  the  authority 
of  tradition.  They  declared  against  supersti¬ 
tion  on  the  one  hand,  and  enthusiasm  on  the 
other,  but  were  tolerant  towards  those  who  dis¬ 
sented  from  them.  They  were,  in  fact,  Low 
Churchmen  with  Arminian  principles.  These 
principles  had  penetrated  Massachusetts  at  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century,  as  evinced  by 
the  organization  of  the  Brattle  Street  Church 
in  Boston.  Their  practice  of  what  was  denom¬ 
inated  the  “half-way  covenant” — of  admitting 
to  the  holy  communion  all  persons  not  immoral 
in  their  lives;  indeed,  to  all  the  privileges  of 
church-membership — shocked  the  Mathers  and 
others  ;  and  when,  presently,  Harvard  College 
passed  under  the  control  of  this  new  party,  the¬ 
ocracy  in  New  England  expired,  aud  the  abso¬ 
lute  reign  of  theological  rule  was  at  an  end. 
The  result  on  the  intellectual  history  of  New 
Englaud  was  important.  (See  Latitudinarian 
Church.) 

La  Tour  in  Acadia.  When  Acadia,  or  Nova 
Scotia,  was  returned  to  the  French  (1632),  it 
was  apportioned  into  provinces,  under  propri¬ 
etary  governors.  To  Razille,  commander- in - 
chief,  was  granted  the  southern  portion  of 
the  peninsula,  and  one  of  his  lieutenants  was 
Charles  La  Tour,  to  whom  was  assigned  a  large 
portion  of  the  territory.  He  and  Seigneur 
D’Aulnay  Charissy  (  another  lieutenant ),  who 
controlled  a  section  extending  westward  to 
the  Kennebec  River,  were  both  engaged  in 
trade,  and  bitter  quarrels  arose  between  them, 
on  account  of  mutual  (alleged)  infringements 
of  rights.  After  the  death  of  Razill6,  D’Aulnay, 
an  unscrupulous  man,  attempted  to  assume  con¬ 
trol  of  the  whole  country.  He  was  a  Roman 
Catholic ;  La  Tour  was  a  Protestant.  Through 
the  powerful  influence  at  court  of  Cardinal  Riche¬ 
lieu,  the  king  revoked  the  commission  of  La 
Tour,  and  ordered  his  arrest.  The  latter  denied 
the  allegations  of  D’Aulnay,  and  refused  to  sub¬ 
mit  to  arrest.  With  five  hundred  men  in  ves¬ 
sels,  D’Aulnay  appeared  off  the  month  of  the 
St.John  River,  in  the  •spring  of  1643,  and  block¬ 
aded  La  Tonr  in  his  fortified  trading-house.  A 
ship  was  daily  expected  from  Rochelle,  with  a 


company  of  one  hundred  and  forty  emigrants, 
and  might  fall  into  the  power  of  the  blockading 
squadron.  La  Tour  managed  to  give  to  the  ves¬ 
sel  intimations  of  danger,  and  under  cover  of 
night  he  aud  his  wife  were  conveyed  on  board 
of  her,  and  sailed  for  Boston,  to  seek  the  aid  of 
the  colony  of  Massachusetts  in  defence  of  their 
rights.  La  Tour  was  permitted  by  Governor 
Wiuthrop  to  fit  out  a  small  naval  and  military 
force  at  Boston.  He  chartered  five  vessels, 
mounting  forty  pieces  of  cannon,  and  procured 
eighty  volunteers  for  the  land-service  and  fifty 
sailors.  When  the  armament  appeared,  D’Aul¬ 
nay  raised  the  blockade,  aud  sought  refuge  un¬ 
der  the  guns  of  his  own  fort  at  Port  Royal, 
where  two  of  his  vessels  were  wrecked.  La 
Tour  would  have  captured  that  stronghold,  had 
not  the  New-Englanders  left  him  before  their 
term  of  service  had  expired.  D’Aulnay  sent  a 
protest  to  Wiuthrop  against  this  violation  of 
neutrality,  and  a  copy  of  the  order  for  La  Tour’s 
arrest.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  in  1644. 
Meanwhile  the  intrepid  Madame  La  Tour  was  in 
England,  obtaining  supplies  for  her  husband’s 
fort.  On  her  return,  she  was  landed  at  Boston 
instead  of  the  St.  John,  as  agreed  upon.  She 
brought  action  against  the  captain  of  the  vessel, 
and  recovered  $10,000  damages,  with  which  she 
purchased  supplies  aud  munitions  of  war  for  the 
fort.  It  was  put  in  a  condition  for  a  vigorous 
defence.  During  the  temporary  absence  of  her 
husband,  D’Auluay  laid  siege  to  it.  Madame 
La  Tour  conducted  an  effective  defence,  attack¬ 
ing  and  disabling  a  frigate  aud  killing  or  wound¬ 
ing  thirty-three  of  the  assailants.  The  baffled 
D’Aulnay  was  compelled  to  retire,  greatly  mor¬ 
tified.  La  Tour,  meanwhile,  continued  to  re¬ 
ceive  stores  and  munitions  from  New  England, 
notwithstanding  the  treaty  of  neutrality.  In 
reprisal,  D’Aulnay  seized  and  confiscated  a  Bos¬ 
ton  vessel,  and  this  source  of  supply  for  La  Tour 
was  cut  off.  In  the  spring  of  1647  D’Aulnay, 
hearing  that  La  Tour  and  most  of  his  men  were 
absent  from  his  fort,  again  besieged  it.  Madame 
La  Tonr  determined  to  hold  it  to  the  last  extrem¬ 
ity.  For  three  days  the  assailants  were  kept  at 
bay.  On  Easter  Sunday  a  treacherous  Swiss 
sentinel  allowed  the  assailants  to  enter  the  out¬ 
er  works.  The  brave  woman  rushed  to  the  ram¬ 
parts  with  her  handful  of  soldiers,  and  would 
have  repulsed  the  besiegers  had  not  D’Aulnay, 
fearing  the  disgrace  of  another  defeat  at  the 
hands  of  a  woman,  offered  her  honorable  terms 
of  capitulation.  Anxious  to  save  the  lives  of 
her  little  garrison,  Madame  La  Tour  yielded, 
when  the  perfidious  D’Aulnay  violated  his  sol¬ 
emn  pledge.  He  caused  every  man  of  the  gar¬ 
rison  to  be  hung  save  one,  whom  he  made  the 
executioner  of  his  comrades.  The  ruffians  com¬ 
pelled  the  twice-betrayed  Madame  La  Tour  to 
witness  these  executions,  with  a  rope  around 
her  own  neck.  D’Aulnay  pillaged  the  fort  of 
all  the  property,  amounting  to  $50,000,  and  re¬ 
treated  to  Port  Royal.  La  Tour  was  a  ruined 
man,  and  wandered  in  exile  on  the  shores  of 
Newfoundland  aud  in  the  wilds  around  the 
southern  shores  of  Hudson’s  Bay.  These  disas¬ 
ters  broke  the  heart  of  his  brave  wife,  and  she 


I 


LAUDONNIERE  769  LAURENS 


died.  Retributive  just  ice  brought  about  changes 
iu  favor  of  La  Tour.  Four  years  after  his  prop¬ 
erty  was  wasted,  D’Auluay  died  iu  debt  and  dis¬ 
grace.  La  Tour  now  came  back  from  the  wil¬ 
derness,  vindicated  his  character  before  his  sov¬ 
ereign,  was  made  lieutenant-governor  of  Acadia, 
and  again  recovered  his  fort  at  St.  John.  He 
married  the  widow  of  his  rival,  and  inherited 
his  shattered  estate,  and  prosperity  once  more 
smiled  upon  the  Huguenot;  for  his  claim  to  ex¬ 
tensive  territorial  rights  in  Acadia,  by  virtue  of 
Sir  William  Alexander’s  grant  to  his  father,  was 
recognized  in  1656.  He  soon  afterwards  died. 
Acadia  had  then  passed  once  more  into  the  hands 
of  the  English. 

Laudonniere,  Rene  Goulaine  de,  leader  of 
a  French  colony  in  Florida.  He  first  came  to 
America  in  1562,  with  Ribault.  In  the  spring 
of  1564,  Laudonniere  sailed  for  America  with 
three  ships  to  assist  the  first  colony,  but  landed 
in  Florida.  (See  Huguenots  in  America.)  In  the 
onslaught  made  upon  the  French  colouy  by  the 
Spaniards,  Laudonniere  escaped.  (See  Ribault.) 

Laurance,  John,  was  born  in  Cornwall.  Eng¬ 
land,  iu  1750;  died  in  New  York  in  November, 
1810.  He  came  to  New  York  in  1767,  where  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1772,  and  married 
the  daughter  of  General  McDougall,  on  whose 
staff  he  served.  He  was  also  in  Washington’s 
military  family.  He  was  judge-advocate  at  the 
court  of  inquiry  in  Major  Andrd’s  case ;  was  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1785-86;  State  Senator 
in  1789;  and  member  of  the  new  Congress  from 
1789  to  1793.  He  was  also  Judge  of  the  United 
States  District  Court  of  New  York  from  1794  to 
1796,  and  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
from  1796  to  1800. 

Laurens,  Henry,  was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
in  1724  ;  died  there,  Dec.  8,  1792.  He  was  of 
Huguenot  descent,  and  was  educated  iu  London 


HENRY  LAURENS. 


for  mercantile  business.  By  that  pursuit  ho  ac¬ 
quired  an  ample  fortune.  He  opposed  British 
aggressions  with  speech  and  in  writing,  and 
I.— 49 


pamphlets  which  lie  published  displayed  re¬ 
markable  legal  ability.  He  was  engaged  in  a 
military  campaign  against  the  Cherokees.  In 
1770  he  retired  from  business,  and  went  to  Eu¬ 
rope  the  next  year  to  superintend  the  education 
of  his  sous;  and  in  England  he  did  what  he 
could  to  persuade  the  government  to  be  just 
towards  the  Americans.  On  his  arrival  at 
Charleston,  late  in  1774,  he  was  chosen  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Provincial  Congress  and  of  the 
Council  of  Safety.  In  1776  he  was  sent  as  a  del¬ 
egate  to  Congress,  and  was  president  of  that 
body  for  a  little  more  than  a  year  from  Nov.  1, 
1777.  He  received  the  appointment  of  minister 
to  Holland  in  1779,  and  on  the  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic  he  was  captured  by  the  British,  aud 
was  confined  iu  the  Tower  of  London  about 
fourteen  months,  suffering  so  much  that  his 
health  was  permanently  impaired.  In  Decem¬ 
ber,  1781,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commis¬ 
sioners  to  negotiate  for  peace  with  Great  Brit¬ 
ain.  In  November,  1782,  he  signed  a  prelimina¬ 
ry  treaty  at  Paris,  with  Franklin  and  Jay,  when 
he  returned  home,  and  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  agricultural  pursuits.  In  accordance 
with  an  injunction  in  his  will,  the  body  of  Mr. 
Laurens,  at  his  death,  was  wrapped  in  cloths  and 
burned — the  first  act  of  cremation  in  America. 

Laurens,  Henry,  Capture  and  Imprison¬ 
ment  of.  A  plan  for  a  commercial  treaty  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  Holland  was  unof¬ 
ficially  proposed  to  William  Lee  (September, 
1778)  by  Van  Berkel,  pensionary  of  Amsterdam. 
It.  was  submitted  to  the  Congress,  approved,  and 
Henry  Laurens  was  commissioned  minister-plen¬ 
ipotentiary  to  the  States-General  of  Holland  to 
negotiate.  He  finally  sailed  in  the  Congress 
packet  Mercury,  and  on  the  3d  of  September, 
1780,  she  was  captured  by  the  frigate  Vesta  off 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  Mr.  Laurens  cast 
his  papers  overboard,  but  they  were  recovered 
by  a  sailor,  and  the  minister  was  taken  to  Lon¬ 
don.  After  an  examination  before  the  Privy 
Council,  Mr.  Laurens  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  charge  of  high  -  treason,  where  he 
was  kept  in  close  confinement  more  than  a  year. 
He  was  cruelly  deprived  of  pen,  ink,  and  paper, 
and  the  converse  of  friends.  Twice  he  was  ap¬ 
proached  with  offers  of  pardon  and  liberty  if  he 
would  serve  the  ministry,  and  each  time  the 
offer  was  indignantly  rejected  by  him.  He  was 
finally  released,  and  at  the  request  of  Lord  Shel¬ 
burne  he  went  to  France,  to  assist  in  negotia¬ 
tions  then  making  for  peace.  Among  his  pa¬ 
pers  recovered  from  the  sea  was  the  plan  for  a 
treaty  with  Holland;  also  several  letters  which 
disclosed  the  existing  friendship  of  the  States- 
General  for  the  Americans.  The  British  minis¬ 
try  were  irritated  by  these  documents,  and  the 
subsequent  refusal  of  Holland  to  disclaim  the 
act  of  Van  Berkel,  and  Great  Britain  declared 
war  against  that  republic.  (S go  Holland  at  War 
ivith  (treat  Britain.) 

Laurens,  Henry,  Petition  of.  While  on  his 
way  to  Holland,  in  1780,  as  United  States  min¬ 
ister-plenipotentiary,  Henry  Laurens  was  capt¬ 
ured  by  a  British  ship  of  war,  carried  to  London, 


LAURENS 


770 


LAW  AGAINST  WITCHCRAFT 


and  confined  in  tlie  Tower  for  fourteen  months, 
where,  at  first,  he  was  treated  with  much  harsh¬ 
ness.  He  had  been  president  of  Congress,  and 
was  a  notable  prisoner.  On  Dec.  1,  1781,  Mr. 
Laurens  addressed  a  petition  to  the  British 
House  of  Commons,  dated  “Tower  of  London,” 
in  which  he  stated  that  he  had  for  many  years, 
at  the  peril  of  his  life  and  fortune,  labored  to 
preserve  and  strengthen  the  friendship  between 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies ;  that  he  had 
never  excited  animosity  on  either  side  ;  that  he 
deprecated  the  events  that  brought  on  the  war; 
that,  in  its  progress,  he  extended  every  act  of 
kindness  in  his  power  to  loyalists  as  well  as  to 
British  prisoners  of  war;  that  he  was  captured 
on  the  American  coast,  and  on  Oct.  4, 1780,  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  being  then  dangerous¬ 
ly  ill;  that  meanwhile  he  had  suffered  under  a 
degree  of  rigor  almost,  if  not  altogether,  unpar¬ 
alleled  in  modern  British  history ;  that  from 
long  confinement  and  the  want  of  proper  exer¬ 
cise,  and  other  obvious  causes,  his  bodily  health 
was  greatly  impaired,  and  that  he  was  then  in  a 
languishing  state;  and  he  prayed  for  enlarge¬ 
ment  under  proper  restrictions  and  conditions. 
This  petition  was  presented  to  the  House  in  the 
form  in  which  it  came  from  Mr.  Laurens’s  hand, 
it  having  been  written  w  ith  a  lead-pencil.  He 
was  soon  afterwards  released,  but  his  rigor¬ 
ous  imprisonment  had  so  undermined  his  con¬ 
stitution  that  he  never  afterwards  enjoyed  good 
health. 

Laurens,  John,  son  of  Henry,  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1753;  died  Aug.  27,  1782.  Liberal¬ 
ly  educated  in  England,  he  returned  to  his  na¬ 
tive  state  just  as  the  war  for  independence  was 
kindling  (1775),  w  hen  he  entered  the  army  as 
an  aid  to  Washington,  and  frequently  acted  as 
secretary.  Expert  in  the  French  and  German 
languages,  he  was  Washington’s  chief  medium 
of  communication  with  the  foreign  officers  in 
the  service.  He  was  a  patriotic  and  brave  sol¬ 
dier  under  all  circumstances,  and  wras  devoted 
to  the  commander-in-chief.  On  one  occasion 
he  challenged  General  Charles  Lee  for  speaking 
disparagingly  of  the  chief.  They  fought,  and 
he  severely  wounded  Lee  wfith  a  pistol-ball.  In 
the  battles  at  the  Brandywine  and  Germantowui 
Laurens  was  particularly  distinguished ;  and 
afterwards,  at  Savannah  and  at  Charleston  and 
Yorktowu,  lie  performed  prodigies  of  valor.  At 
the  latter  place  he  was  conspicuous  at  the  storm¬ 
ing  of  a  battery,  and  was  the  first  to  enter  it 
and  receive  the  sword  of  the  commander.  For 
months  his  indefatigable  activity  caused  the 
confinement  of  the  British  in  Charleston  ;  and 
finally,  at  the  very  close  of  the  struggle,  he  too 
carelessly  exposed  himself  in  a  trifling  skirmish 
near  the  Combahee,  S.  C.,  and  was  slain.  In 
the  autumn  of  1780,  w  hen  the  finances  of  the 
United  States  were  exhausted,  he  was  sent  to 
France  to  solicit  a  loan.  While  earnestly  press¬ 
ing  his  suit  with  Vergennes,  the  French  minis¬ 
ter,  one  day,  that  gentleman  said  that  the  king 
had  every  disposition  to  favor  the  United  States. 
This  patronizing  expression  kindled  the  indig¬ 
nation  of  the  young  diplomatist,  and  he  replied, 
with  emphasis,  “  Favor,  sir!  The  respect  which 


I  owe  to  my  country  will  not  admit  the  term. 
Say  that  the  obligation  is  mutual,  and  I  will 
acknowledge  it.  But,  as  the  last  argument  I 
shall  offer  to  your  excellency,  the  sword  w  hich 
I  now  wear  in  defence  of  France  as  well  as  my 
own  country,  unless  the  succor  I  solicit  is  im¬ 
mediately  accorded,  I  may  be  compelled,  within 
a  short  time,  to  draw  against  France  as  a  Brit¬ 
ish  subject.”  This  had  the  desired  effect,  for 
France  dreaded  the  subjugation  of  the  colonies, 
or  a  reconciliation  with  the  mother  country. 
Presently  a  subsidy  of  $1,200,000,  and  a  further 
sum  as  a  loan,  were  granted.  The  French  min¬ 
ister  also  gave  a  guarantee  for  a  Dutch  loan  of 
about  $2,000,000. 

Lauzun  (Duke  de),  Armand  Louis  de  Gou- 
tant,  was  born  in  Paris,  April  15,  1747 ;  died 
Dec.  31,  1793.  He  had  led  an  expedition  suc¬ 
cessfully  against  Senegal  and  Gambia  in  1779, 
and  came  to  America  with  Rochambeau  in  1780, 


DUKE  DE  LAUZUN. 


in  command  of  a  force  known  as  “  Lauzun’s 
Legion,”  with  which  he  took  part  in  the  siege 
of  Yorktown.  Returning  to  France,  he  became 
a  deputy  of  the  nobles  in  the  States-General, 
and  in  1792  was  general-in-chief  of  the  Army  of 
the  Rhine.  In  1793  he  commanded  the  Army  of 
the  Coasts  of  Rochelle.  He  did  good  service  for 
his  employers  in  the  French  Revolution ;  but 
w7hen  he  persistently  requested  leave  to  resign 
his  commission,  the  irritated  leaders  sent  him 
to  the  scaffold,  w'here  he  was  beheaded. 

Law  against  Witchcraft.  Among  the  “Fun¬ 
damentals”  of  Massachusetts  was  a  law  against 
witchcraft,  which  made  its  practice  punishable 


LAWRENCE 


771 


LAW,  COMMON 

■with  death.  This  law  was  fortified  by  a  decla¬ 
ration  of  Scripture — “  Thou  shalt  not  suffer  a 
•witch  to  live.”  (See  Salem  Witchcraft.)  There 
was,  however,  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  a  growing  spirit  of  doubt  in  New  Eng¬ 
land  concerning  the  reality  of  much  of  the  su¬ 
pernaturalism  which  held  so  prominent  a  place 
in  Puritan  theology.  To  combat  this  rising  in¬ 
credulity,  Increase  Mather  published  a  book  of 
Remarkable  Providences  in  1684,  in  which  were 
enumerated,  among  other  things,  all  the  sup¬ 
posed  cases  of  witchcraft  which  had  hitherto 
occurred  in  New  England,  with  arguments  to 
prove  their  reality.  Five  years  later  the  su¬ 
perstitious  Cotton  Mather  published  a  book  en¬ 
titled  Memorable  Providences  relating  to  Witch¬ 
craft,  which  did  much  to  produce  that  horrible 
event  in  New  England  history  known  as  “  Sa¬ 
lem  Witchcraft”  (which  see).  Against  public 
opinion  aud  the  teachings  of  common  -  sense, 
Cotton  Mather  maintained  publicly  his  belief 
in  the  reality  of  witchcraft.  (See  Harvard  Col¬ 
lege  Circular.) 

Law,  Common.  In  all  the  states,  either  by 
constitutions  or  by  legislative  enactments,  the 
English  common  law,  and  all  those  English 
statutes  hitherto  recognized  and  acted  upon  in 
the  colonies,  respectively,  were  made  the  basis 
of  state  jurisprudence.  The  common  law  of 
England  has  been  defined  as  that  part  of  the 
laws  which  have  grown  up  from  usage  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  acts  of  Parliament  or  other  leg¬ 
islative  bodies.  For  example :  A  man  in  New 
York  agreed  to  pay  twelve  shillings  a  day  to 
any  man  employed  in  a  certain  business.  Some 
of  the  men  worked  twelve  aud  a  half  hours  out 
of  the  twenty-fonr.  It  was  held  that  these  men 
were  entitled  to  fifteen  shillings  a  day,  because 
common  usage  had  established  ten  hour's  as  a 
day’s  work  at  that  particular  business.  The 
term  common  law  has  been  applied  to  all  such 
laws,  statutory  or  customary,  as  were  adminis¬ 
tered  in  the  most  ancient  or  common  law  courts. 
In  this  sense,  in  a  limited  degree,  it  is  commonly 
understood  in  the  United  States.  The  general 
course  has  been,  besides  adopting  the  common 
law  of  England,  to  re-enact  English  statutes 
which  had  beeu  sanctioned  by  colonial  legislation 
and  which  it  was  deemed  important  to  retain. 

Law  of  Inheritance.  A  matter  of  great  im¬ 
portance  to  several  of  the  colonies  was  settled 
in  Connecticut  in  1729.  There  was  a  law  of 
that  colony  (also  in  the  rest  of  New  England,  as 
well  as  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Dela¬ 
ware)  admitting  daughters  to  share  with  sons 
as  joint  heirs,  and  distributing  the  lands  among 
all  the  children  equally,  except  a  double  share 
to  the  eldest  son.  On  the  appeal  of  John  Win- 
tlirop,  great-grandson  of  the  first  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  from  the  Superior  Court  in  Con¬ 
necticut  to  the  King  in  Council,  this  law  was 
set  aside.  This  threatened  infinite  confusion 
and  uncertainty  concerning  land  titles  in  those 
colonies  and  in  the  settlement  of  all  landed  es¬ 
tates.  Agents  were  sent  to  England,  who  ob¬ 
tained  a  reversal  of  this  decision  aud  a  confir¬ 
mation  of  the  Connecticut  law. 


Law  Reports.  The  State  of  Connecticut  set 
the  example  of  requiring  the  judges  to  give,  in 
writing,  the  reasons  of  their  decisions.  Kirby’s 
reports,  published  in  1789,  containing  the  Con¬ 
necticut  cases  from  1785  to  1788,  were  the  first 
of  a  series  of  American  law  reports,  of  which  we 
have  now  several  hundred  volumes. 

Lawrence,  Captain  James,  Refusal  to  vote 
Thanks  to.  Through  the  influence  of  the  Peace 
Faction  (which  see)  in  Massachusetts, the  Senate 
of  that  state  passed  a  resolution  (June  15, 1813) 
which  Mr.  Grundy  denounced  as  “moral  trea¬ 
son.”  The  Legislature  had  passed  resolutions 
of  thanks  to  Hull,  Decatur,  and  Bainbridge,  and 
a  proposition  was  submitted  for  a  similar  vote 
to  Lawrence  for  his  gallantry  in  the  capture  of 
the  Peacock.  A  committee  of  the  Senate,  of 
which  Josiah  Quincy  was  chairman,  reported 
adversely  to  it,  aud  a  preamble  and  resolution 
were  accordingly  adopted.  The  former  declared 
that  similar  attentions  already  given  to  mili¬ 
tary  and  naval  officers  engaged  in  a  like  ser¬ 
vice  had  “  given  great  discontent  to  many  of 
the  good  people  of  the  commonwealth,  it  being 
considered  by  them  as  an  encouragement  and 
excitement  to  the  continuance  of  the  present, 
unjust,  unnecessary,  and  iniquitous  war.”  The 
resolution  was  as  follows :  u  Resolved,  as  the  sense 
of  the  Senate  of  Massachusetts,  that,  in  a  war 
like  the  present,  waged  without  justifiable  cause, 
and  prosecuted  in  a  manner  which  indicates 
that  conquest  aud  ambition  are  its  real  motives, 
it  is  not  becoming  a  moral  and  religious  people 
to  express  any  approbation  of  military  or  naval 
exploits  which  are  not  immediately  connected 
with  a  defence  of  our  sea-coast  and  soil.”  Cap¬ 
tain  Lawrence  had  then  been  dead  ten  days, 
slain  on  board  his  ship,  the  Chesapeake,  in  action 
with  the  Shannon.  (See  Chesapeake  and  Shannon.) 

Lawrence,  James,  U.S.N.,  was  born  at  Bur¬ 
lington,  N.  J.,  Oct.  1,  1781;  died  on  board  the 


JAMES  LAWRENCE. 


Chesapeake  (see  Chesapeake  and  Shannon),  June 
5,  1813.  His  father  was  a  lawyer  and  distiu- 


LAWS  AND  PENALTIES  IN  VIRGINIA  772 


LAWS  OF  CONNECTICUT 


guislied  loyalist  during  the  old  war  for  inde¬ 
pendence.  Janies  entered  tbe  navy  as  a  mid¬ 
shipman  Sept.  4,  1798,  and  in  tbe  spring  of  1802 
be  was  promoted  to  lieutenant.  In  tbe  schoon¬ 
er  Enterprise  be  took  a  distinguished  part  in  tbe 
destruction  of  tbe  frigate  Philadelphia  (which 
see)  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli.  In  1810  be  was 
promoted  to  master- commander ;  and  on  Feb. 
24,  1813,  tbe  Hornet ,  of  which  be  was  command¬ 
er,  fought  and  conquered  tbe  British  brig  Pea¬ 
cock  (see  Hornet  and  Peacock),  which  sunk  be¬ 
fore  all  the  prisoners  could  be  taken  out  of  her. 
In  March,  1813,  he  was  commissioned  captain  in 
the  United  States  Navy,  and  took  command  of 
the  frigate  Chesapeake  in  May.  On  the  1st  of 
June  the  Chesapeake  fought  the  frigate  Shannon, 
and  was  beaten.  Captain  Lawrence  was  mor¬ 
tally  wounded,  and  died  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  four 
days  afterwards.  His  remains  were  conveyed 
to  New  York,  where  a  public  funeral  was  held. 
The  remains  were  then  buried  in  Trinity  Church 
buryiug-ground,  and  soon  after  the  war  the  cor- 
poration  of  New  York  erected  an  elegant  marble 
monument  over  the  grave.  It  became  dilapi¬ 
dated  in  time,  and  in  1847  the  corporation  of 
Trinity  Church  caused  the  remains  to  be  re¬ 
moved  to  a  place  near  the  southeast  corner  of 
the  church,  a  few  feet  from  Broadway,  and  a 
mausoleum  of  brown  freestone  to  be  erected 


LAWRENCE  AND  LUDLOW’S  MONUMENT. 


there  in  commemoration  of  both  Lawrence  and 
his  lieutenant,  Ludlow. 

Laws  and  Penalties  in  Virginia  (1611).  The 
magistrates  of  Virginia  were  furnished  with  a 
code  of  civil  laws  in  1611  which  were  intended 
to  completely  regulate  the  morals  and  moods 
of  the  colonists.  The  pains  and  penalties  were 
definite  and  severe.  The  penalty  of  death  was 
to  he  inflicted  for  blaspheming  God;  for  speak¬ 
ing  “maliciously  and  impiously”  of  the  Holj’ 
Trinity;  for  deriding  the  Holy  Scriptures;  for 
treacherous  words  against  the  king ;  for  mur¬ 
der ;  for  adultery,  or  for  rape,  whether  of  white 
or  Indian  ;  for  perjury ;  for  trading  with  the  In¬ 


dians  without  license;  for  embezzlement  of  the 
public  goods;  for  desertion  of  the  colony;  for 
treason  against  its  rulers ;  for  aiding  theft ;  for 
robbing  a  garden  ;  for  wilfully  pulling  up  a  flow¬ 
er  or  root  when  set  to  weeding ;  for  gathering 
grapes  or  plucking  ears  of  corn,  whether  belong¬ 
ing  to  a  private  person  or  the  public.  The  pro¬ 
fane  swearer  was  to  have  a  bodkin  thrust  through 
his  tongue  for  the  second  offence,  and  for  the 
third,  death.  For  absence  from  public  worship 
or  violating  the  Sabbath  the  penalty  was  depri¬ 
vation  of  a  week’s  allowance;  second  offence, 
public  whipping;  and  for  a  third  offence,  death. 

!  For  slandering  the  public  officers  or  speaking 
evil  of  the  colony  the  penalty  was  whipping; 
and  for  a  third  offence,  death.  The  penalty  for 
disobeying  magistrates  and  unworthily  treating 
a  minister  or  preacher  was  a  public  whipping 
three  times,  and  being  compelled  to  ask  forgive¬ 
ness  of  the  congregation  on  three  successive  Sun¬ 
days.  For  killing  any  domestic  animal — even 
one’s  own — without  permission,  was  a  capital 
crime  in  the  principal;  and  his  assistant  was 
to  lose  his  ears  and  be  branded  in  the  hand. 
Those  who  did  not  keep  their  houses  neat  and 
clean,  and  their  bedsteads  three  feet  from  the 
ground,  or  who  cast  foul  water  into  the  streets 
of  Jamestown,  were  subjected  to  trial  by  court- 
martial.  A  tradesman  who  neglected  his  busi¬ 
ness  was  sent  to  the  galleys  for  four  years,  if  he 
persisted  in  the  offence.  If  any  one  failed  to 
i  appear  at  appointed  work  at  the  beat  of  the 
drum  morning  and  afternoon,  or  left  his  work 
before  the  hour  appointed,  he  was  laid,  with 
head  and  feet  together,  all  night  upon  the 
ground ;  whipped  for  the  second  offence  ;  and 
for  the  third  time  sent  to  the  galleys.  He  who 
failed  to  render  to  his  minister  an  account  of 
his  faith,  or  refused  to  take  advice  from  him  in 
matters  of  religion,  was  whipped  daily  until  he 
repented  of  his  obduracy.  And  the  minister 
who  failed  to  read  publicly,  on  every  Sabbath- 
day,  these  laws  and  ordinances  was  deprived 
for  a  week  of  his  allowance  from  the  public 
store.  The  military  code  was  still  more  severe. 

Law’s  Bubble,  a  speculative  scheme  in  which 
grants  of  land  in  Louisiana  were  involved.  John 
Law,  of  Edinburgh,  established  a  bank  in  France 
(1716),  which,  by  royal  authority  (1719),  became 
the  receiver  of  the  revenues  of  the  kingdom. 
To  it  was  attached  a  “  Mississippi  Company,” 
which  had  grants  of  land  in  Louisiana,  from  the 
proceeds  of  the  planting  and  commerce  of  which 
immense  profits  were  expected.  The  shares  of 
the  bank  soon  rose  to  twenty  times  their  par 
value,  but  fell  as  suddenly  (1720).  There  was 
no  bottom  to  the  matter,  and  wide-spread  finan¬ 
cial  distress  and  ruin  followed  the  bursting  of 
Law’s  “bubble.” 

Laws  of  Connecticut.  The  first  body  of 
laws  for  the  commonwealth  of  Connecticut  was 
compiled  by  Roger  Ludlow,  at  the  request  of 
the  General  Court.  This  labor  was  begun  in 
1646,  and  completed  in  1649.  It  comprised  a 
complete  collection  of  all  the  Connecticut  laws 
then  in  force  and  many  provisions  borrowed 
from  Massachusetts.  Like  the  Justinian  code, 


LEAGUE  OF  STATES 


LEE 


4  4  0 


it.  was  divided  into  titles  and  laws.  These  laws 
were  printed  at  Cambridge  in  1672. 

League  of  States.  The  United  States,  un¬ 
der  the  control  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 
was  simply  a  league  of  commonwealths,  marked 
by  tokens  of  an  inherent  tendency  to  dissolu¬ 
tion.  Its  first  attempt  to  exercise  the  func¬ 
tions  of  sovereignty  was  a  signal  failure,  and 
the  beginning  of  a  series  of  failures.  The  ex¬ 
ecutive  powers  of  the  General  Congress  were 
wholly  dependent  on  the  will  and  caprice  of 
thirteen  distinct  legislatures,  swayed  by  sec¬ 
tional  interests  and  moved  by  sectional  jeal¬ 
ousies.  The  league  failed,  for  the  same  rea¬ 
sons,  to  establish  commercial  relations  with 
Great  Britain  and  other  governments.  The 
inherent  weakness  of  the  new  government  was 
palpable  to  every  attentive  observer.  It  was 
perceived  that  the  inchoate  republic  was  not  a 
nation.  In  a  well-written  pamphlet,  Lord  Shef¬ 
field  declared  liis  belief  that  the  ruin  of  the 
league  would  be  speedy,  because  anarchy  and 
confusion  would  follow  as  a  consequence  of  the 
independence  of  the  states.  He  advised  against 
sending  a  diplomatic  representative  of  Great 
Britain  to  our  seat  of  government.  He  said, 
“  If  the  American  states  choose  to  send  consuls, 
receive  them,  and  send  a  consul  to  each  state, 
and  this  is  the  whole  that  is  necessary.”  He 
regarded  the  league,  composed,  as  was  claimed, 
of  petty  sovereignties,  as  unworthy  of  the  dig¬ 
nified  title  of  nation,  and  predicted  that  they 
would  soon  become  penitent  suppliants  at  the 
feet  of  the  king  for  pardon  and  restoration  as 
colonies.  Such  was  the  tendency  when  the 
proposition  for  a  convention  to  amend  the  Ar¬ 
ticles  of  Confederation  was  called.  The  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  national  Constitution  averted  the 
catastrophe. 

Lear,  Tobias,  was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
Sept.  19,  1762  ;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Oct. 
10, 1816.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1783,  and 
became  private  secretary  to  Washington  in  1785. 
The  latter  remembered  Mr.  Lear  liberally  in  his 
will.  In  1801  he  was  American  Consul-general 
in  Santo  Domingo,  and  from  1804  to  1812  he  held 
the  same  office  at  Algiers.  Mr.  Lear  was  an  ac¬ 
countant  in  the  War  Department  at  the  time  of 
his  death. 

Learned,  Ebenezer,  was  born  in  1727;  died 
at  Oxford,  Mass.,  April  1,  1801.  He  was  a  cap¬ 
tain  in  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  hast¬ 
ened  to  Cambridge  with  militia  on  the  day  after 
the  affair  at  Lexington.  His  health  failed,  and 
he  wished  to  retire  from  the  service  in  1776,  but 
he  was  retained  ;  and  in  the  battle  of  Stillwater 
(see  Bemis’s  Heights)  he  commanded  the  centre 
of  the  American  army,  with  the  rank  of  briga¬ 
dier-general.  His  health  still  declining,  he  re¬ 
tired  from  the  army  March  24,  1778.  He  was 
then  with  the  army  at  Valley  Forge.  In  1795 
his  name  was  placed  on  the  pension  list. 

Le  Bceuf,  Fort.  On  June  18, 1763,  Fort  Lo 
Bceuf,  in  Pennsylvania,  was  attacked  by  the  In¬ 
dians.  The  gallant  commander  kept,  the  assail¬ 
ants  at  bay  until  near  midnight,  when  the  Indians 
set  the  block  house  on  lire.  The  commander  and 


the  garrison  escaped  to  the  woods,  the  Indians 
supposing  they  had  perished  in  the  flames  that 
laid  the  fort  in  ashes.  (See  Pontiac's  War.) 

Ledyard,  John,  was  born  at  Groton,  Conn., 
in  1751 ;  died  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  Jan.  17, 1789.  He 
was  educated  at  Dartmouth  Collegefor  a  mission¬ 
ary  to  the  Indians,  and  spent  several  months 
among  the  Six  Nations.  Having  a  resistless  de¬ 
sire  for  travel,  he  shipped  at  New  Loudon  as  a 
common  sailor,  and  from  England  accompanied 
Captain  Cook  in  his  last  voyage  around  the 
world  as  corporal  of  marines.  He  vainly  tried 
to  set  on  foot  a  trading  expedition  to  the  north¬ 
west  coast  of  North  America,  and  went  to  Eu¬ 
rope  in  1784.  He  started  on  a  journey  through 
the  northern  part  of  Europe  and  Asia  and  across 
Behring’s  Strait  to  America  in  1786-87.  He 
walked  around  the  whole  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  reaching  St.  Petersburg  in  the  latter 
part  of  March,  1787,  without  money,  shoes,  or 
stockings.  He  had  journeyed  fourteen  hundred 
miles  on  foot  in  less  than  seven  weeks.  Thence 
he  went  to  Siberia,  but  was  arrested  at  Irkutsk 
in  February,  1788,  conducted  to  the  frontiers  of 
Poland,  and  there  dismissed  with  an  intimation 
that  if  he  returned  into  Bussia  he  would  be 
hanged.  The  cause  of  his  arrest  was  the  jeal¬ 
ousy  of  the  Kussian-American  Trading  Compa¬ 
ny.  Going  back  to  London,  Ledyard  accepted 
an  offer  to  engage  in  the  exploration  of  the  in¬ 
terior  of  Africa.  He  left  England  in  June,  1788, 
and  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  was  attacked  by  a  bilious 
disease  which  ended  his  life.  There  is  a  life  of 
John  Ledyard  in  Sparks’s  American  Biography. 

Ledyard,  William,  was  born  at  Groton,  Conn., 
in  1738;  died  there,  Sept.  6, 1781.  He  was  cru¬ 
elly  murdered  by  men  of  a  marauding  expedi¬ 
tion  under  Arnold.  (See  Fort  Griswold.) 

Lee  (Charles)  and  Independence.  General 
Charles  Lee,  having  received  his  $30,000  indem¬ 
nity  from  Congress  (see  Lee,  Demands  of),  was 
anxious  for  peace.  At  Annapolis,  on  his  way 
north,  he  promised  to  use  his  great  influence  in 
bringing  about  a  reconciliation,  and  whenever 
he  found  willing  and  sympathizing  listeners  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  he  was  free  in  his 
denunciation  of  the  Americans  for  continuing 
the  contest.  He  was  decidedly  opposed  to  inde¬ 
pendence.  At  Princeton,  in  a  communication 
to  Congress,  he  proposed  to  that  body  to  author¬ 
ize  an  offer  to  open  a  negotiation  with  Lord 
Howe  on  his  own  terms.  Finding  that  he  could 
not  persuade  the  Americans  to  submit  to  become 
slaves,  he  performed  treasonable  acts  with  a 
hope  of  accomplishing  his  ends.  (See  Treason 
of  General  Lee.)  He  wrote  to  Congress  from 
Perth  Amboy  (Oct.  12,  1776)  that  Howe  would 
not  attack  Washington,  but  would  infallibly 
proceed  against  Philadelphia;  and  he  sought 
to  weaken  the  Continental  army  by  dividing  it, 
by  inducing  Congress  to  order  Washington  to 
send  a  part  of  his  army  to  Trenton.  At  that 
very  moment  Howe  was  moving  against  Wash¬ 
ington. 

Lee,  Ann,  founder  of  the  society  of  celibates 
called  Shakers  in  the  United  States.  She  was 
born  in  Manchester,  England,  Feb. 29, 1736;  died 


LEE 


774 


LEE 


at  Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8,  1784.  A  cook  in  a 
public  institution,  she  married  a  blacksmith 
named  Stanley.  In  1758  she  joined  the  Shakers 
in  England.  The  society  had  just  been  formed 
by  James  and  Jane  Wardley,  Quakers.  About 
1770  she  began  to  “  prophesy”  against  the  wick¬ 
edness  of  marriage  as  the  “root  of  all  human 
depravity,”  and  resumed  her  maiden  name  of 
Lee.  She  came  to  America  with  some  follow¬ 
ers  in  1774,  and  in  1776  they  established  them¬ 
selves  at  Niskayuua,  near  Watervliet,  or  West 
Troy,  where  she  was  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  sect.  Being  opposed  to  war,  she  was  sus¬ 
pected  of  being  a  British  emissary,  and,  being 
charged  w  ith  high-treason,  was  imprisoned  at 
Albany  and  Poughkeepsie  until  released  by  Gov¬ 
ernor  Clinton  in  1777,  when  she  returned  to  Wa¬ 
tervliet,  and  there  her  followers  greatly  in¬ 
creased.  During  a  religions  revival  in  New 
Lebanon  (since  in  Columbia  County,  N.  Y.)  in 
1780  many  persons  were  converted  to  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  Ann  Lee,  and  the  now  flourishing  So¬ 
ciety  of  Shakers  of  New'  Lebanon  was  founded. 
She  and  some  of  her  followers  made  missionary 
tours  into  New  England  writh  considerable  suc¬ 
cess  from  1781  to  1783,  and  so  greatly  wrere  her 
spiritual  gifts  manifested  that  she  was  acknowl¬ 
edged  a  mother  in  Christ  —  the  incarnation  of 
the  feminine  essence  of  God.  She  was  called 
“Mother  Ann.” 

Lee,  Arthur,  LL.D.,  wras  born  in  Westmore¬ 
land  County,  Va.,  Dec.  20,  1740;  died  Dec.  14, 
1792.  Educated  in  Europe,  and  taking  the  de¬ 
gree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1765,  he  began 
practice  in  Williamsburg,  Va.  He  afterwards 
studied  law  in  England,  and  wrote  political  es¬ 
says  that  gained  him  the  acquaintance  of  Dr. 
Johnson,  Burke,  and  other  eminent  men.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1770,  and  appointed 
the  alternative  of  Dr.  Franklin  as  agent  of  the 
Massachusetts  Assembly,  in  case  of  the  disabil¬ 
ity  or  absence  of  the  latter.  For  his  services  to 
that  state  he  received  four  thousand  acres  of 
land  in  1784.  In  1775  Dr.  Lee  was  appointed 
London  correspondent  of  Congress,  and  in  1776 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  of  Congress 
sent  to  France  to  negotiate  for  supplies  and  a 
treaty;  but  the  ambition  of  Lee  produced  dis¬ 
cord,  and  his  misrepresentations  caused  one  of 
the  commissioners — Silas  Deane  (which  see) — 
to  be  recalled.  He  returned  to  America  in  1780. 
Deane’s  character  has  since  been  vindicated. 
Lee  was  subsequently  a  member  of  Congress, 
of  the  Virginia  Assembly,  a  commissioner  to 
treat  with  the  Northern  Indians,  and  a  member 
of  the  Treasury  Board  from  1785  to  1789,  when 
he  retired  from  public  life.  He  was  patriotic, 
but  of  a  jealous  and  melancholy  temperament. 

Lee,  Arthur,  Mischievous  Intermeddling 
of.  When  France  determined  to  acknowledge 
the  independence  of  the  United  States,  Spain 
agreed  to  advance  money  equal  in  amount  to 
that  to  be  furnished  by  France.  It  was  to  be 
sent  to  the  United  States  from  Havana.  When 
Lee,  who  wms  equally  disliked  at  Madrid  and 
Versailles,  heard  of  this,  he  talked  and  wrote  so 
much  about  it  that  the  Spanish  government, 


which  wished  to  avoid  a  rupture  with  England, 
took  the  alarm,  and  receded  from  its  determina¬ 
tion.  (See  Diplomacy  of  the  Revolution.)  Lee’s 
constant  interference  in  the  public  atfairs  of 
the  Americans  abroad,  and  his  jealousy  of  Amer¬ 
ican  agents  employed  by  Congress,  produced 
disaster  and  disappointment  where  success  was 
attainable. 

Lee,  Charles,  was  born  at  Dernhall,  Cheshire, 
England,  in  1731 ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  3, 
1782.  He  was  the  son  of  a  British  officer,  and 
entered  the  army  at  a  very  early  age,  having 
held  a  commission  when  eleven  years  old.  At 


CHARLES  LEE. 

twenty  he  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  Forty-fourth 
Regiment,  and  accompanied  the  troops  sent  to 
America  in  1754,  where  he  saw  considerable  ser¬ 
vice  during  the  ensuing  six  years.  His  regiment 
participated  in  the  battle  on  the  Monongahela, 
w  here  Braddock  was  defeated.  That  was  Lee’s 
first  practical  experience  of  warfare.  He  served 
in  the  campaigns  from  1756  to  the  conquest  of 
Canada  in  1760,  when  he  returned  to  England 
with  a  captain’s  commission,  and  was  promoted 
to  major  of  the  One-hundred-and-third  Regi¬ 
ment,  w  hich  w  as  disbanded  in  1763,  and  Lee  con¬ 
tinued  a  major  on  lnilf-pay  until  1772,  when  he 
wms  made  lieutenant -colonel  on  half- pay.  He 
had  served  with  distinction  in  Portugal,  but 
w  as  not  promoted  in  rank,  probably  because  of 
the  sharpness  and  volubility  of  his  tongue  con¬ 
cerning  the  shortcomings  of  his  superior  officers. 
On  visiting  the  Continent  after  he  wras  put  on 
the  half-pay  list,  he  was  made  an  aide-de-camp 
of  King  Stanislaus  of  Poland.  He  went  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  1766,  where  he  failed  in  his  attempts 
to  obtain  promotion,  and  returned  to  Poland, 
where  he  was  made  a  major-general,  and  after¬ 
wards  served  a  short  time  in  the  Russian  army. 
Finally,  Lee  made  his  way  to  America,  where  he 
claimed  to  be  the  author  of  the  Letters  of  Junius 
(w'hich  see).  Lee  was  boastful,  restless,  impul¬ 
sive,  quarrelsome,  egotistical,  ironical  in  ex¬ 
pression,  and  illiberal  in  his  judgment  of  others. 
His  restlessness  caused  the  Mohawks,  w  ho  adopt- 


LEE 


775 


LEE 


ed  him,  to  give  him  a  name  signifying  “boiling 
water.”  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the  American 
republicans,  and  when  the  Continental  army  was 
organized  he  was  chosen  second  major-general 
under  Washington,  which  he  accepted  on  condi¬ 
tion  that  the  Congress  should  advance  him 
$30,000  as  indemnity  for  any  losses  he  might 
sustain  by  confiscation  of  his  property  in  Eng¬ 
land.  Through  his  boasting  he  became  extreme¬ 
ly  overrated  by  the  Americans  of  all  classes.  He 
was  simply  an  unprincipled  and  utterly  selfish 
soldier  of  fortune.  His  ceusoriousness,  and  his 
jealousy  of  Washington,  whose  position  he  as¬ 
pired  to,  made  him  very  mischievous,  and  finally 
lie  played  the  part  of  a  traitor  to  the  cause, 
without  actual  discovery  of  proof  (though  al¬ 
ways  suspected)  until  a  few  years  ago.  (See 
Treason  of  General  Lee.)  Made  a  prisoner  in  New 
Jersey  late  in  1776,  he  was  not  exchanged  until 
early  in  1778.  His  bad  behavior  at  the  battle 
of  Monmouth  in  June  of  that  year  caused  him 
to  be  tried  by  a  court-martial,  when  he  was  sen¬ 
tenced  to  suspension  from  command  in  the  army 
for  one  year.  The  Congress  confirmed  the  sen¬ 
tence.  He  retired  to  his  estate  in  Virginia, 
where  he  wrote  Queries,  Political  and  Military, 
the  design  of  which  was  to  cast  a  slur  upon  the 
character  and  military  conduct  of  Washington. 
In  a  rude  cabin  of  one  apartment  and  little  fur¬ 
niture  he  lived  “  more  like  a  hermit  than  a  citi¬ 
zen  of  the  world,”  surrounded  by  his  dogs  and 
his  books.  Just  as  his  time  of  suspension  had 
expired  he  heard  that  Congress  was  about  to 
deprive  him  of  his  commission,  when,  in  a  fit  of 
anger,  he  wrote  an  abusive  letter  to  the  Presi¬ 
dent,  and  his  immediate  dismission  from  the 
army  was  the  consequence.  Wearied  of  solitude, 
he  visited  Philadelphia  in  the  fall  of  1782,  with 
a  view  to  making  sale  of  his  estate.  There  he 
was  attacked  by  fever,  and  died  within  five 
days,  exclaiming  in  his  last  moments,  “  Stand 
by  me,  my  brave  grenadiers!”  In  his  will,  Gen¬ 
eral  Lee,  after  bequeathing  his  “soul  to  the  Al¬ 
mighty  and  his  body  to  the  earth,”  directed  that 
his  remains  should  not  “  be  buried  in  any  church 
or  church-yard,  or  within  a  mile  of  any  Presby¬ 
terian  or  Anabaptist  meeting-house;  for,”  he 
said,  “since  I  have  resided  in  this  country,  I 
have  kept  so  much  bad  company  when  living 
that  I  do  not  choose  to  continue  it  when  dead.” 
He  was  buried  in  Christ  Church-yard,  Philadel¬ 
phia,  with  military  honors. 

Lee,  Charles,  in  New  York.  Isaac  Sears, 
an  active  “  Son  of  Liberty”  in  New  York,  fail¬ 
ing  in  obtaining  official  preferment,  repaired  to 
the  camp  at  Cambridge,  to  make  complaint  of 
the  prevalence  of  Toryism  in  New  York,  and 
the  supineness  of  the  Provincial  Convention. 
He  found  a  ready  listener  in  General  Lee.  That 
officer  requested  Washington  to  detach  him  from 
the  army,  that  ho  might  collect  volunteers  in 
Connecticut  to  secure  New  York  from  an  ex¬ 
pected  attack  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  and  to  ex¬ 
pel  the  Tories.  After  some  hesitation,  Wash¬ 
ington  complied.  As  soon  as  he  entered  upon 
the  duties,  he  showed  his  contempt  alike  of  the 
instructions  of  Washington  and  of  the  civil  au¬ 
thorities.  He  railed  at  Congress,  but  worked  en¬ 


ergetically  until  he  had  raised  two  regiments  in 
Connecticut — a  larger  body  of  men  than  he  had 
ever  commanded  before.  With  about  fifteen 
hundred  men  he  marched  upon  New  York,  with¬ 
out  intimating  his  designs  to  any  one.  This  of¬ 
fended  the  pride  of  the  colony,  and  awakened 
jealousy.  He  scoffed  at  the  idea  of  being  bound 
either  by  Congress  or  local  civil  authority.  The 
Committee  of  Safety  sent  a  request  to  Lee  that 
the  Connecticut  troops  might  not  pass  the  bor¬ 
der  till  the  purpose  of  their  coming  should  be 
explained.  Lee  sneered  at  the  request  as  “  wo- 
fully  hysterical,”  and  as  a  sign  of  cowardice, 
and  he  made  a  ranting  boast  of  what  he  should 
do  if  the  British  should  attack  the  town.  Lee 
entered  the  city  on  Feb.  4,  just  after  the  ships 
that  bore  Clinton  and  his  troops  anchored  near 
it.  There  was  a  general  flight  of  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  from  the  city.  Lee’s  presence  with  Con¬ 
necticut  troops  proved  of  great  value,  for  Clin¬ 
ton,  who,  undoubtedly,  had  intended  to  seize 
New  York,  sailed  away  for  the  Carolinas.  This 
lucky  turn  in  affairs  gave  Lee  much  credit.  He 
was  lauded  by  everybody,  and  a  demand  which 
he  made  upon  the  New  York  Congress  for  $2500 
was  granted.  This  was  requited  by  revilings 
from  the  lips  of  this  military  charlatan.  Wash¬ 
ington  was  reading  his  character  thoroughly, 
and  had  already  spoken  of  him  as  “  violent  and 
fickle.”  The  Continental  Congress  instructed 
him  to  put  the  city  of  New  York  in  the  best  pos¬ 
sible  state  of  defence.  This  he  chose  to  construe 
as  giving  him  unlimited  authority,  and  he  per¬ 
secuted  suspected  persons  without  stint.  When 
the  New  York  Convention  rebuked  him,  he  said, 
“  Wlieu  the  enemy  is  at  the  door,  forms  must  be 
dispensed  with.”  On  the  eve  of  his  departure 
for  the  South,  he  gave  orders  to  a  Connecticut 
officer  “to  secure  the  whole  body  of  professed 
Tories  on  Long  Island.”  This  order  was  resent¬ 
ed  by  the  Legislature  of  New  York  as  a  usurpa¬ 
tion  of  the  rights  of  a  free  people,  and  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress  condemned  and  reversed  it. 

Lee,  Exploits  of  the.  Washington  con¬ 
ceived  that  the  readiest  way  to  obtain  supplies 
for  the  army  was  the  fitting-out  of  armed  ves¬ 
sels  for  intercepting  those  sent  from  England  to 
Boston.  He  caused  six  armed  schooners  to  be 
fitted  out  for  this  purpose,  which  cruised  off  the 
New  England  coasts.  One  of  these,  the  Lee, 
Captain  Manley,  captured  (Nov.  29,  1775)  the 
brig  Nancy,  an  ordnance  vessel  from  Woolwich, 
containing  a  large  brass  mortar,  several  pieces 
of  brass  cannon,  a  large  quantity  of  small-arms 
and  ammunition,  and  an  abundance  of  things 
for  the  use  of  camps  and  artillery.  Within  ten 
days  afterwards  the  Lee  captured  three  British 
store-ships  and  a  brig  from  Antigua  laden  with 
rum.  In  less  than  five  days  after  the  last-men¬ 
tioned  capture  several  other  store-ships  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Manley,  and  so  the  Continental  ar¬ 
my  was  supplied  and  the  British  army  in  Boston 
was  distressed. 

Lee,  Francis  Ligiitfoot,  signer  of  the  Dec¬ 
laration  of  Independence,  and  brother  of  Rich¬ 
ard  Henry  and  Arthur  Lee  (which  see),  was 
born  at  Stratford,  Westmoreland  Co.,  Va.,  Oct. 


LEE 


77G 


LEE 


14,1734:  died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  in  April,  1797. 
In  1765  lie  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House 
of  Burgesses,  and  held  that  position  until  177*2. 
He  was  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1775 
to  1779,  and  was  active  and  efficient  in  framing 
the  “Articles  of  Confederation”  (which  see). 
He  was  afterwards  a  State  Senator.  Mr.  Lee 
and  his  wife  died  of  pleurisy  at  almost  the  same 
time. 

Lee,  General  Charles,  Americans  de¬ 
ceived  in.  Through  false  pretensions,  as  w  ell 
as  misrepresentations  and  misapprehensions,  the 
Americans  had  unbounded  conlideuce  in  Charles 
Lee,  and  many  were  in  favor  of  making  him 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Continental  army  at 
the  time  Washington  w  as  appointed.  Indeed, 
he  expected  the  honor,  and  was  disappointed 
and  surprised  because  he  did  not  receive  it.  He 
had  been  in  military  training  from  his  boyhood, 
and  represented  himself  as  well  versed  in  the 
science  of  war.  He  wTas  better  understood  in 
England.  “From  what  I  know  of  him,”  wrote 
Sir  Joseph  Yorke,  then  British  minister  at  the 
Hague,  “  he  is  the  worst  present  which  could  be 
made  to  any  army.”  And  so  he  proved  to  the 
Americans.  He  was  selfish  in  the  extreme.  He 
had  left  the  English  army  because  he  “saw  no 
chance  of  being  provided  for  at  home.”  Soured 
against  his  government,  he  had  sought  employ¬ 
ment  anywhere  as  a  mere  military  adventurer. 
He  venerated  England,  and  declared  it  to  be 
“wretchedness  itself,  not  being  able  to  herd 
with  the  class  of  men  [the  English]  to  which 
he  had  been  accustomed  from  infancy.”  He  was 
continually  seeking  intimate  relations  with  Brit¬ 
ish  officers  —  writing  to  Burgoyne,  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  and  others  —  while  ostensibly  fighting 
against  them  in  favor  of  the  American  cause. 
Even  while  disobedient,  quarrelsome,  and  inef¬ 
ficient,  the  Americans  did  not  lose  faith  in  him, 
nor  suspect  that  in  his  movements  during  the 
flight  of  the  army  under  Washington  from  the 
Hudson  to  the  Delaware  (1776),  and  in  his  move¬ 
ments  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  he  was  seek¬ 
ing  to  betray  them.  But  such  was  undoubtedly 
the  case.  (See  Treason  of  General  Lee.) 

Lee,  General  Charles,  at  Charleston. 
When,  in  June,  1776,  the  British  were  about  to 
attack  Fort  Sullivan,  in  the  harbor  of  Charles¬ 
ton,  Lee,  who  had  been  sent  south  to  take  com¬ 
mand  of  troops  there,  went  to  the  fort,  and,  af¬ 
ter  a  brief  inspection,  declared  it  not  tenable 
for  “  half  an  hour.”  It  was  “a  slaughter-pen.” 
He  proposed  to  Governor  Rutledge  to  withdraw 
the  garrison  from  the  fort  without  striking  a 
blow.  Rutledge  refused,  and  Lee  contented 
himself  with  giving  several  orders  for  preparing 
for  a  retreat.  A  better  soldier  than  he  com¬ 
manded  the  garrison.  It  was  the  brave  and 
calm  Colonel  Moultrie,  who  was  unmoved  by  the 
evidences  of  alarm  in  the  mind  of  the  boastful 
Lee.  Had  the  will  of  the  latter  prevailed,  the 
fort,  city,  and  province  would  undoubtedly  have 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Did  Lee 
wish  such  an  event?  (See  Treason  of  General 
Lee.) 

Lee,  General  Charles,  Demands  of.  Lee, 


with  his  usual  insincerity  and  boastfulness, 
claimed  for  himself  the  glory  which  belonged 
to  Moultrie  and  his  little  garrison  of  repulsing 
the  British  at  Charleston  (June  28,  1776);  and 
he  nsed  this  undeserved  reputation  in  extorting 
from  Congress,  in  advance,  indemnity  for  any 
possible  forfeiture  of  property  in  England  be¬ 
cause  of  his  relations  to  the  “rebels”  in  Ameri¬ 
ca.  There  was  still  a  belief  in  the  minds  of  the 
Americans  of  his  superior  genius  and  great  abil¬ 
ity  as  a  military  commander,  whose  favor  it  was 
essential  to  secure.  With  this  impression,  John 
Rutledge,  Governor  of  South  Carolina,  fearing 
ill  consequences  from  offending  him,  acknowl¬ 
edged  his  great  services  to  that  state  in  saving 
it  from  invasion,  actually  recommended  the 
Congress  to  comply  with  Lee’s  demands,  and 
consented  to  ask  for  “  the  enthusiast”  the  sum 
of  $30,000,  which  was  granted. 

Lee,  Henry  (“Legion  Harry”),  was  born  in 
Westmoreland  County,  Va.,  Jan.  29,  1756;  died 
on  Cumberland  Island,  Ga.,  March  25,  1818.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1773.  His  mother 
was  Mary  Bland,  the  “lowland  beauty,”  whose 


charms  inspired  Washington,  in  his  youth,  with 
the  “tender  passion.”  He  was  a  captain  in 
Bland’s  cavalry  in  1776,  and  joined  the  main 
army  in  September,  1777.  “Lee’s  Legion”  was 
one  of  the  most  active  and  efficient  of  the  cav¬ 
alry  corps  of  the  Continental  army,  and  it  was 
Washington’s  body-guard  in  the  battle  of  Ger¬ 
mantown.  In  1778  he  was  made  a  major,  in  in¬ 
dependent  command,  first  of  two  companies  of 
horse,  and  then  of  three,  with  a  small  body  of 
infantry.  With  these  he  surprised  the  British 
post  at  Paulus’s  Hook  in  July,  1779.  (See  Lin¬ 
ing's  Hook.)  With  the  commission  of  lieutenant- 
colonel,  he  joined  General  Greene  in  the  South, 


LEE 


777 


LEE 


and  was  active  and  efficient  in  the  Southern 
campaigns.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Eutaw 
Spring  (which  see)  Major  Lee  retired  from  the 
service,  married,  and  settled  at  Stratford.  He 
was  a  delegate  in  Congress  in  1786,  and  advo¬ 
cated  the  adoption  of  the  national  Constitution 
in  the  Virginia  Convention.  Lee  was  in  the 
Virginia  Legislature ;  and  when  militia  were 
called  out  to  suppress  the  Whiskey  Insurrec¬ 
tion  (which  see),  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
them.  He  was  in  Congress  at  the  time  of  Wash¬ 
ington’s  death,  and  was  appointed  by  that  body 
to  deliver  the  funeral  oration  in  Philadelphia. 
While  he  was  in  a  debtor’s  prison  he  wrote  his 
Memoirs  of  the  War  in  the  Southern  Department  of 
the  United  States.  Lee  was  in  Baltimore  at  the 
time  of  the  newspaper  riot,  in  1814,  and  in  his 
endeavors  to  suppress  it  received  injuries  from 
which  he  never  recovered.  He  was  much  be¬ 
loved  by  Washington  for  his  many  noble  quali¬ 
ties  ;  and  Greene  said,  “  No  mqn,  in  the  progress 
of  the  Southern  campaign,  had  equal  merit  with 
Lee.” 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  signer  of  the  Decla¬ 
ration  of  Independence,  was  born  at  Stratford, 
Westmoreland  Co.,  Va.,  Jan.  20,  1732  ;  died  at 
Chantilly,  Va.,  June  19,  1794.  The  names  of 
himself  and  five  brothers  (Philip  Lmlwell,  Thom¬ 
as  Ludwell,  Francis  Lightfoot,  William,  and 
Arthur)  are  conspicuous  on  the  pages  of  our 
national  history.  Richard  Henry  was  edu¬ 
cated  in  England,  and  returned  to  America  at 
the  age  of  nineteen.  In  1756  he  was  appoint¬ 
ed  justice  of  the  peace,  and  entered  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  House  of  Burgesses  in  1757,  where  he  was 
ever  distinguished  as  a  debater  and  a  clear  po¬ 
litical  writer.  Mr.  Lee  supported  the  famous 


RICHARD  HENRY  LEE. 


Patrick  Henry’s  Resolutions  (which  see),  and 
was  among  the  foremost  men  in  Virginia  in  form¬ 
ing  and  putting  in  motion  the  machinery  against 
royal  oppression  and  Parliamentary  rule.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  First  Congress  (1774),  was 
a  member  of  all  the  leading  committees,  and 
wrote  the  memorial  of  Congress  to  the  people 
of  British  America.  In  1775  ho  wrote  the  sec¬ 


ond  address  of  Congress  to  the  people  of  Great 
Britain  ;  and  from  his  seat  in  that  body,  in  June, 
1776,  he  offered  the  famous  resolution  which  de¬ 
clared  the  English-American  Colonies  to  be  “  free 
and  independent  states.”  (See  Independence.) 
If  is  said  that  his  speech  on  that  occasion  was 
a  brilliant  display  of  eloquence.  Leaving  Con¬ 
gress  in  June,  1777,  he  was  again  in  that  body  in 
1778-80,  1784-85,  and  1786-87.  In  1784  Mr.  Lee 
was  chosen  President  of  Congress,  but  retired 
at  the  end  of  the  year.  Mr.  Lee  was  opposed 
to  the  national  Constitution,  because  it  super¬ 
seded  state  supremacy,  but  he  was  a  supporter 
of  Washington’s  administration,  and  was  United 
States  Senator  from  Virginia  from  1789  to  1792. 

Lee,  Robert  Edmund,  was  born  at  Stratford, 
Westmoreland  Co.,  Va.,  June  19,  1807 ;  died  at 
Lexington,  Va.,  Oct.  12, 1870.  He  graduated  at 
the  Military  Academy,  West  Point,  second  in 


ROBERT  EDMUND  LEE. 


his  class,  in  1829.  His  father  was  Henry  Lee 
(“Legion  Harry”),  the  brave  leader  of  mounted 
men  in  the  Revolution.  His  mother  was  a  Car- 
ter.  Entering  the  engineer  corps,  he  became 
captain  in  July,  1838,  and  was  chief-engineer  of 
General  Wool’s  brigade  in  the  war  with  Mexico. 
At  the  close  of  that  war  he  had  earned  three 
brevets — major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel; 
and  he  was  a  great  favorite  with  General  Scott. 
From  Sept.  3, 1852,  to  March  3, 1855,  he  was  su¬ 
perintendent  of  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  promoted  to 
lieutenant -colonel  of  cavalry,  and  in  March, 
1861,  to  colonel.  Accepting  the  doctrine  of 
state  supremacy  (  which  see  )  when  Virginia 
passed  an  ordinance  of  secession,  in  April,  1861, 
Lee  went  “with  his  state,”  and,  abandoning  his 
Hag,  went  to'Richmond,  accepted  (April  22, 1861) 
the  command  of  the  forces  in  that  common¬ 
wealth,  and  resigned  his  commission  in  the  Na¬ 
tional  army.  In  accepting  the  office  of  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Virginia  forces,  he  said,  “Trust¬ 
ing  in  Almighty  God,  an  approving  conscience, 
and  the  aid  of  my  fellow-citizens,  I  devote  my¬ 
self  to  the  aid  of  my  native  state,  in  whose  be¬ 
half  alone  will  I  ever  draw  my  sword.”  Cir¬ 
cumstances  caused  him  to  abandon  that  resolu- 


LEE 


778 


LEE’S  CAMPAIGN 


tion,  and  be  drew  his  sword  in  defence  of  all  the 
slave-labor  states.  Lee’s  services  had  always 
been  very  acceptable  to  his  government.  He 
was  an  officer  of  tine  culture,  a  soldier  brave  and 
discreet,  anil  an  engineer  of  great  skill.  He  had 
superintended  the  construction  and  repairs  of 
the  fortresses  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of 
New  York  after  1841,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
board  of  engineers  of  the  Atlantic  coast  defence. 
He  had  married,  in  1832,  Mary,  daughter  of  G. 
W.  P.  Custis,  the  adopted  sou  of  Washington, 
and  by  her,  in  1857,  he  became  possessor  of  t  he 
estate  of  Arlington  House,  opposite  Georgetown, 
on  the  Potomac,  and  the  “White  House”  es¬ 
tate,  on  the  Pamuukey.  He  was  in  command 
of  a  regiment  of  cavalry  in  Texas  in  1860,  and 
towards  the  close  of  that  year  he  obtained  leave 
of  absence  and  returned  home,  where  he  was 
when  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Virginia 
forces.  For  a  while  he  did  not  have  a  separate 
command  in  the  field,  and  for  more  than  a  year 
did  not  fill  any  important  place  in  the  Confed¬ 
erate  army.  He  was  nominally  superintendent 
of  fortifications  at  Richmond  and  elsewhere,  and 
was  the  military  adviser  of  President  Jefferson 
Davis  and  of  t lie  Confederate  Secretary  of  War. 
When  General  J.  E.  Johnston  was  wounded  (May 
31, 1862),  in  the  battle  of  Seven  Pines,  near  Rich¬ 
mond,  the  command  of  the  Confederate  Army 
of  Northern  Virginia  was  given  to  Lee,  June  3, 
and  on  the  26th  of  that  month  he  begau  the  se¬ 
ries  of  conflicts  before  Richmond  known  as  the 
Seven  Days’  Battles.  Lee’s  military  services 
during  the  Civil  War  are  set  forth  under  differ¬ 
ent  heads  in  other  portions  of  this  work.  He 
was  finally  compelled  to  resign  his  army  to  Gen¬ 
eral  Grant  at  Appomattox  Court-house,  April  9, 
1865,  on  most  generous  terms  for  himself  and  his 
followers.  He  had  been  appointed  geueral-in- 
chief  of  the  Confederate  armies  in  February  pre¬ 
ceding.  After  the  war  he  retired  to  private 
life,  refusing  even  to  attend  public  gatherings 
of  any  kind.  In  October,  1865,  he  accepted  the 
Presidency  of  Washington  College  (now  called 
“  Washington  and  Lee  College”),  at  Lexington, 
Va.  He  held  that  position  until  his  death.  On 
the  evening  of  Sept.  28,  1870,  while  apparently 
in  his  usual  health,  he  was  struck  with  paraly¬ 
sis,  and  lived  only  about  a  fortnight  afterwards. 
Lee’s  sons — G.W.  Custis, W.  H.  F.,  and  Robert  E. 
— all  served  as  officers  in  the  Confederate  army. 
His  eldest  son,  G.  W.  C.  Lee,  was  chosen  president 
of  the  college  on  the  death  of  his  father. 

Lee,  R.  E.,  General-in-chief.  There  was  so 
much  dissatisfaction  in  the  Confederacy  because 
of  the  continual  and  mischievous  interference 
of  President  Davis  in  military  affairs,  that  a  se¬ 
rious  project  was  on  foot,  at  the  beginning  of 
1865,  to  make  Lee  dictator,  and  so  deprive  Da¬ 
vis  of  all  authority  over  him.  To  avoid  this  hu¬ 
miliation,  Lee  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of 
all  the  armies  of  the  Confederacy,  Feb.  1,  1865. 
To  the  same  expression  of  discontent,  is  attrib¬ 
uted  the  appointment  of  Johnston  to  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Southern  Department. 

i 

Lee,  Thomas  Ludwell,  was  born  at  Strat¬ 
ford,  Westmoreland  Co.,  Va.,  in  1730 ;  died  in 


1777.  During  the  preliminary  movements  of 
the  war  for  independence  he  was  conspicuous  as 
a  lawyer  anil  patriot.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Safety,  and  in  the  Virginia  Con¬ 
vention,  in  May,  1776,  he  was  on  the  committee 
to  draft  a  declaration  of  rights  and  a  plan  of  a 
state  government.  On  the  organization  of  that 
government,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  five 
revisers,  and  was  also  elected  oue  of  the  five 
judges  of  the  General  Court.  He  was  a  broth¬ 
er  of  Richard  Henry  Lee. 

Lee,  William,  brother  of  Richard  Henry  and 
Arthur,  was  born  at  Stratford,  Va.,  in  1737  ;  died 
at  Green  Spring,  Va.,  June  27,  1795.  He  was 
agent  for  Virginia  in  London,  and  became  a 
merchant  there.  London  city  being  overwhelm¬ 
ingly  Whig  in  politics,  William  Lee  was  elected 
sheriff  of  that  city  and  Middlesex  County  in 
1773.  In  1775  he  was  chosen  alderman,  but  on 
the  breaking-out  of  the  war  in  America  retired 
to  France.  Congress  appointed  him  commer¬ 
cial  agent  at  Nantes  at  the  beginning  of  1777, 
and  he  was  afterwards  American  minister  at  the 
Hague.  Mr.  Lee  was  also  their  ageut  in  Berlin 
and  Vienna,  but  was  recalled  in  1779.  He  was 
an  ardent  patriot  and  an  able  writer. 

Lee,  William,  Dismissal  of.  William  Lee, 
an  ardent  patriot,  but  who,  like  his  brother  Ar¬ 
thur,  let  his  zeal  outrun  his  prudence  and  judg¬ 
ment  sometimes,  had  beeu  American  minister  at 
the  Hague,  and  was  made  the  ageut  of  Congress 
at  Vienna  and  Berlin.  In  1778  Jan  de  Neuf- 
ville,  an  Amsterdam  merchant,  procured  a  loan 
to  the  Americans  from  Holland,  through  his 
house,  and,  to  negotiate  for  it,  gained  permis¬ 
sion  of  the  burgomasters  of  Amsterdam  to  meet 
Lee  at  Aix-la-Cliapelle.  There  they  arranged 
terms  for  a  commercial  convention  proper  to  be 
entered  into  between  the  two  republics.  When 
Lee  communicated  this  project  to  the  American 
commissioners  at  Paris,  they  (having  been  much 
annoyed  by  the  intermeddling  of  his  brother 
Arthur)  reminded  him  that  the  authority  for 
treating  with  the  States-General  belonged  ex¬ 
clusively  to  them.  Congress  took  no  notice  of 
his  negotiations  with  De  Neufville,  and  soon 
afterwards  dismissed  him  from  their  service. 

Lee’s  (R.  E.)  Campaign  in  Western  Vir¬ 
ginia.  General  Reynolds  had  been  left  by  Rose- 
era  ns  to  confront  General  Robert  E.  Lee  in  the 
Cheat  Mountain  region.  Lee  was  then  in  chief 
command  in  western  Virginia.  He  had  sent  Gen¬ 
eral  Floyd  to  drive  the  Nationals  out  of  the  Ka¬ 
nawha  valley,  but  the  latter  was  defeated  (Sept. 
11)  at  Carnifex  Ferry,  and  fled  to  Big  Sewell 
Mountain.  Reynolds’s  command  consisted  of  In¬ 
diana  and  Ohio  troops.  With  them  he  held  the 
roads  and  passes  of  the  mountains  of  the  more 
westerly  ranges  of  the  Alleghany  chain.  His 
headquarters  were  at  Cheat  Mountain  Pass,  and 
Lee’s  were  at  Huntersville,  in  Pocahontas  Comi¬ 
ty.  It  was  evident  early  in  September,  by  the 
activity  of  Lee’s  scouts,  that  he  was  preparing 
to  strike  a  blow  somewhere.  It  was  finally  made 
clear  that  lie  was  about  to  strike  the  Nationals 
at  Elk  Water,  at  the  western  foot  of  Cheat  Moun¬ 
tain.  His  object  evidently  was  to  secure  the 


LEE’S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS 


779 


LEE’S  FINAL  STRUGGLE 


great  Cheat  Mountain  Pass,  and  have  free  com¬ 
munication  with  the  Shenandoah  valley.  For 
this  purpose  he  marched  from  Huntersville,  in 
the  night  of  Sept.  11  (1861),  to  make  a  simulta¬ 
neous  attack  on  Elk  Water,  the  Pass,  and  a  sta¬ 
tion  of  Indiana  troops  on  the  Summit,  under 
Colonel  Kimball.  About  5000  Confederates,  un¬ 
der  General  Anderson,  of  Tennessee,  attempted 
to  take  the  Summit  and  the  Pass,  but  were  re¬ 
pulsed.  On  the  12t.h  Lee  advanced  in  heavy  force 
upon  Elk  Water,  but  was  driven  back.  He  was 
satisfied  that  his  grand  plan  for  seizing  and  de¬ 
stroying  Reynolds’s  army  and  opening  a  way  to 
the  Ohio  had  failed,  and  he  hastened  to  join 
Floyd  on  Big  Sewell  Mountain  (see  Carnifex  Fer¬ 
ry,  Battle  at),  between  the  forks  of  the  Kanawha. 
In  the  encounters  during  two  or  three  days,  Rey¬ 
nolds  lost  10  men  killed,  14  wounded,  and  64 
made  prisoners.  The  Confederates  lost  about 
100  killed  and  wounded,  and  90  prisoners.  The 
joint  forces  of  Lee  and  Floyd,  on  Big  Sewell 
Mountain,  numbered  about  20,000  men,  and 
there  they  were  confronted  by  10,000  Nation¬ 
als  under  Rosecrans,  assisted  by  Generals  Cox, 
Schenck,  and  Benham.  The  belligerents  re¬ 
mained  in  sight  of  each  other  for  about  three 
weeks.  Wise,  then  under  Lee’s  command,  was 
recalled  to  Richmond.  Lee’s  campaign  in  west¬ 
ern  Virginia  was  regarded  by  the  Confederate 
government  as  a  failure,  and  he,  too,  was  soon 
afterwards  recalled  and  sent  to  Georgia,  to  take 
charge  of  coast  defences.  He  was  succeeded  in 
the  chief  command  by  Floyd. 

Lee’s  (R.  E.)  Farewell  Address.  On  the 
day  after  the  surrender  of  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia  to  General  Grant,  General  Lee  issued 
(April  10, 1865)  the  following  address  to  his  sol¬ 
diers  as  General  Order  No.  9:  “After  four  years 
of  arduous  service,  marked  by  unsurpassed  cour¬ 
age  and  fortitude,  the  Army  of  Northern  Vir¬ 
ginia  has  been  compelled  to  yield  to  overwhelm¬ 
ing  numbers  and  resources.  I  need  not  tell  the 
brave  survivors  of  so  many  hard-fought  battles, 
who  have  remained  steadfast  to  the  last,  that  I 
have  consented  to  this  result  from  no  distrust 
of  them;  but  feeling  that  valor  and  devotion 
could  accomplish  nothing  to  compensate  for  the 
loss  that  must  attend  a  continuation  of  the  con¬ 
test,  I  determined  to  avoid  the  useless  sacrifice 
of  those  whose  past  services  have  endeared  them 
to  their  countrymen.  By  the  terms  of  agree¬ 
ment,  officers  and  men  can  return  to  their  homes, 
and  remain  until  exchanged.  You  will  take 
with  you  the  satisfaction  that  proceeds  from 
the  consciousness  of  duty  faithfully  performed, 
and  I  earnestly  pray  that  a  merciful  God  will  ex¬ 
tend  to  you  his  blessing  and  protection.  With 
an  unceasing  admiration  of  your  constancy  and 
devotion  to  your  country,  and  a  grateful  remem¬ 
brance  of  your  kind  and  generous  consideration 
for  myself,  I  bid  you  all  an  affectionate  fare¬ 
well.”  (See  Lee' 8  Final  Struggle,  and  Grant's  Fi¬ 
nal  Address  to  his  Soldiers.) 

Lee’s  Final  Struggle.  While  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  were  leaving  Richmond,  Lee’s  army  was 
withdrawing  from  Petersburg.  He  hoped  to 
conduct  his  army  to  Danville,  on  the  southern 


borders  of  Virginia,  whither  his  government 
had  fled.  He  appointed  Amelia  Court-house  as 
the  point  for  the  concentration  of  his  army. 
There  his  forces  would  reach  the  Danville  Rail¬ 
way,  and  thereafter  use  it  in  their  flight  into 
North  Carolina.  At  the  time  when  he  sent  his 
despatch  for  the  evacuation  of  Richmond  he  or¬ 
dered  commissary  and  quartermaster’s  stores  to 
be  sent  from  Danville  to  Amelia  Court-house  for 
the  use  of  his  army.  They  were  promptly  for¬ 
warded  ;  but  when  the  officer  in  charge  reached 
Amelia  Court-house  he  received  orders  from 
Richmond  to  hasten  thither  with  his  train. 
The  stupid  fellow  obeyed,  but  took  with  him 
the  supplies.  The  “government,”  in  its  flight, 
occupied  the  whole  train.  The  stores  were  left 
at  Richmond  and  destroyed  in  the  conflagra¬ 
tions.  Lee  was  almost  hopeless  when  he  dis¬ 
covered  this  calamity,  for  it  threatened  his 
army  with  starvation.  He  knew  that  Grant, 
for  the  sake  of  celerity  in  pursuit,  would  break 
up  his  army  into  detachments;  and  Lee  hoped, 
by  a  bountifully  supplied  army  well  in  hand,  to 
fall  upon  these  fragments  and  cut  up  the  Na¬ 
tional  army  in  detail.  Now  he  was  compelled 
to  detach  nearly  one  half  of  his  army  to  for¬ 
age  for  supplies  to  keep  his  forces  from  starv¬ 
ing.  Grant,  meanwhile,  had  taken  possession 
of  Petersburg,  and  his  army  moved  in  vigor¬ 
ous  pursuit.  Sheridan's  cavalry  and  Warren’s 
corps  struck  the  Danville  Railway  (April  4, 
1865)  at  Jetersville,  seven  miles  southwest  of 
Amelia  Court-house.  Some  of  his  cavalry  then 
pushed  on  to  Burkesville  Station,  at  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  that  road  with  the  Southside  Railway. 
Sheridan  now  stood  squarely  across  Lee’s  path¬ 
way  of  retreat,  and  held  possession  of  his  chief 
channel  of  supplies  from  Lynchburg  and  Dan¬ 
ville.  Lee  attempted  to  escape  by  way  of  Farm- 
ville.  Sheridan  sent  General  Davies  ou  a  re- 
connoissnnce,  who  found  part  of  Lee’s  army 
moving  westward  (April  5),  his  cavalry  escort¬ 
ing  a  train  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  wagons. 
Davies  fell  upon  the  escort,  captured  many  men 
and  five  guns,  and  destroyed  the  wagons.  Lee’s 
accompanying  infantry  had  pressed  Davies  for 
a  while,  but,  reinforced  by  Generals  Gregg  and 
Smith,  he  extricated  himself.  On  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  the  6th  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  were  at  Jetersville,  and  moved 
upon  Amelia  Court-house.  Sheridan  discovered 
Lee’s  army  moving  rapidly  westward,  and  made 
a  rapid  pursuit,  in  three  columns.  Great  efforts 
were  made  to  check  Lee’s  retreat.  He  was  smit¬ 
ten  severely  at  Sailor’s  Creek,  a  small  tributary 
of  the  Appomattox,  where  another  train  of  four 
hundred  wagons,  sixteen  guns,  and  many  men 
were  captured.  By  this  blow  Ewell’s  corps,  fol¬ 
lowing  the  train,  was  cut  off  from  Lee’s  main 
army.  Very  soon  afterwards  that  corps  was 
captured,  Ewell  and  four  other  generals  and  six 
thousand  veterans  becoming  prisoners.  With 
his  dreadfully  shattered  army,  Lee  crossed  the 
Appomattox  that  night  (Aug.  6  and  7)  at  Farm- 
ville,  setting  fire  to  bridges  behind  him.  They 
were  not  all  consumed.  The  Nationals  crossed 
and  captured  eighteen  guns  abandoned  by  a 
rear-guard.  Lee’s  troops  and  animals  were  per- 


LEE’S  SECOND  RETREAT 


780 


LEISLER'S  INSURRECTION 


isliing  for  want  of  food.  Thousands  let  their 
muskets  fall  because  they  were  too  weak  to 
carry  them  and  walk.  Lee  would  not  listen  to 
a  proposition  of  his  officers  to  give  up  the  con¬ 
test,  and  resolved  to  make  further  efforts  to  es¬ 
cape.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Grant’s  army  joined 
in  vigorous  pursuit  of  the  Confederates,  and,  af¬ 
ter  defeat  near  Appomattox  Court-house  (April 
9, 1865),  Lee  surrendered.  (See  Appomattox  Court¬ 
house,  Surrender  of  Lee  at.) 

Lee’s  Second  Retreat  from  Maryland.  Af¬ 
ter  his  disastrous  experience  at  Gettysburg  (July 
1, 2,  and  3, 1863),  General  Lee  began  a  retreat  for 
Virginia  on  the  night  of  the  5tli,  having  pre¬ 
viously  sent  forward  his  enormous  wagon-trains 
and  sick  and  wounded  men.  Sedgwick’s  corps 
and  Kilpatrick’s  cavalry  were  sent  in  pursuit. 
Sedgwick  overtook  the  Confederate  rear-guard 
at  a  pass  in  the  South  Mountain  range,  but  was 
recalled,  and  the  whole  army,  having  rested, 
were  put  in  motion  for  a  flank  movement 
through  the  lower  passes  of  South  Mountain. 
But  the  movement  was  so  tardy  that  when 
Meade  overtook  Lee  (July  12)  he  was  strongly 
intrenched  on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac,  near 
Williamsport,  waiting  for  a  flood  in  the  river 
caused  by  recent  rains  to  subside.  While 
Meade  was  preparing  to  attack  Lee,  the  latter 
escaped  over  the  river.  General  Hill’s  rear¬ 
guard  had  been  struck  by.  Kilpatrick,  and  lost 
125  men  killed  and  1500  made  prisoners.  Kil¬ 
patrick’s  loss  was  105  men.  Thus  ended,  in  ut¬ 
ter  discomfiture  and  repulse,  Lee’s  second  for¬ 
midable  invasion  of  Maryland. 

Lee’s  ( Charles )  Treacherous  Disobedi¬ 
ence.  While  the  British  were  desolating  New 
Jersey  (November,  1776),  and  Washington,  with 
his  handful  of  troops,  w  as  powerless  to  prevent 
them,  General  Lee,  with  a  large  reinforcement, 
persistently  lingered  ou  the  way.  He  had  been 
urged  by  Washington,  when  the  retreat  from 
Hackensack  began,  to  join  him,  but  he  steadily 
refused.  Now  the  commander-in-chief  entreat¬ 
ed  him  to  obey.  Philadelphia  was  in  danger, 
and  the  chief  wrote,  “Do  come  on;  your  arri¬ 
val,  without  delay,  may  be  the  means  of  saving 
a  city.”  Lee  continued  to  persistently  disobey 
every  order  of  the  chief.  His  reputation  was 
at  its  zenith.  The  Americans  were  infatuated 
— a  delusion  which,  in  the  light  of  subsequent 
history,  seems  very  strange.  He  w’as  aiming 
at  the  chief  command,  and  he  did  all  he  dared, 
by  insinuations  and  false  reports,  to  disparage 
Washington  in  the  estimation  of  the  Congress 
and  the  people.  With  unparalleled  insolence 
(which  wras  not  rebuked),  he  wrote  to  Dr.  Rush, 
a  member  of  Congress,  “Your  apathy  amazes 
me ;  you  make  me  mad.  Let  me  not  talk  vain¬ 
ly  :  had  I  the  power,  I  could  do  you  much  good, 
might  I  but  dictate  one  week.  Did  none  of  the 
Congress  ever  read  Roman  history?”  His  let¬ 
ters  at  that  juncture  show  his  predetermina¬ 
tion  to  disobey  orders  and  act  as  he  pleased 
with  the  troops  which  had  been  intrusted  to 
him.  (See  Treason  of  General  Lee.) 

Lee’s  (Charles)  Trial.  Offended  at  the  words 
of  Washington  at  their  interview  on  the  battle¬ 


field  of  Monmouth,  General  Lee  wrote  a  disre¬ 
spectful  letter  to  the  commander-in-chief  on 
the  day  after.  Dissatisfied  with  Washington’s 
reply,  he  wrote  a  still  more  disrespectful  one. 
Lee  was  arrested,  and  tried  by  a  court-martial 
for  disobedience  of  orders;  for  having  made  an 
unnecessary,  shameful,  and  disorderly  retreat; 
and  for  disrespect  to  the  commander-in-chief 
in  the  two  letters.  He  defended  himself  with 
much  ability.  The  court  acquitted  him  of  a 
part  of  the  charges,  but  found  him  guilty  of  the 
rest,  and  sentenced  him  to  be  suspended  from 
service  in  the  army  for  one  year. 

Legacy  to  Posterity.  The  few  politicians 
who  involved  the  people  of  the  United  States 
in  civil  war  in  1861  left  to  posterity  a  legacy 
of  debt  and  misery  the  burden  of  which  w  ill  be 
long  felt  among  every  class  of  American  citizens 
and  in  every  part  of  the  Republic.  An  official 
report  states  that  the  entire  sum  expended  by 
the  national  government,  on  account  of  that 
civil  war,  from  July,  1861,  to  July,  1879,  was 
$6,187,243,000.  This  has  been  the  money  cost 
of  the  war  to  only  one  party  in  the  contest. 
What  the  other  party  expended  will  never  be 
known,  nor  the  amount  of  human  suffering  in¬ 
flicted. 

Leisler,  Jacob,  a  republican  leader  in  New 
York  in  1690-91.  He  was  born  in  Frankfort, 
Germany ;  died  in  New  York,  May  16,  1691. 
Leisler  was  of  Huguenot  descent,  and  came  to 
America  in  1660.  Settling  first,  in  Albany,  lie 
soon  became  a  trader  in  New  York  city.  While 
on  a  voyage  to  Europe  in  1678,  he,  with  seven 
others,  was  captured  by  Turkish  corsairs,  and 
they  were  ransomed  at.  a  high  price.  In  1683 
he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  the  Court 
of  Admiralty.  On  the  accession  of  William  and 
Mary  to  the  throne  of  England,  the  Governor 
of  New  York  abdicated  his  seat,  and  Lehler,  at 
the  request  of  the  people  who  composed  the 
democratic  portion  of  the  population,  assumed 
the  governorship  of  the  province.  When  the 
royalists  were  reinstated  in  power,  and  a  royal 
governor  had  arrived,  Leisler  w  as  arrested,  con¬ 
demned,  and  executed  as  a  traitor.  (See  Leis¬ 
ter's  Insurrection.)  Mr.  Leisler  purchased  Newr 
Rochelle  (which  he  so  named),  in  1689,  as  an 
asylum  for  the  Huguenots  in  America. 

Leisler’s  Insurrection.  Democracy  had  tak¬ 
en  firm  root  among  the  people  in  Newr  York,  and 
when  news  of  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary 
reached  that  city  the  people  were  much  excited 
by  it.  The  military  force  of  the  city  consisted 
of  five  militia  companies,  of  which  Nicholas  Bay¬ 
ard,  a  member  of  the  governor’s  council,  was 
colonel,  and  Jacob  Leisler,  a  Huguenot  and  mer¬ 
chant  ( distinguished  for  his  zealous  opposi¬ 
tion  to  Roman  Catholicism),  was  senior  captain. 
The  people  w’ere  zealous  Protestants.  A  Roman 
Catholic  collector  appointed  by  King  James  had 
been  retained  in  place,  and  a  rumor  spread  of  a 
horrible  plot  and  intended  massacre  by  the  op¬ 
ponents  of  the  deposed  monarch.  A  crowd  of 
citizens,  followed  by  the  five  militia  companies, 
surrounded  the  house  of  Leisler  and  induced 
him  to  lead  a  movement  for  the  seizure  of  the 


LEISLER'S  INSURRECTION 


781 


LE  MOYNE 


fort.  Bayard  attempted  to  disperse  them,  hut 
was  compelled  to  fly  for  liis  life.  A  distinct 
line  was  soon  drawn  between  the  aristocrats, 
headed  hy  Bayard,  Livingston,  and  others,  and 
the  democrats,  led  hy  Leisler.  The  fort  was 
seized,  with  the  public  money  in  it.  Nichol¬ 
son,  Andros’s  lieutenant,  demanded  the  money, 
and  was  treated  with  disdain.  A  committee  of 
safety  of  ten  members — Dutch,  Huguenot,  and 
English  —  constituted  Leisler  “captain  of  the 
fort,”  and  invested  him  with  the  power  of  com¬ 
mander-in-chief  until  orders  should  arrive  from 
the  new  inouarchs.  He  was,  indeed,  the  popu¬ 
lar  governor  of  the  province.  The  New-Eug- 
landers  applauded  the  movement.  Leisler  pro¬ 
claimed  William  and  Mary  at  the  sound  of  the 
trumpet,  and  sent  a  letter  to  the  king  giving  an 
account  of  his  doings.  Nicholson,  perceiving 
the  support  which  the  people  of  New  York  and 
New  England  gave  to  Leisler,  departed  for  Eng¬ 
land  ;  and  the  members  of  his  council  withdrew 
to  Albany,  where,  acknowledging  allegiance  to 
William  and  Mary,  they  claimed  to  he  the  true 
governors  of  the  colony,  and  denounced  Leisler 
as  an  “arch-rebel.”  Leisler’s  son-in-law,  Jacob 
Milborne,  had  just  returned  from  Holland,  and 
was  sent  to  Albany  with  some  soldiers  to  defend 
the  place  against  an  expected  attack  from  Can¬ 
ada;  hut  the  old  council  there  refused  to  give 
up  the  fort  to  Milborne.  The  people  of  Albany 
obtained  aid  from  Connecticut,  Milborne  having 
withdrawn  to  avoid  bloodshed.  Soon  after  this 
a  letter,  addressed  to  “such  as  for  the  time  be¬ 
ing  administer  affairs,”  was  received  at  New 
York,  enclosing  a  commission  as  governor  for 
Nicholson.  As  the  latter  was  on  the  ocean, 
Leisler  assumed  the  title  of  lieutenant-governor, 
construing  the  king’s  letter  as  a  confirmation  of 
his  authority.  He  called  an  assembly  to  pro¬ 
vide  means  for  carrying  on  war  with  Canada. 
Leaving  Leisler’s  letter  unanswered,  King  Will¬ 
iam  commissioned  Colonel  Henry  Sloughter  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  New  York,  and  sent  an  independent 
company  of  regular  soldiers,  under  Captain  In- 
goldsby  (January,  1691)  for  the  defence  of  the 
province.  Influenced  by  the  enemies  of  Leis¬ 
ler,  Iugoldsby  claimed  the  temporary  administra¬ 
tion  of  affairs,  and  the  possession  of  the  fort,  by 
virtue  of  his  commission  from  the  king.  Leis¬ 
ler  refused  compliance  with  the  demand,  hut 
proclaimed  Sloughter’s  appointment,  and  order¬ 
ed  Ingoldsby’s  troops  to  he  quartered  in  the  city. 
There  was  great  excitement  in  the  city  between 
the  aristocracy  and  democracy.  Bayard  and 
others  of  the  old  council  were  in  prison.  Leis¬ 
ler  was,  for  a  time,  besieged  in  the  fort,  and 
some  lives  were  lost;  and  because  he  refused  to 
give  up  the  fort  at  the  first  summons  of  Ingols- 
by,  Sloughter,  on  his  arrival,  instigated  by  the 
friends  of  Bayard  and  others,  caused  the  demo¬ 
cratic  governor  and  his  council  to  bo  arrested. 
Bayard  and  others  of  the  old  council,  having 
been  released,  were  sworn  members  of  Slough¬ 
ter’s  council,  and  a  special  court  was  organ¬ 
ized  to  try  the  prisoners.  Leisler  and  Milborne, 
denying  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  refused  to 
plead.  They  were  tried,  nevertheless,  and  found 
guilty;  but  Sloughter  hesitated  to  order  their 


execution,  preferring  to  await  the  king’s  deci¬ 
sion  in  the  matter.  Leisler’s  enemies  burned 
with  a  desire  for  revenge.  The  Assembly,  also 
composed  of  his  enemies,  refused  to  recommend 
a  temporary  reprieve.  At  a  dinner-party  given 
for  the  purpose,  Sloughter,  made  drunk  with 
liquor,  was  persuaded  to  sign  the  death-war¬ 
rant.  The  revel  was  continued  until  morning 
for  fear  Sloughter,  sober,  might  recall  the  war¬ 
rant  ;  and  before  he  had  recovered  his  senses 
Leisler  and  Milborne  were  taken  from  their 
weeping  wives  and  children  (May  16, 1691)  and 
hurried  to  the  scaffold,  erected  near  the  lower 
end  of  the  present  City  Hall  park.  A  drizzly 
rain  was  falling.  A  sullen  crowd  of  citizens 
were  spectators  of  the  sad  scene.  Among  them 
were  Robert  Livingston  and  others  of  Leisler’s 
bitter  enemies.  The  prisoners  protested  their 
loyalty  and  innocence  of  the  charge  to  the  last. 
Milborne  said  on  the  scaffold,  “  Robert  Living¬ 
ston,  for  this  I  will  implead  thee  at  the  bar  of 
God!”  It  was  nothing  less  thau  a  judicial  mur¬ 
der.  Some  years  afterwards  the  attainder 
which  the  crime  with  which  they  were  charged 
had  placed  upon  the  victims  was  reversed  by 
act  of  Parliament,  and  their  estates  were  re¬ 
stored  to  their  families.  (See  Leisler,  Jacob.) 

Le  Moyne,  the  name  of  a  distinguished  Ca¬ 
nadian  family,  members  of  which  bore  conspic¬ 
uous  parts  in  early  American  history.  They 
were  descended  from  Charles  of  Normandy,  who 
died  in  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1683.  He  came  to 
Canada  in  1641,  where  he  became  a  famous  In¬ 
dian  fighter.  In  1668  Louis  XIV.  made  him 
seigneur  of  Longueil,  and  subsequently  of  Cha- 
teaugay.  He  had  eleven  sons,  of  whom  Bien¬ 
ville  and  Iberville  (which  see)  were  the  most 
eminent. — I.  Charles,  Baron  of  Longueil,  was 
born  in  Montreal,  Dec.  10, 1656 ;  died  there,  June 
8, 1729.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  of 
regulars  in  the  royal  army  of  France,  and,  re¬ 
turning  to  Canada,  he  built  churches  and  a  fort 
at  Longueil.  He  fought  the  English  assailants 
of  Quebec  under  Phipps  in  1690,  and  was  made 
baron  and  Governor  of  Montreal  in  1700.  Be¬ 
coming  commandant-general  of  Canada,  he  pre¬ 
pared  to  meet  the  expedition  against  Quebec 
under  Walker  in  1711.  In  1720  he  was  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Three  Rivers,  and  again  of  Montreal  in 
1724.  His  influence  over  the  Indians  was  very 
great,  and  in  1726  the  Senecas  allowed  him  to 
rebuild  Fort  Niagara. — II.  Paul,  who  was  born 
in  Montreal  in  1663,  and  died  in  March,  1704, 
distinguished  himself  under  his  brother  Iber¬ 
ville  in  Hudson’s  Bay.  He  commanded  an  ex¬ 
pedition  against  the  Iroquois,  made  peace  with 
them  in  1701,  and  acquired  great  influence  over 
them. — III.  Joseph,  who  was  made  seigneur  of 
Serigny,  was  born  in  Montreal  in  July,  16(58; 
died  in  Rochefort,  France,  in  1734.  In  1(594 
and  1(597  he  commanded  squadrons  to  assist  his 
brother  Iberville  in  Hudson’s  Bay,  and  brought 
over  emigrants  to  Louisiana  in  a  squadron  to 
found  a  colony  there.  In  1718-19  he  surveyed 
the  coasts  there,  and  took  part  in  expeditions 
against  the  Spaniards  at  Pensacola  and  in  Mo¬ 
bile  Bay.  In  1720  he  commanded  a  ship-of-the- 
1  i ne,  and  died  a  rear-admiral  of  the  royal  navy. 


LE  MOYNE 


782  LETTERS  OF  A  PENNSYLVANIA  FARMER 


He  was  also  Governor  of  Rochefort  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  having  been  appointed  in  1723. — 
IV.  Antoine,  seigneur  of  Cliateaugay,  was  born 
in  Montreal  in  July,  1683;  died  in  Rochefort, 
France,  March  21, 1747.  He  belonged  to  the  roy¬ 
al  army,  and  came  with  colonists  to  Louisiana  in 
1704,  serving  under  Iberville  there  against  the 
Euiilish.  He  was  made  chief  commandant  of 
Louisiana  in  1717,  and  King’s  Lieutenant  in  the 
colony  and  Knight  of  St.  Louis  in  1718.  He 
was  in  command  of  Pensacola  in  1719;  a  pris¬ 
oner  of  war  for  a  while  afterwards  to  the  Span¬ 
iards  ;  was  Governor  of  Martinique  ;  and,  re¬ 
turning  to  France  in  1744,  became  Governor  of 
lie  Royale,  or  Cape  Breton,  in  1745. — Three  oth¬ 
er  brothers  obtained  some  prominence  in  his¬ 
tory.  Jacques,  seigneur  of  St.  Helene,  served  un¬ 
der  Iberville,  and  was  mortally  wounded  while 
defending  Quebec  against  Phipps  in  1690;  Fran¬ 
cois,  seigneur  of  Bienville  (I.),  was  killed  in 
battle  with  the  Iroquois  iu  June,  1691  ;  and 
Louis,  seigneur  of  Cliateaugay  (I.),  was  mortally 
wounded  in  an  assault  on  Fort  Nelson,  Hud¬ 
son’s  Bay,  in  1694. 

Le  Moyne,  Sauville,  was  not  of  the  family 
of  Charles,  but  was  related  to  it.  He  was 
born  in  Montreal  in  1671;  died  at  Biloxi,  Miss., 
July  22,  1701.  He  accompanied  the  brothers 
Iberville  and  Bienville  in  their  expedition  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  the  6rst  governor  of  Louisiana  in  1699. 
He  was  of  feeble  constitution ;  possessed  brill¬ 
iant  talents,  a  remarkably  tine  personal  appear¬ 
ance,  and  a  large  fortune.  Racine  pronounced 
him  a  poet;  Bossuet  predicted  that  he  would 
become  a  great  orator;  and  Villars  called  him  a 
“  marshal  iu  embryo.”  These  promises  were  un¬ 
fulfilled. 

L’Enfant,  Petek  Charles,  engineer,  was  born 
in  Frauce  in  1755 ;  died  in  Prince  George’s  Coun¬ 
ty,  Md.,  Jan.  14, 1825.  He  came  to  America  and 
entered  the  Continental  army  as  an  engineer  in 
the  fall  of  1777.  He  was  made  a  captain  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1778;  was  severely  wounded  at  the  siege 
of  Savannah  in  1779;  served  under  the  immedi¬ 
ate  command  of  Washington  afterwards ;  and 
-was  made  a  major  in  May,  1783.  The  “order,” 
or  jewel,  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  was 
designed  by  Major  L’Enfant.  He  was  also  au¬ 
thor  of  the  plan  of  the  city  of  Washington.  In 
1812  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Engineering 
at  West  Point,  but  declined. 

Lescarbot,  Marc,  in  New  France.  When, 
in  1606,  Poutrincourt,  who  founded  Port  Royal, 
in  Acadia,  returned  from  France  with  a  company 
of  artisans  and  laborers,  he  was  accompanied  by 
Lescarbot,  a  French  lawyer,  poet,  and  writer  of 
a  History  of  New  France,  which  was  published  in 
1609.  He  came  to  assist  Poutrincourt  in  estab¬ 
lishing  his  colony  on  a  firm  basis.  While  Cham¬ 
plain  and  De  Monts  (see  De  Monts)  were  looking 
for  a  milder  climate  farther  south,  Lescarbot 
took  charge  of  the  fort.  With  great  energy  he 
planted,  budded,  and  wrote  rhymes,  and  infused 
into  his  subordinates  some  of  his  own  energy. 
When  Champlain  returned,  he  was  greeted  by 
a  theatrical  masque,  composed  by  the  poet,  iu 


which  Neptune  and  his  Tritons  welcomed  the 
mariner.  The  dreary  winter  that  followed  was 
enlivened  by  the  establishment  of  an  “  Order  of 
Good  Times”  by  Lescarbot,  the  duties  of  the 
members  consisting  in  the  preparation  of  good 
cheer  daily  for  the  table.  In  the  spring  the 
colonists  were  summoned  to  France  by  a  revo¬ 
cation  of  their  charter. 

Leslie,  Alexander,  died  in  December,  1794. 
He  was  a  British  officer  of  distinction  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  and  came  to  Boston  with 
General  Howe  in  1775.  He  was  made  a  major 
in  June,  1759;  a  lieutenant-colonel  iu  1762,  and 
was  a  brigadier-general  when  he  came  to  Amer¬ 
ica.  In  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  in  1776,  he 
commanded  the  light  infantry,  and  was  in  the 
battle  of  Harlem  Plains  in  September,  and  of 
White  Plains  in  October  following.  General 
Leslie  accompanied  Sir  Henry  Clinton  against 
Charleston  in  April  and  May,  1780.  In  October 
he  took  possession  of  Portsmouth,  Va.,  with  3000 
troops,  but  soon  hastened  to  join  Cornwallis  iu 
the  Carolinas,  which  he  did  in  December.  In 
the  Battle  of  Guilford  (which  see),  he  command¬ 
ed  the  right  wing.  General  Leslie  was  in  com¬ 
mand  at  Charleston  at  the  close  of  hostilities. 
He  was  a  gallant  man.  Colonel  Tarleton  having 
expressed  with  a  sneer  in  the  presence  of  Mrs. 
Ashe,  at  Halifax,  N.  C.,  a  wish  to  see  Colonel  W. 
Washington,  Mrs.  Ashe  said,  “  If  you  had  looked 
behind,  Colonel  Tarleton,  at  the  battle  of  the 
Cowpens.  you  would  have  enjoyed  that  pleas¬ 
ure.”  (See  Cowpens,  Battle  of  the.  )  Tarleton, 
much  irritated,  laid  his  hand  upon  his  sword, 
when  General  Leslie,  who  was  present,  remark¬ 
ed,  “Say  what  you  please,  Mrs.  Ashe,  Colonel 
Tarleton  knows  better  than  to  insult  a  lady  in 
my  presence.” 

Letter-of-Marque  and  Reprisal  is  a  commis¬ 
sion  granted  in  time  of  war  to  a  private  person 
commanding  a  vessel  to  cruise  at  sea  and  make 
prizes  of  the  enemy’s  ships  and  merchandise. 
The  ship  so  commanded  is  sometimes  called  by 
the  same  name.  The  word  mark  (frontier)  was 
used  by  the  Germans  to  denote  the  right  of  capt¬ 
uring  property  beyond  the  frontiers  of  another 
province.  Sometimes  the  commission  to  priva¬ 
teers  is  called  “  Letter-of-Marque  and  Reprisal.” 
(See  Reprisal,  The  Privateer .) 

Letters  of  a  Pennsylvania  Fanner.  When 
Charles  Townsheud’s  obnoxions  taxation  hills 
became  laws,  the  Americans,  believing  with  Otis 
that  taxes  on  trade,  if  designed  to  raise  a  reve¬ 
nue,  are  just  as  much  a  violation  of  the  rights 
of  people  unrepresented  as  any  other  tax,  acted 
accordingly.  The  colonial  newspapers,  then 
about  thirty  in  number,  had  begun  to  be  trib¬ 
unes  for  the  people,  and  teemed  with  essays  on 
the  exciting  topics  of  the  day.  The  most  pow¬ 
erful  of  these  productions  were  a  series  of  es¬ 
says  on  taxation  and  kindred  subjects,  entitled, 
Letters  of  a  Farmer  of  Pennsylvania  to  the  Inhabi¬ 
tants  of  the  British  Colonies,  written  by  John  Dick¬ 
inson,  an  able  lawyer  of  Philadelphia.  They 
were  written  in  a  style  of  great  vigor  and  ani¬ 
mation,  and  were  published  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Chronicle  during  the  summer  of  1767.  These  let- 


LEWIS  AND  CLARK’S  EXPEDITION  783 


LEWIS 


ters  were  potential  in  forming  and  leading  pub¬ 
lic  opinion  in  opposition  to  the  oppressive  meas¬ 
ures  of  the  British  government,  and  they  were 
widely  read  and  admired.  At  a  public  meeting 
in  Boston  the  author  wras  thanked  in  a  resolu¬ 
tion.  The  Society  of  Fort  St.  David,  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  presented  an  address  to  Mr.  Dickinson 
in  a  “  bos  of  heart  of  oak,”  appropriately  in¬ 
scribed.  On  the  top  w  as  represented  the  cap 
of  liberty  on  a  spear,  resting  on  the  cipher  “  J. 
D.,”  underneath  which  were  the  wTords  Pro  Pa- 
tria.  Around  the  whole  w  as  the  following  sen¬ 
tence  :  “  The  Gift  of  the  Governor  and  Society 
of  Fort  St.  David  to  the  Author  of  the  Farmer's 
Letters,  in  Grateful  Testimony  to  the  very  Emi¬ 
nent  Services  thereby  rendered  to  this  Coun¬ 
try,  1768.”  On  the  inside  of  the  top  was  the  fol¬ 
lowing  inscription  :  “The  Liberties  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Colonies  iu  America  asserted  wdtli  Attic 
Eloquence  and  Roman  Spirit  by  John  Dickin¬ 
son.”  The  Farmer's  Letters  were  republished  in 
England  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Franklin.  They 
were  also  published  iu  French,  at  Paris. 

Lewis  and  Clark's  Jtixpedition.  The  explo¬ 
ration  of  the  continent  westward  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  River  had  long  been  a  subject  of  thought 
for  President  Jefferson.  When  minister  to  France, 
he  suggested  to  Ledyard,  the  celebrated  travel¬ 
ler,  an  exploration  of  western  America.  In  1792 
he  proposed  to  the  Philosophical  Society  at  Par¬ 
is  to  procure  such  an  exploration  with  funds 
raised  by  subscription;  and  it  was  under  the 
auspices  of  this  society,  and  under  instructions 
prepared  by  Mr.  Jefferson,  that  Michaux,  the  cel¬ 
ebrated  French  traveller  and  botanist,  proceed¬ 
ed  on  his  exploration  westward,  until  recalled 
by  the  French  minister.  The  w  ay  was  finally 
opened  to  such  an  exploration  by  considerations 
of  state  policy.  After  the  purchase  of  Louisiana 
in  1803,  the  utility  of  ascertaining  the  character 
of  the  interior  of  that  domain  was  obvious,  and 
in  January,  1804,  President  Jefferson,  iu  a  confi¬ 
dential  message,  recommended  the  sending  of  an 
exploring  party  to  trace  the  Missouri  River  to  its 
source,  cross  the  mountains,  and  follow  the  best 
water  communication  that  presented  itself  from 
there  to  the  Pacific  Oceau.  It  was  approved, 
and  Congress  made  an  appropriation  for  the  pur¬ 
pose.  Meriwether  Lewis,  the  private  secretary 
of  the  President,  was  appointed  to  command  the 
expedition,  and,  at  his  request,  William  Clark, 
a  brother  of  George  Rogers  Clark  (which  see),  ! 
was  associated  with  him.  Lewis  led  forty-five 
men  up  the  Missouri  River,  beginning  the  ascent 
on  May  14,  1804.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Platte 
River  scouts  were  sent  out  to  announce  to  the 
several  tribes  of  Indians  inhabiting  that  region 
the  change  of  government,  and  a  council  was 
held  at  a  place  since  known  as  Council  Bluffs, 
in  Iowa.  Passing  through  the  country  of  the 
Sioux,  they  reached,  in  September,  the  villages 
of  f  he  Mandans,  a  light-colored  race,  where  they 
wintered.  They  were  then  sixteen  hundred 
miles  from  their  starting-point.  In  the  spring 
(1805),  the  explorers  pushed  on  to  the  Yellow¬ 
stone,  and  passed  through  the  hot  springs  re¬ 
gion — the  country  everywhere  sterile  and  bar¬ 
ren,  for  they  had  begun  the  passage  of  the  Rocky 


Mountain  range,  which  was  there  one  hundred 
and  forty  miles  in  width.  They  arrived  at  the 
Falls  of  the  Missouri  in  June  (1805),  and  trans¬ 
ferred  their  boats  and  baggage  over  a  portage 
of  eighteen  miles.  These  falls  have  a  descent 
of  three  huudred  and  sixty-two  feet  in  sixteen 
miles,  having  one  pitch  of  ninety-eight  feet.  Af¬ 
ter  that  the  journey  was  most  fatiguing.  Ar¬ 
riving  at  the  head-waters  of  the  Missouri,  Cap¬ 
tain  Lewis  went  with  a  party  to  explore  the 
country,  those  with  the  boats  ascending  the 
river  still  farther.  The  divisions  were  joined 
on  the  17th  of  August.  Lewis  had  found  the 
head-waters  of  the  Columbia  River,  fifty  miles 
distant.  The  entire  party  then  left  their  boats 
and  crossed  the  mountains,  having  procured 
more  horses  from  the  Indians.  They  were  in 
the  region  of  (present)  Montana  Territory  and 
friendly  Indians,  the  Nez  Peaces,  who  were  very 
kind  to  the  explorers.  Down  the  Pacific  slope 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  they  made  their  way, 
among  precipices  and  snowy  peaks,  their  provi¬ 
sions  exhausted  and  game  scarce.  They  resort¬ 
ed  to  portable  soup,  which  had  been  reserved 
for  such  an  emergency.  At  length,  with  great 
joy,  they  came  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
and  arrived  at  a  large  branch  of  the  Columbia, 
among  the  Flat  Head  Indians.  They  distributed 
some  medals  among  the  principal  chiefs,  who 
furnished  the  explorers  with  canoes,  and  iu  them 
they  floated  several  hundred  miles  in  the  midst 
of  a  high  prairie  country,  depending  chiefly  on 
•the  natives  for  their  food.  They  soon  entered  the 
Columbia  proper,  after  passing  another  moun¬ 
tain  range  (Cascade  Mountains),  confining  the 
Columbia  for  several  hundred  miles  between  it 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  On  the  15th  of  No¬ 
vember,  1805,  the  party  entered  the  bay  into 
which  the  Columbia  pours,  and  at  length  came 
in  sight  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  they  win¬ 
tered,  subsisting  chiefly  on  the  flesh  of  elks, 
which  were  abundant.  In  the  spring  (1806)  the 
party  retraced  their  steps,  crossed  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  had  one  or  two  encounters  with 
Indian  tribes.  Descending  to  the  Maudan  vil¬ 
lages  on  the  Missouri,  Captain  Lewis  persuaded 
one  of  the  priucipal  chiefs,  with  his  family,  to 
accompany  the  party  to  St.  Louis.  After  an  ab¬ 
sence  of  two  years  and  four  mouths,  enduring 
much  suffering,  but  solving  a  great  geograph¬ 
ical  and  topographical  question,  the  expedition 
of  Lewis  and  Clark  entered  St.  Louis,  Sept.  26, 
1806.  By  it  the  mythical  and  marvellous  mist 
that  had  so  long  hung  over  the  district  of  Lou¬ 
isiana  was  dispelled.  The  next  year  (  1807  ) 
Captain  Lewis  was  made  governor  of  Louisiana 
Territory. 

Lewis,  Andrew,  was  born  in  Ulster,  Ireland, 
in  1730;  died  in  Bedford  County,  Va.,  in  1780. 
His  father  was  of  a  Huguenot  family  which  set¬ 
tled  in  Ireland,  and  came  to  Virginia  in  lt32. 
Andrew  was  a  volunteer  to  take  possession  of 
the  Ohio  region  in  1754,  was  with  Washington, 
and  was  major  of  a  Virginia  regiment  at  Brad- 
dock’s  defeat.  In  the  expedition  under  Major 
Grant,  in  the  fall  of  1758,  he  was  made  prisoner 
and  taken  to  Montreal.  In  1768  he  was  a  com¬ 
missioner  to  treat  with  the  Indians  at  Fort  Stan- 


LEWIS 


784 


LEWIS 


* 


wix ;  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  1774,  and 
on  Oct.  10,  that  year,  he  fought  a  severe  battle 
with  a  formidable  Indian  force  at  Point  Pleas¬ 
ant  (which  see),  and  gained  a  victory.  In  the 
Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  and  in  the  field,  he 
was  a  bold  patriot.  A  colonel  in  the  army,  he 
commanded  the  Virginia  troops  that  drove  Lord 
Duumore  from  Virginian  waters.  In  that  ex¬ 
pedition  he  caught  a  cold,  from  the  effects  of 
which  he  died.  Colonel  Lewis's  four  brothers — 
Samuel, Thomas,  Charles,  and  William — were  all 
distinguished  in  military  annals.  His  statue 
occupies  one  of  the  pedestals  around  Crawford’s 
Washington  monument  at  Richmond. 

Lewis,  Francis,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Llandaff,  Wales, 
in  March,  1713  ;  died  in  New  York,  Dec.  30, 1803. 
Educated  at  Westminster  School,  he  became  a 
merchant,  and  emigrated  to  America  in  1734. 
Mr.  Lewis  was  aid  to  Colonel  Mercer  after  the 
capture  of  Oswego  by  the  French  in  1757  (which 
see  ),  and  was,  with  other  prisoners,  taken  to 
Canada  and  thence  to  France.  For  his  services 
the  British  government  gave  him  five  thousand 
acres  of  land.  Patriotic  and  active,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  (which  see) 
in  1765.  He  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  in 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1779. 
Settled  on  Long  Island,  which  abounded  with 
Tories,  he  suffered  much  from  the  destruction 
of  his  property  by  this  class  of  citizens.  They 
caused  the  death  of  his  wife  by  brutally  confin¬ 
ing  her  in  a  prison  for  several  mouths.  To  his* 
patriotism  he  sacrificed  the  most  of  his  proper¬ 
ty,  and  died  poor. 


ing,  his  mind  was  absorbed  with  thoughts  of  ad¬ 
venture.  He  was  a  volunteer  soldier  in  repress¬ 
ing  the  Whiskey  Insurrection  (which  see),  after 
which  he  entered  the  regular  army  (1795)  and 
became  captain  in  December,  1800.  Mr.  Lewis 
became  the  private  secretary  of  Mr.  Jefferson, 
and  in  1804  that  President  sent  Captain  Lewis 
to  explore  the  country  westward  from  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  to  the  Pacific.  (See  Lewi 8  and  Clarke's 
Expedition.)  He  made  a  successful  exploration 
of  the  interior  of  the  continent.  Subject  to  fits 
of  melancholy,  in  one  of  them  he  put  an  end  to 
his  own  life.  He  had  been  made  governor  of 
Louisiana  Territory,  March  2, 1807,  but  died  be¬ 
fore  he  assumed  the  functions  of  his  office. 

Lewis,  Morgan,  was  born  i n  Ne  w  York , Oct.  16, 
1754  ;  died  there,  April  7, 1844.  He  was  a  son  of 
Francis  Lewis,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dependence,  and  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1773. 
He  studied  law  with  John  Jay,  and  joined  the 
army  at  Cambridge  in  June,  1775.  He  w  as  on 
the  staff  of  General  Gates  with  the  rank  of  colo¬ 
nel,  in  January,  1776,  and  soon  afterwards  be¬ 
came  quartermaster- general  of  the  Northern 
Army.  He  was  active  during  the  war,  and  at 
its  close  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practised 
in  Duchess  County,  N.  Y.  He  was  a  judge  of 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  the  state  in  1792,  being,  the  year  before, 
attorney-general  of  the  state.  He  was  chief- 
justice  in  1801,  and  governor  from  1804  to  1807. 
In  1812  he  was  appointed  quartermaster-general 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier,  and  was  promoted 
to  major-general  in  1813.  He  was  active  on  the 
Niagara  frontier  in  1814,  and  was  placed  in  com- 


skirmish  on  the  green  at  Lexington.*  (From  an  old  print.) 


Lewis,  Meriwether,  was  born  near  Char¬ 
lottesville,  Va.,  Aug.  18,  1774;  died  near  Nash¬ 
ville,  Tenn.,  Oct.  11,  1809.  Possessed  of  a  bold 
and  enterprising  spirit,  he  relinquished  academ¬ 
ic  studies,  read  with  avidity  true  and  fictitious 
tales  of  adventure,  and  though  he  pursued  farm- 


mand  of  the  defences  of  the  city  of  New  York. 
After  the  war  he  devoted  himself  to  literature 


*  This  was  engraved  by  Amos  Doolittle,  from  a  drawing  by 
Earle  after  the  battle.  The  larger  Imilding  was  the  meet  ng- 
house.  The  dwelling  on  the  left  was  a  tavern.  It  was  yet 
stand. ng  in  1S76. 


LEXINGTON  AND  CONCORD 


785 


LEXINGTON  AND  CONCORD 


and  agriculture.  In  1832  lie  delivered  tlie  ad¬ 
dress  on  tlie  centennial  of  Washington’s  birth 
before  the  city  authorities,  and  in  1835  became 
president  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society. 

Lexington  and  Concord.  In  the  early  spring 
of  1775,  General  Gage  had  between  3000  and 
4000  troops  in  Boston,  and  felt  strong  in  the 
presence  of  rebellious  utterances  that  filled  the 
air.  He  observed  with  concern  the  gathering 
of  munitions  of  war  by  the  colonists.  Informed 
that  a  considerable  quantity  had  been  deposit¬ 
ed  at  Concord,  a  village  about  sixteen  miles 
from  Boston,  he  planned  a  secret  expedition  to 
seize  or  destroy  them.  Towards  midnight,  on 
the  18th  of  April,  he  sent  800  men,  under  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel  Smith  and  Major  Pitcairn,  to  ex¬ 
ecute  his  designs.  The  vigilant  patriots  had 
discovered  the  secret,  and  were  on  the  alert, 
and  when  the  expedition  moved  to  cross  the 
Charles  River,  Paul  Revere,  one  of  the 
most  active  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  had  preceded  them,  and  was  on  his 
way  towards  Concord  to  arouse  the  in¬ 
habitants  and  the  minute-men.  Soon  after¬ 
wards  church-bells,  musketry,  and  cannons 
spread  the  alarm  over  the  country ;  and 
when,  at  dawn  (April  19,  1775),  Pitcairn, 
with  the  advanced  guard,  reached  Lexing¬ 
ton,  a  little  village  six  miles  from  Concord, 
he  found  seventy  determined  men,  under 
Captain  Jonas  Parker,  drawn  up  on  the 
green  to  oppose  him.  Pitcairn  rode  forward 
and  shouted,  “  Disperse !  disperse,  you  reb¬ 
els  !  Down  with  your  arms,  and  disperse  !” 

They  refused  obedience,  and  he  ordered  his 
men  to  fire.  The  order  was  obeyed,  and 
the  war  for  independence  was  thus  begun. 
Eight  minute-men— good  citizens  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts — were  killed,  several  others  were 
wounded,  and  the  remainder  were  dispersed. 

It  was  now  sunrise.  On  that  occasion 
Jonathan  Harrington,  a  youth  of  seventeen 
years,  played  the  fife.  The  writer  visited 
him  and  made  a  sketch  of  him  in  1848,  when 
he  was  past  ninety  years  of  age.  Under  that 
sketch  he  wrote  his  name  and  age.  He  was 
splitting  wood  in  front  of  his  house  at  the 
time  the  writer  first  saw  him,  when  he  po¬ 
litely  invited  the  latter  into  the  house,  and 
took  a  seat  in  his  rocking-chair.  He  died  in 
March,  1854.  The  British  pressed  forward 
towards  Concord.  The  citizens  there  had 
been  aroused  by  a  horseman  from  Lexington, 
and  the  militia  were  flocking  towards  the  town 
from  every  direction.  The  stores  were  hastily  re¬ 
moved  to  a  place  of  concealment,  in  carts  and 
other  vehicles, by  men, women,  and  children.  The 
Middlesex  farmers, armed  with  every  conceivable 
kind  of  fire-arms,  were  drawn  up  in  battle  array 
in  defence  of  their  homes  and  their  chartered 
ri g'nts.  Major  Buttrick  and  Adjutant  Joseph 
Hosmer  took  the  chief  command  The  British 
had  reached  the  North  Bridge.  Colonel  Barrett, 
then  in  command  of  the  whole,  gave  the  word 
to  march,  and  a  determined  force,  under  Major 
Buttrick,  pressed  forward  to  oppose  the  invad¬ 
ers,  who  were  beginning  to  destroy  the  bridge. 
The  minute-men  wore  fired  upon  by  the  Brit¬ 


ish,  when  a  full  volley  was  returned  by  the  pa¬ 
triots.  Some  of  the  invaders  fell ;  the  others 
retreated.  They  had  destroyed  only  a  few  stores 
in  the  village.  The  invaders  were  terribly  smit¬ 
ten  by  the  gathering  minute-men  on  their  re¬ 
treat  towards  Lexington.  Shots  came,  with 
deadly  aim,  from  behind  fences,  stone -walls, 
and  trees.  The  gathering  yeomanry  swarmed 
from  the  woods  and  fields,  from  farm-houses  and 
hamlets.  They  attacked  from  ambush  and  in 
the  open  highway.  It  was  evident  to  the  Brit¬ 
ons  that  the  whole  country  was  aroused.  The 
heat  was  intense;  the  dust  intolerable.  The 
800  men  must  have  perished  or  been  captured, 
had  not  a  reinforcement,  under  Lord  Percy,  met 
and  relieved  them  near  Lexington.  After  a  brief 
rest,  the  whole  body,  1800  strong,  retreated,  and 
were  terribly  assailed  along  the  whole  ten  miles 
to  their  shelter  at  Charlestown,  narrowly  escap¬ 


ing  700  Essex  militia,  under  Colonel  Pickering, 
marching  to  strike  their  flank.  Under  the  guns 
of  British  war-vessels,  the  remnant  of  the  de¬ 
tachment  rested  that  night,  and  passed  over  to 
Boston  the  next  morning.  During  the  expedi¬ 
tion  the  British  lost,  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing,  273  men  ;  the  Americans  lost  103.  (See 
Uprising  of  the  People  in  1775.) 

Lexington  and  Concord,  Effect  of  the 
Skirmishes  at.  When  news  of  the  affair  at 
Lexington  and  Concord  went  over  the  land,  the 
people  were  everywhere  aroused  to  action,  and 
never  before  nor  afterwards  was  there  so  unan¬ 
imous  a  determination  to  resist  British  oppres¬ 
sion.  In  wavering  New  York  there  was  unity 


I.— 50 


LEXINGTON,  SIEGE  OF  786  LEXINGTON,  SIEGE  OF 


at  ouce,  and  the  custom-house  was  immediately 
closed,  and  all  vessels  preparing  to  sail  for  Que¬ 
bec,  Newfoundland,  Boston,  or  Georgia  were  de¬ 
tained — the  latter  colony  not  having  yet  sent 
delegates  to  the  Continental  Congress.  The  New- 
Yorkers  addressed  a  letter  to  the  mayor  and  al¬ 
dermen  of  Loudon — from  whom  Boston,  in  its  dis¬ 
tress  (see  Boston  Port  Bill),  had  received  sympathy 
and  aid — declaring  that  all  the  horrors  of  civil 
war  could  not  compel  the  colonists  to  submit  to 
taxation  by  the  British  Parliament.  The  inhab¬ 
itants  of  Philadelphia  followed  those  of  the  city 


Mulligan  resolved  to  defy  the  overwhelming 
force  of  the  enemy  with  the  means  at  his  com¬ 
mand.  Price  moved  forward,  drove  in  the  Na¬ 
tional  pickets,  and  opened  a  cannonade  on  Mul¬ 
ligan’s  hastily  constructed  works.  Very  soon 
some  outworks  were  captured,  after  fierce  strug¬ 
gles,  but  the  defence  was  bravely  maintained 
throughout  the  day.  Price  was  anxious,  for  he 
knew  that  there  was  a  large  Union  force  near  un¬ 
der  Colonel  J.  C.  Davis,  and  General  John  Pope 
was  coming  down  from  the  country  northward 
of  the  Missouri  River.  Mulligan  was  hopeful,  for 


BATTLE-GROUND  AT  CONCORD.  (See  p.  785.) 


of  New  York.  Those  of  New  Jersey  took  pos¬ 
session  of  the  provincial  treasury,  containing 
about  $50,000,  to  use  for  their  own  defeuce. 
The  news  reached  Baltimore  in  six  days,  when 
the  people  seized  the  provincial  magazine,  con¬ 
taining  about  fifteen  hundred  stand  of  arms, 
and  stopped  all  exports  to  the  fishing-islands, 
to  .such  of  the  islands  as  had  not  joined  the  con¬ 
federacy,  and  to  the  British  army  and  navy  at 
Boston.  In  Virginia  a  provincial  convention 
was  held  (see  Virginia  Convention),  which  took 
measures  for  the  defence  of  the  colony. 

Lexington  (Mo.),  Siege  of  (1861).  After  the 
drawn  battle  at  Wilson’s  Creek  (which  see), 
General  McCulloch  found  his  assumption  of  au¬ 
thority  so  offensive  to  the  Missourians  that  he 
left  the  state.  General  Price  called  upon  the 
Secessionists  to  fill  up  his  shattered  ranks.  They 
responded  with  alacrity,  and  at  the  middle  of 
August  he  moved  northward,  in  the  direction  of 
Lexington,  which  is  situated  on  a  curve  of  the 
Missouri  River.  It  occupied  an  important  po¬ 
sition,  and  was  garrisoned  with  less  than  3000 
troops,  under  Colonel  James  A.  Mulligan.  His 
troops,  unfortunately,  had  only  forty  rounds  of 
cartridges  each,  six  small  brass  cannons,  and 
two  howitzers.  The  latter  were  useless,  because 
there  were  no  shells.  On  the  morning  of  Sept. 
11  Price  appeared  at  a  point  three  miles  from 
Lexington.  Hourly  expecting  reinforcements, 


he  expected  some  of  these  troops  every  moment. 
Day  after  day  and  night  after  night  his  men 
wrorked  to  strengthen  the  position,  and  Price’s 
20,000  men  were  kept  at  bay.  Finally,  on  the 
17th,  the  Confederates  were  reinforced,  and  their 
number  was  swelled  to  25,000.  Then  Price  cut 
oft'  the  communication  of  the  garrison  with  the 
town,  their  chief  source  of  water  supply.  The 
next  day  he  took  possession  of  the  town,  closed 
up  the  garrison,  and  began  a  vigorous  siege. 
For  seventy-two  hours  Mulligan  and  his  little 
baud  sustained  it,  amid  burning  sun-heat  by 
day  and  suffocating  smoke  at  all  times,  until 
ammunition  and  provisions  were  exhausted,  and 
on  the  morning  of  the  20th  he  was  compelled  to 
surrender.  The  loss  of  this  post  was  severely 
felt,  and  Fremont,  resolving  to  retrieve  it,  at 
once  put  in  motion  20,000  men  to  drive  Price 
and  his  followers  out  of  Missouri.  The  Nation¬ 
al  loss  in  men  was  40  killed  and  120  wounded ; 
the  Confederates  lost  25  killed  and  75  wounded. 
Mulligan  and  his  officers  were  held  prisoners  of 
war ;  the  men  were  paroled.  The  spoils  were 
6  cannons,  2  mortars,  3000  muskets,  750  horses, 
wagons,  teams,  etc.,  and  $100,000  worth  of  com¬ 
missary  stores.  A  week  before  the  arrival  of 
Mulligan  at  Lexington,  Governor  Jackson  and 
his  Legislature  had  held  a  session  there,  and 
had  deposited  $800,000  in  gold  coin  in  the  bank. 
They  quitted  it  so  precipitately,  that  they  left 


L’HOMMEDIEU 


787 


LIBERTIES  AND  FRANCHISES 


this  money  and  the  seal  behind,  which  fell  into 
Mulligan’s  hands.  These  treasures  Price  recov¬ 
ered. 

L’Hommedieu,  Ezra,  was  born  at  Southold, 
L.  I.,  Aug.  30,  1734  ;  died  there,  Sept.  28,  1811. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1754.  He  was 
of  Huguenot  descent ;  a  lawyer  by  profession  ; 
a  delegate  to  the  New  York  Provincial  Congress 
from  1775  to  1778 ;  assisted  in  the  formation  of 
the  first  constitution  of  the  State  of  New  York  ; 
was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  at 
different  times  from  1779  to  1788;  a  State  Sen¬ 
ator  and  Regent  of  the  University  of  the  State 
of  New  York  from  1787  till  his  death. 

Libby  Prison.  This  building  acquired  an 
unenviable  name  during  the  Civil  War,  by  its 
being  the  theatre  of  intense  sufferings  by  Union 
prisoners  of  war.  It  was  a  tobacco  -  factory, 
built  of  brick,  standing  on  Main  Street,  near 
Twenty-fifth  Street,  Richmoud.  It  was  hastily 
prepared  for  the  reception  of  prisoners,  and  into 
it  officers  and  men  taken  at  Bull’s  Run,  to  the 
number  of  about  six  hundred,  were  thrust  with¬ 
in  two  or  three  days  after  the  battle.  Among 
the  prisoners  was  Alfred  Ely,  a  member  of  Con- 


States  and  their  descendants  (who  are  the  rul¬ 
ing  class)  and  of  uncivilized  native  tribes — was 
about  720,000  in  1873,  of  whom  19,000  were  Amer- 
ican-Liberiaus,  and  the  remaining  701,000  abo¬ 
riginal  inhabitants.  The  capital  and  largest 
town  is  Monrovia,  a  seaport  on  Cape  Mesurada, 
with  about  13,000  inhabitants.  They  have  pub¬ 
lic  schools,  churches,  missionary  societies,  and 
all  the  ordinary  machinery  of  civilization  ;  and 
Liberia  is,  on  the  whole,  a  prosperous  republic. 
It  has  quite  a  flourishing  commerce,  aud  agri¬ 
culture  is  carried  on  successfully.  Iu  1847  the 
Liberians,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Coloniza¬ 
tion  Society  (which  see),  declared  themselves 
a  sovereign  aud  independent  nation,  when  a 
constitution,  modelled  after  that  of  the  United 
States,  was  adopted.  It  maintains  that  all  men 
are  born  equally  free  iu  the  enjoyment  of  life, 
liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness ;  that  all 
power  is  inherent  in  the  people;  that  slavery 
shall  not  exist  nor  be  countenanced  in  the  re¬ 
public  ;  that  all  elections  shall  be  by  ballot ; 
that  uone  but  persons  of  color  shall  be  admit¬ 
ted  to  citizenship ;  that  the  Legislature  shall 
be  composed  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 


LIBBY  PRISON,  RICHMOND. 


gress  from  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  who  went  out  to 
see  the  spectacle  of  the  battle,  and  was  caught. 
The  prisoners  were  placed  under  the  care  of 
Brigadier-general  John  II.  Winder,  of  Maryland, 
who  had  left  the  National  army.  These  early 
prisoners  suffered  much  for  want,  of  room,  light, 
air,  and  food,  but  later  ones  suffered  far  more 
than  they.  The  Union  people  of  Richmond  ad¬ 
ministered  to  their  wants  for  a  while,  but  were 
finally  prevented  from  doing  this  good  work  by 
command  of  the  Confederate  leaders. 

Liberia,  a  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  Afri¬ 
ca,  is  the  product  of  the  American  Colonization 
Society,  which,  in  1820,  sent  the  first  colonists 
there  from  the  United  States.  The  area  of  the 
republic  is  9700  square  miles.  The  population — 
composed  of  colored  emigrant!  from  the  United 


sentatives,  the  members  of  the  latter  elected  bi¬ 
ennially,  one  representative  for  every  10,000  in¬ 
habitants.  The  president  is  elected  by  the  peo¬ 
ple  for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  judicial  power 
is  vested  iu  a  supreme  court  and  several  inferior 
courts. 

Liberties  and  Franchises  —  Charter  for 
New  York.  Charles  II.  granted  the  Province 
of  New  Netherland  to  his  brother  Janies,  Duke 
of  York,  without  competent  authority,  and,  hav¬ 
ing  the  power,  the  duke  took  possession  by  an 
armed  force  in  1064,  and  ruled  it  by  governors 
appointed  by  himself.  The  name  of  the  prov¬ 
ince  was  changed  to  New  York.  In  1683,  when 
Thomas  Dongan  was  made  governor  (see  Dongan, 
Thomas),  the  people  asked  for  more  political  priv¬ 
ileges,  and  the  duke  instructed  him  to  call  a 


LIBERTY  BELL 


783  LIBERTY  OF  THE  PRESS  DENIED 


representative  assembly.  It  met  in  the  fort  at  [ 
New  York  on  Oct.  17,  1683,  and  sat  three  weeks,  j 
passing  fourteen  acts,  all  of  which  were  ap¬ 
proved  by  the  governor.  The  first  act  was  en¬ 
titled  “The  Charter  of  Liberties  and  Franchises 
granted  by  his  Royal  Highness  to  the  Inhabi¬ 
tants  of  New  York  and  its  Dependencies.”  (See 
Duke’s  Counti/.)  The  dnke  approved  the  act.  It 
declared  that  supreme  legislative  power  should 
forever  be  and  reside  iu  the  governor,  council, 
and  people,  met  in  General  Assembly ;  that  ev¬ 
ery  freeholder  and  freeman  should  be  allowed 
to  vote  for  representatives  without  restraint; 
that  no  freeman  should  suffer  but  by  judgment 
of  his  peers;  that  all  trials  should  be  by  a  jury 
of  twelve  men  ;  that  no  tax  should  be  assessed, 
on  any  pretence  whatever,  but  by  the  consent  j 
of  the  Assembly ;  that  no  seaman  or  soldier  j 
should  be  quartered  on  the  inhabitants  against  j 
their  will;  that  no  martial  law  should  exist;} 
and  that  no  person  professing  faith  iu  God  by  j 
Jesus  Christ  should  at  any  time  be  anywise  dis¬ 
quieted  or  questioned  for  any  difference  of  opin-  ] 
ion.  Two  years  afterwards  the  duke  succeeded  j 
to  the  throne  as  James  II.,  when  he  at  once 
struck  a  severe  blow  at  this  fair  fabric  of  liber¬ 
ty.  James  as  king  broke  the  promises  of  James 
as  duke.  He  had  become  an  avowed  Roman 
Catholic,  and  determined  to  till  all  offices  in  his 
realm  with  men  of  that  creed.  He  levied  direct  j 
taxes  On  New  York  without  the  consent  of  the  j 
people,  forbade  the  introduction  of  printing,  and 
otherwise  established  tyranny.  (See  Dongan, 
Thomas.)  But  he  dared  not  attempt  to  suppress 
the  General  Assembly,  the  first  truly  representa¬ 
tive  government  established  in  New  York. 

Liberty  Bell.  Iu  a  room  on  the  ground-floor 
of  the  old  State  House,  Philadelphia,  is  the  old 
bell  that  rang  out,  in  conjunction  with  human 
voices,  the  joyful  tidings  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  in  July,  1776.  It  was  cast  by 

Pass  &  Stow,  Philadel¬ 
phia,  and  was  hung  in 
the  belfry  of  the  State 
House  early  in  June, 
1753.  It  weighed  2080 
pounds,  and  around  it, 
near  its  top,  were  cast 
the  words,  prophetic  of 
itsdestiny,“  PROCLAIM 

Liberty  through¬ 
out  ALL  THE  LAND, 
UNTO  ALL  THE  INHABI¬ 
TANTS  THEREOF.  Lev. 
xxv.10.”  When  the  Brit¬ 
ish  forces  approached 
liberty  bell.  Philadelphia,  in  1777, 

the  bell  was  taken 
down  .and  carried  to  Allentown,  to  prevent  its 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  In  1781 
it  was  placed  in  the  brick  tower  of  the  State 
House,  below  the  original  belfry,  which,  being 
of  wood,  had  become  decayed.  For  more  than 
fifty  years  the  bell  participated  in  the  celebra¬ 
tions  of  the  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  when  it  was  cracked  while  ring¬ 
ing.  An  effort  was  made  to  restore  its  tone 
by  sawing  the  crack  wider,  but  it  was  unsuc¬ 


cessful.  A  new  steeple  and  a  new  bell  were  put 
up  in  1828.  For  many  years  the  old  bell  re¬ 
mained  in  silent  dignity  in  the  tower,  when  it 
was  taken  down  and  placed  on  a  platform  in 
Independence  Hall,  whence  it  was  removed  to  a 
room  opposite  in  1876,  and  there  it  remains. 

Liberty  of  the  Press  Denied  (Riot  in  Bal¬ 
timore  in  1812).  After  war  had  been  declared, 
intimations  were  given,  by  persons  in  Congress 
and  out  of  it,  that  opposition  to  it  must  cease. 
The  Federalists  and  their  newspapers  claimed 
the  right  to  speak  as  freely  as  ever.  One  of  the 
latter — the  Federal  Republican — practically  as¬ 
serted  that  right  when,  on  publishing  the  Dec¬ 
laration  of  War,  it  declared  its  intention  to 
speak  of  men  and  events  with  the  same  freedom 
as  before.  Two  days  afterwards  the  office  of 
that  paper,  with  its  press  and  types,  was  de¬ 
molished  by  a  mob.  The  proprietors  fled  for 
their  lives,  and  resumed  the  publication  of  their 
paper  at  Georgetown.  Determined  to  vindicate 
their  rights  and  the  freedom  of  the  press,  they 
returned  to  Baltimore,  resumed  the  publication 
of  their  paper  at  the  house  of  one  of  the  propri¬ 
etors,  and,  expecting  another  attack  from  a  mob, 
barricaded  the  doors  and  windows,  and  garri¬ 
soned  it  with  about  twenty  armed  men,  under 
the  leadership  of  General  Henry  Lee,  who,  with 
General  Lingan,  volunteered  to  defend  the 
place.  The  house  was  attacked ;  oue  of  the 
doors  was  forced  open,  and  when  the  assailants 
attempted  to  ascend  the  stairs,  they  were  fired 
upon  by  the  defenders.  Several  were  wounded, 
and  the  ringleader  was  killed.  After  repeated 
applications  to  the  city  authorities  bjr  the  de¬ 
fenders  for  protection,  General  Strieker,  of  the 
city  militia,  was  ordered  to  call  out  troops.  He 
and  the  mayor  effected  an  arrangement  with  the 
mob — who  had  brought  a  piece  of  cannon  to 
bear  on  the  house — by  which  the  defenders  were 
to  submit  to  be  taken  to  prison  on  a  charge  of 
murder,  on  condition  that  they  should  have  per¬ 
sonal  protection,  and  their  property  guarded  by 
a  military  force.  The  latter  conditions  were 
grossly  violated.  The  house  was  entered,  and 
its  contents  destroyed,  and  the  prison  in  which 
the  defenders  were  confined  was  entered  by  the 
mob ;  some  of  them  were  seized,  and  others  es¬ 
caped.  Those  who  wrere  caught  were  horribly 
beaten,  after  which  nine  of  them  were  pitched 
down  the  stone  steps  of  the  prison,  where  they 
lay  in  a  heap,  the  mob  amusing  themselves  for 
three  hours  or  more  by  torturing  them.  They 
stuck  penknives  into  their  flesh  and  dropped  can¬ 
dle-grease  into  their  eyes  to  see  if  they  were  real¬ 
ly  dead,  frequently  shouting  for  Jefferson,  Madi¬ 
son,  and  others  of  the  ruling  party.  General 
Lingan,  who  vainly  begged  them  to  spare  his 
life  for  the  sake  of  a  young  family,  expired  in 
the  midst  of  their  tortures ;  and  General  Lee, 
who,  like  Lingan,  had  performed  noble  deeds 
in  the  war  for  independence,  escaped,  but  was 
made  a  cripple  for  life.  The  others,  feigning 
death  while  enduring  dreadful  torture,  escaped 
with  their  lives,  but  only  through  a  happy 
thought  of  the  jailer,  who  told  the  mob  their 
bones  would  make  good  Tory  skeletons,  and  per¬ 
suaded  them  to  allow  him  to  carry  them  into 


789  LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS  DESTROYED 


LIBERTY  PARTY,  THE 

the  prison.  Places  in  or  out  of  the  city  were 
found  for  the  survivors,  until  they  had  fully 
recovered.  Other  atrocities  were  committed. 
Upon  an  investigation  of  this  affair,  the  magis¬ 
trates  decided  that  the  proprietors  of  the  news¬ 
paper  were  to  blame  for  persisting  in  publishing, 
at  such  a  time,  a  newspaper  disagreeable  to  the 
mob  and  the  ruling  party.  The  ringleaders  were 
acquitted,  the  attorney-general  so  far  sympa¬ 
thizing  with  them  as  to  express  a  regret  that 
every  defender  of  the  house  attacked  had  not 
been  killed. 

Liberty-cap  Cent.  It  was  about  three  years 
after  a  mint  for  the  coinage  of  money  for  the 
United  States  was  authorized  that  the  act  went 
iuto  operation,  and  iu  the  interval  several  of 
the  coins  called  “specimens,”  now  so  scarce,  were 
struck.  Among  the  most  rare  is  the  “ liberty-cap 
cent,”  having  a  profile  and  the  name  of  Wash¬ 
ington  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  a  liberty- 
cap  in  the  centre,  with  rays  of  light  emanating 
from  it,  and  the  words  around  them  “  Success 
to  the  United  States.” 

Liberty  Party,  The,  grew  out  of  the  influence 
of  societies  formed  for  effecting  the  abolition 
of  slavery  throughout  the  Republic.  It  origi¬ 
nated  about  the  year  1844.  The  prime  article 
of  its  political  creed  was  opposition  to  African 
slavery  in  our  country.  The  party  cared  not 
whether  a  man  was  called  Whig  or  Democrat ; 
if  he  would  declare  his  unalterable  opposition  to 
slavery,  slaveholders,  and  the  friends  of  slave¬ 
holders,  it  gave  him  the  cordial  right  hand  of 
fellowship.  A  man  less  true  to  the  faith  was 
not  admitted  within  the  pale  of  the  party.  It 
contained,  in  proportion  to  its  numbers,  more 
men  of  wealth,  talents,  and  personal  worth  than 
any  other  party.  It  was  opposed  to  the  annex¬ 
ation  of  Texas,  for  it  regarded  that  as  a  scheme 
of  the  slaveholders  to  extend  their  domain  and 
political  power.  The  party  could  not  vote  for 
Mr.  Polk,  for  he  was  favorable  to  that  annexa¬ 
tion  ;  it  could  not  vote  for  Mr.  Clay,  for  he  was 
a  slaveholder:  so  it  nominated  James  G. Birney 
(who  had  formerly  been  a  slaveholder  in  Ken¬ 
tucky,  but,  from  conscientious  motives,  had 
emancipated  his  slaves  and  migrated  to  Michi¬ 
gan)  for  President  of  the  United  States.  It 
polled  quite  a  large  number  of  votes.  In  1848 
the  Liberty  Party  was  merged  into  the  Free-soil 
Party  (which  see),  and  supported  Mr. Van  Buren 
for  the  Presidency. 

Liberty  Poles.  The  Sons  of  Liberty  (which 
see)  erected  tall  flag-staffs,  with  the  Phrygian 
“cap  of  Liberty”  on  the  top,  as  rallying-places 
in  the  open  air.  They  were  first  erected  in  cit¬ 
ies;  afterwards  they  were  set  up  in  the  rural 
districts  wherein  republicanism  prevailed.  On 
the  king’s  birthday,  in  New  York  (June  4, 1766), 
there  were  great  rejoicings  on  account  of  the 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  (which  see).  Governor 
Sir  Henry  Moore  presided  at  a  public  dinner  at 
the  “  King’s  Arms”  (near  the  foot  of  Broadway). 
On  the  same  day  the  Sons  of  Liberty  feasted  at 
their  headquarters  at  Montague’s  (on  Broadway, 
near  Murray  Street),  and,  by  permission  of  the 
governor,  erected  a  mast  (which  afterwards  they 

50* 


called  a  Liberty  Pole)  between  the  site  of  the 
City  Hall  and  Broadway,  in  front  of  Warren 
Street,  on  which  were  inscribed  the  words  “  To 
his  most  gracious  Majesty  George  III.,  Mr.  Pitt, 
and  Liberty.”  British  soldiers  were  then  iu  the 
city.  The  doings  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty  so  an¬ 
noyed  the  officers  of  the  crown  that  thirty-six 
days  after  the  liberty  pole  was  erected  with  so 
much  harmony  it  was  cut  down  by  the  insolent 
troops  (Aug.  16,  1766).  The  people  re-erected  it 
the  next  evening  in  the  face  of  the  armed  mer¬ 
cenaries.  A  little  more  than  a  month  afterwards 
the  soldiers  again  prostrated  it,  and  again  the 
people  upraised  it,  and  from  its  top  they  flung 
the  British  banner  to  the  breeze.  The  next 
spring  the  people  met  at  the  “mast”  to  cele- 
ebrate  the  anniversary  of  the  repeal  (March  18), 
and  inaugurated  it  by  erecting  a  “  Liberty 
Pole,”  which  the  soldiery  cut  down  that  night. 
The  people  again  erected  it,  bound  it  with  hoops 
of  iron,  and  placed  a  guard  there ;  when  sol¬ 
diers  came  with  loaded  muskets,  fired  two  ran¬ 
dom  shots  into  the  headquarters  of  the  Sons  of 
Liberty  (Montague’s),  and  attempted  to  drive 
the  people  away.  Fearful  retaliation  would 
have  followed  but  for  the  repression  of  aggres¬ 
sive  acts  by  the  soldiers,  by  order  of  the  gov¬ 
ernor.  On  the  king’s  birthday,  1767,  the  sol¬ 
diers  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  prostrate 
the  liberty  pole;  but  at  midnight,  June  16, 
1770,  armed  men  came  from  the  barracks,  hewed 
it  down,  sawed  it  in  pieces,  and  piled  it  in  front 
of  Montague’s.  The  perpetrators  were  discov¬ 
ered,  the  bells  of  St.  George’s  Chapel  iu  Beek- 
man  Street  were  rung,  and  early  the  next  morn¬ 
ing  three  thousand  people  stood  around  the 
stump  of  the  pole.  There  they  passed  strong 
resolutions  of  a  determination  to  maintain  their 
liberties  at  all  hazards.  For  three  days  intense 
excitement  continued,  and  in  frequent  affrays 
with  the  citizens  the  soldiers  were  worsted.  A 
severe  conflict  occurred  on  Golden  Hill  (Cliff 
Street,  between  Fulton  Street  and  Maiden  Lane), 
when  several  of  the  soldiers  were  disarmed. 
Quiet  was  soon  restored.  The  people  erected 
another  pole  upon  ground  purchased  on  Broad¬ 
way,  near  Warren  Street,  and  this  fifth  liberty 
pole  remained  untouched  as  a  rallying-place  for 
the  Whigs  until  the  British  took  possession  of 
the  city  in  1776,  when  the  notorious  provost- 
marshal  Cunningham  (who,  it  is  said,  had  been 
whipped  at  its  foot)  had  it  hewn  down. 

Library  of  Congress,  Destruction  of  the. 
On  Dec.  24,  1851,  the  library  of  Congress,  in  the 
Capitol  at  Washington,  was  mostly  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  the  whole  building  was  in  imminent 
danger  of  destruction.  About  thirty-five  thou¬ 
sand  volumes  were  destroyed,  the  number  in  the 
library  being  about  fifty  thousand.  These  in¬ 
cluded  the  library  of  Mr.  Jefferson  (for  which 
Congress  had  paid  $20,000),  purchased  after  the 
burning  of  the  Capitol  by  the  British  in  1814. 
Many  of  these  books  were  saved.  Rare  and 
valuable  books  presented  by  foreign  govern¬ 
ments,  and  a  collection  of  twelve  hundred  bronze 
medals  presented  by  M.  Vattemare,  of  France, 
were  lost.  The  original  engrossed  copy  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  on  parchment, 


LIE  BEE  790  LIFEGUARD.  WASHINGTON’S 


with  the  autographs  of  the  signers  attached, 
was  saved,  as  were  also  the  portraits  of  some  of 
the  presidents,  and  some  rare  medals.  In  the 
room  adjoining  the  main  library  were  twenty 
thousand  volumes,  which  were  saved. 

Lieber,  Francis,  LL.D.,  publicist,  was  born 
in  Berlin,  March  18,  1800;  died  in  New  York 
city,  Oct.  2, 1872.  He  joined  the  Prussian  army 
in  1815  as  a  volunteer,  and  fought  in  the  battles 
of  Ligny  and  Waterloo.  He  was  severely  wound¬ 
ed  in  the  assault  on  Namur.  He  studied  at  the 
University  of  Jena,  was  persecuted  for  his  re¬ 
publicanism,  and  in  1821  went  to  Greece  to  take 
part  in  the  struggle  of  its  people  for  indepen¬ 
dence.  He  suffered  much  there.  Retiring  to 
Italy,  he  passed  nearly  two  years  in  the  family 
of  Niebuhr,  then  Prussian  ambassador  at  Rome. 
Returning  to  Germany  in  1824,  he  was  impris¬ 
oned,  aud  while  contined  he  wrote  a  collection 
of  poems,  which,  on  his  release,  were  published 
at  Berlin  under  the  name  of  Franz  Arnold.  After 
spending  about  two  years  in  England,  he  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1827,  residing  in  Boston. 
He  edited  the  Encyclopaedia  Americana,  in  thir¬ 
teen  volumes,  published  in  Philadelphia  between 
the  years  1829  and  1835.  He  lectured  on  his¬ 
tory  and  politics  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  Union. 
In  New  York  his  facile  pen  was  busy  translating 
from  the  French  and  German.  In  1832  he  trans¬ 
lated  De  Beaumont  and  De  Tocqueville  on  the 
penitentiary  system  in  the  United  States,  and 
soon  afterwards,  on  invitation  of  the  trustees  of 
Girard  College,  he  furnished  a  plan  of  instruc¬ 
tion  for  that  institution,  which  was  published 
at  Philadelphia  in  1834.  In  1835  he  published 
Recollections  of  Niebuhr  aud  Lett  ms  to  a  Gentleman 
in  Germany,  and  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  history  and  political  economy  in 
the  South  Carolina  College  at  Columbia,  S.  C., 
where  he  remained  until  1856.  He  was  appoint¬ 
ed  to  the  same  professorship  in  Columbia  Col¬ 
lege,  New  York  city,  in  1857,  and  afterwards  ac¬ 
cepted  the  chair  of  political  science  iu  the  law- 
school  of  that  institution,  which  he  filled  till 
the  time  of  his  death.  Dr.  Lieber  bad  a  very 
versatile  mind,  and  whatever  subject  he  grasped 
he  handled  it  skilfully  as  a  trained  philosopher. 
In  1838  he  published  A  Manual  of  Political  Eth¬ 
ics,  which  was  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the 
higher  seminaries  of  learning  ;  and  he  wrote 
several  essays  on  legal  subjects.  Special  branch¬ 
es  of  civil  polity  and  civil  administration  en¬ 
gaged  his  attention,  and  on  these  subjects  he 
wrote  earnestly  and  wisely,  especially  ou  penal 
legislation.  He  wrote  some  valuable  papers  in 
the  Smithsonian  Contributions  to Knoivledge, and  his 
addresses  (published)  on  anniversary  and  other 
special  occasions  were  numerous.  While  in  the 
South  he  had  warmly  combated  the  doctrine  of 
state  supremacy,  and  when  the  Civil  War  broke 
out  he  was  one  of  the  most  earnest  and  persist¬ 
ent  supporters  of  the  government.  In  1863  he 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  ‘‘Loyal  Publica- 
cation  Society.”  More  than  one  hundred  pam¬ 
phlets  were  published  under  his  supervision,  of 
which  ten  were  written  by  himself.  He  wrote, 
at  the  request  of  the  general-in-chief  (Halleck), 
Guerilla  Parties,  considered  with  Reference  to  the 


Law  and  Usages  of  War,  which  was  often  quoted 
in  Europe  during  the  Franco-German  War,  and 
his  Instructions  for  the  Government  of  the  Annies 
of  the  United  States  in  the  Field  was  directed  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States  to  be  pro¬ 
mulgated  in  a  general  order  (No.  100)  of  the 
War  Department.  Numerous  essays  on  public 
subjects  followed.  He  was  an  advocate  for  free- 
trade,  and  wrote  vigorously  on  the  subject.  In 
1865  he  was  appoiuted  superintendent  of  a  bu¬ 
reau  at  Washington  for  the  preservation  of  the 
records  of  the  Confederate  government,  and  in 
1870  he  was  chosen  by  the  governments  of  the 
United  States  aud  Mexico  as  final  arbitrator  in 
important  cases  pending  between  the  two  coun¬ 
tries.  This  work  was  unfinished  at  his  death. — 
His  son,  Oscar  Montgomery,  born  in  1830  and 
died  in  1862,  was  a  very  skilful  geologist.  Ed¬ 
ucated  at  the  best  German  universities,  he  took 
a  high  position  as  a  writer  on  geology  and  kin¬ 
dred  subjects,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  was 
state  geologist  of  Mississippi.  In  1854-55  he 
was  engaged  in  a  geological  survey  of  Alabama, 
and  from  1856  to  1860  held  the  position  of  miu- 
eralogical,  geological,  and  agricultural  surveyor 
of  South  Carolina.  In  the  Confederate  army, 
he  died  of  wounds  received  iu  the  battle  of  Will¬ 
iamsburg  (which  see). 

Lieber  on  Secession.  When,  in  1850-51,  the 
politicians  of  South  Carolina  were  publicly 
preaching  the  right  and  duty  of  seceding  from 
the  Union,  the  Union  men  of  that  state  attempt¬ 
ed  to  stem  the  dangerous  torrent.  They  cele¬ 
brated  the  4th  of  July,  1851,  at  Greenville,  to 
which  many  distinguished  men  were  invited,  or 
to  give  their  views  in  writing  on  the  great  topic 
of  the  Union.  Among  these  was  the  late  Fran¬ 
cis  Lieber,  Professor  of  History  and  Political 
Economy  in  the  South  Carolina  College  at  Co¬ 
lumbia.  He  sent  a  short  address  to  his  fellow- 
citizens  of  the  state,  which  was  a  powerful  plea 
for  the  Union,  and  an  unanswerable  argument 
against  secession.  He  warned  them  that  seces¬ 
sion  would  lead  to  war.  He  asked,  “Will  any 
one  who  desires  secession  for  the  sake  of  bring¬ 
ing  about  a  Southern  Confederacy  honestly  aver 
that  he  would  insist  upon  a  provision  in  the  new 
constitution  securing  the  full  right  of  secession 
whenever  it  may  be  desired  by  a  member  of  the 
confederacy  ?”  Ten  years  later  the  politicians 
that  formed  the  government  known  as  the  “Con¬ 
federate  States  of  America”  answered  the  ques¬ 
tion  in  the  affirmative  ;  and  this  conceded  right 
of  secession  had  caused  the  Confederacy  to  feel 
the  throes  of  dissolution  before  it  was  subdued 
by  the  National  power. 

Lieutenant-general.  On  Feb.  15, 1855,  a  joint 
resolution  was  adopted  by  Congress  authoriz¬ 
ing  the  President  of  the  United  States  to  con¬ 
fer  the  title  of  lieutenant-general  by  brevet  in 
a  single  instance  for  eminent  services.  Presi¬ 
dent  Pierce  accordingly  (as  was  intended)  be¬ 
stowed  the  honor  upon  Major-general  Winfield 
Scott. 

Lifeguard,  Washington’s,  was  organized  in 
1776,  soon  after  the  siege  of  Boston,  while  the 
American  army  was  encamped  in  New  York,  on 


LINCOLN 


LIFEGUARD,  WASHINGTON’S  791 


Manhattan  Island.  It  consisted  of  a  major’s 
command  — 180  men.  Caleb  Gibbs,  of  Rhode 
Island,  was  its  first  chief  officer,  and  bore  the 
title  of  captain  commandant.  He  held  that  of¬ 
fice  until  the  close  of  1779,  when  he  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  William  Colfax,  one  of  his  lieuten¬ 
ants.  These  were  Henry  P.  Livingston,  of  New 
York  ;  William  Colfax,  of  New  Jersey ;  and  Ben¬ 
jamin  Goymes,  of  Virginia.  Colfax  remained 
in  command  of  the  corps  until  the  disbanding 
of  the  army  in  1783.  The  members  of  the  Guard 
were  chosen  with  special  reference  to  their 
excellences — physical,  moral,  and  mental—  i| 
and  it  was  considered  a  mark  of  peculiar  ^r> 
distinction  to  belong  to  the  commander-in- 
chief’s  Guard.  Their  uniform  consisted  of  a  sf 


BANNER  OP  WASHINGTON’S  LIFEGUARD.  I 


blue  coat  with  white  facings,  white  waistcoat 
and  breeches,  black  half-gaiters,  and  a  cocked 
hat  with  a  blue  and  white  feather.  They  carried 
muskets,  and  occasionally  side-arms.  Their 
motto  was  “  Conquer  or  die.”  Care  was  taken 
to  have  all  the  states  which  supplied  the  Con¬ 
tinental  army  with  troops  represented  in  the 


UZEL  KNAPP. 


corps.  Its  numbers  varied.  During  the  last  year 
of  the  war  there  were  only  65;  when,  in  1780, 
the  army  at  Morristown  was  in  close  proximity 


to  the  enemy,  it  was  increased  from  the  original 
180  to  250.  The  last  survivor  of  Washington’s 
Lifeguard  was  Sergeant  Uzel  Knapp,  who  died 
in  the  town  of  New  Windsor,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  11, 1857,  when  he  was  a  little  past  ninety- 
seven  years  of  age.  He  was  a  native  of  Stam¬ 
ford,  Conn.,  and  served  in  the  Continental  army 
from  the  beginning  of  the  war  until  its  close, 
entering  the  Lifeguard  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  in 
1780.  After  his  death  Sergeant  Knapp’s  body 
lay  in  state  in  Washington’s  headquarters  at 
Newburgh  three  days,  and,  in  the  presence  of  a 
vast  assemblage  of  people,  he  was  buried  at  the 
foot  of  the  flag-staff  near  that  mansion.  Over 
his  grave  is  a  handsome  mausoleum  of  brown 
free-stone,  made  from  a  design  by  H.  K.  Brown, 
the  sculptor.  Hon.  Schuyler  Colfax,  a  grand¬ 
son  of  the  last  commander  of  the  Guard,  has  in 
his  possession  a  document  containing  the  auto¬ 
graph  signatures  of  the  corps  in  February,  1783, 
from  which  the  fac-similes  given  on  pages  792 
and  793  were  copied. 

Light  houses  and  Public  Piers.  Congress, 
in  1789,  assumed  for  the  United  States  the  sup¬ 
port  of  all  light -houses,  buoys,  beacons,  and 
public  piers,  on  condition  that  within  one  year 
the  states  within  which  they  were  respectively 
situated  should  vest  in  the  United  States  not 
only  the  property  in  these  structures,  with  the 
lands  pertaining  to  them,  but  exclusive  juris¬ 
diction  also  within  their  circuit,  reserving,  liowr- 
ever,  the  right  of  the  state  to  serve  civil  and 
criminal  processes  therein. 

Ligonia,  Province  of.  (See  Plough  Patent.) 
At  about  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  in  England,  in  which  Sir  Ferdinando  Gor¬ 
ges  took  sides  with  the  king,  Alexander  Rigby, 
a  republican  member  of  Parliament,  purchased 
the  old  patent  of  Ligonia  (Maine),  and  sent  out 
George  Cleves  to  take  possession.  Cleves  had 
been  an  agent  in  that  region  for  Gorges  and  Sir 
William  Alexander.  This  claim  was  resisted 
by  Gorges’s  agents,  and  Cleves  attempted  to 
gain  the  assistance  of  the  New  England  Confed¬ 
eracy  by  proposing  to  make  Ligonia  a  member 
of  that  alliance.  The  dispute  went  on  some 
time,  until  finally  the  Parliamentary  Commis¬ 
sioners  for  Plantations  confirmed  Rigby’s  title, 
and  the  coast  of  Maine,  from  the  Kennebec  to 
the  Saco,  was  erected  into  the  Province  of  Ligo¬ 
nia,  Maine  being  then  restricted  to  the  tract 
from  the  Saco  to  the  Piscataqna.  (See  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire.) 

Lincoln,  Abraiiam,  sixteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Larue  County,  Ky., 
Feb.  12, 1809;  died  April  15, 1865.  His  ancestors 
were  Quakers  in  Bucks  County,  Penn.  His  par¬ 
ents,  born  in  Virginia,  emigrated  to  Kentucky, 
and  in  1816  went  to  Indiana.  Having  had  about 
one  year’s  schooling  in  the  aggregate,  he  went 
as  a  hired  hand  on  a  flat-boat  to  New  Orleans 
when  he  was  nineteen  years  of  age.  He  made 
himself  so  useful  to  his  employer  that  he  gave 
him  charge  as  clerk  of  a  store  and  mill  at  New 
Salem,  Ill.  He  commanded  a  company  in  the 
Black  Hawk  War.  Appointed  postmaster  at 
Salem,  he  began  to  study  law,  was  admitted  to 


LINCOLN 


792 


LINCOLN 


practice  in  1836,  and  began  liis  career  as  a  law¬ 
yer  at  Springfield.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  pro¬ 
fession,  became  a  leader  of  the  Whig  party  in  Il¬ 
linois,  and  was  a  popular  though  homely  speak¬ 
er  at  political  meetings.  He  was  elected  to 


Congress  in  1847,  and  was  there  distinguished 
for  his  outspoken  anti-slavery  views.  In  1858 
he  was  a  candidate  for  United  States  Senator. 
His  opponent,  Judge  Douglas,  won  the  prize 
from  the  Legislature,  though  Mr.  Lincoln  re- 


LINCOLN 


793 


LINCOLN 


ceived  4000  more  votes  of  the  people  than  his 
opponent.  In  1860  he  was  nominated  for  and 
elected  President  of  the  United  States.  Ordi¬ 


nances  of  secession  and  the  beginning  of  civil 
war  followed.  He  conducted  the  affairs  of  the 
nation  with  great  wisdom  through  the  four  years 


LINCOLN 


794 


of  the  Civil  War,  and  just  as  it  closed  was  as¬ 
sassinated  at  the  national  capital. 


Lincoln,  Benjamin,  was  born  at  Hingham, 
Mass.,  Jan.  23,  1733;  died  there,  May  9,  1810. 
His  pursuit  was  that  of  a  farmer.  He  was  a 
tirrn  and  active  patriot,  and  was  major-geueral 
of  militia  when  the  war  of  the  Revolution  broke 
out.  In  June,  1776,  he  commanded  an  expedi¬ 
tion  that  cleared  Boston  harbor  of  British  ves¬ 
sels  ;  and  in  February,  1777,  was  appointed  a  ma¬ 
jor-geueral  in  the  Con  tinental  army.  His  services 
were  varied  and  important  all  through  the  war, 


BENJAMIN  LINCOLN. 


and  at  the  surrender  at  Yorktown  he  received 
the  sword  of  the  defeated  Cornwallis.  (See  Corn¬ 
wallis,  Surrender  of.)  From  that  time  (October, 
1781)  until  1784  he  was  Secretary  of  War,  and 
received  a  vote  of  thanks  from  Congress  on  his 
retirement.  In  1787  he  commanded  the  troops 
which  suppressed  Shays’s  Insurrection  (which 
see).  In  that  year  he  was  chosen  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  from  1789  to  1808 


LINCOLN  MEDAL,  THE 


he  was  collector  of  the  port  of  Boston.  He  was 
fond  of  literary  and  scientific  pursuits. 

Lincoln  in  Washington.  Just  before  his  in¬ 
auguration  the  President-elect  arrived  at  Wash¬ 
ington  early  on  the  morning  of  Feb.  23, 1861  (see 
Lincoln ’s  Passage  through  Baltimore),  and  rode  to 
Willard’s  Hotel,  where  he  was  received  with  joy 
by  his  friends.  At  an  early  hour,  accompanied 
by  Mr.  Seward,  he  called  on  the  President.  Mr. 
Buchanan  could  hardly  believe  his  own  eyes. 
He  gave  his  chosen  successor  a  cordial  wel¬ 
come.  The  cabinet  was  in  session,  and,  on  in¬ 
vitation,  the  President-elect  was  ushered  into 
their  chamber  and  received  with  demonstra¬ 
tions  of  real  delight.  During  the  remainder  of 
the  day  he  received  his  friends,  informally,  at 
Willard’s,  and,  in  the  evening,  the  members  of 
the  Peace  Convention,  in  a  body,  formally  wait¬ 
ed  upon  him,  after  which  many  loyal  women 
came  to  bid  him  welcome.  On  the  27th  the 
mayor  and  Common  Council  of  Washington 
gave  him  an  official  welcome;  and  that  even¬ 
ing  several  senators  and  Governor  Hicks,  of 
Maryland,  visited  him.  Members  of  the  Repub¬ 
lican  Association  at  Washington  serenaded  him 
the  same  evening,  to  w  hom  he  made  a  brief 
speech  —  the  last  one  previous  to  his  inaugura¬ 
tion. 

Lincoln  Medal,  The.  The  assassination  of 
President  Lincoln  (which  see)  made  a  profound 
impression  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  America  ; 
and  forty  thousand  French  Democrats  testified 
their  appreciation  of  his  character  and  services 
and  their  “  desire  to  express  their  sympathy  for 
the  American  Union,  in  the  person  of  one  of  its 
most  illustrious  and  purest  representatives,”  by 
causing  a  magnificent  gold  medal  to  be  struck 
and  presented  to  the  President’s  widow.  The 
medal  was  presented  in  the  name  of  that  host 
of  Frenchmen  by  a  committee,  of  wrhich  Victor 
Hugo  and  other  distinguished  Frenchmen  were 
members.  It  is  about  four  inches  in  diameter. 
One  side  bears  a  profile,  in  relief,  of  Mr.  Lincoln, 
surrounded  by  the  w  ords,  in  French,  “  Dedicat¬ 
ed  by  the  French  Democracy.  A.  Lincoln, 
twice  elected  President  of  the  United 
States.”  On  the  reverse  is  an  altar,  bearing 
the  following  inscription,  also  in  French :  “  Lin¬ 
coln,  Honest  Man.  Abolished  Slavery,  Re¬ 
established  the  Union,  and  Saved  the  Re¬ 
public,  without  Veiling  the  Statue  of  Lib¬ 
erty.  He  was  Assassinated  the  14th  of 
April,  1865.”  Below  all  are  the  words:  “Lib¬ 
erty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity.”  On  one 
side  of  the  altar  stands  winged  Victory,  with 
her  right  hand  resting  upon  a  sword  and  her 
left  holdiug  a  civic  wreath.  On  the  other  side 
stand  two  emancipated  slaves — the  younger,  a 
lad,  offering  a  palm  branch,  and  the  elder  point¬ 
ing  him  to  the  American  eagle,  bearing  the 
shield,  the  olive-branch,  and  the  lightning, 
with  the  motto  of  the  Union.  The  older  freed- 
man  holds  the  musket  of  the  militia-man.  Near 
them  are  the  emblems  of  industry  and  progress. 
Over  the  altar  is  a  triangle,  emblematic  of  trin¬ 
ity — the  trinity  of  man’s  inalienable  rights — 
liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity.  See  page  795. 


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